Getting Started with Academic Writing

Writing Critically With Confidence

Getting Critical Get familiar with your area

READ Get general overview first Make notes

Identify key concepts, Understand approaches, Summarise understanding

Process Reflect on what you have read Identify ideas, agreements, contradictions, gaps

Getting Critical Formulate your opinions and questions

Do you agree or disagree? Are you aligning with one grouping or another in

the research area? What are the most common research approaches? Do you think there are other ways tackling things? Why? (to all the above) Talk to peers and lecturers Find your questions

Write Cohesive, coherent narrative – talking to the

reader Write with flow – can your reader follow your

thinking from start to finish and see where your ideas are coming from ?

Critical Thinking Use critical thinking to develop arguments, draw conclusions, make inferences and identify implications for your research question and ideasTransfer the understanding you have gained from your critical evaluation and use in response to your research question and ideas

Build into your approach

Assess the worth of an idea in terms of its relevance to your needs, the evidence on which it is based and how it relates to other pertinent ideas

Evaluate

Comment critically on evidence to support your

question or ideasBring together different sources of information to serve an argument or idea you are constructing. Make logical connections between the different sources that help you shape and support your ideas.

Synthesise

Bring together all previous steps into coherent, cohesive picture of your

context

Explore the similarities and differences between the ideas you are reading

Starting here to create your questions and evidence

Examine how these key components fit together and relate to each other

Identifying agreements,

contradictions and gaps Comprehend the key points, assumptions, arguments and

evidence presented

Describing - Terms, definitions, etc

Take in the information Proces

s

Understand

Analyse

Compare

Justify

Apply

Support your approach and conclusions

Source Open University (2008), Critical Thinking, http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/criticalthinking.php, [Date Accessed: 21st October 2011]

Writing

Describing Analysing

First step – you always have to do this

Expected to move quickly beyond this

Describe with perspective

Move quickly to analysis

Crucial to all postgraduate work

Pick out key themes, ideas, points

Show relationshipsComparing (and contrasting) Need to do both Similarities and

differences

Writing

Synthesising Evaluating

Bringing it together Cohesion and

Coherence Linking description,

analysis, comparison etc

Drafting and editing

Considering merits of analysis, comparison, synthesise

Value of evidence Justify

Develop ideas Comment Defend Show evidence

Being Critical in Writing Selecting sources is a demonstration of critical

thinking Making connections between sources is a

demonstration of critical analysis Formulating an opinion or idea from sources is

a demonstration of critical analysis Constructing and presenting a comment on

sources is a demonstration of critical writing

Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.

Being Critical in Writing – Things you can do Compare and contrast theories, concepts,

terms from literature and include a statement on the position most valid for your work

Selecting references to support your arguments

Bringing together ideas/arguments from more than one source to create a new perspective or extend an existing view

Agree with, confirm or defend a view through analysis of its strengths and weaknesses

Conceding a view has strengths but with qualification

Rejecting a view giving reasons for the rejection

Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.

Being Critical in Writing When you reference a source

You need to include an adequate summary or paraphrase It should be clear why this source is included

Key researcher, well cited etc (no need to state this)

To be critical you do not need to completely dismiss the ideas/opinions in a source

When you need to show a gap or disagreement between sources you will need to include negative criticism E.g. Highlighting work not done Identifying flaws/weaknesses Showing alternate approaches Applying approach in different context

Be respectful, know you may also be challenged Choose your language carefully

Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.

Writers Voice Leading reader through the content

Cohesion, coherence Writing with flow

Make your own position clear Be explicit about how you use aspects of work in

the source in your own work Evaluation, Justification

Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.

How to do it Connect to the citation

To other work Or your own However, Similarly ….

Summarise and evaluate source Present an overall conclusion at the end of a

section Verbs used

Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.

Constructing Arguments – Starting Point An argument is a particular stand on an issue

or question. Usually a paper has one main idea – called

‘claim’ or ‘thesis statement’ A statement of position or opinion about a certain

subject usually an answer to a direct research question

What you are setting out to discuss or establish Made up of a series of other claims or

‘premises’ Other claims that lead to or contribute to the

thesis statement. Part of the discussion prior to the establishing the

conclusion claim.

Claims Should not be

Stated as a question A list Vague, aggressively argumentative or confrontational

Should be Definitive and arguable As clear and specific as possible

Constructing an argument – Need to demonstrate Understanding of related material Discussion of related material Application of understanding to form own

opinions

Constructing an Argument – Support Required Research Approach

Theories Methodologies Results Relationship between above

Counterarguments Have you thought about your argument? Can you refute counterarguments?

Discussion Have you discussed all the above?

Constructing an Argument – Support Required Evidence

Facts Agreed upon, accepted, cannot be disputed

Statistics Comparison of amounts or numbers in context, from a

reliable source and are an accurate representation of reality

Expert Authority Support from known ‘experts’ in your area

Personal Experience Must be relevant, must be credible, be related to the

claim

Research Approach Discussion

Strong Argument Convinces the reader that the conclusion is

correct. gaps or bad connections in premises, undermine the

linked conclusion

Evidence is convincing and objective, and it supports the claims

Argument considers all the different perspectives, and comes to a reasonable conclusion based on those perspectives

Argument is clearly and consistently reasoned.

Constructing an argument Consider your audience Consider the review process Consider the area How do these influence ?

Testing your argument Read your work critically Use the techniques covered in critical reading How well does your work stack up?

Arguing and discussing You need to identify

your claim - your point of view, what you believe; your reason(s) - why you believe what you do; your evidence - the facts, data and examples that support your

point of view; and your argument - how the evidence you have provided leads to

the claim your are making. Example

claim – causes of failure in software development projects is largely due to communication

reasons – identify the main causes showing communication as one of them and show its influence on others

evidence – show number of examples that support the view – agile in particular

argument – draw conclusion from discussion numerous causes but show that communication is central

Arguing and discussing The balanced view

Present both sides of an argument then conclude The persuasive view

Start by presenting your view and construct argument to convince

Evaluating other points of view Present the viewpoint

Paraphrase, summarise Comment negatively or positively

E.g. Agile methodologies are widely criticised as being chaotic

in nature, focusing all control in the hands of software developers (….) .

This stems largely from the fact that agile methodologies advocate reducing bureaucratic elements which do not contribute directly to the creation of software (…)

However, the majority of agile methodologies have a disciplined approach at their core.

For example, XP…, SCRUM…. (detail of discipline) Therefore it is evident that rather than chaos, agile

methodologies advocate discipline where needed and lightweight where not.

Critical Analysis Frameworks

SWOT PEST(LE)

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

Political Economic Social Technical Legal Environmental See also SLEPT

Critical Analysis Frameworks

6 Thinking Hats COR T techniques

Information: (White) Emotions (Red) Bad points judgment

(Black) Good points judgment

(Yellow) Creativity (Green) Thinking (Blue)

Plus Minus Interesting

Consider All Factors First Important

Principles Alternate,

Possibilities, & Choices

Consequences & Sequels

Aims, Goals, Objectives

Getting StartedAims, Goals & Objectives AGO To introduce and emphasise the idea of

purpose Focus directly and deliberately on the

intention behind actions. Aim is the general direction Goal is an ultimate destination Objective is a recognisable point of achievement

along the way

Applying Six-Hats Technique

Blue White Yellow Black Green Red Blue

PMI

Expressing your argument - Structure Introduction

Introduce reader to the issue Outline the background Outline motivation for argument Map out how you will address the argument in particular

structure of the rest of the paper Main Body

Each section deals with establishing a premise Each section will have an introduction and conclusion Include evidence Include discussion and analysis Deal with alternatives Sequence is significant

Expressing your argument - Structure Conclusion

Restate the points made Restate your claim Restate how you have achieved your claim Link to evidence

Paragraph A collection of related sentences dealing with

a single topic. Use to decompose your narrative

Break it into chunks Present ideas coherently

Each paragraph Should have a clear central point Focus on one topic Contain only relevant information

If you feel your paragraph addresses more than one topic Introduce another paragraph

Paragraph Opening Sentence – Topic Sentence

Short, to the point Introduce the main point

Body Explanation and clarification Discussion of the main point

Evidence Provide supporting evidence for your main point

and discussion Concluding Sentence

Comment on evidence, draw conclusions from discussion, signpost to next paragraph

Paragraph Unity

Focus on one idea Try not to wander off onto others

Coherence Paragraph should make sense Sentences should flow

A Topic Sentence Indicates generally what the paragraph will be

about Adequate Development

Discuss your topic adequately Use examples, cite, compare and contrast,

analyse, describe etc

Writing with flow Write Coherent Paragraphs

You have to connect your sentences in a paragraph

Provide Flow Sentence Connectors

used to link ideas from one sentence to the next and to give paragraphs coherence.

placed at the beginning of a sentence. used to introduce, order, contrast,

sequence ideas, theory, data etc.

Sentence ConnectorsCategory Sample words

addition again, also, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, second

Sequence first, second, lastly, earlier, later, in parallel, in addition, further, furthermore, also

comparison also, likewise, similarly

contrast although, yet, despite, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, compared to

concession granted, naturally, of course

emphasis/importance

certainly, indeed, in fact, of course, significantly, most significantly, primarily, above all

example after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly

summary as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to summarize

conclusion as a result, as a consequence, therefore, thus, consequently, hence, in conclusion

Links between paragraphs Pick up key points and words from previous

paragraphs Use linking words (see sentence connectors)

as transition http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/57

4/1/

Topic Sentence The topic The main point about the topic

<topic><main point> The waterfall model of software development is a useful

tool in introducing the phases of software development to novice developers.

<main point><topic> A useful tool in introducing the phases of software

development is the waterfall model of software development.

Signals the content of the paragraph.

Concluding sentences Put key points at the end of sentences Put key findings at the end of paragraphs

Writing Paragraphs Create a topic sentence

Introduce the main idea Explain or define any terms needed to clarify

the topic sentence Show evidence to support the main

idea/argument Comment on the evidence and mention other

evidence Conclude

WEED for paragraph construction What

Is it clear what point I am making Evidence

Have I provided evidence for what I am saying Example

Do I need to give an example to illustrate what I am saying

Do So what? What do I do with what I have

presented?

Using the Diamond

Paper is a diamond

Each section is a diamond

Each paragraph is a diamond

Start

Middle

End

Using the Diamond

Main body is a series of diamonds linked

Each section is a series of diamonds linked

Section with one or more paragraphs

Links to the next section

etc