geography

Ghanshyam Thori Geography Notes

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GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD

DEMOGRAPHY:

Continent Density person/sq. km

Asia 108

Europe 101

South America 21

Africa 20

North America 14

Oceania 3

Urbanization by Continents:

S N Continent Urbanization

1. South America 78

2. Europe 74

3. North America 68

Top 20 Countries by Area

S.no Country Area (lakh sq km) S. N Country Area (lakh sq km)

1. Russia 170 11. Algeria 23

2. Canada 99 12. Dem. Rep of Congo 23

3. United States 96 13. Mexico 19

4. China 95 14. Saudi Arabia 19

5. Brazil 85 15. Indonesia 19

6. Australia 76 16. Libya 17

7. India 32 17. Iran 16

8. Argentina 27 18. Mongolia 15

9. Kazakhstan 27 19. Peru 12

10. Sudan 25 20. Chad 12

Worlds Most Populous Countries

S.N Country Population

in million

S.N Country Population

In Million

1 China 1,306 14 Germany 82

2 India 1,080 15 Egypt 77

3 United States 295 16 Ethiopia 73

4 Indonesia 241 17 Turkey 69

5 Brazil 186 18 Iran 68

6 Pakistan 162 19 Thailand 65

7 Bangladesh 144 20 France 60

8 Russia 143 21 United Kingdom 60

9 Nigeria 128 22 Dem. Rep of Congo 60

10 Japan 127 23 Italy 58

11 Mexico 106 24 Korea, South 48

12 Philippines 87 25 Ukraine 47

13 Vietnam 83


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Contributions of Important Geographers

1. Megalopolis concept Jean Gottman

2. Conurbation Concept, Wrote ‘Cities in Evolution’ Patrick Geddes

3. Polar Front Theory J. Bjerknes

4. Anticyclone term Sir Francis Galton

5. Equilibrium Theory of tides Issac Newton

6. Dynamic Theory of Tides Laplace

7. Progressive Wave Theory William Whewell

8. Canal Theory G. B. Airy

9. Stationary Wave Theory of Tides R. A. Harris

10. Process of Precipitation Bergeron

11. First used the term Ecology Tansley

12. Father of Ecology Haeckel

13. First used the term plate J. T Wilson

14. Coined the term Antecedent Stream J. W. Powell

15. Classification of clouds Luke Howard

16. Ice crystal Theory Tor Bergeron

17. Collision-Coalesce Theory George Simpson & Mason

18. Glacial Control Theory of Coral reef formation Daly

19. Subsidence Theory of Coral reef formation Darwin

20. Stand Still Theory of Coral reef Murray

21. Concept of grade G.K. Gilbert

22. Law of Stream number/Length R. E. Horton

23. Location Allocation Models P. Haggett

24. Law of Retail Gravitation W.J. Reilly

25. Concept of Threshold & Range B.J.L. Berry

26. Introduced the concept of Possibilism Lucien Febvre

27. Coined “Areal Differentiation” Hartshorne

28. General System Theory Ludwig von Bertalanffy

29. Developed Hythergraph G. Taylor

30. Polyconic Projection Ferdinand Hessler

31. Globular projection S.J. Fournier

Minerals & Their Largest Producers

1. Graphite Madagascar

2. Gold South Africa, Australia

3. Platinum South Africa, Canada.

4. Chromium South Africa, Russia

5. Diamond South Africa, Republic of Congo & Australia

6. Zinc Canada, Australia

7. Uranium Canada, USA, Australia, Niger, France, South Africa

8. Nickel Canada, Russia, Australia, USA.

9. Coal China, USA, India, Russia

10. Steel China

11. Iron Ore China, Brazil, Australia.


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12. Cement China

13. Manganese China, South Africa, Australia.

14. Paper Canada

15. Hydro Power Canada, USA, (Norway highest %age User)

16. Tungsten China, Thailand, Korea

17. Asbestos Canada Russia, Zambia, Zimbabwe

18. Natural Gas Russia, Canada, Algeria, Iran

19. Flax Russia

20. Tantalum Australia

21. Bauxite Australia, Guinea, Jamaica & Brazil.

22. Lead Australia, China, US

23. Cadmium Canada

24. Antimony China

25. Uranium (Reser.) Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, South Africa

26. Zirconium Australia Brazil

27. Titanium (Rutile) *Australia*

28. Iron China, Brazil, Australia

29. Copper Chile, United States, Canada, Armenia, Zambia, Zaire

30. Tin China, Indonesia, Peru, Brazil, Malaysia

31. Silver Mexico, Peru, Chile & Poland.

32. Mercury Spain, China, Italy.

33. Sulphur Mexico, USA & Poland

34. Rock Phosphate USA, Peru (Guano).

Agricultural Commodities & Their Largest Producer

1. Milk India

2. Coffee Brazil, Vietnam

3. Tobacco China, turkey

4. Pork China

5. Rice (export) Thailand, Vietnam

6. Rice China, India

7. Banana India, Brazil

8. Banana (Export) Costa Rica, Jamaica, Honduras, Columbia

9. Maize USA, China

10. Wheat China

11. Cork Portugal

12. Palm Oil Malaysia

13. Fresh Water Fish Russia

14. Barley Germany, Canada, Russia, France

15. Tea (Exporter) Sri Lanka

16. Rubber Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia

17. Paper USA

18. Pulp (Export) Canada

19. Paper (Export) Canada

20. Sugar India, Brazil, Cuba

21. Sugar (Export) Cuba


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22. Oil Palm Malaysia, Indonesia

23. Oil Palm (import) India

24. Cotton China, USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan in that order.

25. Cotton (export) USA

26. Mangoes India

27. Manila Hemp (Abaca) Philippines (75%)

28. Raw Silk China, Japan, India, Korea.

29. Tobacco China, USA, India

30. Oranges USA, Brazil

31. Oats Russia

32. Millets India

33. Rye Russia

34. Sorghum USA

35. Pulses India

36. Sugarcane Brazil

37. Tea India, China

38. Dates Iran, Egypt

39. Olives Spain

40. Wine (Exporter) *Algeria*

41. Wine (Producer) Italy, France

42. Coconut Indonesia, Philippines,

43. Grapes Italy, France

44. Potato China

45. Soyabeens U.S.A, Brazil

Sobriquets

1. Island of Cloves Zanzibar

2. Land of Lilies Canada

3. Land of Golden Fleece Australia

4. Port of Five Seas Moscow

5. Island of Pearls Bahrain

6. Hermit Kingdom Korea

7. Land of Golden Pagoda Yangoon (Myanmar)

8. City of Canals Venice

9. Holy Land Palestine

10. Herring Pond Atlantic

11. City of Golden Gate Sand Francisco

12. City of dreaming Spires Oxford

13. Land of Canals Netherlands

14. Empire city New York

15. Land of Cakes Scotland

16. Land of Eskimos Greenland

17. Island of Pearls Bahrain

18. Granite City Aberdeen, Scotland

19. Garden of England Kent

20. Cockpit of Europe Belgium


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21. City of brotherly Love Philadelphia

22. City of Magnificent Distances Washington DC

23. Gateway of tears Bab-el-Mandab

24. Textile Capital of Russia Ivanovo

25. Manchester of Japan Osaka (Textile)

26. Emerald City Ireland

27. The pearl of the Antilles Cuba

Highest Peaks In Various Regions/ Mountain Chain

1. Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro

2. North America Mt. McKinley

3. Europe Mt. Elbrus

4. Antarctica Mt. Vinson

5. Asia Mt. Everest

6. Oceania Mt. Carstensz

7. South America Mt. Aconcagua

8. Australia Mt. Kosciusko

9. Urals Mt. Gora Naradnaya

10. Alps Mt. Mont Blanc

11. Andes Mt. Aconcagua

12. Rockies Mt. Elbert

13. Appalachians Mt. Mitchell

14. South West Asia (Elbruz Chain) Mt. Demavand

Important Places/Regions & Their Locations

1. Llanos Tropical Grasslands of Venezuela

2. Campos Tropical grasslands of Brazil

3. Iberian Peninsula Spain

4. Katanga basin Democratic republic of Congo

5. Canterbury Plain Largest lowland area of New Zealand

6. Chaco / Gran Chaco Low, flat, arid region covering Argentina Paraguay &

Bolivia.

7. Kra Peninsula Malaysia

8. Parana region Brazil –Largest producer of wheat, corn cotton

9. Matto grosso Thick jungle in west central brazil north of Bolivia.

10. Dogger bank Shallow fishing area in north sea, 100km off UK

11. Grand bank Shallow fishing area off new foundland, Canada

12. Georges bank Near bay of fundy & Gulf of Maine

13. Nordic Countries Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Denmark.

14. Ob, Yenisey & Lena Major rivers of Russia

15. Sarawak, Sabah, Labuan These three states make up east Malaysia.

16. Yucatan Peninsula Mexico

17. Ozark Plateau heavily forested upland region, between the Missouri and

Arkansas rivers

18. Sinai Peninsula In north eastern Egypt.


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Miscellaneous Data of Various Nations

S. Country/

Region

Urban

%

Hydro

Elect %

Nuclear

%

Thermal

%

Forest

%

1. Canada 75 60

2. USA 10 25

3. Britain 24

4. Italy 50

5. Norway 90

6. New Zealand 75

7. Switzerland 74

8. Japan 76 32

9. France 77

10. Lithuania 78

11. Germany 30

12. Australia 80 90

13. S. E. Asia 20

14. Russia 60

Tribes of the World

1. Kalmuks Inhabit the Altai mountains & nearby areas - pastoral

2. Kirghiz Occupy the Tien Shan & adjacent Pamirs

3. Gauchos Cowboys of the pampas of Argentina & Uruguay.

4. Mestizos People of mixed white & Indian parentage

5. Ostyaks West Siberian tribe

6. Pygmies Congo basin – Zaire, Congo, Gabon.

7. Boro Amazon basin-sub group of red Indians.

8. Semang Malaysia

9. Papuans New Guinea

10. Bushmen or San Kalahari – Namibia, Botswana, Angola

11. Bedouins Nomadic Arabs in Africa & Middle-East

12. Masai East Africa – Kenya, Uganda

13. Kirghiz Central Asia. Muslim by faith

14. Saami or Lapps Norway, Sweden, Finland – Also known as Laplanders

15. Yuti Siberia

16. Chukchi Far Eastern Siberia

17. Yakuts Tundra region of Russia

18. Aleut Aleutian Islands

19. Yuit Siberia

20. Inuit Greenland, Canada & Siberia

21. Samoyed West Siberia

22. Punan Borneo

23. Afrikaner/Boer Dutch race in S. Africa


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24. Afridis N. West Pakistan

25. Veddas Racial stock of Sri Lanka

26. Bantus Central & southern Africa – Swahili is Bantu derived language.

27. Berbers Morocco, Algeria & Tunisia

28. Maori New Zealand

29. Bindibu Western Australia

30. Cossacks Russia around black & Caspian Sea

31. Magyar Inhabitants of Hungary

32. Croats Croatia

33. Flemish Belgium

34. Finns European Tundra

35. Hamites N-W Africa – Dark skinned muslims

36. Hottentots/khoi khoi Tropical Africa

37. Kaffris S. Africa – known as martial race

38. Kikuyu Kenya’s most populous ethnic group

39. Masuds Waziristan region, Pakistan

40. Mestizos People of mixed Indian & European blood in Latin America

41. Amerinds N. America – People of mixed European & Indian blood

42. Mulatto Mixed European & black blood in South America

43. Moors Mixed tribe of Arabs & Berber people of Morocco

43. Semites Jews & Ethiopians

44. Tartar Turkic people of eastern Europe & central Asia

45. Zambas People of African & Native American Indian in S. America

46. Zulus People of Bantu family inhabiting South Africa

47. Akka Democratic republic of Congo

48. Oromo or Galla African people of hamitic origin in Ethiopia & Kenya

49. Uygur Turkic people inhabiting N-W china & Kazakhstan.

50. Kubu Inhabitants of Sumatra

51. Fulani/Fula Cattle herders of Nigeria, Senegal, Guinea or Chad

52. Buryat Largest ethnic minority in Siberia inhabiting buryat republic.

53. Aeta Mongoloid racial stock found in Philippines (indigenous)

54. Ainu Caucasoids of Japan.

55. Yanomamo Indigenous people of Brazil & Venezuela

Largest Producers of Fish in the World, 2001

S.no Country Prod in Million tons

1. China 16.5

2. Peru 8

3. USA 4.9

4. Japan 4.7

5. Indonesia 4.2

6. WORLD 92.4


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Worst deforestation rate of primary forests, 2000-2005

S.N Country Deforestation Rate %

1. Nigeria 55.7

2. Vietnam 54.5

3. Cambodia 29.4

4. Sri Lanka 15.2

5. Malawi 14.9

6. Indonesia 12.9

Highest average annual deforestation of primary forests, 2000-2005 in hectares

1. Brazil - 3,466,000

2. Indonesia - 1,447,800

3. Russian Federation - 532,200

4. Mexico - 395,000

5. Papua New Guinea - 250,200

Total forest cover in hectares - 2005

1. Russian Federation 808,790,000

2. Brazil 477,698,000

3. Canada 310,134,000

4. United States of America 303,089,000

5. China 197,290,000

Highest total forest cover as a percentage of total land cover, 2005

1. Suriname 94.7

2. French Guiana 91.8

3. Micronesia (Federated States of) 90.6

4. American Samoa 89.4

5. Seychelles 88.9

Minerals & Their Ores

1. Iron Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe304), limonite & Siderite

2. Nickel Millerite, Pentlandite

3. Manganese Pyrolusite, Braunite, Psilomelane

4. Antimony Stibnite

5. Titanium Rutile

6. Chromium Chromite

7. Uranium Pitchblende (UO2)


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8. Lead Galena

9. Thorium Thorianite, Monazite, Allanite, Ilemnite

10. Zinc Calamine, Sphalerite

11. Mercury Cinnabar

12. Beryllium Beryl, chrysoberyl

13. Cobalt Smalitite, Cobaltite

14. Lithium Spodumene

15. Magnesium Magnesite, Dolomite, Kieserite, Carnallite.

16. Potassium Carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O)

17. Silver Argentite

18. Sodium Chile Saltpeter (NaNO3)

19. Tin Cassiterite

Major Discontinuities within the earth

1. Conrad Discontinuity Between outer & inner crust

2. Mohorovicic Discontinuity Between crust & mantle

3. Repetti Discontinuity Between outer & inner mantle

4. Weichart-Gutenberg Discontinuity Between mantle & core

5. Lehmann Discontinuity Between outer & inner core.

Important Mining Centers Of The World

1. Cleveland Iron Ore (U. K.)

2. Ungava & Belle Island Iron Ore (Canada)

3. Carajas Iron Ore (Brazil)

4. Yampi Sound Iron Ore (Australia)

5. Paraburdoo Iron Ore (Australia)

6. Bilbao Iron Ore (Spain)

7. Nikopol Largest manganese mines of world (Ukraine)

8. Chuquicamata copper (Chile)

9. Morenci Copper (Arizona - largest in US)

10. El Chino copper (New Mexico)

11. Katanga copper, cobalt, uranium, cadmium, tin, gold, silver (DMC)

12. Mount Isa Silver, lead, zinc & copper (Australia)

13. Broken Hill Silver, Lead & Zinc

14. Witwatersrand Gold (S. Africa)

15. Kalgoorlie Gold (Australia)

16. Fushun Manchuria (Coal)

17. Donetz Coal (Ukraine)

18. Kuznetsk Coal (Russia)

19. Karaganda Coal (Kazakhstan)

20. Mesabi range Iron ore (Northern Minnesota)

21. Pittsburg iron & steel capital of the world (Pennsylvania)

22. Port Louis Sugar industry (Mauritius)

23. Anshan iron & Steel (China)

24. Lille Textiles (France)

25. Yallourn Coal (Australia)


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26. Ipoh Tin (Kinta Valley, Malaysia)

27. Tula Iron ore (near Moscow)

28. Chiatura Manganese (Georgia)

29. Chilean desert Caliche (Chile Saltpeter-NaNO3)

30. Pilbara Iron ore (Australia)

31. Bomi Hill Liberia (Iron Ore

32. Niger Uranium accounts for 75 per cent mineral export

33. Montana Copper ( USA)

34. Kra Peninsula Tin (Narrowest point of Malaysia)

35. Iron Knob Iron ore (Australia- Now almost exhausted)

36. Minas Gerais Iron Ore (Brazil)

37. Jos Plateau Tin (Nigeria)

38. Ozark Lead-Zinc Ores (USA)

39. Bingham Copper (United States largest mine)

40. Chihuahua Important mining town of Mexico – Iron, Lead, copper,

silver.

41. Rum Jungle Uranium (Australia)

42. Krivoi Rog Iron Ore (Ukraine)

43. Sudbury Nickel (Canada)

44. Kinta Valley Tin (Malaysia)

45. Weipa Bauxite (Australia)

46. Gippsland Lignite(Australia)

47. Flin Flon Mining centre in Manitoba, Canada

48. Catavi Bolivia

49. Braden Chile (Copper)

Important Isopleths

1. Isogones Equal magnetic declination

2. Isohel Equal amount of sunlight.

3. Isobront Thunderstorm at the same time

4. Isocheim Same mean winter temperature

5. Isothere Same mean summer temperature

6. Isanomal Isopleth of Anomaly

7. Isochrones Equal travel time from a common center.

8. Isohypse Or Contour lines

9. Isonif Amount of Snow

10. Isophene Isopleths of seasonal phenomena

11. Isopotential Surface to which artesian water can rise

12. Isorymes Equal frost

13. Isarithm A line representing continuous value on map

14. Isonephs Equal cloudiness

15. Co-seismal lines Simultaneous seismic activity

16. Isohypse Or contours

17. Isopach Equal thickness of geological strata

18. Isotach Same wind speed

19. Isotherombrose Equal ratio of summer rainfall to annual rainfall


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20. Isochasm Equal frequency of aurorae

21. Isodynamic Equal magnetic intensity

22. Isogen Equal birthrates

23. Isokeraunic Equal occurrence of thunderstorms

Places & Their Importance

1. Yorkshire woollen textile

2. Lancashire cotton textile

3. Glasgow ship building

4. Sheffield Cutlery & steel works

5. Lorraine Iron ore (France)

6. Lyon Silk Industry (France)

7. Silesia Coal (Poland) – high grade

8. Lodz Manchester of Poland

9. Hamburg Ship Building (Germany)

10. Stuttgart Automobile (Germany)

11. Munich Instruments (Germany)

12. Karl Marx Stadt Textile (Germany)

13. Sambre-Meuse Coal (Belgium)

14. Marseilles Oil Refinery

15. Baku Capital city of Azerbaijan & chief refining center.

16. Chicago Biggest railway junction

17. Detroit Automobile

18. Seattle Aircraft

19. Cadiz Cork (Spain)

20. Changchun Automobile & machine tools (China)

21. Chelyabinsk Iron & Steel (Russia)

22. Dresden Optical, Photo & Graphic instruments (Germany)

23. Dusseldorf Iron & Steel (Germany)

24. Essen Iron & Steel (Germany)

25. Essex Engineering works (England)

26. Kharkov Machine building & Engineering (Ukraine)

27. Kiev Engineering (Ukraine)

28. Magnitogorsk Iron & Steel (Russia)

29. Nagoya Cotton & Ship building (Japan)

30. Nizhny Tagil Iron & Steel (Russia)

31. Venice Glass Industry

32. Vienna Glass Industry

33. Philadelphia Locomotives (USA)

34. Plymouth Shipbuilding (USA)

35. Yenang Yang Oil Drilling (Myanmar)

36. Gorky / Nizhny Novogorod Engineering Industry.

37. Belfast Ship building (Ireland)

Types of Delta


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1. Arcuate Delta Nile, Ganga, Rhine, Hwang Ho, Volga, Indus,

Mekong, Rhone, Danube.

2. Digitate or Bird-Foot Delta Mississippi

3. Estuarine Delta Elb, Ob, Seine, Narmada, Tapti, Mackenzie,

Hudson, Amazon, Rhine

4. Cuspate or Tooth-Shaped Delta Tiber in Italy, Ebro of Spain.

Major Natural Regions

1. Equatorial Lowland Amazon Type

2. Equatorial Highland Malay Type

3. Equatorial High Plateaus Ecuador Type

4. Tropical Eastern Margin Monsoon Type

5. Tropical Interiors Sudan Type

6. Tropical Western Deserts Sahara Type

7. Warm Temperate/Subtropical Western Margins Mediterranean Type

8. Warm Temperate/Subtropical Eastern Margin China Type

9. Warm Temperate/Subtropical Interior Lowland Turan Type

10. Warm Temperate/Subtropical Interior Plateau Iran Type

11. Cool Temperate Western Margin European Type

12. Cool Temperate Eastern Margin St. Lawrence Type

13. Cool Temperate Interior Lowland Prairie Type

14. Cool Temperate Interior Highland Altai Type

15. Cool Temperate High Plateau Tibet Type

16. Polar Lowland Tundra Type

17. Polar Highland Ice Cap Type

Major Deserts

S. Desert Location

1. Sahara Northern Africa

2. Gobi Mongolia/Northeastern China

3. Patagonian Argentina

4. Rub‘ Al Khali Southern Arabian Peninsula

5. Great Sandy Northwestern Australia

6. Great Victoria Southwestern Australia

7. Chihuahuan Mexico/Southwestern United States

8. Takla Makan Northern China

9. Sonoran Mexico/Southwestern United States

10. Kalahari Southwestern Africa

11. Kyzyl Kum Uzbekistan

12. Thar India/Pakistan

13. Simpson Australia

14. Mohave Southwestern United States

15. Nafud Desert Arabian Peninsula

16. Dasht-I-Kavir Iran

Planets & satellites

1. Mars Deimos, Phobos


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2. Jupiter Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, Io

3. Saturn Titan, Tethys, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione

4. Uranus Oberon, Titania, Umbriel, Ariel

5. Neptune Triton

6. Pluto Charon

Hypothesis of the origin of Earth

1. Gaseous Hypothesis Kant

2. Nebular Hypothesis Laplace

3. Planetesimal Hypothesis T.C. Chamberlain & F. R. Moulten

4. Tidal Hypothesis James Jeans & Harold Jeffreys

5. Meteoric Hypothesis Lockyer

6. Binary Star Hypothesis H.N. Russel

7. Fission Hypothesis Ross Gun

8. Cepheid Hypothesis A.C. Banerji

9. Supernova Hypothesis F. Hoyle

10. Interstellar Dust Hypothesis Otto Schmidt

11. Nebular Cloud Hypothesis Von Weizsacker

12. Protoplanet Hypothesis Gerald Kuiper

Percentage Area of various bodies

1. Pacific Ocean 35.4 %

2. Atlantic Ocean 18.4 %

3. Indian Ocean 14.5 %

4. Land 29.2 %

Major Trenches in the Ocean

1. Pacific Ocean Aleutian trench, Tonga trench, Philippine trench, Peru-Chile

trench, Mariana Trench (near Micronesia)

2. Atlantic Ocean Puerto Rico trench, South sandwich trench, Romanche trench

3. Indian Ocean Java trench

Submarine Canyons in various oceans

Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean

1. Tokyo Canyon 1. Oceanographer Canyon 1. Indus Canyon

2. Bering Canyon 2. Hudson Canyon 2. Ganges Canyon

3. Columbia Canyon 3. Wilmington Canyon 3.

4. Juan De Fucca Canyon 4. Norfolk Canyon 4.

5. Monterey Canyon 5. Congo Canyon 5.

6. Arguello Canyon 6. San Francisco Canyon 6.

7. Scripps Canyon 7. Mississippi Canyon 7.

8. Coronados Canyon 8. 8.

Basins of the Oceans

1. Atlantic Ocean South Antilles basin, Cape basin, Agulhas basin


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2. Indian Ocean Mascarenes, Sulu, Celebes, Banda basin

3. Pacific Ocean Caroline, Solomon, New Hebrides, Guatemala basin

Major Ridges & Rises in various Oceans

Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean

1. Catham rise 1. Rio Grande rise 1. Carlsberg ridge

2. Galapagos rise 2. Walvis ridge 2. Laccadive-Chagos ridge

3. Nazca ridge 3. Reykjanes ridge (Iceland) 3. Chagos-St Paul ridge

4. South Tasman rise 4. Sierra Leone rise 4. Kerguelen-Gausberg ridge

5. Louisville ridge 5. Para rise

6. Juan de fuca ridge (N-E P) 6. New foundland rise

7. Gorda ridge ( N-E P) 7. Wyville Thomson ridge

8. Explorer ridge 8. Dolphin rise

9. Austral Marshall Gilbert 9. Challenger rise

10. Carneige ridge

11. Cocos ridge

12. Norfolk Island ridge

13. Caroline-Solomon ridge

• Lomonsov ridge & Gakkel ridge is in arctic ocean.

Koppen’s Classification

A Tropical Climate S Steppe Climate

B Dry Climate W Desert Climate

C Mild Humid (Mesothermal) Climate T Tundra climate

D Snowy forest (Microthermal) climate F Ice Cap climate

E Polar Climate f Precipitation in all months

H Undifferentiated highland climate m Monsoon type

w Dry season in winter

s Dry season in summer

h Dry hot; mean ann. Temp >18 C (B only)

k Dry cold; mean ann. temp < 18 C (B only)

Third Letter

1. a Hot summers in which the warmest month has a mean temperature of above 22 C.

Used in C & D climate

2. b Warm summers in which the warmest month has a mean temperature of below 22 C.

Used in C & D climates

3. c Cool short summers with fewer than four months having a mean temperature above 10

C. Used in C & D climates

4. d Very cold winters in which the mean temperature of the coldest month is below -38 C.

Used in D climate only.

Types of Climate Under Koppen’s Scheme


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Af Tropical Rainforest Cs Mild humid climate with dry summer

Am Tropical monsoon Df Snowy forest climate with on dry season

Aw Tropical savanna Dw Snowy forest climate with dry winter

BS Steppe climate Ds Snowy forest climate with dry summer

BW Desert climate ET Tundra climate.0<Warmest month< 10 C

Cf Mild humid climate with no dry season EF Perpetual frost. Less than 0 C throughout

Cw Mild humid with a dry winter

Thornthwaite Scheme 1931

Thornthwaite identified 5 humidity zones on the basis of P/E (precipitation effectiveness or efficiency) index.

P/E index = 11.5 (r/T – 10) ^9/10

where r is mean monthly rainfall in inches & t is mean monthly temperature in degree F. Similarly Thermal

efficiency or temperature effectiveness can be computed using

T/E ratio = (t – 32)/4

Where t is the mean monthly temperature in degree F.

Humidity zones based on P/E index Humidity Zones based on T/E index

A Wet 127 A’ Tropical 127

B Humid 64-127 B’ Mesothermal 64-127

C Sub humid 32-63 C’ Microthermal 32-63

D Semi arid 16-31 D’ Taiga 16-31

E arid <16 E’ Tundra 1-15

F’ Frost 0

Third letter

r Rainfall adequate in all season

s Rainfall deficient in summer

w Rainfall deficient in winter

d Rainfall deficient in all season

E.g. AB’r – mesothermal wet climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.

Thornthwaite 1948 Classification

Moisture index (Im) = (100S- 60D)/PE

Where S represents monthly surplus of moisture & D represents monthly deficit of moisture. Thermal

efficiency index is simply the potential evapotranspiration expressed in centimeters.

Humidity zones based on moisture index Thermal zone based on thermal efficiency

A Perhumid >100 cm A’ Megathermal >114

B1 – B4 Humid 20 to100 cm B1’ – B4’ Mesothermal 57 to 114

C2 Moist Subhumid 0 to 20 cm C2’ Microthermal 42.7 to 57

C1 Dry subhumid -33.3 to 0 cm C1’ Microthermal 28.5 to 42.7

D Semi arid -67 to -33.3 D’ Tundra 14.2 to 28.5

E Arid -100 to -66.7 E’ Frost < 14.2


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Composition of the Earth

Earths Crust Whole Earth

1. Oxygen 46.6 Iron 35

2. Silicon 27.7 Oxygen 30

3. Aluminium 8 Silicon 15

4. Iron 5 Magnesium 13

5. Calcium 3.6 Nickel 2.4

6. Sodium 2.8 Sulphur 1.9

7. Potassium 2.6 Calcium 1.1

8. Magnesium 2.1 Aluminium 1.1

Mountains & Geological Periods

1. Pre-Cambrian Mountains Feno-Scandian mountains, North west highlands

2. Caledonian Mountains Formed during Silurian & Devonian period. E.g. Scottish

highlands, Appalachians, Aravallis

3. Hercynian Mountains Formed during Permian period. E.g. Spanish Messeta, mountains of

Iberian peninsula, Brittany of France, Vosges, Black forest,

Mendips, Harz (Germany).

4. Alpine Mountains Formed during tertiary period. E.g. Rockies, Andes, alps,

Carpathians, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Balkans, Himalayas , Sierra

Nevada, Zagros & Elburz (Iran), Verkhoyansk mountains

Mountain Types

1. Block Mountain Ruwenzori Mountain range in Central Africa, Black forest, Vosges,

bohemian massif and the Sierra Nevada in the south-western USA.

2. Fold Mountains Himalayas, Aravalli, Appalachians, Alps, Rockies, Andes.

3. Relict Mountains Aravalli, Rajmahal, Nilgiris, Satpuras, Western Ghats.

4. Dome Mountain Henry mountain, USA

Highest Waterfalls of the World

Waterfall Location Total drop (m)

Angel Falls Venezuela 979

Yosemite Falls United States 739

Mardalsfossen-South Norway 655

Thukela (Tugela) Falls South Africa 614

Cuquenan Venezuela 610

Sutherland New Zealand 580


17

Worlds Largest Lakes

1. Caspian Sea, Asia

2. Lake Superior North America

3. Lake Victoria Africa

4. Lake Huron North America

5. Lake Michigan North America

6. Lake Tanganyika Burundi (N), Zambia (S), DMC (W)

7. Great Bear Lake North America

8. Lake Baikal Asia

9. Aral Sea Asia

10. Great Slave Lake North America

Other Important Lakes

1. Lake Balkash Kazakhstan

2. Lake Titicaca Bolivia-Peru

3. Lake Nyasa Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania

4. Lake Ladoga Russia (N-W)

5. Lake Onega Russia (N-W)

6. Lake Rudolf Kenya

7. Lake Torrens Just South of Lake Eyre in S. Australia

8. Lake Vanern Sweden

9. Lake Urmia Iran

10. Lake Mobutu Uganda

Principal Gases in the atmosphere

1. Nitrogen 78.084

2. Oxygen 20.947

3. Argon .934

4. Carbon Dioxide .0314

5. Neon .0018

6. Helium .0005

7. Methane .0002

8. Krypton .00011

9. Hydrogen .00005

10. Xenon .0000087

Heterosphere

1. Molecular Nitrogen layer 90-120 km

2. Atomic Oxygen layer 200-1100 km

3. Helium layer 11000-3500 km

4. Hydrogen layer 3500-10000 km

Albedo of Some Surfaces

5. Fresh Snow Cover 80 %

6. Clouds 70-80%

7. Sand 20-30 %


18

8. Grass 15-30 %

9. Dry Ground 15-20%

10. Wet Ground 10 %

11. Forest 5-10%

12. Water (Solar Elevation > 60) 3-5%

13. Water (Solar Elevation 25-30 %

Various Measuring Instruments

1. Lysimeter Evapo-Transpiration

2. Anemometer Wind

3. Psychrometer Humidity

4. Planimeter Area on Maps

5. Pantograph Enlargement & Reduction of Maps

6. Parallax Bar Measuring elevations from topographical maps.

7. Abney level Measuring angles in a vertical plane

8. Clinometer Angles in vertical plane

9. Dumpy level Measure angles both in horizontal & vertical plane

10. Theodolite Measure angles both in horizontal & vertical plane

11. Spectroradiometer Measures spectral reflectance at different wavelengths.

12. Stereoscope View photos in 3D view. Channelises one image to one eye.

13. Opisometer/ Meilograph Measuring length of curved lines on a map.

14. Eidograph Enlargement & Reduction of maps

15. Alidade A sighting device or pointer for angular measurement used in

plane table survey.

16. Aneroid Barometer Used for measuring altitude as pressure decreases with height

17. Sextant Used to measure angle of objects located on the field

Important Local Winds of the World

Cold Winds

1. Mistral Blows in Spain & France from N-W to S-E. Common during winter

2. Bora Blows along the shores of the Adriatic sea.

3. Blizzard Snow laden wind in

4. Purga Snow laden wind in Russian tundra. Much like Buran.

5. Bise An extremely cold wind in France

6. Levanter Blows in strait of Gibraltar between Spain & Morocco.

7. Pampero Pampas of S. America

8. Papagayo Costa Rica, Mexico, Nicaragua.

9. Haboob Sudan

10. Friagem Amazon Valley

11. Buran Eastern Russia & central Siberia

12. Norther Texas, Gulf of Mexico & western carribean

13. Etesian Eastern Mediterranean.

14. Surazo Cold wind blowing from Argentinean pampas & Patagonia.

15. Norte A strong cold northeasterly wind which blows in Mexico.

16. Tehuantepecer This is a violent, squally wind from north or north-east in S. Mexico.

Hot winds


19

1. Fohn Warm & dry local winds blowing on leeward side of Alps in Switzerland.

2. Chinook Warm & dry local winds blowing on leeward side of Rockies in USA

3. Harmattan Blowing from east & northeast towards west in Sahara

4. Brickfielder Victoria province of Australia

5. Black Roller Great plains of USA

6. Shamal Mesopotamia & Persian Gulf

7. Norwester New Zealand

8. Sirocco From Sahara over Mediterranean. Known as khamsin in Egypt, Chili in

Tunisia, Gibli in Libya, Levech in Spain & Leste in Madiera & Morocco.

9. Simoom Warm & dry dusty wind in the Arabian desert

10. Santa Ana S. California – blowing out of Santa Ana canyon

11. Yamo A warm & dry wind in Japan

12. Zonda A warm & dry wind of the Andean valleys in Argentina

13. Tramontane A warm wind of central Europe.

14. Samun Warm wind in Iran

15. Karaburan Hot dusty wind in central Asia – Tarim basin, Mongolia.

16. Berg A hot dry wind blowing from interior in South Africa.

17. Shamal A hot wind of Iraq and the Persian gulf

18. Austru Dry blows from the lee side of the mountains in Romania (much like fohn).

19. Almwind Local name of fohn that blows in Hungary & Poland over Tatra mountains.

Soil Classification

Soil

Name

Common Characteristics Fertility Typical

Location

Alfisol Moderately weathered, having a medium to high base

saturation & have a subsoil accumulation of clay. Most

develop under forest

High Parts of Canada,

U.S & Europe

Aridisols Desert soils with little or no organic content but

significant calcium. Affected by salinization.

Low Deserts

Entisols Soil Type with little or no horizon development. Found

in young formations (lava, sand-dunes etc)

Low to

Moderate

River valleys,

flood plains &

deltas

Inceptisols More significant horizon development than entisols but

less than others. Used for cultivation of sugarcane &

coffee

Moderate

to low

Mountain &

other

geologically

young formation

Histosols Organic soils found in bogs, swamps & wetlands Swamps & bogs

Mollisols Dark coloured with upper horizons rich in organic

matter. Geographically associated with aridisols

Very High Great American

plains. Pampas

& Steppes

Oxisols Infertile, acidic, deeply weathered soils with contain

clays of iron & aluminium oxide

Low Amazon basin &

Congo basin

Spodosols Sandy soils which develop under forests particularly in

coniferous areas. They are acidic & have accumulation

of organic matter & iron & aluminium oxides.

Good Coniferous areas

in cool climate.

Ultisols These are acidic, deeply weathered soil of tropical & Poor, Temperate


20

subtropical areas with clay accumulation in the B

horizon. Not as intensely weathered as oxisols

require

fertilizers

humid &

tropical regions.

Vertisols Clay soils which expand when wet & crack when dry. Good Seasonally dry

Gelisols Soil where permafrost lies within 2 m of the surface Poor Periglacial areas

Andisols Contain ash & volcanic glass Poor Near volcanoes

Changed Geographical Names

S Old Name New Name Old Name New Name

1. Abyssinia Ethiopia 29. Angora Ankara

2. Aden Yemen 24. Basutoland Lesotho

3. Bechuanaland Botswana 25. Batavia Djakarta

4. British Honduras Belize 26. Constantinople Istanbul

5. Dahomey Benin 27. Cape Canaveral Cape Kennedy

6. Formosa Taiwan 28. Christina Oslo

7. Leningrad St. Petersburg 29. Congo Zaire

8. Persia Iran 30. Constantinople Istanbul

9. Mesopotamia Iraq 31. Dutch East Indies Indonesia

10. Batavia Jakarta 32. Dutch Guiana Surinam

11. South-West Africa Namibia 33. Japan Nippon

12. Tanganyika/Zanzibar Tanzania 34. Malaya Malaysia

13. Upper Volta Burkina Faso 35. Manchukuo Manchuria

14. Gold Coast Ghana 36. Mesopotamia Iraq

15. Stalingrad Volgograd 37. Nyasaland Malawi

16. Azrak Azov 38. Rangoon Yongon

17. Ister Danube 39. Rhodesia Zimbabwe

18. Paulus Meotus Volga 40. Salisbury Harare

19. Raha Blue Nile 41. Ascension Saint Helena

20. Albion England 42. Bohemia Czech Republic

21. Euxine Black Sea 43. Cilicia Turkey

22. Mare Internum Mediterranean Sea 44. Ellice Islands Tuvalu

23. Taprobana Sri Lanka 45. French Guinea Guinea

24. Northern Rhodesia Zambia 46. Portuguese Guinea Guinea Bissau

25. Southern Rhodesia Zimbabwe 47. British Guinea Guyana

26. Leopoldville Kinshasa 48. French West Africa Mali

27. New Hebrides Vanuatu 49. West French Africa Mauritania

28. Manchukuo Manchuria 50. Dutch Guyana Surinam

29. Sea of Herkend Indian Ocean 51.

Cities Located on Rivers

City River Country City River Country

Alexandria Nile Egypt Lahore Ravi Pakistan

Amsterdam Amsel Netherlands Lisbon Tagus Portugal

Antwerp Scheldt Belgium Liverpool Mersey England

Ankara Kizil Turkey London Thames England

Baghdad Tigris Iraq Montreal Ottawa Canada


21

Bangkok Menam Thailand Moscow Moskva Russia

Belgrade Danube Yugoslavia Nanking Yang-tse-kiang China

Berlin Spree Germany New Orleans Mississippi USA

Bonn Rhine Germany New York Hudson USA

Bristol Avon England Paris Seine France

Budapest Danube Hungary Philadelphia Delaware USA

Cairo Nile Egypt Quebec St. Lawrence Canada

Canton Canton China Rangoon Irawadi Burma

Chittagong Karnaphuli Bangladesh Rome Tiber Italy

Chungking Yang-tse-kiang China Shanghai Yangtze-kiang China

Cologne Rhine Germany Tokyo Sumida Japan

Glasgow Clyde Scotland Vienna Danube Austria

Hull Humber England Warsaw Vistula Poland

Hamburg Elbe Germany Washington Potomac USA

Karachi Indus Pakistan

Khartoum Nile Sudan


22

MISCELLANEOUS FACTS—I

1. Netherlands is the most densely populated country of western Europe.

2. France is the second largest nuclear energy producer after USA

3. World Average of Urbanization is 43%.

4. Portugal is one of the least urbanized European countries – only 30 %.

5. Iceland, U.K., Belgium, Netherlands & Spain – 90% Urbanization

6. Latifundia – Europe, Haciendas – Latin America, Ranches – USA, Stations – Australia, Entancias in

South America.

7. Primary sector – red collar; secondary sector – blue collar; tertiary sector – pink collar; quaternary sector –

white collar; quinary services – gold collar.

18. Nigeria has the highest rate of deforestation in the world & brazil looses the maximum forest area.

19. Shifting cultivation is known as Ladang in Malaysia, Caingin in Philippines, Humah in Indonesia, Chena

in Srilanka, Milpa in Africa & Central America & Taungya in Myanmar.

20. Santos is the major coffee port of Brazil accounting for 3/4th

of the export handling.

21. Mocha coffee is from Yemen.

22. India is a net importer of copper.

23. The only area in the world where zinc is mined without lead is the Franklin Furnace area in New Jersey

State of USA.

24. Republic of Congo is the largest producer of industrial diamonds.

25. Nearly three-fourths of the electric requirement needs of south American countries are met through

hydroelectricity.

26. Benelux countries include Belgium, Netherlands & Luxembourg.

27. Atlanta is the busiest airport in the world, followed by Chicago airport.

28. Israel is the most urbanized country in the world with >90% urban population.

29. Orinoco river of Venezuela rises in the Guiana highlands & passes through llanos.

30. Shrublands – chaparral in California, macques in Mediterranean region, the caatinga of northeastern

Brazil, and the mallee of Australia, which is dominated by low-growing eucalyptus.


23

31. South of the Great European Plain, a band of dissimilar geological structures sweeps across Europe,

creating the most intricate landscapes of the continent—the Central European Uplands. Throughout this

region the forces of folding (the Jura range), faulting (the Vosges and Black Forest mountains), volcanism

(the Massif Central, or central highlands, of France), and uplift (the Meseta Central, or central plateau, of

Spain) have interacted to create alternating mountains, plateaus, and valleys.

32. Islamabad is situated on Potwar plateau.

33. Period of rotation is the longest for the planet Venus & shortest for Jupiter. Venus takes longer time to

complete one rotation on its axis than one revolution around the sun. Mercury & Venus do not have any

satellites. Mars has two satellites & Pluto has one.

34. Venus is closest planet to earth. Venus is also the hottest planet in the solar system perhaps due to its slow

rotation causing longer exposure of a particular area to sun.

35. The period of revolution of planets increases outwards without any exception. The linear distance of a

degree of latitude on an average is 69 miles. The length of longitudes outside tropics varies widely. Vernal

equinox is on March 22 & autumnal equinox on September 23.

36. Earth is the densest of all planets & Saturn has the least density. Earth is almost twice the radius of mars &

roughly equal to Venus. Uranus is slightly bigger than Neptune.

37. Caledonian movement (e.g. Scottish highlands) & Hercynian movement (Harz mountain range in central

Germany) took place during Devonian period & Permian period respectively.

38. Pleistocene epoch is best known for emergence of humans & Great Ice age.

39. Annual range of temperature is the difference between the mean monthly temperatures of the warmest &

the coldest months. The difference is not between highest & lowest temperature.

40. In absolute humidity the denominator is dry air while in specific humidity it is moist air. The temperature

at which an air parcel gets saturated at its present moisture level is called dew point.

41. Stratiform or layered clouds; Cumuliform or globular clouds. Cirrus or highest clouds & Alto or medium

clouds. Nimbus or rain bearing clouds. Stratus clouds are very close to ground surface.

42. Cirrocumulus clouds form ‘mackerel clouds’ & cirrostratus clouds produce ‘haloes’. Alto-cumulus are

called sheep clouds. Rain falling from nimbo-stratus but not reaching ground is called virga. Low clouds

less than 2 km high are stratus, cumulus, stratocumulus & nimbostratus & these are the only ones which

give precipitation.

43. Slope of the warm front is much gentler (1:100 or less) than cold front (~1:50). In the warm front

precipitation is gradual but of long duration. In cold front precipitation is short but in the form of heavy

downpour.


24

44. One fathom = 1.84 meters. The width of the continental shelf on the western coast of India is broader than

the eastern coast as the former is coastline of submergence & latter is emergence.

45. Flat-topped seamounts are called guyots (pronounced “gee-o”).

46. Mariana trench, off the island of Guam, Emden Deep off Philippines, & kuril trench in which lies the

famous Tuscarora Deep & Mindanao deep (Mindanao, island of the Philippines, the second largest, after

Luzon and southernmost of the country's islands) are prominent in Pacific.

47. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge breaks the ocean's surface in several places, forming seven islands or groups of

islands. From north to south, these islands include Iceland, the Azores, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Rocks,

Ascension, Saint Helena, Tristan da Cunha, and Bouvet.

48. Strait of Hormuz, linking the Persian Gulf on the west, with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea on the

east. Bab el Mandeb connecting the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden.

49. Salinity is equatorial areas is lower than in the tropical areas. It’s lowest in polar areas. Great Salt lake in

Utah has a salinity of 220 %, Dead Sea has 240 %, & Lake Van in Asia Minor has 330 %.

50. Lake Laguna De Bay (Philippines), Lake Biwa (Japan), Lake Tiberias (Israel & Syria), Lake Asad (Syria),

Lake Sevan (Armenia)

51. From the equatorial region, water density tends to rise in the tropics. From the tropics to the middle

latitudes there is a decline & it increases again in polar areas due to temperature decline.

52. Kuril Island - small volcanic islands in far eastern Russia, separating the Sea of Okhotsk from the Pacific

Ocean. Faroe Island is under Denmark. Orkney Islands lie north of Scotland.

53. In 24 hours & 52 minutes every place will have two high tides & two low tides. Two successive high tides

are about 12 hours & 26 minutes apart & the time difference between the high tide & the following low

tide is about 6 hrs 13 minutes. The extra 52 minutes are caused due to revolution of the moon around the

earth in the same direction i.e. west to east. The tidal magnitude at a given meridian will be more in the

low latitudes & lesser in the higher latitudes due to the greater centrifugal force on the equator.

54. O, A, E, B & C & R are the soil horizons from top to bottom. The removal of soil minerals & colloids

from the upper horizons is called Eluviation & deposition in lower horizons is Illuviaton.

55. Rich, dark soils called Chernozems. They lack the leached E horizon. Soils in cooler continental climates

(coniferous forests) are known as Podzols, a soil type that is not very fertile but rich in humus due to cold

climate. The leaching action of heavy rain and water runoff removes many of the nutrients from podzols.

Lateritic soils, one of the least fertile soil types are found in wet & hot climate (Tropical Forests).

Gleization is the pedogenic regime of warm water-logged areas. Glei soils are rich in organic material &


25

the soil changes to blue colour due to reduction of iron minerals. Calcimorphic soil develop in areas of

seasonal drought.

56. Hydroponics, term applied to cultivation of plants in nutrient solutions without use of soil.

57. Pyramid of energy can never take an inverted form, the other two (biomass & number) can.

58. Boreal forest refers to the Taiga vegetation comprising coniferous trees. The Mediterranean type of

vegetation is also called Sclerophyll forest (e.g. Chaparral).

59. Serengeti National Park is located in northern Tanzania. Asuncion is the capital of Paraguay &

Montevideo is the capital of Uruguay. Paraguay is landlocked.

60. Elephant grass is found in Savanna & Buffalo grass is typical of Steppe grasslands.

61. The period of revolution & rotation of the moon is the same i.e. 27.3 days. The shortest route between two

places on the surface of the earth is along the great circles i.e. longitude.

62. Orogenetic forces producing mountains are horizontal & epeirogenetic forces are vertical.

63. Block mountain – black forest, Old fold mountain – Appalachian, young fold mountain – rocky, relict

mountain – Scottish highlands

64. Arenaceous rock (having sandy features) – Sandstone, Argillaceous rock (having clayey features) – Shale,

Plutonic rock (intrusive igneous rock) - Gabbros & dolerite, Volcanic rock (extrusive igneous rock) –

Andesite, Rhyolite, Basalt. Sedimentary rock – Ironstone. Slate results from the metamorphosis of shale or

clay. Basaltic magma is fluid & granitic is viscous.

65. A basin-shaped depression surrounded by mountains is called bolson. In a karstic region, a steep natural

shaft which emerges at the surface is called Ponor. A steep-sided hill, of roughly circular cross-section,

characteristic of karst topography is called “hum”.

66. A broad slope of alluvial material at the foot of an escarpment is called Bajada. From the eroded angular

peaks of more resistant rocks, alluvial fans lead away to deposit large slopes of debris, called bajadas, at

the base. These slopes level off to form low basins called playas. Salt covered playa beds are called

Salinas.

67. The deposition of sediment building up a sand bridge that connects the island to the mainland. The sand

bridge is called a tombolo.

68. The inclination of a fault from the vertical is called hade & it is complimentary to dip. The horizontal

displacement is called heave. Rake angle measures the slip.

69. Erosion of the ground beneath and at the sides of a snowbank, mainly as a result of alternate freezing and

thawing is called nivation.

70. An area of shifting desert sand-dunes, esp. in the Sahara is called erg.


26

71. The trades are strongest in winter season. The primary divisions of koppen classification are based on

mean monthly temperature & mean precipitation & evaporation. The secondary divisions are based on

seasonality of rainfall.

72. Temperate cyclones generally develop over land.

73. Ninety East Ridge is situated in Indian Ocean. The mid Atlantic ridge comprises the Dolphin rise on the

north & challenger rise to the south separated by Romanche deep. It is known as Wyville Thompson ridge

between Iceland & Scotland. The ridge becomes quite extensive to the south of Greenland & Iceland & is

called Telegraphic plateau.

74. Globigerina ooze is the most abundant in Atlantic Ocean. Warm Agulhas current flows in the Indian

Ocean in southerly direction & Cold Falkland current in Atlantic Ocean towards north.

75. Azov Sea, inland sea, connected with the Black Sea by the Strait of Kerch.

76. Magnetic declination is the difference between true north (the axis around which the earth rotates) and

magnetic north (the direction the needle of a compass will point).

77. A traveler crossing the International Date Line from west to east gains a day & from east to west loses a

day.

78. Earth is the fifth largest planet & Pluto the smallest. Pulsars are sources of powerful, pulsating radio

waves in space which are rapidly rotating neutron stars. Quasar stands for quasi-stellar object & is a

compact object that looks like a point of light but emits more energy than a hundred super giant galaxies.

79. Earth’s history has two main divisions or eons: the Cryptozoic Eon & Phanerozoic Eon. The cryptozoic

eon is divided into Hadean, the Archean & the Proterozoic eras. The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into

Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic eras.

80. Amphibolite is a metamorphic rock & is formed by metamorphosis of igneous rocks such as basalt &

gabbro. Chert & flint are sedimentary rocks. Clastic rocks are mechanically formed. Hornblende is

igneous while hornfel is metamorphic.

81. Cratons form the cores of most continents and consist of inactive geological areas more than 2 billion

years old with thick crust and deep roots extending into the mantle beneath.

82. Because North America and Africa were connected, the Appalachians form part of the same mountain

chain as the Atlas mountains in Morocco.

83. Inselbergs (bornhardts) eventually erode & degenerate into what are called Kopjes.

84. Isoclinal Fold is one in which both limbs are approximately parallel. Recumbent Fold: A fold with a

nearly horizontal axial plane. Monocline: When folding takes place in very small magnitude or at a very

small angle a monocline is formed. Here the limbs are almost horizontal producing simple flexure.


27

85. The Peru-Chile trench marks where the Nazca plate is being subducted beneath the South American plate.

The volcanic activity and uplift of the Andes are a result of the subduction.

86. There are 26 oceanic trenches in the world: 3 in the Atlantic Ocean, 1 in the Indian Ocean, and 22 in the

Pacific Ocean.

87. Examples of cinder or ash cones are Mt Jorullo of Mexico & Mt Izalco of San Salvador. Most of the

famous volcanoes have composite cone. Mt. Etna of Sicily is an example of parasitic cone. Caldera (Lake

Toba of Sumatra is most famous example). Maar is a broad, low relief crater that is caused by a phreatic

eruption or explosion caused by groundwater contact with magma.

88. Kilauea, the world's most active volcanic crater, located on central Hawaii Island.

89. Mt Etna of Sicily, Mt. Vesuvius of Naples & Mt Stromboli, the northernmost & Mt Vulcano the

southernmost of the seven Lipari Island are all located in Italy.

90. The classification of volcanoes in order of increasing intensity of explosion is: Hawaiian type, Stromblian

type, Vulcanian type, Vesuvian type, Pelean type.

91. Fluid basaltic lava forms pahoehoe lava flow & viscous forms blocky aa lava flow. Mt Hood & Mt Rainier

& Mt. Vesuvius are dormant volcanoes. Mt Meru (Tanzania) & Mt Elgon (Kenya-Uganda border) are

extinct volcanoes.

92. Laccolith is mushroom shaped causing the crust over it to form a dome. Lopoliths are saucer shaped with

concave side upwards & Phaccoliths are lens shaped deposits in anticlines & synclines.

93. Thawing of slopes in the summer may move soil downslope to produce solifluction, or “flowing soil”

terraces. Rockfalls produce a deposit called talus at the base of the cliff.

94. Sequent Streams are those which are well adjusted to the geological structures & follow the regional

slope. Insequent streams do not follow regional slopes.

95. Centrifugal drainage is also known as radial drainage (e.g. Sri Lanka). In barbed pattern the tributary

flows in opposite direction to the master stream & such pattern usually develops due to river capture.

Annular/Circular drainage pattern is different from centrifugal pattern.


28

96. Abrasion or Corrasion is with the help of erosional tools. Attrition refers to the wear & tear of erosional

tools in themselves.

97. Block disintegration is due to different material. Granular disintegration is due to different colour.

Shattering is due to rain shower over heated rocks. Sheeting & cambering refers to the development of

horizontal & vertical cracks due to unloading. Spalling is development of platy rock fragments due to

unloading. Flaking results from differential heating of outer & inner layers of a rock. After flaking the

wind peels off the layer & this is known as exfoliation.

98. Structural benches are formed due to differential erosion of soft & hard rocks while river terraces are

produced due to valley-in-valley topography by rejuvenation. Victoria fall on Zambezi river is a result of

faulting & Yosemite falls California is due to glaciated hanging valley.

99. Alluvial fans have a gentler slope as compared to cones. Sometimes neighboring cones & fans meet to

form Piedmont alluvial plain or Bajada.

100. Yazoo Channel meets the original river at deferred junction.

Miscellaneous Facts - II

1. Davisian cycle ends in peneplain, Penck’s in endrumpf & kings in pediplain. Kings cycle basically deals

with the evolution of landforms in arid & savanna regions.

Conse

quen

t

Res

equen

t

Subsequent

Obse

quen

t

Annular Drainage pattern


29

2. Penck cycle has three stages. Aufsteigende Entwickelung means a phase of waxing (accelerating) rate of

landform development where the slopes of the valley sides are convex in plan. Gleichformige

Entwickelung means uniform development of landforms. Absteigende Entwickelung means wanning

development & parallel retreat of slope continues

3. Boschungen is the upper steep part & haldenhang is the lower part with lesser inclination. Thus the

intersection of boschungen & haldenhang produce a sharp knick. Ultimately the boschungen are reduced

to inselbergs.

4. Monadnocks are also known as unakas & mosores.

5. Sinkholes < Swallow Holes < Dolines <Jamas < Uvala < Polje. All these karst landforms are

differentiated just on the basis of size. Uvala results from subsidence of large roof over underground

courses. Ponores are vertical pipelike passages that connect caves & swallow holes. Hums are residual

hills analogous to monadnocks in fully developed karst topography. Lappies are bare terra rosa having

crevasse like pinnacle structure formed where relief is considerable.

6. Speleothems is the term collectively used for all types of deposits in caverns. Dripstones growing

sidewards from stalactites & stalagmites are called helectites & helegmites. Helectites of globular

structure are called globulites & banded calcareous deposits are called tavernites.

7. Longshore Drift is movement of sand parallel to the shoreline, in the “along-the-shore” direction. The

process arises when waves approach the shore obliquely. The swash moves the sediment particles up the

beach at this angle, while the backwash brings them away fom the beach. This has the net effect of gradual

movement of the particles along the shore.

8. Notch is formed as a depression at the base of a cliff due to wave attack. Blowholes formed at roof tops

sometimes enlarge & cause the roof top to fall forming Geos or inlets.

9. Big sand bars usually parallel to the beach are called offshore or longshore bar. If the bars are formed such

that there one end is attached to the beach & the other end is projecting into the sea, they are called spits.

Hooks are curved spits & a bar connecting two land masses is a Tombolo.

10. Old man of Hoy is the most famous wave cut stack located in Orkney Islands, North Scotland.

11. Rias (ria coast) is form when sea levels rise or plate tectonics cause coastal levels to fall. When this

happens valleys which were previously at sea level become submerged. The result is often a very large

estuary at the mouth of a relatively insignificant river.

12. Dalmatian coast are found in Italy & Dalmatian area of Croatia where ranges are parallel to coast

13. Gulf of Aqaba, northeastern arm of the Red Sea, separating the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas.

14. Negev Desert is in Israel.


30

15. Pedestal or Mushroom rock is also known as Gour in Sahara & pilzfelsen in Germany.

16. Inselbergs or Bornhardts are isolated hills rising abruptly from virtually level plain. Demoiselles have

resistant rock cap at the top. Zeugens have horizontal rock strata & yardangs have vertical. Ventifact with

a single face is called einkanter, zweikanter (2 faces) & driekanter (3 faces).

17. Areas of shifting sand-dunes is called erg. Barchans are also known as transverse dunes.

18. Glacial loess of N. America is called adobe & that of Europe is called limon

19. When a basin is more or less rimmed by mountain (inter-montane basin), it is called a bolson. The basin is

characterized by centripetal drainage which leads to formation of salty lakes called playas in N. America,

“Shatts” in Sahara, ‘Mamlaha’ & ‘Khabari’ in the Arabian desert.

20. The whole slope between the mountains to the playas is called pediment.

21. When two cirques converge cutting back it is called col. A cirque lake is called tarn. Paternoster lakes are

formed at the foot of glacial stairways. A nunatak is a mountain top that is not covered by land ice, and

protrudes out of a surrounding glacier. Roches moutonnees is a residual rock hummock whose upstream is

smoothened by abrasion & downstream is roughened by plucking. Riegel marks the outcrop of a highly

resistant rock layer. They have plucked downside.

22. Eskers or Osser or Oss is a stratified deposit. If the ice front halts at regular intervals, beaded eskers are

formed. Kames are small hills which are deposited by meltwater near or at the edge of the retreating ice

sheets.

23. Kettles are depressions in the outwash plain. Large kettles are clotted with numerous low mounds called

hummocks. Drumlins are elongated hummocks of boulder clay (basket of egg).

24. Protalus rampart is the accumulation of debris formed due to rockfall from the cliff.

25.

26. Varve is the yearly deposit of sediment forming distinctive layers. It is most frequently used to refer to

deposits formed in lakes on the margins of glaciers.

27. Pingos are ice mounds formed due freeze thaw action in periglacial environment. Palsas are low

permafrost mounds with cores of layered segregated ice and peat, similar to a pingo. Talik refers to an


31

unfrozen section of ground found above, below, or within a layer of discontinuous permafrost. Tors are

piles of rock on the top & clitters on the sides formed due to congelifraction

28. Borneo is the 3rd

largest island in the world after Greenland & New Guinea.

Climatology:

1. ‘Mother of pearl’ or ‘nacreous’ clouds are found in stratosphere. Noctiluent clouds are found in

Mesosphere.

Division of Ionosphere (60-640 Km)

1. D layer 60-. Km Reflects signals of low frequency radio waves only.

Disappears with sunset.

2. E layer 99-130 km Called Kenley- Heaviside layer. Reflects medium &

high frequency radio waves. Produced by ultraviolet

photons reacting with nitrogen. Disappears with sunset.

3. Sporadic E Layer 110 km Associated with very high velocity winds & created

under special circumstances. Reflects VHF waves

4. E2 layer 150 km Produced by reaction of UV photons with O2.

Disappears with night.

5. F Layer 1550-380 km Consists of F1 & F2 layers collectively called Appleton

layer. Reflects medium & high frequency radio waves.

6. G layer 400 km &

above

Persists day & night but not detectable as F layer reflects

all the waves reflected by this layer. Interaction of UV

photon with nitrogen produces free electrons here.

2. The auroras are maximum when the sun is very active. Hence they are opposite of sun spot cycle. Inside

the magnetosphere are the Van Allen radiation belts concentrated in two bands at about 3000 km & 16000

km.

3. According to Wein’s displacement law, hotter the object smaller the wavelength. According to Stefan

Boltzman law influx of radiation is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of the

radiating body.

4. Heat Budget: Out of the 100 units of incoming solar radiation, 35 units (27-clouds, 2-snow, 6-atmosphere

top) are reflected back as albedo. Out of the remaining 65 units, 14 units are absorbed by atmosphere & 51

units by earth surface. The earth radiates back 17 units directly into space & remaining 34 units are

absorbed by atmosphere. The atmosphere than radiates back the 48 units absorbed by it.

5. Green house gases include CFCs, Nitrous oxide, water vapour & ozone. CFCs account for 25 % of green

house effect & methane for 15 %. Carbon dioxide leads with 55 %.

6. The greatest range of temperature occurs at latitude 60 N.

7. The major types of inversion are: radiation, air drainage, frontal, advection, subsidence. Advection

inversion generally occurs when a warm air passes over cold water surface.


32

8. Highs are Siberian, Hawaiian & Siberian. Lows are Aleutian & Icelandic.

9. Anemometer is used for measuring the speed of wind. Beaufort scale deals with the wind speed & ranges

from calm wind to hurricane.

10. Jet streams are fastest during winter season. They blow from west to east.

11. A mist becomes a fog when visibility is reduced to less than a km. Dry adiabatic rate is 10 C per 1000m &

moist adiabatic rate is 6 C per 1000m. Stability occurs when the dry adiabatic rate is higher than the

normal lapse rate & instability occurs when normal lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate. If

normal lapse rate is lower than wet adiabatic rate it leads to absolute stability & vice versa.

12. Sleet is partially melted snowflakes while hail refers to small balls of ice. Rime refers to very small super

cooled droplets which strike ground & tend to freeze immediately on impact.

13. Four principal forms of airmasses are continental polar (cP), maritime polar (mP), continental tropical

(cT), and maritime tropical (mT). Thermodynamic modification results in airmasses becoming warm

represented by W or cold (K). Mechanical or dynamic modification causes it to become stable (s) or

unstable (u).

14. Baroclinic zone is where distinct air mass regions exist & where Fronts separate warmer from colder air.

Barotropic is region of uniform temperature distribution with lack of fronts. Temperate cyclones are

formed under baroclinic condition & tropical under barotropic condition.

15. Anticyclones are larger than cyclones. Airflow converges aloft in anticyclones & diverges in case of

cyclones. Katabatic wind blows from mountains to valley & anabatic vice versa.

Oceanography:

16. The Peru-Chile trench is the longest in the world. The only difference between ridge & rises is that ridges

are steep sided while rises are gently sloped.

17. Juan de Fuca Strait, is the arm of the Pacific Ocean between Washington & Vancouver.

18. Thermocline is the transition layer between the mixed layer at the surface and the deep water. The various

salts in the sea in order of decreasing quantity are NaCl, MgCl, MgSO4, CaSO4.

19. Danube, Dneiper, & Dneister all fall into black sea reducing it salinity.

20. Water moves from areas over which there is a low pressure to areas over which there is a high pressure.

21. The pelagic zone includes those waters further from the land, basically the open ocean. It is divided into

neritic zone (having a depth of 200metres) & the oceanic province (separated from the neritic province by

the edge of the continental shelf). The benthic zone refers to the sea bottom itself & is divided into littoral

zone & deep sea zone. The two zones have their frontier at a depth of 200 meters. Benthos (plants such as


33

kelp, sponges) are organisms that live on the ocean floor while nektons are swimming animals such as

fishes & whales.

22. The east pacific rise is known as albatross plateau extending from north of New Zealand to the Californian

coast.

23. Oozes are pelagic deposit in the form of liquid mud. There are divided on the basis of content into

calcareous ooze (lime) & siliceous ooze (silica). Calcareous ooze is further divided into pteropod ooze &

globigerina (most widespread) ooze. Siliceous ooze is divided into radiolarian (formed of shells of

foraminifera) & diatom ooze.

24. Red clay is the most widely spread pelagic deposit & consists mainly of hydrated silicate of Aluminium &

oxides of iron. Neritic deposits consists of dead shells of plants & animals.

25. Atlantic Ocean: The warm North Atlantic Drift (NAD) gives rise to the Irminger Current south of Iceland

which travels along western and northwestern coasts of Iceland until it meets East Greenland Current.

Another branch of NAD flows along Norway coast forming Norwegian current. Falkland current brings

the cold waters of the Antarctic sea northward up to Argentina.

26. Pacific Ocean :Kuroshio (or Kuro Siwo) Current of Pacific is similar to the gulf stream of Atlantic. One

branch separates from Kuroshio current & enters the sea of Japan as Tsushima current. The Cold Oyashio

(or Oya Siwo) Current (similar to Labrador current) is also known as Kurile current & it flows through

the Bering Strait in a southerly direction. The cold Okhotsk current flows past Sakhalin to merge with Oya

Siwo current near Hokkaido Island & later mergers with the warm Kuro Siwo current producing dense

fogs. The north pacific drift continues later as Aleutian current which divides into two parts – the northern

branch becomes Alaska current while the southern branch becomes California cold current (similar to

Canary cold current of Atlantic). Cromwell current also called pacific equatorial undercurrent is a

submarine river & flows towards east. Mindanao current is a southward flowing boundary current along

the Philippine coast.

27. Indian Ocean: One branch of the south equatorial current moves southward through the Mozambique

Channel to form the Mozambique Current. This current joins the Agulhas Current & moves to the

southern tip of Africa. During the northeast monsoon season the Somali Current flows southward &

During the southwest monsoon the current develops into an intense northward jet

28. La Nina is opposite of El Nino & intensifies the Humboldt Current. El Nino causes drought conditions in

India, Southern Africa, Australia & heavy rains in Chile, Colorado. The El Nino events of 1982 & 1997

were severe. The Southern Oscillation, a more recent discovery, refers to an oscillation in the surface


34

pressure (atmospheric mass) between the southeastern tropical Pacific and the Australian-Indonesian

regions

29. Tahiti is the largest and most important of the Society Islands, in the southern Pacific Ocean. The chief

town on the island is Papeete which is also the capital of French Polynesia.

30. In gravity waves (large waves) the restoring force is gravity while in capillary waves (ripples caused by

winds) the restoring force is surface tension. Swell refers to long crested waves with longer periods which

have traveled out of their source areas. Surf refers to a belt of nearly continuously breaking waves.

Internal waves are caused due to density differences. Seiches are standing waves (e.g. Lake Geneva).

Biogeography

31. Field capacity refers to 50 % water & 50 % air. Leaching produces increasingly acidic & mineral deficient

soil. Laterization (now called Ferralization) occurs in humid tropics where heavy rain & uninterrupted

warmth give rise to a deeply weathered layer. Melanization refers to darkening of soil profile while

Leuciniation refers to lightening of the colour both in A horizon. Induration refers to hardening of soil &

Audification refers to the accumulation of H ions mainly in surface horizons.

32. The surface horizon is usually referred to as the O layer; it consists of loose organic matter such as fallen

leaves and other biomass. O horizon is further divided into 3 sub horizons. The layer of plant material on

the soil surface is classified as: the L horizon (fresh litter); the F horizon (decomposing litter); the H

horizon (well decomposed litter)

33. Below that is the A horizon, containing a mixture of inorganic mineral materials and organic matter.

Next is the E horizon, a layer from which clay, iron, and aluminum oxides have been lost by a process

known as leaching (when water carries materials in solution down from one soil level to another).

Removal of materials in this manner is known as eluviation, the process that gives the E horizon its name.

Below E horizon is the B horizon, in which most of the iron, clays, and other leached materials have

accumulated. The influx of such materials is called illuviation. Under that layer is the C horizon,

consisting of partially weather bedrock, and last, the R horizon of hard bedrock. Hence the horizons are

L, F, H, A, E, B, C & R from top to bottom.

34. Aridisols (23 %), Inceptisols (16 %), Alfisols (13.5 %) & Entisols (11 %) – Coverage.

35. Epiphytes are abundant in tropical rainforest (Selva) which have little undergrowth.

36. Gross primary productivity less that is used in respiration is net primary productivity. Only 1 % of the

sun’s energy reaching the earth is used by plants through photosynthesis. The mean productivity of the

world is around 300 gm/sq.m/year.


35

37. 15 lakh species of animals & 2.5 lakh plant species on earth. Out of which 75 thousand animal & 15

thousand plant species are found in India.

38. The most commonly used Freon is Freon-12, or dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2). Freon-11 is

Trichlorofluoromethane (CCl3F).

39. Solonchak soils are defined by high soluble salt accumulation & formed from saline parent material under

conditions of high evaporation. Pedocals are soils of arid regions and are characterized by calcite (CaCO3)

cementation due to upward movement of water (evaporation). Pedalfers are soils of humid regions and are

characterized by highly leached clays due to downward movement of water. Extreme pedalfers are called

laterites.

40. Ferrous group includes iron, chromite, manganese, & nickel. Non-Ferrous group has copper, lead, zinc,

tungsten, aluminium, vanadium etc.

41. The largest number of sheeps & goats are both in China.

42. Coal, Petroleum & electricity are respectively known as black, liquid & white gold.

43. Czechoslovakia separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Yugoslavia was created by joining

various regions (Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro), and then

split again

44. Intercropping refers to the growing of more than one crop on the same field while mixed cropping refers

to the growing of a variety of crops on different fields.

45. Weir canal connects Lake Erie & Ontario. Worldwide jet stream that occurs in winter is the sub-tropical

jet stream.

46. Port Said lies towards the red sea side on Suez Canal. Purus, Sao Francisco & Madeira are all large rivers

of Brazil.

47. Oder Niesse line is the boundary between Poland & Germany. 38th

Parallel between North & South Korea.

49th

Parallel between USA & Canada. Maginot line between France & Germany.

48. Micronesia includes the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, Guam, the Republic of Palau, the

Marshall Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, and the Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesia lies to the north of

Melanesia & to the North-West of Polynesia.

49. Melanesia’s westernmost island is New Guinea. Stretching east and south of New Guinea are the countries

of Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, the French territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies, and the nation

of Fiji Islands (commonly known as Fiji).


36

50. Polynesia consists of American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Easter Island, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New

Zealand, Niue, the Pitcairn Islands, Samoa (formerly Western Samoa), Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, and the

Wallis and Futuna Islands.

51. Apiculture refers to rearing of honey bees. Silviculture refers to growing & tending of trees as a branch of

forestry. Connate water (also called fossil water) refers to water trapped in the interstices of rocks during

their formation. Phenology is the study of seasonal changes upon animal & plant life.

52. Hall Herault process is used in the extraction of Aluminium from its ore.

53. South China sea is the largest sea.

Analysis of Mocks

1. Cuestas or Homoclinal Ridge, physical feature that has a steep cliff or escarpment on one side and a

gentle dip or back slope on the other. This landform occurs in areas of tilted strata and is caused by the

differential weathering and erosion of the hard capping layer and the soft underlying cliff maker, which

erodes more rapidly. Cuestas with dip slopes of 40°–45° are usually called hogback ridges. A mesa is an

elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs.


37

2. A sandur (plural sandar) is a plain formed by meltwater from glaciers. Sandar are usually wider than their

length, and consist of soft sediments, which are criss-crossed by braided streams of meltwater.

3. Regolith is a layer of loose, heterogeneous material covering solid rock. Peridotite, igneous rock

composed of pyroxene, olivine, and hornblende. It is the rock that makes up the earth's mantle. Very

sudden cooling of volcanic magma results in formation of volcanic glass called obsidian. The extrusive

equivalent of granite is rhyolite & gabbro is the intrusive equivalent of basalt.

4. Entrenched & intrenched meanders are one & the same & it is ingrown meanders which grow on

assymetric valley.

5. Tephra & pyroclastic material are the same & refer collectively to volcanic materials.

6. A glacier with a negative budget is a receding glacier & that with positive budget is advancing.

7. Rectangular inselbergs are called koppie or kopje.

8. Gloup is a blow hole, where a chimney has developed behind the cliff face, often above a cave, and spray

is blasted out during high seas.

9. In a braided stream, the main channel divides into a number of smaller, interlocking or braided channels.

Streams with high sediment loads that encounter a sudden reduction in flow velocity generally have a

braided channel type.

10. Rise of land or fall of sea level is called negative movement & is connected with rejuvenation.

11. Jura mountains were formed during Mesozoic period.

12. Researchers now recognize five glaciations in the Quaternary period: Donau, Gunz, Mindel, Riss and

Wurm (in that order from old to new). Their names derive from water courses in the North Slope of the

Alps. These glaciations are included in the first period of the Quaternary: the Pleistocene. The second

period of the Quaternary, the Holocene, starts at the end of the last glaciation (Wurm), about 10 thousand

years ago. Mindel falls under middle Pleistocene.

13. Solifluction is the slow downslope flow of soil and sediment that is saturated with water

14. Both P waves & S waves (shear, transverse) are collectively called body waves. While Surface waves

include Rayleigh waves (vertical and longitudinal) & Love waves (transverse horizontal).

15. A strike slip fault is also known as wrench fault. The scientific study of rivers is called Potamology.

Colluvium is the loose deposits of rock, usually located at the foot of a slope or cliff, having been brought

there under the influence of gravity (mass wasting). Talus includes angular fragments of rock below cliffs

and steep slopes. Colluvium includes slope wash.

16. Evidences of earliest known life have been found to archaeozoic period.


38

17. Victoria fall is due to faulting. Livingstone fall is at the edge of a plateau. Yosemite fall is a hanging

valley & Niagara fall is due to alternate bands of resistant & soft rocks.

18. Reg is a surface covering of coarse gravel, pebbles from which all sand and dust have been removed by

wind and water.

19. Billow clouds are created when different layers of wind flow at different velocities resulting in unstable

turbulence between the layers. The common name for this instability is Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.

Billow clouds provide a visible signal to pilots of potentially dangerous turbulence.

Essential Extra Reference

1. Koeppens & Thornthwaite classification of India (Geo Notes-Page 77,80 Vol-1)

2. World Population Data (K. Siddhartha –Ensemble-Appendix –Geo of India-page 13)

3. Isostasy, Map references.

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

Tribal Groups of India

1. Gonds Largest tribe found in M.P., Jharkhand, A.P., Orissa &

Maharashtra.

2. Bhils M.P, Gujarat, Rajasthan, A.P., Karnataka, Tripura

3. Santhals West Bengal, Bihar-Jharkhand & Orissa

4. Minas Rajasthan & MP. Account for 50% tribal population of

Rajasthan

5. Oraons Bihar-Jharkhand, M.P.-Chattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal &

Maharashtra. Speak Kurukh Language

6. Mundas Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal & Tripura


39

7. Khonds Orissa is mainland. Also found in Bihar, AP, MP, West Bengal.

8. Tharu Uttaranchal & MP

9. Chenchu Andhra Pradesh

10. Todas Nilgiri Hills. Classic example of polyandry.

11. Lahaula Himachal Pradesh

12. Adivasis Bastar district, Chattisgarh

13. Badagas Nilgiri region, Tamil Nadu

14. Baiga M.P.

15. Bakkarwals J & K

16. Bhotias Uttaranchal, Sikkim & West Bengal

17. Bhuia M.P.

18. Birhors M.P., Chattisgarh, Jharkhand & Orissa

19. Gaddis Himachal Pradesh

20. Gujjars J&K & Himachal Pradesh

21. Irula Tamil Nadu

22. Kanikar Tamil Nadu

23. Katkari M.P.

24. Kharia M.P.

25. Khasa Jaunsar region, Uttaranchal

26. Lahualas Lahual region, Himachal Pradesh

27. Moplahs Muslims of Malabar district, Kerala

28. Sabra M.P.

29. Kol M.P. & Maharashtra

30. Kolam Andhra Pradesh

31. Kotas Nilgiri Hills

32. Murias Bastar District, Chattisgarh

33. Uralis Kerala

34. Varlis Maharashtra, Gujarat, Dadra & Nagar Haveli

35. Yurva Tamil Nadu

Tribes of the North East & Andaman Nicobar

1. Khasis Meghalaya & Tripura

2. Mikirs Assam

3. Kukis Manipur, Assam, Nagaland & Tripura

4. Angami Nagaland

5. Ao Nagaland

6. Apatani Arunachal Pradesh

7. Chutra Assam

8. Garos Meghalaya & Assam

9. Jaintia Meghalaya & Assam

10. Sema Nagaland


40

11. Lushai Mizoram & Tripura

12. Lepchas Original Tribals of Sikkim

13. Abors Arunachal Pradesh

14. Chakma Tripura

15. Chang A Naga tribe

16. Gallong Tribe of Arunachal Pradesh

17. Jarawas Andaman & Nicobar. Negrito

18. Onges Andaman & Nicobar. Negritos racial stock.

19. Shompens Andaman & Nicobar. Belong to mongoloid stock like nicobarese

& inhabit Great Nicobar.

20. Sentinelese Andaman & Nicobar. Inhabit sentinel island. Negrito

21. Great

Andamanese

Negrito

Major Formations & their Periods

1. Cenozoic Holocene

2. Pleistocene

3. Pliocene Upper Siwalik

4. Miocene

5. Oligocene

6. Eocene

7. Paleocene

8. Mesozoic Cretaceous Deccan Traps

9. Jurassic

10. Triassic

11. Paleozoic Permian

12. Carboniferous

13. Devonian

14. Silurian

15. Ordovician

16. Cambrian

17. Pre-Cambrian Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Dharwar, Archean systems

Important Ranges of the Himalayas

1. Siwaliks Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi (all in Arunachal), Dhang range,

Dundwa range, Churia ghat hills (Nepal), Jammu Hills

2. Lesser Himalayas Pir Panjal range, Dhaula Dhar range, Nag Tibba range,

Mussorie range, Mahabharat range.

Mountain Passes

1. J & K Burzil pass, Zozi La pass

2. Himachal Bara Lacha pass, Shipki La pass

3. Uttaranchal Thagla pass, Niti pass & Lipu Lekh

4. Sikkim Nathu La pass, Jelep La pass

5. Arunachal Pradesh Bomdila Pass.


41

Major Rock Systems

1. Archean System Primarily Gneiss & granites. Found in Peninsular India, M.P,

Jharkhand & Rajasthan.

2. Dharwar System

3. Cuddapah System Named after cuddapah district of AP.

4. Vindhyan System Found & named after Vindhyas. Stand over Cuddapah rocks.

Contains limestones, sandstones, shale & slate

5. Gondwana System Formed in middle carboniferous period. Chhotanagpur is main.

6. Deccan Traps Cretaceous period.

7. Tertiary Systems

8. Quarternary Formations Important formations of this period are Rajasthan desert, Indo

Gangetic alluvium, Rann of Kachchh, Karewas of Kashmir (flat

topped mound).

Forests & Their Species

1. Tropical Evergreen Teak, Rosewood, Ebony, Ironwood, Bamboo, Canes, Champa, Sal,

Mahua, Sandal & Sheesham

2. Tropical Dry

Evergreen

Khirni, Jamun, Khokko, Ritha, Tamarind, Neem, Toddy Palm,

Cane.

3. Tropical Dry

Deciduous

Teak, Tendu, Sal, Amaltas, Palas, Rose-wood, Axlewood, Bijsal,

Khair, Satinwood, Ghant, Pepal & Semal

4. Swamp Forests Sundari tree, Nipa Friticans (a Palm), Epiphytes.

5. Himalaya Temperate Oak, Deodar, Celtis, Maple, Chestnut.

6. Alpine Rhododendron, Birch, Fir, Spruce, Plum

Various Revolutions in Indian Economy

1. Yellow Revolution Oil Seeds

2. White Revolution Milk

3. Blue Revolution Fish

4. Pink Revolution Shrimp

5. Brown Revolution Masaaley

6. Grey Revolution Wool

7. Golden Revolution Horticulture

Rivers: Origin & Length

S. River Kms Origin Characteristics

1. Indus 2900 Mansarovar Shyok, Dras, Gartang, Nubra, Hunza, Zanskar,

Shigar. Kabul, Kurram, Tochi, Viboa, Sangar.

2. Jhelum 400 Verinag Flows through Wular lake & along Indo Pak border.

3. Chenab 1180 Bara-Lacha Largest Indus tributary. Formed by Chandra &

Bhaga.

4. Ravi 725 Rohtang Pass Flows through Chamba valley.

5. Beas 470 Beas Kund Flows through Kullu valley & joins Satluj near

Harike

6. Sutlej 1050 Rakas Lake Passes through Ship kila. Govind Sagar lake at


42

Bhakra

7. Ganga 2525 Gangotri Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda at Devprayag. It splits

into Bhagirathi-Hugli & Padma below Farrakha in

Malda distt.

8. Yamuna 1300 Yamunotri Tons, Giri, Asan, Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Enters

Ganga plain at Paonta Sahib.

9. Chambal 960 Mhow Gandhisagar dam at Kota. Banas (left), Kali & Sind

(right)

10. Gandak Everest &

Dhulagiri

Joins Ganga at Sonpur near Patna

11. Kosi 730 Everest &

Kanchenjunga

Its main stream is Arun. Joined by Sun kosi from the

west & Tamur Kosi from the east

12. Ramganga 600 Kumaon Hills Joins Ganga near Kanauj

13. Sarda (Saryu) Milam Glacier Along Indo Nepal border it is called Kali. Joins

Ghaghara.

14. Mahananda Darjeeliing

Hills

It is the last left bank tributary of the Ganga

15. Son Amarkantak Joins Ganga at Patna

16. Damodar 540 Barakar is main tributary. Joins Hugli

17. Ghaghara 1180 Mapchachungo

glacier

Meets Ganga at Chapra.

18. Gomti Pilibhit Distt Lucknow situated on its bank. Kathna & Sarayan

tributaries.

19. Brahmaputra 2900 Near

Mansarovar

Receives Dibang & Lohit on left bank & then

known as Brahmaputra. Burhi Dihing, Dhansari &

Kalang (left) & Subansari, Kamang, Manas &

Sankosh.

20. Tista Chitamu lake

(Tibet)

Forms Sivok Gola Pass in Darjeeling.

21. Surma 900 Meghna is the name of Brahmaputra after its

confluence with Surma. Surma is distributary of

river Barak.

22. Mahanadi 850 Sihawa (near

Raipur)

Tel, Ib, Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, Jonking

23. Godavari 1465 Nashik Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga, Sabari, Idravati,

Manjra & Pranhita.

24. Krishna 1400 Mahabaleshwar Koyna, Yerla, Verna, Panchganga, Dudhgana, Musi,

Tungabhadra, Bhima

25. Cauveri 800 Brahmagiri

Hills (Coorg)

Amravati, Hemavati, Akravati, Herangi, Shimsa,

Lakshmantirtha, Lokpavani, Kabbani.

26. Narmada 1300 Amarkantak Burhner, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar, Dudhi, Tawa,

Hiran, Baran

27. Tapti 724 Betul Distt Parna, Veghar, Girna, Bori, Panhara, Betul

28. Sabarmati 320 Mewar Hills

29. Brahmani 800 Formed by confluence of Koel & Sankh. Baitrani

joins later

30. Subarnarekha 400 S-W of Ranchi


43

31. Luni 320 Arawallis Ends in Sahni marshes. Sarsuti, Bundi, Sukri, Jawai

join it.

Various Central Institutes in India

1. Wildlife Institute of India Dehradun

2. Salim Ali centre for Ornithology & Natural History Coimbatore

3. Central Sheep Breeding Farm Haryana

4. Central Tobacco Research Institute Rajamundhry, A.P.

5. National Ship Design & Research Centre Vishakhapatnam

6. Civil Aviation Training College Hyderabad

7. National Institute of Aviation Management & Research Delhi

8. Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Udan Academy Fursatgunj (U.P.)

9. National Remote Sensing Agency Hyderabad

10. Postal Staff College of India Ghaziabad

11. Central Poultry Training Institute Hessarghatta, Karnataka

12. Central Institute of Coastal Engineering for fisheries Bangalore.

13. Central Institute of Fisheries education Mumbai

14. Lal Bahadur shastri college of advanced maritime studies &

research

Mumbai

15. Hindustan Photo films Ooty.

16. Survey of India Dehradun

Various Policies & Programmes in India

1. Forest Policy 1894, 1952, 1988 (revised)

2. Indian Board for wildlife formed 1952

3. Wildlife Protection Act 1972

4. Project Tiger 1973

5. Operation Crocodile 1975

6. National Wildlife Action Plan 1983, Revised 2002-2016

7. Environment Protection Act 1986

8. Rhinoceros project 1987

9. Project Elephant 1992

Energy Resources of India

35. Coal Jharkhand Jharia, Bokaro, Giridh, karanpura, Ramgarh, Daltonganj,

Aurangabad, Hutar, Deogarh, Rajmahal

36. Orissa Talcher, Rampur

37. M.P (Former) Central Indian Coalfields -Singrauli, Sohagpur, Johilla, Umaria

Satupura Coalfields - Pench, Kanhan, Pathkhera

North Chhattisgarh - Chirmiri-Kaurasia, Bisrampur, Jhillmili,

Sonhat, Lakhanpur, Sendurgarh, lakhanpur-Ramkola

South Chhattisgarh-Hasdo-Arand, Korba, Mand-Raigarh

38. West Bengal Raniganj, Darjeeling


44

39. Andhra Pr. Singareni, Kothgundam, Tandur

40. Maharashtra Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee, Bander

41. Tetiary

coal

Meghalaya Daranggiri, Cherpunji, Laitryngew, Mawlong, Langrin, Pendengru,

Longoi, Waimong

42. Assam Makum, Jaipur, Nazira

43. Arunachal Pr Namchuk-Namphuk

44. J & K Kalakot, Mohogala, Metka

45. Rajasthan Palana (lignite) & Khari

46. Petroleum North-East Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran, Rudrasagar, Galeki, Hugrijan, Nigru,

Borholla

47. Gujarat Ankeleshwar, Kalol, Nawagam, Kosamba, Kathana,

Barkol,Mehsana, Sanand, Lunej, Aliabet island

48. Mumbai High Bombay high, Bassein

49. East Coast Narimanam, Kovillapal, Amlapur, Rawa

50. Other Jaiselmer, Jwalamukhi Area (Punjab)

51. Natural

Gas

Mumbai Bombay high, Bassein

52. Gujarat Jagatia, Gogha

53. Assam Nahorkatiya & Moran

54. Tamil Nadu Neypaltur, Mangamadam, Avadi, Virugambakam

55. Tripura Baranura, Atharnure

56. Rajasthan Barmer, Charaswala

57. Arunachal Pr Non Chick, Mia-Pung, Laptan pung

58. Himachal Pr Jwalamukhi, Kangra

59. West Bengal Medinipur

60. Uranium Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Bhatin, Narwapahar under Uranium

Corportation in India are the only mines worked at present

61. Thorium Beach Sands (Kerala), Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pr, Orissa

Mineral Resources of India

50. Iron Ore Chhattisgarh 24 % Dalli, Rajhra (Durg), Bailadila, Raoghat, Aridongri

51. Goa (21%) Sanquelim, Sanguem, Quepem, Satari, Ponda, Bicholim

52. Karnataka (20%) Bellary, Hospet, Sandur

53. Jharkhand (17 %) Noamund, Gua

54. Orissa (15 %) Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj),

Kiriburu, Meghahataburu, Bonai (Sundargarh).

55. Maharashtra Chandrapur, Ratnagiri, Bhandara

56. Andhra Pr. Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnod, Cuddapah, Anantpur district


45

57. Tamil Nadu Tirthmalai, Yadapalli, Killimalai, kanjamalai, & Gondumalai

58. Copper M. P (46%) Balghat (Malanjkhand)

59. Rajasthan (33%) Khetri (Jhunjhunu & Alwar)

60. Jharkhand (21%) Singhbum

61. Manganese Karnataka (38%) Bellary, North Kanara, Shimoga

62. Orissa (17%) Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir

63. M.P. (10 %) Balghat

64. Maharashtra (8%) Nagpur & Bhandara

65. Bauxite Orissa (44 %) Koraput, Kalahandi, Sundargarh

66. Jharkhand (18 %) Gumla, Lohardaga, Ranchi, Palamau

67. Maharashtra (13%) Kolhapur, Ratnagir

68. Chhattisgarh(11%) Bastar, Bilaspur, Surguja district

69. M.P. (11 %) Mandla, Satna, Jabalpur, Shahdol

70. Gujarat (8 %) Jamnagar, Kachchh, Junagarh

71. Tamil Nadu (4 %) Salem, Nilgiri

72. Chromite Orissa (97 %) Sukinda, Kendujhar, Dhenkanal ditricts

73. Karnataka (2.3 %) Hassan

74. Maharashtra (%) Chandrapur

75. Jharkhand (%) Purbi & Paschmi Singhbum district

76. Andhra Pr (%) Khammam

77. Lead Rajasthan (80 %) Zawar region (Udaipur), Dariba, Rajura

78. Orissa (11%)

79. Andhra Pr (8 %)

80. Zinc Rajasthan (99 %) Zawar –a. Pipli khan to Barla khan b. Mochia, Magra, Balaria

81. Sikkim

82. Gold Karnataka (67 %) Kolar, Hutti gold fields (Raichur), Gulbarga

83. Jharkhand (26 %) Subarnarekha, Sona, Sanjai, South koel, Garra rivers

84. Andhra Pr (7 %) Ramgiri Gold Fields (Anantapur district)

85. Silver Andhra Pr (42 %)

86. Bihar Jharkhand32

87. Rajashtan (25 %) Zawar

88. Karnataka

89. Nickel Orissa Cuttack, Kyonjhar, & Maiyurbhanj

Non Metallic Minerals

1. Limestone M.P, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan

2. Dolomite Orissa (Birmitrapur in Sundergarh District-largest in India), M.P & Chattisgarh

3. Phosphate Rajasthan (Udaipur) Uttaranchal (Dehradun), M.P. (Jhabua), U.P. (Lalitpur)

4. Kaolin Kerala is largest producer.

5. Mica Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand (Kodarma-Large) & Rajasthan

6. Gypsum Rajasthan & J & K.

7. Steatite Rajasthan. It is also called soapstone/ Potstone.

8. Magnesite Tamil Nadu


46

9. Pyrite Bihar is sole producer

10. Graphite Orissa, Rajasthan

11. Diamond M.P. (Panna)

12. Beryllium Rajathan, Jharkhand

13. Salt (NaCl) Gujarat (60%), Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra

14. Marble Rajasthan

15. Zircon Beach Sand of Kerala

16. Kyanite Singhbum distict in Jharkhand-largest. Used as refractory material

17. Antimony Punjab

18. Asbestos Karnataka & Rajasthan

19. Beryllium Rajasthan

20. Sulphur Tamil Nadu

21. Tin Bihar, Jharkhand

Multipurpose Projects & Hydro-Electric Projects in India

Project River State

56. Damodar Valley Project Damodar West Bengal & Jharkhand. It includes Maithon

& Tilaiya Dam on Barakar river in Bihar, Konar

Dam (Konar river) & Panchet Dam (Damodar).

57. Rihand Dam Rihand Uttar Pradesh

58. Nagarjunasagar Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh. Consists of two canals – Lal

Bahadur Canal (Left) & Jawahar canal (Right).

59. Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra JV of Andhra Pr & Karnataka.

60. Gandak Project Gandak JV between UP, Bihar & Nepal

61. Kosi Project Kosi JV of Bihar & Nepal

62. Beas Project Beas Includes Pong Dam

63. Mayurkashi Project Mayurkashi Mayurkashi is a tributary of Hugli.

64. Indira Gandhi Canal It consists of Rajastan Feeder Canal (taking off

from Harike Barrage, 204 km long, fully lined

masonry canal) & Rajasthan main canal (445

Km)

65. Narmada Valley Project Involves Sardar Sarovar dam in Gujarat &

Narmada sagar (or Indira Sagar) dam in M.P.

66. Pochampad Project Godavari Andhra Pradesh.

67. Tehri Dam Bhagirathi Uttaranchal. Implemented with Soviet Aid.

Highest rock fall dam in the country.

68. Parambikulam Project JV between Tamil Nadu & Kerala.

Hydro-Electric Projects

69. Mata Tella Dam Betwa Near Jhansi in U.P.

70. Kangsbati Project West Bengal

71. Rajasthan Canal Project Sutlej, Beas JV of Punjab & Rajastan. Ravi water is also

used.

72. Kadana Project Mahi Gujarat

73. Tata Hydroelectric Scheme Indravati Maharashtra. Called Bhivpuri dam.

74. Koyna Hydroelectic Dam Koyna Maharashtra

75. Sivasamudram Cauvery Falls Karnataka


47

76. Pykara Hydro Elec Project Pykara Tamil Nadu (along Nilgiris)

77. Mettur Project Cauvery Tamil Nadu

78. Papansam Scheme Tambraparni Tamil Nadu

79. Sabargiri Hydel Project Pampa Kerala

80. Idukki Project Periyar Kerala

81. Sholayar Project Sholayar Kerala. JV between Kerala & Tamil Nadu

82. Machkund Power Project Machkund Orissa. JV between A.P & Orissa

83. Srisailam Power Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh

84. Balimela Hydro Project Sileru river JV between A.P & Orissa

85. Umiam Project Umiam Meghalaya

86. Salal Hydro Project Chenab J & K

87. Thein Dam Project Ravi Punjab

88. Banasagar Project Son JV between MP, UP & Bihar

89. Jayakwadi Project Godavari Maharashtra

90. Kakrapara Project Tapi Gujarat

91. Mahi Project Mahi Gujarat

92. Malprabha Project Malprabha Karnataka

93. Pallivasal project Mudirapujha Kerala

94. Poochampad Godavari Andhra Pradesh

95. Rajghat Dam Project Betwa

96. Sarda Sahayak Ghagara Uttar Pradesh

97. Hansdev Bango Project Hansdev M.P.

98. Tawa Project Tawa M.P. Tawa is tributary of Narmada

99. Ukai Project Tapi Gujarat

100. Purna Project Purna Maharashtra

101. Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan (Rawatbhata)

102. Jawahar Sagar Dam Chambal Rajasthan (Kota)

103. Gandhi Sagar Dam Chambal Churasigarh Fort at MP-Rajasthan border

104. Chibro Tons Uttar Pradesh

43. Dool Hasti Chenab J & K.

105. Nathpa Jhakri Satluj Himachal Pr. Biggest hydel power project in

India

106. Panchet Dam Damodar West Bengal

Thermal Power Projects in India

1. Kothagundam Project Singareni Coalfields Andhra Pradesh

2. Dhuraran Project Kheda district Gujarat

3. Satpura Power Station M.P.

4. Korba Project Chhattisgarh

5. Talcher Power Station Talcher Orissa

6. Obra Power Station Obra U.P.

7. Bhusawal Power Station Maharashtra

8. Hardauganj Power Station U.P.


48

9. Bandel Power Station West Bengal

10. Chandrapura Power Station Bihar

11. Kolaghat Power Station West Bengal

12. Bakreshwar (Birbhum) Station West Bengal

Soils & Their Properties

1. Alluvial Soils 22 Most fertile, Sandy loam in texture,

Rich in Potash, Phosphoric Acid, Lime & Organic matter

Deficient in Nitrogen & Humus

2. Regur/Black Soils 30 Also classified as Chernozem. Clay content 50%

Rich in iron, lime & Aluminium

Poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus & organic content

3. Red & Yellow Soils 28 Known as omnibus group.

Rich in oxides of iron

Poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus & Humus

4. Laterite Soils 2.62 Not very fertile. Typical of tropical region with heavy rainfall

Rich in iron oxide & potash

Poor in nitrogen, phosphate & calcium

5. Arid Soils 6.13 Rich in phosphate

Poor in Nitrogen & humus

6. Saline Soils 1.29 Known as Usara, Reh or Kallar

Contain a large proportion of Sodium, Potassium & Magnesium

Poor in Nitrogen & Calcium

7. Peaty & Organic 2.17 Normally heavy & black in colour. Highly acidic.

Rich in organic matter

Poor in phosphate & potash

8. Forest Soils 7.94 Acidic with low humus content

Poor in potash, phosphorus & lime

Sobriquets

1. Bolton of the east Ahmedabad

2. Manchester of South India Coimbatore

3. Granary of South India Thanjavur

Agricultural Crops of India

Crop State Prod

%

Prod

(Mil

T)

Yield

Kg/Ha

Rainfall

cm

Temp

Deg C

Soil

Rice W. Bengal 15 87 1900 125-200 cm >23 C Deep Fertile

Clayey or loamy

soil UP 14

Andhra Pr 13

Punjab 11

Wheat UP 35 74 2700 80 cm 10-25 C Light loam


49

Punjab 20 Sandy Loam

Clay Loam Haryana 172

M.P. 11

Jowar Maharashtra 47 7.7 770 30-65 cm 27-32 C Black clayey soil

Karnataka 20

M.P. 10

Bajra Rajasthan 33 7.1 720 40-50 cm 25-30 C Light sandy

Shallow black

Red upland soil UP 18

Gujarat 16

Maharashtra 14

Maize U.P. 15 12.1 1850 50-75 cm 21-27 C Well drained

alluvial or red

loamy soil Karnataka 15

Rajasthan 11

Bihar/MP 10

Barley UP 44 1.7 1750 70-90 cm 10-18 C Light soil

Rajasthan 30

MP 7

Ragi Karnataka 60 2.3 1350

TamilNadu 13

U.P. 8

Pulses M.P. 25 14

U.P. 20

Rajasthan 17

Gram M.P. 40 3.5 720 35-50 cm 20-25 C Drained loamy

soil Rajasthan 31

U.P. 12

Tur/Arhar Maharashtra 22 2.3 620 40-80 cm 20-25 C Range of soil

U.P. 20

M.P./Gujar. 15

Sugarcane U.P. 43 300 70 tonne 150 cm 20-25 C Deep rich loamy

soil Maharashtra 14

Tamil Nadu 13

Karnataka 10

Commercial & Plantation Crops of India

Crop State Prod

%

Prod

(Mil

T)

Yield

Kg/Ha

Rainfall

Cm

Temp

Deg C

Soil

Cotton Gujarat 28 11.6

Million

Bales

170 Kg

226 50-75 cm 21-30 C Black Soil

Maharashtra 15

Andhra Pr 11

Haryana 10

Jute W. Bengal 75 10 1960 125-200 cm 25-35 C Light sandy or


50

Bihar 14 Million

Bales

180 kg

Clayey Loams

Assam 9

Orissa 1

Tobacco Andhra Pr. 31 .65 1400 50 cm 15-38 C Well Drained

Friable sandy

loams Gujarat 29

U.P. 23

Groundnut Gujarat 33 9.2 1220 50-100 cm 20-30 C Sandy loam, red,

yellow, black soil Andra Pr. 15

Tamil Nadu 22

Sunflower Karnataka 47 1.3 620 50 cm 15-25 C Loamy soils

Maharashtra 23

Andhra Pr. 17 5

Soyabeen M.P. 75 1000 50 cm 14-24 C Friable loamy

Acidic Soil Maharashtra 13

Rajasthan 9

Tea Assam 55 0.78 1900 150-250 cm 25-30 C Well drained deep

friable loams or

Acidic Forest soil W. Bengal 22

Tamil Nadu 15

Coffee Karnataka 71 0.3 960 150-250 cm 15-28 C Well drained

friable forest loam Kerala 21

Tamil Nadu 8

Rubber Kerala 90 0.6 1600 300 cm 25-35 C Deep, well

drained loams Tamil Nadu

Oilseeds

1. Ground Nut Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu

2. Rapeseed &

Mustard

Rajasthan (45%), U.P, M.P.

3. Seasum Gujarat (28 %), W. Bengal

4. Linseed U.P, Maharashtra

5. Castorseed Gujarat (82%)

6. Soyabeen Madhya Pradesh (75%), Maharashtra, Rajasthan

7. Sunflower Karnataka (47%), Maharashtra (23%), Andhra Pradesh (17%)

8. Coconut Kerala (45%), Tamil Nadu (28 %)

Spices

1. Black Pepper Kerala (97 %)

2. Chillies Andhra Pradesh (37%)

3. Turmeric Andhra Pradesh (56%)

4. Ginger Kerala (22), Meghalaya (20%)

5. Cardamom Karnataka (57%)

6. Arecanut Karnataka (41%), Kerala (30%)

Horticultural Crops


51

1. Mango UP (32), Bihar (13) Andhra Pradesh. Accounts for 40 percent of all fruits

2. Banana Maharashtra (28%), Gujarat (10%), Andhra Pradesh. Jalgaon district

alone supplies more than 80 % of Maharashtra’s Banana

3. Cashew Kerala (31%), Maharashtra (18%), Andhra Pradesh (14%). Cashew is a

genus of Brazil. Largest foreign exchange earner

4. Orange Maharashtra, M.P, Karnataka. Genus from China

5. Grapes Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra. Native plant of Armenia. Grapes are

imported in India.

6. Guava U.P., Bihar. Native plant of Tropical America

7. Apple J & K, Himachal Pr, Uttaranchal

8. Potato U.P (35%), West Bengal (33%)

9. Onion Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh

Types of Crops

Kharif Crops Rice, Maize, Jowar, Ragi, Bajra, Tur, Moong, Urad, Cotton,

Jute, Seasum, Groundnut, Soyabeen,

Rabi Crops Wheat, Barley, Jowar, Rapeseed, Mustard, Linseed, Lentil,

Gram, Peas

Zaid Crops Sown during march to June. E.g. Water Melon, Melon,

Cucumber, Vegetables, Moong, Urad.

Jowar is both a Kharif & Rabi Crop.

National Parks of India

1. Wandur National Park Andaman & Nicobar

2. Kaziranga National Park Assam

3. Manas National Park Assam

4. Palamau National Park Jharkhand

5. Hazaribagh National Park Jharkhand (Rhinoceros)

6. Dachigam National Park J & K – Kashmir Stag (Hangul)

7. Hemis National Park J & K

8. Kishtwar National Park J & K

9. Silent Valley National Park Kerala

10. Eravikulam National Park Kerala

11. Bandhavgarh National Park M.P.

12. Kanha National Park M.P.

13. Madhav National Park M.P.

14. Pench National Park M.P.

15. Shivpuri National Park M.P. - Birds

16. Indravati National Park Chhattisgarh

17. Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan

18. Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan

19. Desert National Park Rajasthan

20. Sariska National Park Rajasthan

21. Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh

22. Marine National Park Gujarat

23. Pin Valley National Park Himachal Pradesh


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24. Bandipur National Park Karnataka

25. Nagarhole National Park Karnataka

26. Bannerghatta National Park Karnataka

27. Tadoba National Park Maharashtra

28. Boriveli National Park Maharashtra (or Sanjay Gandhi National Park)

29. Balpakram National Park Meghalaya

30. Nokrek National Park Meghalaya

31. Nandan Kanan National Park Orissa

32. Chandka Elephant Reserve Orissa

33. Simlipal Tiger Reserve Orissa

34. Corbett National Park Uttaranchal

35. Rajaji National Park Uttaranchal

36. Valley of Flower N. Park Uttaranchal

37. Nandadevi National Park Uttaranchal

38. Dudhwa National Park U.P.

39. Govind National Park U.P.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

1. Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary Andhra Pradesh

2. Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu

3. Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary Andhra Pradesh

4. Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary Assam

5. Kaimur wildlife Sanctuary Bihar (largest)

6. Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary Karnataka

7. Periyar Wildlife sanctuary Kerala

8. National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary M.P., U.P & Rajasthan

9. Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary Maharashtra (Ahmednagar)

10. Gomardha Wildlife Sanctuary Chhattisgarh

11. Harike Headworks Punjab

12. Jaldapara Wildlife sanctuary West Bengal

13. Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary Haryana

14. Raganathittu Wildlife Sanctuary Karnataka

15. Madumalai Sanctuary Tamil Nadu

16. Pulicat Sanctuary Andhra Pradesh

17. Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary U.P (Varanasi)

18. Ranganthitoo Bird Sanctury Karnataka

19. Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu

Breeds of Cattle

1. Cow Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Deoni (Andhra Pr.), Nagori, Rathi, Siri, Malvi,

Tharparkar. Exotic breeds – Holstein, Friesian, Jersey, Brown Swiss.

2. Buffalo Murrah, Bhadawari, Nagpuri, Mehsana, Jaffrabadi, Surti, Nali-Ravi.

3. Sheep Jaisalmeri, Pugal, Bikaneri, Marwari, Kathiawari.

4. Goats Jamnapuri, Barbari

High Yielding Varieties of Seed


53

1. Wheat Kalyan Sona, Sonalika, Arjun, Lerma, Sharbati Sonora, WL series.

2. Rice Padma, Jaya, IR-8, Hamsa, Krishna, Cauvery, Annapurna

3. Maize Ganga-101, Deccan Hybrid

4. Jowar CSV-1 to CSV-7

5. Ragi Sharda

6. Cotton V-797, Hybrid 4,5, Digvijay, Varalaxmi, Sanjay, Deviraj, Virnar.

Roads, Railways & Waterways in India

1. National Highways 67700 Km Broad Guage 46800 km

2. State Highways 137000 Km Meter Guage 13000 km

3. District Roads 12 Lakh Km Narrow Guage 3100 km

4. Village Roads 15 Lakh Km Total Railway guage 63200 km

5. Border Roads 30,000 Km No of Trains 13500

6. Total Roads 33 Lakh Km No of Stations 7100

7. Total Waterways 14500 Km Electrified route 28%

National Waterways

1. National Waterways-1 Allahabad-Haldia stretch of the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hoogly system

2. National Waterways-2 Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra system

3. National Waterways-3 The west coast canal from Kottapuram to Kollam along with the

Udyogmandal & Champakar canals (All in Kerala).

Indian Railways, Headquarters

1. Nothern Raiway Delhi

2. Southern Railway Chennai

3. Eastern Raiway Kolkata

4. Western Railway Mumbai (Churchgate)

5. North-Western Railway Jaipur

6. North-Central Railway Allahabad

7. North-Eastern Railway Gorakhpur

8. North-East Frontier Railway Guwahati

9. East Coast Railway Bhubaneshwar

10. East Central Railway Hazipur

11. West Central Railway Jabalpur

12. Central Railway Mumbai (V.T)

13. South-Central Railway Secundarabad

14. South Eastern Railway Kolkata

15. South-Western Railway Bangalore

16. South-East Central Railway Bilaspur

India Pipelines

1. Naharkatiya Oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar via Noonmati – First pipeline

2. Barauni-Kanpur pipeline for transport of refined petroleum

3. Haldia-Maurgram-Rajbandh pipeline

4. Ankleshwar oilfield to Koyali refinery in Gujarat

5. Mumbai High Koyali pipeline

6. Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) pipeline (1750 km). Extended from Bijapur to Dadri in U.P.


54

7. Kandla to Luni in U.P via Delhi for LPG transport (1250 Km)

Airways-Internatioanal Airports

1. Mumbai Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport (Sahar)

2. Delhi Indira Gandhi International Airport

3. Chennai Anna International Airport (Meenambakam)

4. Kolkata Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport

5. Ahmedabad Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport

6. Amritsar Raja Sansi Airport

7. Bangalore Needumbassery International Airport

8. Goa Dabolim International Airport

9. Guwahati Lokapriya Gopinat Bardoli International Airport

10. Hyderabad Rajiv Gandhi International Airport

11. Thiruvananthapuram Trivandrum International Airport

12. Kochi Nedumbassery International Airport.

India’s Foreign Trade

1. Petroleum, Oil, Lubricants (POL) 27 % 1. Gems & Jewellery 17 %

2. Pearls & Precious stones 9 % 2. Readymade Garments 13 %

3. Gold & Silver 8.5 % 3. Chemicals 11 %

4. Capital goods 12 % 4. Cotton Textile 8 %

5. Electronic goods 9 % 5. Machine & Transport 6 %

6. Chemicals 7 % 6. Agricultural Exports 13.5 %

7. Edible Oils 3 % 7.

8. Coke, Coal & briquettes 2 % 8.

Fish & Fish products lead agricultural exports accounting for 3.1 % of the total value.

India’s major trading partners

1. USA 11.6 %

2. UAE 5.0 %

3. China 5 .0%

4. UK 4.4 %

5. Belgium 4.1 %

6. Germany 3.9 %

7. Japan 3.1 %

8. Switzerland 2.7 %

9. Hongkong 3.4 %

10. Singapore 3.0 %

Cities located on Rivers

City River State

Agra Yamuna UP

Badrinath Alaknanda Uttranchal

Cuttack Mahanadi Orissa

Dibrugarh Brahmaputra Assam

Ferozpur Sutlej Punjab


55

Guwahati Brahmaputra Assam

Hyderabad Musi AP

Jabalpur Narmada MP

Kanpur Ganga UP

Kota Chambal Rajasthan

Lucknow Gomti UP

Ludhiana Sutlej Punjab

Nasik Godavari Maharashtra

Pandharpur Bhima Maharashtra

Patna Ganga Bihar

Sambalpur Mahanadi Orissa

Srinagar Jhelum J&K

Surat Tapti Gujarat

Tiruchirapalli Cauvery Tamil Nadu

Varanasi Ganga UP

Vijaywada Krishna AP

Industries of India

1. Iron & Steel IISCO has 3 plants at Kulti, Hirapur & Burnpur. Visvesvaraya Iron & Steel

Co is located on the bank of Bhadravati river in Karnataka.

Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL) at Bhilai, Durgapur & Bokaro.

2. Cotton Textile 4% of GDP. 3.5 Crore population employed.

3. Sugar Industry

4. Aluminum

Industry

HINDALCO (Renukoot), INDAL (Alupuram, Hirakud, Belgaum), Madras

Aluminium Company (MALCO, Mettur), BALCO (Korba), NALCO

(Koraput)

5. Copper Smelting HCL is the main player & operates Khetri copper complex, Indian copper

complex (Ghatsila, Jharkhand), Malanjkhand copper project (Balghat,

M.P.), Taloja copper project (Raigad, Maharashtra).

6. Jute Textile Centers are Titagarh, budge-budge, Haora, Rishra, Serampore,

Bhadreshware, Shyamnagar.

7. Silk Textile Its varieties are Mulberry (88%), Eri (9%), Tassar (2%), Muga (1%)

8. Woolen Textile Punjab, Maharashtra & U.P account for 75% production. Dhariwal is most

important centre. Others are Amritsar, Ludhiana, Kharar.

9. Heavy Industry Heavy Engineering Corp Ltd (Ranchi), Tungabhadra Steel Products Ltd

(Karnataka), Bharat heavy plates & Vessels (Vishakhapatnam)

Mining & allied machinery corporation (Durgapur).

10. Machine Tools HMT (Bangalore, Pinjore in Haryana, Kalamassery in Kerala, Hyderabad,

Ajmer & Sri Nagar), Heavy Machine Tools (Ranchi), Machine Tools Corp

of India (Ajmer), National Instruments Factory at Kolkata.

11. Automobiles TELCO in Mumbai, Ashok Leyland in Chennai, Bajaj Tempo (Pune).

Defense vehicles are produced at Jabalpur.

12. Pesticides Hindustan Insecticides Ltd (Delhi, Kerala & Rasayani, Maharashtra)

Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd (Rasayani, Raigad & Kochi)

13. Cement Industry Top manufacturing states are M.P, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pr & Raj. Jamul

is largest plant of M.P. & Sawai Madhopur leads in Rajasthan

14. Leather Industry India is 3rd

largest player after Italy & U.S.


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15. Glass Industry Bahjoi & Naini (Both in U.P.) are famous for glass sheets & Firozabad for

bangles.

16. Paper Industry Rajmundhry (Andhra Pr), Ballarpur (Maharshtra), Titagarh (Bengal)

Bhadravati, Dandeli (Karnataka), Hoshangabad (M.P)

17. Liquor Industry U.P. has more than 50% installed capacity. Maharashtra, A.P are others.

18. Aircraft industry Important centres are HAL-Bangalore, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Others are

Koraput (Orissa) & Nasik.

19. Railway

Equipments

Chittaranjan Locomotive works (Electric engines) – West Bengal

Diesel Locomotive works – Varanasi

Integral Coach Factory – Perambur, Tamil Nadu

Rail Coach Factory – Kapurthala, Punjab.

Diesel Componets Works - Patiala

Railway wheels & Axels - Yalahanka (Banalore) & Durgapur.

20. Ship Building Hindustan Shipyard (Vishakhapatnam), Garden-Reach Shipbuilders

(Kolkata), Mazagaon Dock (Mumbai), Goa Shipyard (Vasco).

21. Pharmaceuticals IDPL – Rhishikesh, Hyderabad, Gurgaon, Chennai, Muzzafarpur

Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd – Pimpri, Pune – first public sector undertaking

in this industry

22. Zinc & Lead Hindustan Zinc Ltd at Debari, Rajasthan (both zinc & lead)

23. Fertilizers

Industry

FCI-Sindri

National Fertilizers Limited – Nangal

Hindustan Fertilizer Corp Ltd- Namrup (Assam), Durgapur.

Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd – Trombay, Thal

Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, U.P & Maharashtra are the 4 largest in order.

24. Heavy Electricals BHEL (Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Ramchandrapuram in A.P, Jammu,

Bangalore, Hardwar). Ms ABL at Durgapur.

Hindustan Cables Factory (Rupnarainpur, Bengal), Indian Telephone

industries (Bangalore), Bharat Electronics (Bangalore),

Electronics corporation of India (Hyderabad)

Industrial Regions of India

4. Mumbai-Pune rgion Tata hydel stations at Khopali, Bhivpuri, Bhira & koyna

Solapur, Satara, Sangli & Ahmednagar

5. Hugli Industrial Belt From Naihati to Budge-Budge along left bank & Tribeni to

Nalpur along right bank. Other centres are Serampur, Rishra,

Shibpur, Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Bansbaria,

Belgurriah, Triveni, Belur.


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6. Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Pykara project supplies electricity. Salem, Madurai,

Tiruchirapalli, Mettur, Mysore, Mandya.

7. Ahmedabad-Vadodara Dhuvaran Thermal power station, Uttaran gas power station,

Ukai hydro project. Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar,

Rajkot, Surat, Valsad, Jamnagar

8. Chhotanagpur Region Chaibasa, Dhanbad, Sindri, Hazaribagh, Asansol, Durgapur,

Dalmianagar, Ranchi, Daltonganj.

9. Gurgaon Delhi Meerut Faridabad, Modinagar, Ambala, Agra, Mathura

Six Largest National Highways

National Highway Route Lengh Km

NH 7 Varanasi-Kanyakumari 2369

NH 6 Kolkata & Dhule via Raipur, Nagpur. 1932

NH 5 Baharagora-Chennai 1533

NH 2 Delhi-Kolkata 1490

NH 8 Delhi-Mumbai 1428

NH 17 Panvel-Edapally (Karnataka) 1270

Important National Highways

NH-1 Delhi to Amritsar via Ambala & Jallandhar 456

NH-1A Jallandhar & Uri via Jammu, Srinagar & Baramula

NH 22 Ambala to Shipkila on Indo china border 460

NH 28 A Pipra to Nepal border 68

NH 35 Barasat-Bongaigaon-Indo Bangladesh border 61

NH 39 Numaligarh-Indo Burma border. 436

NH 3 Agra to Mumbai via Gwalior

NH 4 Chennai with Thane

Important Industrial Centers of India

1. Ferozabad Glass Bangles

2. Mirzapur Pottery

3. Jaipur Gems Industry

4. Trivandrum Wood Carving

5. Kadi Mineral Oil

6. Korba Aluminium

7. Bhatinda Fertilizers

Racial Profile of India

1. Negritos Only on Andamans & Nicobar

2. Proto-Australoid Includes Tribal group of central & southern India. Veddahs,

Maleveddahs, Irulas, Sholgas considere true representative.

3. Mongoloids Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Lipchas, Chakmas, Murmis, Naga & Dafla

4. Mediterranean Divided into: Palaeo-Mediterranean (or Dravidians) inhabiting


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southern parts of India & True Mediterranean inhabiting northern &

western part of the country.

5. Brachycephals Characterized by broad heads. Coorgis & Parsis are representative.

They are divided into Alpinoids, Dinarics & Armenoids

6. Nordics/Indo-Aryans Inhabit parts of north India. They are mostly represented among the

upper castes in northern India esp in Punjab

Demographic Profile of India

S. Parameter Top in Parameter Bottom in Parameter

1. Population

(1027 million)

U.P, Maharasthra, Bihar, W.

Bengal & Andhra Pr.

Delhi (UTs)

Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal

Pradesh & Goa

Lakshadweep (UT)

2. Population Density

(324 per/Sq km)

West Bengal (904), Bihar (880),

Kerala, U.P, Punjab.

Delhi

Arunachal Pr (13), Mizoram,

Sikkim

Andaman & Nicobar.

3. Popln Growth Nagaland (64%), Sikkim Kerala (9.4%)

4. Growth Urban population Arunachal Pradesh

Dadra & Nagar haveli

Kerala

5. Growth rural population Nagaland Tamil Nadu

6. Proportion of Urban Populn Goa (50%) Arunachal Pradesh (5%)

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

7. Average size of Villages Kerala (~15000 people) Arunachal (~200)

8. Sex Ratio (933) Kerala (1058)

Pondicherry

Haryana (861), Punjab &

Sikkim

Daman & Diu

9. Death Rate Orissa Kerala (6 per thousand)

10. Infant Mortality Rate Orissa Kerala

11. Literacy Kerala (91%), Mizoram, Goa,

Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh

Lakshadweep (UT)

Bihar (47%), Jharkhand,

J&K, Arunachal Pr, U.P.

Dadra & Nagar Haveli (UT)

Miscellaneous Facts

A. Physiography:

1. India is the seventh largest country in the world. The north south extent is 3214km & E-W 2933 Km. The

mainland coastline is 6100 km long & including islands it is 7516 km long. Its geographical area is around


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33 lakh sq km (or 328.72 million hectares). The southernmost point (Indira Point) is 6 degree 30 minutes

north latitude.

2. Narcondam & Barren Island are volcanic islands of India. Most of the sandalwood of India comes from

Karnataka.

3. The northernmost Himalayan ranges are called central Himalayas or Himadri. Beyond this range lies the

Tibetan or Tethys Himalayas beyond with lies the Indus Tsangpo suture zone. To the south of the central

or the Inner Himalayas lies the lesser or lower Himalayas or Middle Himalayas & is separated from the

Greater Himalayas by a structural zone called Main Central Thrust. In between the Lower Himalayas

(Middle Himalayas) & the Shivaliks lies the Main Boundary Thrust.

4. The Indus Suture Zone, ISZ (or Indus-Yarlung-Tsangpo Suture Zone) defines the zone of collision

between the Indian Plate and the Ladakh Batholith to the north. Between the Pir Panjal & the Zaskar range

lies the valley of kashmir. Karakoram range, Ladakh range, Zaskar range from north to south. Important

peaks of the Zaskar range are Kamet (highest), Nanda Devi & Gurla Mandhata.

5. The peaks above 8000 m in the himalayas in descending order are Mt Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu,

Dhaulagiri, Mansalu, Cho Oyu, Nanga Parbat, Annapurna. Raman Peak is situated in Arabian Sea

6. The transhimalayas include the Karakoram & the Laddakh range. Karakoram range has its highest in peak

K2 (or Qagir named after Chinese occupation). The highest peak of Kailash range is Mt. Kailash & that of

Ladakh range is Mt. Rakaposhi.

7. The purvanchal (NE Himalayas) are divided into Purvu-NEFA (composed of Mishmi Hills & Patkai

Bum), Naga hills (Saramati is highest peak), Manipur Hills, North Cachar hills, Mizo hills (earlier known

as Lushai hills) & the Tripura hills.

8. The Garo, Khasi, Jaintia & the outlying Mikir & Rengma hills are structurally parts of peninsular plateau

separated from the Indian peninsula by the Malda gap.

9. Bhabhar (in Punjab or Duars in Assam) lies to the north of Terai & is a pebble studded region which

causes many steams to get lost underneath which re-emerge in the Terai belt. Khadar is known as bet in

punjab & Bhangar comprises of Kankars. The northern part of the punjab plains adjoinin the shivaliks

have witnesses intense erosion throgh boulder clanned streams called “Chos”.

10. In the pujab plain the area between rivers is called Doab & the river bluffs are called Dhayas. The thar

desert has numerous features like dhrian (shifting sand dunes), sar (saline playa lakes), rohi (fertile tracts

formed by rivers west of Aravallis) & dhands (alkaline lakes).

11. The east coast (or Coromandel coast) also known as Utkal ghat in orisssa & Payant ghat in Andhra &

Tamil Nadu has two lagoon lakes (Pulicat lake north of Chennai & Chilka lake). The eastern ghats are


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broader whant the western ghats. Western ghat is divided into kathiawar, konkan & Malabar coast. It

consists of Kayals (lagoons & backwaters largest being Vembnad lake). In karnataka the ghats are known

as Kanara plain.

Physiographic divisions of the Peninsular Upland

1. North Central Uplands Aravalli Range, Rajasthan Uplands, Madhya Bharat Pathar

2. South Cental Highlands Malwa plateau, Vindhyan Scarplands, Vindhyan range,

Narmada valley

3. Eastern Plateau Chotanagpur Plateau, Baghelkand plateau, Mahanadi basin,

Dandakaranya, Garhjat Hills

4. Western plateau Maharashtra plateau, Satpura range

5. South Deccan Karnataka plateau, Telangana plateau

6. Meghalaya Mikir Uplands Meghalaya plateau, Mikir Hills

7. Western Ghats

8. Eastern Ghats

12. Madhya Bharat pathar is made of ancient vindhyan sediments through which the Chambal river has

formed badland. To the further east lies Bundelkhand upland.

13. North of Mahanadi lies the Baghelkhand plateau which is drained by tributaries of Son river. The

Chotanagpur plateau composed of granites & gneisses forms Jharkhand & is drained by Damodar. It has

three lava hills of the Dalma, Porahat & Rajmahal. South of Chattisgarh basin (also called Mahanadi

basin) lies a region of rugged topography called Dandakaranya plateau. Garhjat hills are also called Orissa

highlands & have their highest peak in Mehendragiri.

14. The Satpura range has three parts: Rajpipla hills in the western part, Mahadeo hills (highest peak

Dhupgarh near Panchmarhi) in the central part & Maikala range (highest peak Amarkantak) in the eastern

reaches. Dhupgarh is the highest peak in entire Satpuras.

15. The Telangana or Andhra plateau has two parts: the Telangana & Rayalseema upland.

16. The highest peak of Anaimudi is the central point from which the three ranges radiate: Cardamom hills to

the south, the Anamalai to the north & the Palni to the northeast. Thalghat (Kasara to Igatpuri), Bhorghat

(between kalian & lonavala) & Palghat are the gaps in Sahyadris. Western ghats are block mountains

formed by the downwarping of a part of the land into the Arabian sea & are steeper towards west. Cochin

is connected to interior through the Palghat gap.

17. The Eastern Ghats are also known as Mehendragiri in Orissa. The Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu are the meeting

point of the Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats & southern hills. Its highest peak is Dodabeta & it also includes

Ooty hill station. Southwards of Nilgiri & separated from them by the Palghat gap are the Annamalail

Hills.


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18. The islands & passages from north to south are Coco Channel, North, middle & south Andamans, Duncan

passage, little Andamans, Ten degree Channel, Car Nicobar, & Great Nicobar. In Lakshwadeep the

sequence from north to south is Amindivi Island, Nine degree channel & Minicoy.

B. Drainage:

19. Satluj, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, & Indus (Sri Ram called Jubiliant Indra) from south to north. Gomati,

Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi & Mahananda are from west to east. Chambal, Sind, Betwa, ken & Son are in

that order from west to east.

20. Sanskrit names Indus (Sindu), Jhelum (Vitasta), Ravi (Parushini), Beas (Vipasa) & Satluj (Satadru).

21. In Bangladesh Tista joins Brahmaputra on the right bank from where it is known as Jamuna.

22. Subernarekha & Brahmani both arise in the Chhotanagpur plateau & lie to the north of Mahanadi. The

Baitrani is another stream of this system & its source lies in the Keonjhar plateau.

23. Bharatuzha (or Ponnani) is the longest river of Kerala. Periyar is second largest & Pamba falls into the

Vembanad Lake. The penner originates in Karnataka (Kolar) & flows through Andhra Pradesh. The

Vaigai rises in kerala & receives diverted waters of the Periyar & ultimately joins Palk bay.

24. The dendritic pattern is best developed in the Indo Gangetic plains. Narmada flows between vidhyas &

Satupura while Tapti lies to the south of Satpura. “Dhuandhar” falls (or marble falls) near Jabalpur on

Narmada is famous. Pinnate pattern is found in Narmada & Tapti valleys. Naini Tal, Bhim Tal & Khewan

Tal are Lakes of Kumaon. Kolleru lake is located in east Godavari district (A.P.). Loktak lake is in

Manipur. Chitrakote falls is located on river Indravati in Bastar.

25. Cauveri is the least seasonal of all the rivers of the peninsular plateau. Karewas are lacustrine deposits of

Kashmir. The Cardamom hills are part of Annamalai hills.

26. Lonar lake (Crater lake) is situated in Maharashtra. It is the largest crater in basaltic rock. Adams Bridge,

is a narrow ridge of sand, mostly dry, which connects Mannar Island with Pamban Island

C: Climate, Vegetation & Soil

27. Jet Steams are of two types: Westerly jet streams which blow from west to east at a height of 12 km &

easterly jet steams which blow from east to west at 13 km above. The tropical easterly jet exists over India

during summer & disintegrates during winter.

28. Kalbaisakhi in West Bengal, Bordoichilla in Assam & Mango Showers in Peninsula. Tropical Cyclones

occur in India during monsoon period. The average annual rainfall in India is 125 cm & most of it is

orographic in nature.

29. Tropic of Cancer passes through Mizoram, Tripura, W. Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, M.P. Rajasthan

& Gujarat. Gulf of Mannar lies on the east coast of Tamil Nadu.


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30. Other classifications of the climate of India were given by Subramanyam & Sivaramakrishnaiah

(discomfortable to most comfortable), Kendrew & Stamp (18 C isotherm basis), BLC Johnson.

31. Jowar & Ragi are very popular on red soils.

32. Tropical Deciduous is the most widely distributed vegetation in India. Lakshwadeep has zero percent

forest area & Andamans & Nicobar Islands have 87 percent. Mizoram, Arunachal & Nagaland have more

than 80 percent forest cover. J & k has around one percent. Maximum Teak & Sal come from the forests

of M.P & Chhattisgarh.

33. The term social forestry was first used by National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 & involves

planting trees on farms among other things.

34. Kaziranga National Park, Keoladeo National Park, Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve, Sundarbans Biosphere

Reserve are identified as having outstanding universal value.

35. The biosphere reserves of India in order of their establishment from oldest to recent are Nilgiri, Nanda

Devi, Nokrek (Meghalaya), Great Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Manas, Sunderbans, Simlipal

(Orissa), Dibru-Saikhowa (Assam), Dehang-Debang (Arunachal), Pachmarhi, Khangchendzonga,

Agasthyamalai

36. Magnetite occurs at Daltonganj in palamau district (Jharkhand).

37. Net sown area is around 46 % of total land in area. In India net sown area is 142 million hectares & total

cropped area is 187 million hectares. Ludhiana has highest yields of wheat & west Godavari is most

important for rice cultivation in Andhra Pr. Pearl fishing is done at Tuticorin.

38. The contributors to petroleum production are Mumbai (65 %), Gujarat (18 %), Assam (16 %) & Tamil

Nadu (1.37 %). Same trend of states is there in case of gas production with a little different %ages.

39. Petroleum Refining is done at Guwahati, Barauni, Koyali, Haldia, Mathura, Digboi, Panipat, Chennai,

Narimanam, Bongaigaon, Mumbai (HPCL, BPCL), Vishakhapatnam, Kochi, Numaligarh (Assam) &

Tatipaka (ONGC-Andhra Pr). Tertiary coal is better than Gondwana coal.

40. Jharia coalfield (Dhanbad district, Jharkhand) alone accounts for 35 % of Indian production.

41. Only a few non-metallic minerals are significant in the mining economy. Limestone accounts alone for

two-thirds of the total value under the group.

42. Nuclear power plants in India are at Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kalpakkam, Narora (UP), Kaiga (Karnataka) &

Kakarapara (Gujarat). Requirements for these reactors are fulfilled by the Nuclear Fuel complex located at

Hyderabad & Heavy water plant at Vadodara. Eight heavy water plants are operational in India at

Vadodara, Thal, Nangal, Tuticorin, Kota, Talcher, Hazira, Manuguro. A number of research reactors have


63

been built to carry R&D in this field which include Apsara, Cirus, Zerlina, Purnima (I, II, & III), Dhruva

& Kamini.

43. India is fifth in wind energy after Germany, USA, Denmark & Spain. Asia’s largest wind farm is located

at Lamba in Gujarat. Tamil Nadu has highest installation of wind turbines.

44. Geothermal energy – Tattapani field (Chhattisgarh), Puga Valley (J & K), Manikaran Area (H.P.)

45. The farourable sites for ocean energy are Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kachchh & estuary of Hugli. India’s

first tidal power plant is at Kandla. The fist solar energy plant & solar plant both are at Bhuj.

46. Hazira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur pipeline transports liquid gas from the South Bassein offshore field off

Mumbai to Jagdishpur and Aonla, deep in the mainland in Uttar Pradesh.

47. Cropped area in a year under consideration is known as net sown area. The gross cultivated area includes

the net sown area used more than once a year. Cropping intensity is given by total cropped area divided by

net sown area.

48. West Bengal produces three crops of rice every year viz Aus, Aaman & Boro. Arabica coffee is grown at

an altitude of around 750-1500 metres & Robusta around 300-600 metres.

49. The largest producing state for silk is Karnataka (60%), Andhra Pradesh (17%), Assam & Bihar. The

fertilizer consumption is highest for Punjab (185 kg/ha), followed by Tamil Nadu & Andra Pradesh.

Orissa has the lowest consumption.

50. Irrigation in India – Wells & Tubewell (56%), Canal (32%), Tank (6%) , Others (6.5%). Uttar Pradesh

leads in Canal irrigation as well as Tubewell irrigation. Andhra Pradesh leads in Tank Irrigation. Tamil

Nadu has developed highest proportion of its irrigation potential (95%).

51. The fish production in India during 2004-05 was around 6.4 Million Tonnes. Inland fisheries account for

around 50 % of the total fish cash. Kerala leads in marine fish catch.

52. India with 18.5 crore cattle and 10 crore buffaloes ranks first in cattle and buffalo population in the world.

India accounts for 15 % of world’s cattle & 57% of world’s buffalo population.

53. Mulching (ploughing in of crops), retting (fresh water treatment of Jute) & ratooning (using the same root

for crop growth as in sugarcane) are some of the practices of agriculture.

54. Eutrophication is a process where water bodies receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive plant

growth choking weaker species & altering species composition.

55. The scientific name of Teak (Tectona Grandis) & Sal (Shorea Robusta). Sal is used for railway sleepers &

Deodar for pencils

56. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which

provides for the conservation and wise use of wetlands


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57. During the second five year plan, Iron & Steel plants were set up at Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Rourkela

(Orisaa), & Durgapur (W. Bengal) & two aluminium plants were established at Hirakud (INDAL) &

Renukoot (Hinalco). During the fourth plan a steel plant was set up at Bokaro (Jharkhand). The

Vishakhapatnam steel project is the first on-shore steel project built during 6th

plan. The Bhilai & Bokaro

steel plants were built with Russian collaboration & they are the two biggest in that order.

58. M/s Jessops, Kolkata & Bharat Earth Movers Limited, Bangalore also manufacture rail coaches &

electrical multiple units.

59. India imports 40 % of its copper requirement from abroad. Most of the gold in India occurs in the form of

veins in Dharwar schists.

60. Currency paper comed from Hoshangabad in M.P & defense vehicles from Jabalpur. Cochin shipyard is

the largest in India & built with Japanese assistance.

61. The east-west corridor extends from Silcher in Assam to Porbander in Gujarat. Kerala has the highest

density of roads & J&K has the least. Goa has the highest density of surfaced roads. Maharasthra is the

state with highest road length followed by Tamil Nadu, M.P & U.P.

62. Konkan railway runs from Roha in Maharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka (760 Km long). It has Asia’s

longest rail tunnel. Rail route per unit area is highest in Punjab and least for J&K. Rail route per unit

population is highest for Gujarat & lowest for Tripura.

63. Buckingham Canal in Andhra Pradesh & Cumberjua Canal in Goa were once very important. Grand

Anicut canal is in Thanjuvar, Tamil Nadu. India has over two million square km of EEZ. Overall share of

Indian Vessels in overseas trade is 32 % only. Maharashtra (53) has the maximum no of minor ports (184

in all), followed by Gujarat (40).

64. The ports are Kandla, Mumbai, Nhava Sheva, Mormugao, Mangalore, Kochi, Tuticorin, Chennai, Ennore

(newest), Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Haldia, Kolkata. Jawaharlal Nehru port has been developed at Nhava

Sheva off the Mumbai port. Haldia decongests Kolkata & Ennore (25 Km north of Chennai & newest

port) helps Chennai (Artificial shallow port) tackling its cargo. Paradip (Orissa) has the deepest harbour.

65. The New Mangalore port is used to export iron ore from Kudremukh & iron ore from Bailadila

(Chhattisgarh) is exported through Vishakhapatnam port. Marmagao port is situated at the entrance of the

estuary of river Zuari in Goa. Dandakarnya is known for iron-ore deposits.

66. Prasar Bharati was created by merging Door-Darshan & All India radio in 1997. Indian postal system is

the largest in the world with more than 1.5 lakh post offices. Rajdani channel (yellow boxes) for letters

emanating from Delhi for state capitals. Metro Channel (light blue box). QMS was introduced in 1975 &

works on the basis of PIN numbers.


65

67. India’s imports stand at around 36000 crores & exports at 29300 crores. Trade deficit is around 6500

crores. Exports are around 10.7 % of GDP. It is just 0.6 % of world trade. Foreign Debt is around 18% of

GDP. It is 8th

largest debted country in the world.

68. India produces around 90 million tonnes of milk every year (Buffalo 50%, Cow 46%, Goats 4%). M.P has

the largest number of cattle followed by U.P & Bihar & West Bengal.

69. India’s Diesel power stations are located at Naharkatiya (Assam), Barauni (Bihar), Dhuvaran (Gujarat) &

Trombay. The first Fertilizer-manufacturing unit was set up in 1906 at Ranipet near Chennai.

70. General Fertility ratio is the number of live births in a year per thousand of women of normal reproductive

age group. Replacement or reproduction ratio is the number of female babies born per thousand of female

population in the reproductive age group. The infant mortality rate is expressed as the number of deaths of

children below one year per thousand of live births. Maternal mortality rate refers to the number of female

deaths due to maternity causes per ten thousand of live births.

71. Primary, Secondary & Tertiary sex ratio refers to the sex ratio at conception, Birth & Enumeration

respectively. There is no doubt that more males are born than the females in case of all mammals

including humans all over the world.

72. Percentage of Urban population in India is 27.78% & rural 72.22 %. Surat has the distinction of

experiencing the highest growth rate among the 35 metropolitan cities during 1991-2001. Madurai grew

with the slowest pace. Haryana experienced an increase in the population growth rate during the period

1991-2001.

73. Tamil Nadu has the highest urbanization among the top ten populous states.

74. India’s age composition is 0-15 years (36.5%), 15-59 years (56.7%) & above 60 (6.8 %). The dependency

ratio is higher in rural areas than urban.

75. The sex ratio of the country is 933. Rural areas have more favourable sex ratio (946) compared to 901 of

urban areas. Sex ratio registered sharpest decline during 1961-71.

76. In India the workers are: main workers (30.5 %), Marginal workers (8.7%) & non-workers (60.8%).

Proportion of main workers (>183 days employment a year) is lowest in Kerala (26%) & highest in

Arunachal Pradesh (38%).

77. Scheduled caste – highest population in U.P followed by West Bengal. Punjab has the highest proportion

of scheduled caste. There is no scheduled caste population in Nagaland & Andamans. Among UTs highest

SC population is in Delhi. Madhya Pradesh has the highest tribal population followed by Maharashtra &

Orissa. Goa (376 people only) has the least ST population. Punjab, Haryana have no ST population.

Mizoram (95%) & Lakshadweep (93%) have the highest percentage of tribal population.


66

78. The scheduled languages arranged in descending order of the number of speakers is Hindi, Bengali,

Teulgu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya, Assamese, Sindhi, Nepali, Konkani,

Manipuri, Kashmiri & Sanskrit.

79. North Indian languages including Gujrati, Marathi, Oriya, Bengali, & Assamese belong to Aryan group.

Dravidian group includes Tamil, Kannada, Telugu & Malayalam. Austric languages are spoken by tribal

groups of Meghalaya, Jharkhand & Western Satpura. Sino Tibetan languages prevalent in North eastern

states: Tibeto Himalayan (Bhutia, Kinnauri), Arunachal (Aka, Dafla, Miri & Abor) & Naga-Myanmari

(Bodo, Naga & Kuku group).

80. According to 2001 census: Hindu (80.5%), Muslim (13.4%), Christian (2.3%) & Sikh (1.8%). Hindu

population proportion is highest in Himachal, Muslim in J&K, Christians in Kerala, Buddhist & Jain in

Maharashtra

81. Overall literacy of India is 65.38 %. Male literacy is 75.85 % & Female 54.16 %. Lowest literacy levels

are 47.53 % in Bihar to 90.92 % in Kerala. The proportion of children of eligible age group enrolled in

primary schools is lowest in Uttar Pradesh & highest in Sikkim. Literacy is 80 % in Urban areas & 60 %

in rural areas.

82. Environmental Imact I = PAT (population * Affluence * Harmful technology used in production). Poverty

is higher in rural areas.

Urban Population Distribution in Different Cities & Towns

I 100,000 & More 61.48 IV 10,000-19,999 8.08

II 50,000-99,000 12.3 V 5,000-9,999 2.85

III 20,000-49,999 15 VI Less than 5000 .29

83. For whole India, the average distance among villages is 2.52 km. Average density of villages is highest in

West Bengal, Bihar & U.P in that order. The maximum proportion of no of villages fall in the 500-999

category (25%), followed by 200-499 (24.3%) & less than 200 (18%). However the maximum population

percentage is in 2000-5000 (30%) & 1000-2000 (26%).

84. The 35 million cities of India support more around 38 % of the total urban population. Chhattisgarh &

Orissa do not have million cities.

85. The proportion of slums population to total population is highest in Meghalaya (41%) & lowest in Kerala

(1.8%). Among the million plus cities highest proportion of slum population is in Mumbai & least in

Patna. Maharashtra has highest slum population.

86. India grew at a rate of 1.93 % during the period 1991-2001. The population of the country rose by 21.34

% during 1991 - 2001.


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87. Human activities are allowed in Sanctuary but not in National parks. Moreover sanctuaries are species

specific while National parks are habitat oriented.

88. Badrinath is situated on the banks of river Alaknanda.

89. Rabaris are pastoralists in Gujarat. The highest Christian population is in Nagaland. Largest number of

villages is in U.P.

Essential Extra Reference

• List of National highways (page 15.82 Indian Geograhphy –TMH-Surendra Singh)

• Pratyogita Darpan page 287.

• Million cities of India (Geography Notes)

• Cities in India & their industry (E.g Firozabad glass), Cities situated on river banks.

• Refer TMH guide for tables to be pasted

Important Works of Geographers

1. Illiad, Odyssey Homer

2. “Ges-Periodos” – Description of the earth Hecataeus

3. Ekumene Eratosthenes.

4. Geographica Strabo

5. Almagest or Syntaxis (on astronomy)

The outline of geography (consisted of Graticule for place location)

Ptolemy

6. Historia Naturalis Pliny

7. De Chorographica Pomponius Mela

8. A book of routes & realms Ibn Huakal

9. Kitab-al-Ashkal Al Balkhi

10. “Kitab-Miraj-al Dhahab”, “Kitab-al-Tanbhwal Ishraf”, “Kitab-Akhbar-

al-Zaman” & “Kitab-al-Ausat”

Al-Masudi

11. “Kitab-al-Hind”, “Al-Qanum-al-Masudi”, “Tarik-ul-Hind”, “Kitab-al-

Jamakhir”, “Ahal-al-Bagiya”, “Kitab-al-Saydna”, “Rashikat-al-Hind”

Al-Biruni

12. Amusement for Him who desires to travel around the world

Roger’s Book

Al-Idrisi

13. Rihlah Ibn Batuta

14. “Muqaddimah” – Introduction to world history Ibn-Khaldun

15. Panch Siddhantika Varahmihira

16. Siddhant Tatwavivek Kamlakar

17. Introduction to Universal Geography Cluvarius

18. Geography delineated forth in two bookes Nathaneal

Carpenter

19. Histoire naturelle (compendium about earth & living things) Comte de Buffon

20. Geographia Generalis Varenius

21. “Description regni Lapaniate et Siam” Varenius


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22. “Critique of Pure Reason”, “Critique of Judgement” & “Anthropology

from pragmatic point of view”

Immanuel Kant

23. Ankundingung Immanuel Kant

24. General Natural history & theory of Heavens Immanuel Kant

25. “Kosmos” & “Relation Historique” Humboldt

26. ‘Erdkunde’, 6 maps of Europe, Essays on Methodology

Europe: A Geographical, Historical & Statistical Painting

Carl Ritter

27. ‘Anthropogeographie’, ‘Political Geography’ Friedrich Ratzel

28. ‘Das Ausland’ (editor) & ‘Geschichte der Erdkunde’. Oscar Peschel

29. ‘Travel in the Columbian Andes’,

‘Geography: Its history character & methods’ ,

‘A geography of man’ , ‘Transport geography’, ‘Economic Geography’

Alfred Hettner

30. Foundations of Regional Geography Hettner

31. ‘Principles de Geographie Humaine’ Vidal Blache

32. Geographie Humaine: Essai de classification positive Jean Brunhes

33. La Terra Elisee Reclus

34. Les Sciences Geographiques Camille Vallaux

35. Problems de Geographie Humaine Albert Demangeon

36. ‘American history & its geographical conditions’, ‘Influences of

Geographical Environment’.

Ellen C. Semple

37. The pulse of Asia’, ‘Civilization & Climate’, ‘Principles of Human

Geography’.

Huntington.

38. The geography of the central Andes Isaiah Bowman

39. Morphology of the landscape Carl O’ Sauer.

40. Physiography Rollin D. Salisbury

41. Heartland Theory ’,‘ Britain & the British Seas’ & ‘Democratic Ideals

& Reality’

Mackinder

42. The geographical pivot of history Mackinder

43. Americas strategy in world’s politics

Geography of the peace.

Nicholas Spykman

44. Geographic perspective on Urban systems B.J.L. Berry

45. The quantitative revolution & theoretical geography Ian Burton

46. The makers of modern geography R.E. Dickinson

47. ‘Models in human geography’, ‘Locational Analysis in Human

Geography’ & ‘Frontiers of geographical teaching’.

Hagget & Chorley

48. Geography: A modern synthesis Hagget

49. Handbook of commercial geography Chisholm

50. Cities in Evolution Partrick Geddes

51. History of Civilization of England Buckle

52. Geographical introduction to history Lucien Febvre

53. Tableau de la geographie de la France Blache

54. A Handbook of Physical Geography, Guiding principles of General

Political Geography

A. Supan (German)

55. ‘Traite de Geographique Physique’. De Martonne

56. Atlas de France Margarie & De

Martonne

57. “Geography made easy”, “American Universal Geography” Jedidiah Morse


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The American Geography

58. Nature of Geography Hartshorne

59. Perspectives on the nature of geography Hartshorne

60. The decision process in spatial context Julian Wolpert

61. Regional geography of India R.L. Singh

62. The geography of Puranas S. M. Ali

63. The nature of Cities Harris & Ullman

64. Explanations in Geography (b) Social justice & the city David Harvey

65. All possible worlds Preston .E James

66. The structure of scientific revolution Thomas Kuhn

67. The economics of location August Losch

68. Limits to growth Dennis Meadows

69. The city in history Lewis Mumford

70. Spatial Organization of society R. Morill

71. (A) Some aspects of Medical Geography (B) Asia L.D. Stamp

72. The development of social physics John Q. Stewart

73. Intervening Oppurtunities S. Stouffer

74. The isolated state Von Thunen

75. Space & Place in human geography Yi-Fu Tuan

76. The spirit & purpose of geography S. Woolridge

Famous quotations

1. ‘Geography is concerned to provide accurate, orderly & rational

description & interpretation of the variable character of earth suface’.

Hartshorne

2. ‘Man is the product of the earth’s surface’. Ellen Semple

3. ‘Man is a geographical agent & not the least.’ Lucien Febvre

4. ‘There are no necessities but everywhere possibilities’. Lucien Febvre.

5. ‘Mutually coordinated & not subordinated in space’ – on Possibilism Hettner

6. Climatic influences are persistent, often obdurate in their control Semple

7. Routes through which people have migrated have impressed upon their

social characteristics

Demolins.

8. Supreme achievements of civilization were bounded by climate Huntington.

9. Everywhere man contributes in inverting the physiognomy of earth Brunhes

10. Geography is the mirror & reveals essence of human existence & striving Yi Fu Tuan

11. Humanism is a conviction that men & women can best improve their lives

by thinking & acting for themselves & especially by excercising their

capacity for reason.

Ralph

12. We should study the earth as if we were sitting in a balloon & looking

down upon it.

Brunhes

Contributions of Greeks

1. Homer “Father of Geography” in Greek period. Wrote Illiad & Odyssey.

Believed earth to be a circular floor surrounded by oceans on all sides.

Boreas (N), Eurus(E), Notus (S), Zephyrus (W) winds

2. Thales

(624-548 B.C.)

Six Geometric Theorems. Earth disc floating in water. Water essence

of all matter. Reported magnetism of a loadstone.

3. Anaximander Disciple of Thales. Introduction of ‘Gnomon’ – today called sundial.

First to draw a map of the world to scale with Greece at center. Thales


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& Anaximander founded mathematical geography.

4. Democritus Introduced a theory of origin of universe based on atoms in the void.

5. Pythagoras Rotation of earth on its axis.

6. Hecataeus Originated literary tradition in geography. First writer in Greek prose.

Wrote “Ges-Periodos”. Laid the foundation of regional geography.

7. Herodotus Opposed Hecataeus. First great historian. Nile mud causes delta &

winds blow from colder places to warmer places. Regarded Caspian

sea as an inland sea. Considered earth as circular plate in water. First

to draw a meridian on the world map. First to divide the world into

three land masses- Europe, Asia & Libya

8. Plato

(428-348 BC)

Master of deductive reasoning. First to announce the concept of round

earth located in the centre of the universe with celestial bodies

revolving around it.

9. Aristotle

(384-322 BC)

Master of inductive thought. Accepted Plato’s concept of spherical

earth & sought explanation for it (eclipse, pole star). Interested in

mathematical geography

10. Alexander Studied with Aristotle for only 3 years.

11. Theophrastus Special interest was in meteorology.

12. Eratosthenes

(276-194 BC)

Father of Geography & coined the term “Geography”. Calculation of

the circumference of the earth. Wrote Ekumene in which he accepted

two torrid zone, two temperate & two frizid zones. He improved on

Aristotle by giving mathematical boundaries to these zones.

13. Polybius Interested mainly in physical geography.

14. Hipparachus Succeeded Eratosthenes as chief Librarian. First to divide a circle into

360 degrees. Defined grid of latitude & longitude. Pointed equator as

a great circle & longitude too. Wrested with the problem of showing

curved surface area on a flat surface. Designed orthographic &

stereographic projections. Invented Astrolabe to determine latitude

using pole star. Discovered the precision of the equinoxes.

15. Posidonius Refuted the idea that equator region was uninhabitable. Wrote a book

‘the Ocean’ & was considered an authority on oceanography.

Roman Geographers

1. Strabo

(64 BC-20 AD)

Most of the earlier scholar’s works disappeared. Defended Homer’s

work & discarded Herodotus. First correct explanation of Nile’s

flood. 8 books on Europe, 6 books on Asia & one on Africa.

Considered earth as oblong. Interested in political geography. He

divided geography into – physical, mathematical, political &

historical. He was basically a regional geographer.

2. Ptolemy

(90-168 AD)

Mathematical geographer & Astronomer. Earth was a sphere that

remained stationery in the center while the celestial bodies moved

around it (remained accepted till 17th

century-Copernicus). Far

ahead in map projections & map improvements. Considered India

ocean to be enclosed on the south by unknown land (Terra

Incognita). First to draw Bay of Bengal & Volga (Rha) on his map.

Equatorial land was considered uninhabitable.

3. Pomponius Mela Periplus of Scylax-shores of Mediterranean & Periplus of Arrian-


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Black Sea (guidelines to ship captains). Widely quoted in works of

Pliny the elder.

4. Marcus Tarantius

Varro

Compedium of geography that dealt with a theory of culture. Food

form virgin earth-Pastralism-Agriculture-Contemporary culture.

5. Pliny Wrote “Historia Naturalis”

6. Solinus General geographical account of the world.

Contribution of Arabs

1. Ibn Haukal

(943-978 AD)

Traveled extensively in last 30 years. Noted people in considerable

numbers in equatorial regions. “A book of routes & realms”. Said

that the Caspian is not connected to the Northern Sea by channel.

2. Al Balkhi First climatic Atlas of the world. “Kitab-al-Ashkal”

3. Al-Masudi Monsoon description. Described evaporation & condensation.

Kitab-Miraj-al Dhahab, Kitab-al-Tanbhwal Ishraf, Kitab-Akhbar-al-

Zaman & Kitab-al-Ausat. Divided the world into 7 regions based on

languges.

4. Al-Maqdisi Division of world into 14 climatic regions. Noticed that meridians

also affect climate. Southern hemisphere was open ocean

5. Al- Biruni

(973-1039 AD)

“Kitab-al-Hind”- Geography of India in which he described

significance of rounded stone. Tides caused by moons. Towards the

south pole night ceases to exist. Himalayas source of perennial river

6. Ibn Sina or

Avicenna

Knowledge of Landforms – Mountain streams cutting down the

valley in Central Asia. Mountains are raised & immediately

exposed to erosional process. ‘Fossils’- Nature efforts to create life

ending in Failure

7. Al Idrisi at Palermo Extensive correction of erroneous ideas handed down from Ptolemy

Corrects idea of enclosed Indian ocean & Caspian sea as gulf.

Position of Danube, Niger-Correction of several mountain ranges

8. Ibn-Batuta Confirmed Ibn Haukal that equatorial region was habitable. Served

Mongol emperor at Delhi. Visited China, Ceylon, Sumatra,

Maldives. Covered 75000 miles – a world record. Descried the

house types & building materials in deserts.

9. Ibn-Khaldun Emphasized & wrote on man-environment relationship. Repeated

the mistake of uninhabitable equatorial zone.

10.

Contribution of Indian Geographers

1. The first reference to Bhogol in Indian Literature is found in Suryasiddhanta & in the Padma Puranas a

distinction has been made between Bhogol (Geography), Khogol (the space science) & Jyotishastra.

2. The ancient Indian literature has a reference of seven dwipas or continents. The southern dwipa was named

Jambu. The Meru (Pamir knot) lying in the center of the Jambu was heaven. River Sita (Hwang Ho) lies on

the eastern side of Meru. Other dwipas were kusu dwipa (Iran, Arabia), Plaska dwipa (Mediterranean),

Puskara dwipa (Russia-east of Urals), Kraunca dwipa (area above black sea), Saka dwipa (Burma, Thailand,

Vietnam, and Indonesia) & Salmali dwipa.


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3. The spherical shape of the earth was visualized by the Aitareya Brahmana who stated that the sun neither sets

nor rises. Akshansa (latitudes) & Deshantara (longitude) were known.

4. Vasanta (spring), prourit (rainy season), sarad (autumn) & hemanta (severe winter). The chapters of

geography in Puranas have been called Bhuvankosh.

Pre-Modern Period

1. Cluvarius German geographer of 17th

century. Wrote introduction to universal

geography. Emphasized & wrote on regional geog.

2. Varenius or

Bernhard Varen

(1622-1650)

German. Wrote Geographia Generalis. Laid down the foundation of the

dichotomy of “Systematic Vs Regional Geography. Divided general or

systematic geography into Absolute (terrestrial), Relative (Planetary-earth

relationship with other parts) & the Comparative (location, navigation) parts.

Advocated highest temperatures in tropics rather than equator. Believed in

heliocentric concept of Copernicus, Kepler & Galileo.

3. J.R. Forster & J.

G. Forster

Father & son in that order. Accompanied Captain Cook on his voyage. Visited

Volga steppe on invitation of the Russian government. There method of

working has been often named ‘comparative method’.

4. Immanuel Kant

(1724-1804)

German. Professor of Geography at the university of Konigsberg. Gave

philosophical dimension to geography. Gave logical classification (similar

origin) & physical classification (same time). Physical classification gives the

basis for geography & history. Identified physical geography as including not

only natural features but also man. World as perceived by inner senses is soul

& by outer senses is nature.

Laid down the foundation of “Exceptionalism” in Geography i.e. geography

& history are methodologically distinct from other sciences. Said that

generalization in the form of laws is useless in geography & regarded it as as

“Idiographic”. Geography was chorological & history – chronological.

5. Alexander Von

Humboldt

(1769-1859 AD)

“Father of Modern Geography”. Coined the term “Cosmography” & divided it

into Uranography (astronomy), geography (physical feature) & Concept of

whole (visualized earth as inseparable whole).

Affect of altitude, Temperature variation at same latitude with distance from

sun, Map showing isotherms (invention), concept of Continentality, Coined

the term “Permafrost”

Extensive studies of Ecuadorian volcanoes, Concluded that graphite, gneiss

are of volcanic origin, description of vertical zones of Andes, Humboldt or

Peruvian current.

Exact longitude calculation for Lima, established correlation between forest &

rainfall. Lake Valenica in Venezuela was shrinking due to deforestation.

Explored Orinoco & established its connection with Amazon. Explored virgin

lands of Siberia.

In his ‘Relation Historique’ he laid down the foundation of plant geography.

Divided regions of Latin America into botanical provinces. His “Kosmos”

talked about universe & geographical thought since Egyptians.

Believed in empirical, comparative & inductive method.

6. Carl Ritter

(1779-1859 AD)

Was a teleologist. Gave the concept of “Unity in Diversity”. Stressed on land

& water hemispheres, distinction between the rates of cooling of land &


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water. Defined geography as empirical science rather than deductive.

Was a professor at university of Frankfurt & Berlin & founded the “Berlin

Geographical Society”. He rejected the idea of ‘Pure Geography’(Reine

Geography) & said that history & geography must always remain inseparable.

Chiefly concerned with the studies of human geography. Identified each

continent with a different race. He was an armchair geographer.

Wrote “Erdkunde” meaning science of the earth. Asia & Africa covered but

not Europe.

German School of Thought

1. Friedrich Ratzel

(1844-1904 AD)

Worked at university of Munich & Leipzig. Application of Darwin’s

concept to human species called ‘Social Darwinism’. Studied modes of

life of Germans outside Germany. Published two books on N. America.

‘Anthropogeographie’ talked about the effects of different physical

features on the life of people. Coined the term “Anthropogeography”

Protagonist of Determinism. Wrote ‘Political Geography’ where he

compared state to an organism & persuaded Germany to expand. It was

his policy of ‘Lebensraum’ or living space that urged to expand-Organic

theory of State. It earned him the title of ‘founder of political geography’.

He also gave the stages through which human society passes.

2. Oscar Peschel First professor at university of Leipzig after Ritters death. Editor of ‘Das

Ausland’ & wrote ‘Geschichte der Erdkunde’. Contributed very much to

the development of geomorphology through a study of relief types.

3. Ferdinand Von

Richthofen

First to identify “Loess” in China. His studies of China were published in

five volumes.

4. Alfred Hettner Disciple of Ratzel & Richthofen. Revived the concept of geography as

chorology. Published ‘Geography: Its history character & methods’.

Supported Possibilism. Geography as “Landshatskunde” (landscape

science) became popular during his period.

5. Otto Schluter Hettner-Schluter controversy. It was Schluter who applied the term

‘Landshaftskunde’ to describe the concept of geography. He objected to

chorological definition of geography.

6. Albrecht Penck First use of the term ‘geomorphology’. Penck’s ideas inspired Koppen.

Other German geographers were Obst, Waibel, Sapper, Gustav Brown, Andree, Karl Haushofer &

Walther Christaller.

French School of Thought

1. Vidal de la Blache

(1848-1918 AD)

Founder of Human Geography. ‘Pays’ as basic homogenous region to

study as opposed to drainage basins. He developed the idea of ‘Terrestrial

Unity’. Wrote, ‘Principles de Geographie Humaine’. Founded a journal

called, ‘Annals de Geographie’.

2. Jean Brunhes Gave the concept of “Terrestrial Harmonies’ – Man & his environment.

Wrote ‘Geographie Humaine: Essai de classification positive’. He

divided human geography into unproductive occupation of the soil,

Plants & animal conquest & destructive exploitation.

3. Elise Reclus Disciple of Carl Ritter & a determinist. Wrote ‘La Terra’.

4. De Martonne Major work in physical geography. Son in law of Blache. Wrote ‘Traite


74

de Geographique Physique’.

5. Camille Vallaux Wrote ‘Les Sciences Geographiques’.

6. Albert Demangeon Devoted most of the time to editing ‘Annals’. Wrote ‘Problems de

Geographie Humaine”. Interested in rural settlements.

Other geographers were Gallois, Blanchard, Bauling, Jean Gottmann, A. Siegfried, J. Ancel

American School of Thought

1. Jedidiah Morse Father of American Geography.

2. W. Morris Davis

(1850-1934 AD)

One of the founders of the ‘Association of American Geographers’ estd

in 1904. Jefferson, Bowman, Huntington, Semple & Birmingham were

some of his students. Coined the term ‘Ontography’ to denote the organic

half of geography. He added subsequent, obsequent & resequent to

Powell’s 3 types of rivers. Advocate of Darwinism

3. Mark Jefferson Professor at the Michigan State normal college in Ypsilanti for 38 years.

Never accepted the concept of determinism. Concept of ‘central place’,

‘primate city’ & ‘civilizing rails’.

4. Ellen Churchill

Semple

(1863-1932)

Disciple of Ratzel at Leipzig. Her first book was, ‘American history & its

geographical conditions’. Her version of Ratzel’s Anthropogeographie

was, ‘Influences of Geographical Environment’

Worked on Mediterranean region for about 20 years.

5. Ellsworth

Huntington

Published, ‘The pulse of Asia’. Wrote, ‘Civilization & Climate’ in which

he said that man’s civilization could develop only in regions of

stimulating climate. His book, ‘Principles of Human Geography’ was a

college textbook. Determinist in approach.

6. Isaiah Bowman Thesis on ‘The geography of central Andes’. Pioneered boundary studies

– ‘Guatemala-Honduras dispute’. Earlier determinist later possibilist.

7. Albert Parry

Birmingham

Wrote ‘Geographic influences on American history’. He was critical of

people making generalizations about climatic influences on humans.

8. Rollin D. Salisbury Recognized as best teacher in the university. He published his ideas in

‘Physiography’.

9. Carl O Sauer Activist of the possibilistic movement. Protagonist of ‘Chorological

Theme’. Published, ‘The morphology of the landscape’ in which he

explained the concept of ‘Landschaft’. Did not deny ‘determinism’.

British School of Thought

1. Malford Mackinder ‘Heartland Theory ’,‘ Britain & the British Seas’ & ‘Democratic Ideals

& Reality’

2. P. Hagget &

Richard Chorley

They have authored ‘Models in human geography’, ‘Locational Analysis

in Human Geography’ & ‘Frontiers of geographical teaching’.

3. Patrick Geddes Founder of Le Play society. Wrote ‘City in Evolution’. Gave the concept

of ‘urban conurbation.’

4. J. Herbertson Assistant of Geddes at Oxford

5. Chisholm Wrote, ‘Handbook of commercial geography’.

6. Robert Mill Wrote, ‘General Geography’.

Determinists & Possibilists

Determinists Hippocrates, Aristotle, Strabo, Al Masudi, Ibn Haukal, Al-Idrisi,


75

(Ancient period) Ibn-Khaldun,

(Pre-Modern Period) J. Biodim, Motesquieu, Humboldt, Ritter, Haeckel, Buckle, Demolins

Modern Period Ratzel, Semple, Elise Reclus, Darwin, Huntingon, Taylor

Possibilists Lucien Febvre, Durkheim, Blache, Jean Brunhes, Hettner, Mark Jefferson

Carl O’ Sauer, Isaiah Bowman, Barrow, Fleure (genre de vie).

Various Paradigm Shifts & Approaches in Geography

1. Quantitative

Revolution

1950’s-1960’s. Make precise statements about locational order. Use

mathematical language (Cwg). No place for normative questions. Great

emphasis on locational analysis.

2. Radicalism Developed as a reaction to quantitative revolution & positivism. Concerned with

issues of social relevance like racism, poverty, inequality etc. In 1969,

“Antipode”, a journal of radical geography was launched at Clark university.

Marxism provided a firm theoretical base for the radical movement. Fall of

USSR gave radicalism a blow.

3. Behaviorism Cognition is the key. It treats man as a responder to stimuli. It has maintained

strong positive ties with the positivist tradition & is still widely accepted within

the positivist orientation.

Julian Wolpert in ‘Decision process in spatial context’ – landuse in Sweden

Pred devised a behavioral matrix on the basis of information availability & skill

Huff developed the idea of understanding the consumer spatial behaviour.

Haggerstand developed the idea of spatial diffusion of innovation.

Lowenthal tried to study the goal motivations of a person & how he acts.

K.R. Cox was the first to introduce behavioral concept in political geography.

Peter Gould gave the concept of mental maps. W. Tobbler (Geometry of mind).

Conceptual framework was given by downs (See fig)

A conventional model of man-environment relationship was give by boulding.

Sonnenfield proposed 4 levels at which the environment should be studied viz

Geographical, Operational, Perceptual & Behavioural from outside to inside.

Poteus recognized existence of (a) phenomenal environment (physical objects)

(b) the personal environment (perceived images of real environment) (c) the

contextual environment (culture, religion, beliefs).

4. Humanism Developed as dissatisfaction from models of spatial science. The important

proponents were Kirk, Tuan, Sauer, Vidal, Lowenthal, Wright.

Woolridge claimed that historical geography must see countryside through the

eyes of the farmer. Later John Wright introduced the term ‘Geosophy’ as a part

of his contention that geographical knowledge is part of mental stock of all

humans.

Lowenthal tried to study goal motivations of a person & how he acts. Kirk

became popular later. However the term ‘Humanistic geography’ was coined by

Yi Fu Tuan in 1976. Tuan explored 5 themes of general interest to geographers

viz (a) Geographical knowledge (b) Territory & place (c) Crowding & Privacy

(d) Livelihood & Economics (e) Religion.

5. Positivism Also called Empericism. It is anti-idealism. It excludes normative questions. It

has been criticized by realists, Marxists, existentialists, behaviouralists.

Proponents: Auguste comte , BJL Berry, David Harvey, William Bunge.

6. Pragmatism It is an action oriented approach & led to the development of applied

geography. It is modified form of Positivism.


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Proponents: Pierce

7. Functionalism Used by Jean Brunhes. Very popular these days e.g. Mumbai, Tatanagar can be

explained on the basis of the functions they perform

8. Existentialism Emphasizes that man is responsible for making his own nature. It emerges to

challenge & even abandon purely objective, quantitative & deterministic

analysis. It is the study of biography of landscape.

9. Idealism It is in opposition to naturalism & materialism. According to this, it is possible

to reconstruct logical sequence of thought of another person.

Proponent: Leonard Guelke

10. Realism It says reality exists independent of the mind. It is opposite to idealism. Close to

positivism but different methodology. Positivists ask ‘how’ & realists - ‘why’.

Proponent: Gibson, Cook Wilson (Naïve Realism), T.P. Nunn (New/Critical

realism).

11. Probabilism Postulated by Spate. It said that although physical environment does not

determine human actions, it does make some responses more likely than others.

12. Marxism Developed against capitalism. Main concern is social issues.

Proponent: David Harvey.

13. Historicism Chronological description. Ignores spatiality

14. Post

Modernism

Recent movement in humanities, philosophy, arts & social sciences. It

developed in reaction to historicism in modern geographical thought. Its

distinguishing characteristics are: Skepticism towards the grand claims & grand

theory of the modern era & their claim to intellectual superiority.

15. Welfare

Approach

Issue like poverty, regional imbalances, slums etc are its focus

Proponents: David Harvey, D. M. Smith.

Other Geographical Paradigms

1. Areal

Differentiation

Coined by Hartshorne in his Nature of Geography. It is concerned with areal

variation of human & physical phenomena. It helped in the reconstruction of

“regional geography”. It is also known as “Chorology” or “Chorography”.

2. Locational

Analysis

Focuses on spatial arrangement of phenomena. Its purpose is to build accurate

generalizations, models & theories. It is based on positivism.

Proponents: Bunge, Mc Carty, Hagget, Morril, Chorley, Cox, Harvey, Johnston

3. Regional

Synthesis

The whittlesey committee on regional geography which drafted the document

on regional geography published in James & Jones (1954) defined region as

‘Any segment or portion of the earth’s surface which is homogeneous in terms

of such an areal grouping.’

4. System

Analysis

Framework for investigating the structure & function of a system.

Environmental Perception & Behaviour (After Downs)


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Conventional Model of Man-Environment Relationship (Boulding)

Miscellaneous Facts

1. Ritter & Humboldt both died in the year 1859, the same year in which Darwin published his “Origin of

Species”.

2. Greeks are often given credit for their monopoly in speculation. Mathematical geography attracted most of

the Arab geographers. Ibn Batuta described Morocco as having best climate.

3. Busching belonged to the Political Statistical School. Leyer suggested the natural boundaries for regional

studies. The idea of German-centered Europe was given by Nauman. Kjellen was one the most famous

Swedish political geographer.

4. The use of natural geography rather than political boundaries for the description of regional geography is

known as Reine Geography. Bauche initiated this approach, Getterer divided the whole world into natural

Value

System

Decision Behaviour

Real

World

Information Perceptual

Receptors

Perceptual

Filters

Image

Environment

Image Behaviour


78

regions. Hommeyer implemented this approach & Zeune brought more sophistication in it in that he

delimited regions even on the basis of climate, vegetation, etc.

5. Peter Kropotkin & V.V. Dokuchaiev were important geographers of the Russian school of thought.

6. The Cultural or social determinism popular among American geographers. Edward Ullman is a strong

proponent of this theory.

7. Schaefer (1953) in his paper titled, “Exceptionalism in Geography” in which he criticized exceptionalists

& asked geographers to adopt methodology of scientific positivism. Hartshorne met this criticism by

writing, ‘Perspectives on the nature of Geography’ in which he stuck to his chorological concept of

Geography. The result was adoption of nomothetic approach in geography.

8. Areal Differentiation is also known as “Chorology” or “Chorography”.

9. Voluntarism is one of the latest approaches in geography which states that human mode of life depends

upon his interaction with his environment. It considers man as a modifier of nature.

10. The heartland (or Pivot Area) theory was given by Mackinder. Heartland referred to Eastern Europe.

Mackinder considered the eastern & western side of the Atlantic to be complimentary to each other.

11. The Rimland theory was given by Nicholas Spykman. Rimland referred to the rimland of Eurasia. This

theory considered that the key to the supremacy of the world lies in a combination of land power & sea

power.

12. Froebel was a staunch opponent of the Comparative method. He said that no one place or mountain can be

compared with others as they are not alike. He also rejected teleological view.

13. Marco Polo was an Italian. Bartholomew Diaz, was a Portuguese navigator who discovered Cape of good

hope. Columbus was Italian & Vasco de Gama was Portuguese. Balboa (Spanish) crossed the Isthmus of

Panama & became the first European to see the Pacific. James Cook (England) made three Pacific

Voyages: First to Tahiti, second to New Zealand & third to Hawaii. Francis Champlain established

Quebec City as the first French colony in Canada. Magellan & Francis Drake took the journey of the

whole world.

14. The term ‘Compage’ was use by Whittlesey means a total region is distinguished by a community of

feeling among its inhabitants as well as by all features of the physical & biotic environment.

15. L.D. Stamp carried out the land utilization survey in Great Britain. Torsten Haggerstand developed the

stochastic model apart from spatial diffusion of innovation & migration studies (Sweden).

16. Genre de vie means genre of living i.e. same pattern of living. Regional synthesis is associated with B.J.L.

Berry who wrote ‘Approaches to regional analysis: A synthesis’. Teleology is opposite to causal

explanation.


79

17. Topophilia was coined by Yi-Fu Tuan to denote all the effective ties & love of a human being for his

material environment.

18. Edward Ackerman was an American geographer who encouraged his students to take up quantitative

approach wrote, ‘Where is the research frontier’.

Various Types of Maps

1. Chorochromatic Maps in which different colours are used to show distribution

2. Choroschematic Maps where pictures of various phenomena or commodities are used. E.g.

a car depicts automobile production.

3. Isopleth Also called isarithmic maps. Used for representing rainfall, temperature &

pressure data.

4. Choropleth Technique of representing quantitative data by means of varying densities

of shades in single colour. In it administrative area gets primary

importance unlike isopleth where distribution is primary. Used for

population density distribution, cropping intensity etc.

5. Dot Maps Representing absolute numbers on map.

6. Flow Map Flow line used to represent migration, trade, traffic etc.

Map Projections

Accuracy of Size Equal area or orthographic projection

Accuracy of Shape Orthomorphic or true shape projection

Accuracy of Direction Azimuthal or Zenithal projection

Accuracy of Distance/ Scale Equidistant

Accuracy of Area Homolographic

On the basis of nature of developable surface

Zenithal Projections Obtained with the help of a plain developable surface

Conical Projections Obtained with the help of a conical developable surface

Cylindrical Projections Obtained with the help of a cylindrical developable surface

Conventional Projections Obtained without developable surface – mathematically

On the basis of point of tangent

Equatorial Case Developable surface touches the globe at equator

Polar Case Developable surface touches the globe at poles

Oblique Case Developable surface touches the globe anywhere between the poles

& the equator.

On the basis of source of light

Gnomonic When the source of light is at the center of the globe

Stereographic Source of light at the antipode to the point of contact of

developable surface

Orthographic Source of light at infinity

Azimuthal or Zenithal Projections


80

1. Zenithal Gnomonic

Polar case

Plain developable surface acting as tangent at the poles when

source of light. The distance between parallels increases away from

the poles. Equator cannot be shown.

Application: small areas around the poles

2. Stereographic or

Azimuthal orhomorphic

Projection (polar case)

Source light at antipode. Distance between parallels of latitude

increase away from the centre but the increase is less in comparison

to gnomonic projection. Hence exaggeration away from pole is

lesser. Entire hemisphere can be shown.

The scale away from the center increases along both parallels &

meridians but the proportion of increase in case of both is almost

equal & this results in maintaining correct shape (orthomorphic)

Application: Navigational & political maps of high latitudes

3. Zenithal orthographic

Projection (polar case)

Light at infinity. Distance between parallels decrease away from

the pole. Directions from centre are correct as in all azimuthal

projections. Scale along parallels is correct in Zenithal

orthomorphic projection but along the meridians it is distorted.

Both shape & size distorted away from centre.

Application: Distribution Map in high latitude, Astronomical maps

4. Zenithal Equidistant

Projection

Non Perspective projection. Parallels are equispaced. Areas away

from centre are exaggerated

Application: Maps between 50 & 90 degree latitude.

5. Zenithal Equal Area

projection (polar case)

Also known as Lamberts Azimuthal Equal-Area projection.

Distances between parallels decrease away from the equator.

Distance along the parallels increases rapidly moving away from

the centre but the exaggeration is compensated by shortening of

distance along the meridians. The area therefore remains correct.

Application: Distribution maps.

Conical Projections

The circle along which the cone touches the globe is known as the standard parallel. The source of

light is supposed to be at the centre of the globe. In all the pole is represented by an arc of circle.

1. Simple conical with one

standard parallel

The standard parallel is divided to draw the lines of meridian. Scale

is true only along the standard parallel the other parallels being

incorrect along their length. Scale is true along central meridian by

construction & other meridians by being radii of same concentric

curves. Area is true in a narrow zone on both sides of the standard

parallel. Pole is different from centre of parallels.

Application: boundary between USA & Canada.

2. Conical with two

standard parallels or

Lamberts conformal

conical projection

It is not a perspective projection as a cone can touch a globe only

along one standard parallel. Parallels are equispaced. Scale is true

along meridians. Between the standard parallels the distances are

represented shorter than the actual distances & outside greater.

Application: Trans-Siberian railway, area with great east to west

but relatively smaller latitudinal distance

3. Bonne’s Projection or

Conical Equal Area

Projection

In this all parallels are standard parallels as all are true to scale but

for the purpose of construction, one standard parallel is selected

(usually centre). The central meridian is a straight line while others

are smooth curves. The scale is correct only along the central


81

meridian & along others it is exaggerated. The degree of

exaggeration increases from the central meridian. It is an equal area

projection but it is not orthomorphic.

Application: Europe, North America, Australia. Not good for Asia

because of large east west extent. Not used for Africa.

4. Polyconic Projection Assumption of a number of cones, placed over the globe in such a

manner that each one of these cones is tangent at a different parallel

All parallels are drawn as standard parallels & representation is

correct along them. The parallels are arcs of non-concentric circles

& each of the parallels is drawn from a different centre. All

meridians except for central are smooth curves.

Application: Basis of International projection (World Toposheets)

Countries with large north south but small east west extent

5. Conical Equal Area with

one standard parallel

Also called Lamberts conical equal-area projection. It is similar to

simple conical with one standard parallel but the scale along the

meridians in this projection is not correct. The exaggeration of the

scale along the scale along the meridians is made good by

proportional minimization of scale along the meridians. The

parallels are all concentric circles but unequally spaced from each

other. Meridians are all straight lines. Scale is correct along the

standard parallel but exaggerated along the rest.

Application: Distribution Maps in middle latitudes (as Equal

Area). Can be used for a relatively large country like India.

Cylindrical Projections

While both conical & Azimuthal projections can be drawn for a single hemisphere, the cylindrical

projections are drawn for both the hemispheres.

1. Simple Cylindrical or

Cylindrical Equidistant

Non perspective. Meridians are drawn true to scale. All the

meridians are straight lines & their length is equal to half that of

the equator. Both parallels & meridians are equally spaced. The

equator & the meridians are true to scale. Scale along the

parallels is increasingly exaggerated going away from equator

Application: Narrow strip along the equator

2. Cylindrical Equal Area

Projection

Non Perspective. Orthographic projection. Equator is true to

scale but none of the parallels & meridians is true to scale. It is

based on the principle of reduction of scale along the meridians

in proportion to the exaggeration along the parallels. Meridians

are equispaced but the distance between parallels decreases

away from the equator. The scale obviously increases more &

more along the parallels away from equator.

Application: Distribution maps because of equal area.

3. Mercators projection or

cylindrical orthomorphic

projection

Developed by Gerhard Kramer or Mercator. Meridians are

equispaced. The distance between parallels increases towards

the poles. It is based on the principle of exaggerating the scale

along the meridians in the same proportion as it increases along

the parallels. It maintains the accuracy of shape of areas. Poles

lie at infinite distance from the equator & so cannot be shown.

Application: shows European countries larger than their actual


82

size & hence popular among British cartographers. Making

charts of sailing routes by use of great circle & loxodrome.

A loxodrome is a line of constant bearing that intersects all meridians at the same angle. A

loxodrome is also called a rhumb line. Such a line is represented by a straight line on Mercator’s

projection. Therefore the great circles are represented by straight line on mercators projection.

Transverse Mercator projection is also known as Gauss Conformal Projection.

Conventional Projections

1. Sinusoidal or Mercator

Samson-Flamsteed

projection

The projection is an equal area one. It might be considered as a

special case of Bonne’s projection with equator as the standard

parallel. Equator & parallels are shown as straight lines. The

central meridian is a straight line while others are sine curves.

Parallels are equispaced. The scale is true along the equator &

the parallels but in case of other meridians there is an

increasing exaggeration away from the central meridian.

Application: Showing continents extending in the equatorial

regions & also in middle lat. Not suited much for whole world.

2. Mollweide’s Projection or

Babinets Equal surface

projection

Equal area projection. Parallels are straight lines & meridians

are elliptical in shape. Parallels are not equidistant & the

distance between them decreases towards the poles. The

meridians 90 degree E or W of the central meridian form a

circle. The scale is not true along the equator. The maximum

distortion of scale occurs at equator & polar areas.

Application: Distribution map, Whole world represented better

than sinusoidal projection.

3. Gall’s Projection It is a stereographic cylindrical projection quite akin to

Mercators but it is different in that it is not orthomorphic. The

distance between the parallels is reduced to avoid too much

exaggeration of areas towards the poles. The cylinder is

thought to cut the sphere along the 45 degree N & S. Therefore

45 N & S are true to scale. So from these two latitudes, scale

along the parallels decreases towards the equator & increases

towards the poles.

Application: General purpose world maps on single sheet.

4. Globular Projection Meridians are drawn at equal distance along the equator. One

degree of longitude along the equator & one degree of latitude

along the central meridian are the same. It just depicts one

hemisphere i.e. 90 E or W & not complete globe. The area of

the central part is slightly lesser than real & vice versa.


83

Miscellaneous Facts

1. Maps are more accurate than plans. Comparative scale has two scales with different units with their zeros

aligned. Diagonal scale facilitates reading fractional distance.

2. Maps drawn with a scale smaller than 1:1,000,000 are small scale maps & with greater scale large scale

maps. Most of the wall maps & atlas maps are small scale maps. Topographical maps of India are

published by the f, Dehradun at scales like 1:50,000 & 1:25,000. The topographical maps are based on

International Sheets (4 degree lat. x 4 degree long.) that are prepared at a scale 1:1,000,000. Cadastral

maps have a scale around 1:5000.

3. Maps can be enlarged or reduced using grid method, triangle method (for linear feature) or using

Pantograph (works on the principle of parallelogram). The most accurate is photographic method.

4. A thematic map shows the spatial distribution of one or more specific data themes for standard geographic

areas. The map may be qualitative in nature (e.g., predominant farm types) or quantitative (e.g.,

percentage population change).

5. In case of an overhanging cliff contour lines intersect. In case of a waterfall or vertical cliff the contour of

different values might meet. Contours drawn on the basis of estimation are shown in the form of broken

lines called form lines.

6. Hachures are broken lines drawn in the direction of slope & they are less accurate than contours. Higher

the intensity higher the slope & vice versa.

7. Hythergraph is a type of climograph showing mean monthly wet bulb temperature & relative humidity.

Developed by G. Taylor. NE (scorching-low humidity & high temperature), NW (Muggy -temperature &

humidity both high), S.W (Raw-low temperature & high humidity) SE (Keen – humidity & Temperature

both high).

Hythergraph


84

8. Wind rose is a diagram to show the frequency & direction of wind where frequency is proportional to

radii.

9. Block piling refers to piling of cubes to represent desired numbers. Pictographs represent the data by

drawing symbolic pictures (e.g. drawing car for automobile production).

10. If a portion of the ground is cut vertically along a certain straight line, the side view of the cut forms a

profile. When a number of profiles are drawn separately & arranged in a column representing a series

from one end of the map to other, it is known as serial profiles. If all the profiles of a series of profile can

be traced to a single frame it is called superimposed profile. In projected profile, the superimposed profile

is modified in such a way that the portion of each profile which comes below the succeeding one is

omitted (or rubbed off), Projected profiles thus show only those features which are not obstructed by

higher intervening forms. Composite profiles only depict the ruggedness of the skyline. It is constructed to

represent the surface as viewed in the horizontal plane of the summit-levels from an infinite distance.

(Refer p-22 ensemble for diagram).The areas obstructed in a profile are known as dead ground.

11. In triangulation once the base line is determined, its end are used to measure the angle to a distant point

using theodolite. Then using trigonometry the lengths of the two unknown sides can be determined as

length of baseline & angles are known.

12. The bearing is the angular distance of an object from the magnetic north measured in a clockwise

direction. The prismatic compass is used for measuring the bearing.

13. Spherical surface is undevolopable while cylindrical, conical, & a plane surface are developable.

14. Molleweid’s projection is based on the principle that a circle drawn with the minor radius of an ellipse

occupies half the area of the ellipse with the same minor radius & the major radius twice the size of the

minor radius.

Aerial Photography, Remote Sensing & GIS

Muggy

Raw Keen

Scorching

Tem

per

ature

Humidity


85

1. Gaspard Felix Tournachon took the first aerial photograph. Wilbur Wright took the first aerial motion

pictures over Centocelli, Italy.

2. Radar is an example of active remote sensing sensor. Passive remote sensing sensors include photographic

camera, Return Beam Vidicon, Electro-optical scanner, Imaging spectrometer. A photographic film can

record over wavelength range about twice as broad as that of human eye (.3 to .9 microns).

3. The diaphragm determines the size of the opening for exposure & shutter determines the exposure time. In

most of the aerial cameras the distance between their film plane (v) & the lens is precisely equal to the

focal length (f) of the camera as 1/u in the lens formula becomes almost negligible because of large

distance between the lens & the object on the ground.

4. The factors affecting the exposure measurements (extraneous effects) are divided into two types,

geometric & atmospheric. Exposure falloff is an effect due to which a ground scene of spatially uniform

reflectance does not produce spatially uniform exposure in the focal plane. Instead exposure is maximum

at the centre & decreases towards the edges. Vignetting refers to internal shadowing resulting from the

lens mounts & other aperture surfaces within the camera. Relief displacement is directly proportional to

the height of the object & inversely proportional to the flying height above the ground.

5. A fast film requires lesser exposure time but it consists of large film grains which limit spatial resolution.

Radiometric resolution refers to the smallest difference in exposure that can be detected on a given film

analysis. Radiometric resolution is inversely proportional to contrast in an image. Due to this a higher

contrast film is capable of resolving smaller differences in exposure.

6. The term remote sensing originated at the Willow Run laboratories of the University of Michigan, USA.

TIROS (Television infra-red observation satellite) from which the first satellite TV image was taken.

7. Cosmic rays, Gamma rays & X rays cannot be registered with remote sensing methods. Most of the

remote sensing methods work with visible, infra-red & micro-wave region. The non-blocked spectral

regions are called atmospheric windows (.4 – 3.0 micron, 3 – 5 micron, 8 – 14 micron).

8. Most of the earth’s features are neither perfectly specular nor diffuse. The specular reflections do not

contain spectral information, while spectral information is obtained in case of diffuse reflections. Hence in

remote sensing diffuse reflectance properties are more important.

Specular Diffuse or Lambertian


86

9. The reference data is called ground truth. GPS system consists of 24 satellites each of which revisit the

same track & configuration at an interval of approximately 24 hours. Master control facility is located in

Colorado Springs, Colorado.

10. Spectral reflectance is a measure of the portion of the incident energy that is reflected. A graph of spectral

reflectance of an object as a function of the wavelength is known as spectral reflectance curve.

Spectral Reflectance Curve

11. Aerial photographs give 3D view. Photogrammetry refers to the art & science of obtaining reliable

measurements from photographs. Aerial photographs are of following types: Vertical (less than +3 degree

tilt), Oblique (> +3 tilt – in low oblique horizon does not appear & vice versa), Convergent (low oblique

photograph taken from two cameras such that they form stereopair), Trimetragon (3 cameras – one

vertical & other two at 60 degree from vertical).

12. The point of intersection of the optical axis of the camera with the photo plane & the ground plane are

photo principal point (p) & ground principal point (P) respectively. Point vertically below the perspective

centre (camera lens) on the ground is called the ground nadir point or plumb point (N). The point of

intersection of the bisector of the angle between the camera axis & the vertical with the photoplane is

called as the photo isocentre (i). In case of vertical photograph all these points coincide.

13. Fiducial or collimating marks are located at the corner or in the middle of the edges of a photograph so

that by joining them one can’t locate the principal point. The scale of a photograph is given by the

relationship f/H (f is focal length & H is flying height). Aerial photographs are small scale (< 1: 50,000),

medium scale (1:50,000 to 1:12,0000 & large scale (> 1:12,000).


87

14. Parallax is the apparent change in the positions of stationary objects solely due to change in the point of

observation.

15. Indian Air Force, Air Survey Co of India Ltd., Kolkata, NRSA, Hyderabad are the only authorized

organizations to carry out aerial photography. Normally vertical aerial photography is carried out with 60-

80 % forward overlap & 25-40 % lateral overlap.

16. The first GIS was built by Canada. Most GISs use either a raster (grid cell) or vector (polygon) format to

represent location. A coarse cell size needs less data storage space but is less accurate & vice versa. The

raster data provides a greater computational efficiency particularly in overlay analysis. But the spatial

resolution is limited to the size of the cells comprising the raster. Most commercial programs allow

introversion. Vector data formats have relatively small data volumes. Most of the digital remote sensing

data is collected in raster format.

17. A geostationary satellite remains stationary with respect to earth (36000 km altitude). A sun synchronous

or polar orbit is such that the satellite passes over the same ground track at the same local time each day.

A near polar retrograde orbit with altitude between 300 & 1000 km satisfies this condition. The advantage

is global coverage but disadvantage is missing of diurnal effects. Most of the remote sensing satellites are

sun synchronous.

18. The first Indian satellite Aryabhatta was launched in 1975. Bhaskara I & Bhaskara II in 1979 & 1981

respectively. APPLE was also launched in 1981.

Indian Remote Sensing Satellites

S Year Satellite Launched Sensor

1. 1988 IRS-1A launched. LISS-linear imaging self scanning device. LISS I & LISS II

2. 1991 IRS-1B launched. Carried into space by SLV-3 an Indian

rocket

LISS I & LISS II

3. 1995 IRS-1C. WiFS – wide field sensor. LISS III, PAN,

WiFS

4. 1997 IRS-1D using Indian rocket PSLV-C1. LISS III, PAN,

WiFS

5. 1999 Oceansat (IRS-P4). Carries Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) &

a multi-frequency scanning microwave radiometer (MSMR)

used to measure chlorophyll concentration, turbid water.

OCM

MSMR

6. 2003 Resourcesat-1 LISS IV, AWiFS

7. 2005 Cartosat-1 (IRS-P5). It has stereo-imagery which can be used

for digital terrain model (DEM) & digital elevation model.

PAN-F, PAN-A

19. NRSA is the only agency which acquires & archives data for sale & distribution. Management of Indian

resources is under National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS).

20. APPLE was India’s first geostationary satellite used for conducting communication experiments.


88

21. LANDSAT-1 was launched in 1972. LANDSAT series have orbits between 705 km & 920 km. The

sensors used are MSS (multispectral scanner), RBV (return beam vidicon), and ETM (Enhanced thematic

mapper).

22. SPOT (France) has HRV (high resolution visible) & VMI (vegetation monitoring instrument) sensor

23. ERS (European remote sensing satellite), JERS (Japanese earth observation satellite), Radarsat (Canadian

remote sensing satellite) are other programmes.

24. Multispectral imaging means simultaneous imaging using more than one wavelength. Light waves are

scattered by particles in the atmosphere whose sizes are similar to the wavelength of light.

25. Theodolite uses a vernier scale for measurement. Geodetic surveys measure large regions of the earth’s

surface & therefore take into consideration the curvature of the earth. They are used for establishing lines

of latitude & longitude.

26. Ergograph shows temperature, humidity, rainfall, acreage of crops & their growing season.

27. Contrast ratio is the ratio between the brightest & the darkest parts of the image.

28. Digital image processing consists of image restoration (removal of data errors, noise etc), image

enhancement (alter the visual impact) & information extraction

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Region Wavelength in centimeters Frequency in Hz

Gamma Rays < 10-9

> 3 x 1019

X-Rays 10-7

- 10-9

3 x 1017

- 3 x 1019

Ultraviolet 4 x 10-5

- 10-7

7.5 x 1014

- 3 x 1017

Visible 7 x 10-5

- 4 x 10-5

4.3 x 1014

- 7.5 x 1014

Infrared 0.01 - 7 x 10-5

3 x 1012

- 4.3 x 1014

Microwave 10 - 0.01 3 x 109 - 3 x 10

12

Radio > 10 < 3 x 109


89

Miscellaneous Geographical Features

1. Cape York Peninsula Northern Australia to the east of Gulf of Carpentra. Weipa (Bauxite)

also lies in the same peninsula on the Carpen

2. Kanto/Kwanto Plain The largest area of flat land in Japan comprising Tokyo & other cities.

3. Ungava Peninsula Canada – East of Hudson Bay & south of Baffin Island.

4. Odessa Leading port of Ukraine in North Black Sea

5. Far East Japan, Korea, China & Taiwan

6. Indo-China India, China, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam &

Laos

7. South East Asia Myanmar, Malaysia, Thialand, Singapore, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos,

Indonesia, Philipinnes.

8. Middle East South west Asia & North Eastern Egypt.

9. Deepest Lake Lake Baikal

10. Largest manmade lake Lake Volga

11. Irrawady river Flows into bay of Bengal

12. Mekong river Drains into South China Sea

13. Red River Gulf of Tonkin

14. Salween River Gulf of Martaban.

15. Macao Administrative region of China, on China’s southeastern coast

16. Isle of Man (U.K.) Midway between the coasts of Northern Ireland and England

17. Harbin Capital of Heilongjiang province

18. Bandung Java (Indonesia).

19. Sapporo Hokkaido

20. Kra Isthmus Narrowest point on the Malay Peninsula, in Thailand

21. Larut Plain Malaysia

22. Bangka Island lying east of Sumatra, Indonesia. Famous for Tin mining &

separated from Sumatra by Bangka strait.

Population by Continents (in millions)

1. Asia 3879

2. Africa 877

3. Europe 727

4. North America 501

5. South America 379

6. Australia 32

World Population Milestones

1. .5 billion 1650

2. 1 billion 1820

3. 2 billion 1927

4. 3 billion 1960

5. 4 billion 1974

6. 5 billion 1987

7. 6 billion 1999


90

Tribes

1. Yorubas Nigeria

2. Tauregs Sahara

3. Karen Myanmar

4. Hmong Known in China as Miao and in Southeast Asia as Meo.

5. Arawaks Native people of the Greater Antilles.

Famous Mining Regions

1. Lumbabshi Copper Zaire

2. Wankee Coal Zimbabwe

3. Kasia Diamond Zaire

4. Rustenberg Platinum S.Africa

5. Mt. Tom Price Iron Ore Australia (Hamersley Ranges)

6. Ipswich Coal & Lignite Australia (Near Brisbane)

7. Hubei Coal China

8. Kansu (or Gansu) Bauxite China

9. Daqing Crude Oil China (Heilongjiang province)

10. Dakang Crude Oil China

11. Chauk Crude Oil Burma

Famous Dams/Falls

1. Aswan Dam Nile Egypt

2. Kariba Dam Zambezi Zambia & Zimbabwe

3. Kainji Dam Niger Nigeria

4. Boyoma Dam Zaire Congo

5. Aksombo Dam (Volta Dam) Volta Ghana

6. Victoria Falls Zambezi Zambia & Zimbabwe

7. Owen Falls Lake Alberta (White Nile) Uganda

8. Stanley Falls Zaire Congo

Important Industrial Centres

1. Muroran Iron & Steel Hokaido, Japan

2. Birmingham Iron & Steel U.K.

3. Houston Oil Refinery USA

4. Windsor Automobile Canada (on Detroit river)

5. Westphalia Iron & Steel Germany

6. Shenyang Iron & Steel China (Pittsburg of China)

7. Kyoto Handicrafts & Toys Japan

8. Milan Textile Italy

9. Turin Automobile Italy

10. Leipzig Optical Insruments Germany

11. Sarnia Oil Refinery Canada (East of Michigan)

12. Akron Synthetic Rubber South of Lake Erie (Ohio)

13. Chelyabinsk Iron & Steel North of Magnitogorsk


91

14. Nagoya Ship Building Japan

15. Multan Pottery Pakistan (E of Ganganagar)

Important Lakes

1. Lake Tana Ethiopia. Source of Blue Nile. Not formed by rift valley

2. Lake Alberta Border of Uganda, DRC

3. Lake Assal Sudan Ethiopia border. Lowest point of Africa

4. Lake Biwa Japan’s Largest lake near Nagoya

5. Lake Zaysan Kazhakstan

6. Lake Tonle Sab Cambodia

7. Lake Toba Sumatra (Crater)

Mountain Chains

1. Pindhos Mountains Greece

2. Dinaric Alps Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia Herz., Serbia & Montenegro

3. Carpathians Slovakia & Romania

4. Balkan Mountains North of Rhodopi Mountains in Bulgaria

5. Rhodopi Mountains Bulgaria

6. Matopo Hills South western Zimbabwe

Islands & the Controlling Nation

Denmark Bornholm, Faeroe Islands, Greenland

Estonia Hiiuma, Saarema

Finland Aland Islands

France Corsica, Martinique, Reunion, Kerguelen (North of Antactica)

Germany Helgoland

Greece Crete,

Italy Sardinia, Sicily

Norway Svalbard

Portugal Azores, Madeira

Spain Balearic Islands, Canary islands

Sweden Gotland

United Kingdom Isle of Man, Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands, Western Isles, South

Sandwich , Falkland Island, Ascension Island, Bermuda.

Rivers & Countries

Nelson Issuing from NE of Lake Winnipeg & flowing to Hudson Bay.

Kolyma N-E Siberia

Olenek Nothern Siberian region

Don Fourth largest in Europe. Rises near Tula & flows to Sea of Azov

Pechora Rises in Urals & flows into Arctic

Liao Liaoning province of China

Fraser British Columbia (Canada).

Loire The longest river in France

Daugava Rises in Russia, Belarus, Latvia & then into Gulf of Riga

Tagus Spain

Neman River Belarus & flows into Baltic Sea


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Ebro Spain

Garonne Spain

James River Virginia, United States

Waikato New Zealands longest river

Merrimack N. E. United States.

Some Important Straits & Gulfs

1. Bass Strait Australia & Tasmania

2. Torres Strait Australia & New Guinea

3. Cook Strait North Island & South Island in New Zealand

4. Dardanelles Strait Aegean Sea & Sea of Marmara

5. Davis Strait North Atlantic Ocean and Baffin Bay, NE Canada

6. Juan de Fuca Strait Washington and southern Vancouver, Canada

7. Kerch Strait Sea of Azov & Black Sea

8. Mackinac Strait Lake Michigan & Lake Huron

9. Magellan Strait South American mainland & island of Tierra del Fuego

10. Makassar Strait Borneo & Sulawesi.

11. Messina Strait Italy & Sicily

12. Sunda Strait Java & Sumatra

13. Bonifacio Strait Corsica Island (France) & Italian island of Sardinia (south).

14. Dover strait England & France. Connecting English Channel & North Sea.

15. Soya Strait Sakhalin to the North & Hokkaido to the south.

16. Tsushima Strait Korea & Kyushu

17. Tsugaru Strait Hokkaido & Honshu

18. Kii Strait Honshu & Shikoku

19. Strait of Otranto Connecting the Adriatic with the Ionian Sea. Italy & Greece.

20. Strait of Hormuz Persian Gulf & Gulf of Oman

21. Strait of Tiran Gulf of Aqaba to the Red Sea.

22. Tsugaru Strait Between Hokkaido & Honshu.

23. Johor Strait Singapore & Malay Peninsula

24. Gulf of Carpentera Cape York Peninsula & Arnhem Land

25. Gulf of Bothnia Arm of Baltic Sea between Finland & Sweden.

26. Gulf of Lion Arm of Mediterranean Sea in Southern France

27. Gulf of Martaban South of Myanmar. Salween flows into it.

28. Gulf of Sidra North of Libya. Inlet of Mediterranean.

29. Gulf of Tonkin South of China & East of Vietnam

30. Gulf of Mannar India & Srilanka. Tambraparni from India & Aruvi Aru from

Srilanka flows into it.

31. Spencer Gulf East of Adeilade.

32. Gulf of Bo Hai West of Korea.

Imaginary Lines & the countries through which they pass

Tropic of Cancer Hawaii, Mexico, Bahamas, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Mali, Algeria,

Niger, Libya, Chad (northern most point), Egypt, Saudi Arabia, UAE,

Oman, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Taiwan

Equator Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome & Principe, Gabon, Congo, DR of

Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia, and Kiribati.


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Tropic of Capricorn Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, French Polynesia, Australia,

Madagascar, Mozambique, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia

Rivers of Africa


Aurgangabad Sambhaji Nagar

Dutch East Indies Indonesia

East Timor Loro Sae

Quilon Kollam

Saigon Ho Chi Minh City

Sandwich Islands Hawaii Islands

Tanjore Thanjavur

Greenland Kalaallit Nanaat


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Sorbiquets

1. Britain of the South New Zealand

2. City of Eternal Springs Quito

3. Great White way Broadway, New York

4. Island of Fire Iceland

5. Land of Marble Italy

6. Land of Morning Calm Korea

7. Land of Perpetual Greenery Natal

8. Never Never Land Prairies of North America

9. Pearl of the Orient Hong Kong

10. Power Keg of Europe Balkans

11. Quaker City Philadelphia, USA

12. Queen of the Adriatic Venice

13. Queen of the Arabian Sea Kochi

14. Venice of the East Alappuzha, India

15. Venice of the North Stockholm

16. White City Belgrade, Yugoslavia

17. White Man’s Grave Guinea Coast

18. World’s Loneliest Island Tristan da Cunha

19. Spice Garden of India Kerala

20. The Sea of Mountains British Columbia

21. The Spice Island of the West Grenada

22. George Cross Island Malta

23. Pillars of Hercules Gibraltar

24. Garden Province of South Africa Natal

Miscellaneous Facts:

1. Congo River is also known as River Zaire.

2. Altai Mountains extend from the headwaters of the Ob’ and Irtysh rivers in southern Siberia in Russia,

into Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China and into Mongolia. The mountain range extending

from northern California to British Columbia is called Cascades. Mt. Rainier near Seattle is its highest

point. The loftiest mountain range in USA is Sierra Nevada. The Cambrian mountains are located in

Wales.

3. Giants Causeway is located on the coast of northern Ireland. It is thought by geologists to have formed

when an ancient lava flow cooled and solidified.

4. The major peninsulas of Russia starting from west to east are Kola peninsula, Kanin peninsula, Yamal

peninsula, Gyda peninsula & Taymyr peninsula.


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5. Buryat Republic lies north of central Monglia. It is the homeland of buryats.

6. The deserts of Western Australia from North to South are Tanami Desert, Great Sandy desert, Gibson

desert & Great Victoria desert. Simpson desert lies in the central region north of L. Eyre.

7. San Diego city lies in the extreme southwest corner of California just above Mexico. Las Vegas lies in

Nevada state & near Mojave Desert. Wellington, Capital of New Zealand comes under West European

type of climate. In New Zealand the southern island is more developed compared to the northern. In china

type of climate precipitation is around 100 cm & well distributed throughout the year. Marine west

European climate experiences rainier winters than summers.

8. The climate of steppes can be summarized by hot summers and cold winters, averaging 30 cm of rain

every year. The world's largest zone of steppes is found in central Russia and neighbouring republics of

Central Asia

9. Langley is a unit equal to one gram calorie per square centimeter of irradiated surface, used to measure

solar radiation

10. Baotou is in inner Mongolia, China & is known for iron & steel complex. Caracas, Capital of Venezuela

comes under monsoon type of climate. Sao Paulo has China type of Climate. Adelaide has Mediterranean

type of climate.

11. Khyber pass in Pakistan is located in the Hindu Kush range. It links Peshawar in Pakistan with Jalalabad

in Afghanistan, where it connects to a route leading to the Afghan capital of Kabul. The route of the Bolan

Pass links Quetta in Baluchistan Province with Kandahar in Afghanistan. Peshawar, Islamabad,

Rawalpindi, Sialkot, Gujranwala & Lahore are from north to south in N. Pakistan.

12. Peurto Rico Trench is the deepest in Atlantic.

13. Liechtenstein, independent principality in central Europe; bounded on the east by Austria, and on the

south, west, and north by Switzerland. Malta is an independent republic, south of Sicily. San Marino,

republic in southern Europe, an enclave in northern Italy

14. Irtish River is the 9th

longest in the world & has its source in Altai Mountains Russia.

15. Montego Bay is in Jamaica where the Sea Law Treaty was signed.

16. Rio de la Plata is the estuary formed from the combination of Uruguay River & the Parana River.

17. Andesite line marks the boundary between continental shelf & continental slope. Indian Ocean was

known to the Greeks as Erythraean sea.

18. Zambia is an important producer of Copper & Zimbabwe is known for gold. Qeshm is the only island of

Iran & lies in the strait of Hormuz. It is the biggest island in the Persian Gulf.


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19. A person born in Puerto Rico is a US citizen. Atlantic Ocean is the roughest of all oceans. Its coastline is

larger than those of Pacific & Indian Ocean put together. It receives more fresh water than any other

ocean.

20. Prague is situated on the bank of river Vltava. Madrid (Manzarenes), Dublin (Liffey) & Rotterdam (Rhine,

Maas & Scheldt).

21. Tuaregs are the tribal people of the Sahara. They speak a Berber language called Tamarshak.

22. California (Sunkist), Spain (Seviue), Tangier (Tangerine), China & Japan (Mandarin) are the various

varieties of oranges.

23. Pustaz are temperate grasslands of Hungary. The cattle kept by the Masai are the ‘zebu’ cattle.

24. Big Inch (Gulf of Mexico to NE US), Tap Line (Gulf & Arabian Peninsula to Mediterranean) &

COMECOM (Urals & Volga to East Europe) are some of the important pipelines.

25. Birmingham is the second largest city in Britain. Aztecs & Mayas were flourished both in Mexico &

surrounding regions. Incas were in Peru & the Andes. Polygon of Drought in Brazil is the NE region.

26. Oil is found in Venezuela (Lake Marcaibo), Iraq (kirkuk, Mosul, Basra), S. Arabia (Ghawar, Dharan,

Abaqaiq), Chechnya (Grozny), Russia (Sakhalin), Nigeria (Port Harcourt). Yadavaran is the largest is

Iran’s largest on shore oilfield.

27. Mt. Logan is the highest peak of Canada. Mt. Toubkal is the highest peak of Atlas mountains.

28. Antwerp is the chief port and second largest city of Belgium. Kaohsiung (Southern Taiwan) is among the

top five busiest sea ports of the world.

29. Mexico is the leading producer of silver, sulphur & fluorite. Denver is the capital of Colorado. Hudson

Bay is the world’s largest inland sea.

30. Brazil shares its boundary with all except Chile & Ecuador. The highest active volcano in the world Mt.

Ojas del Salado (Argentina Chile is in the Andes).

31. Trans Andean Railways connect Buenos Aires & Valpariso. European transcontinental railway runs from

Paris to Warsaw. Orient express runs from Paris to Istanbul. The Canadian Pacific railway runs from Saint

John in New Brunswick to Vancouver on the pacific coast. Canadian National Railway runs from

Vancouver to Halifax

32. Blue Nile originates from Lake Tana in Ethiopian Island & White Nile From Lake Victoria. White Nile &

Blue Nile meet at Khartoum, the capital of Sudan.

33. Port Said (Mediterranean) is towards North & Port Suez towards south (Red Sea).

34. The northwest countries of Morocco, Algeria & Tunisia are together called the ‘Maghreb’ which in Arabic

means west. Oil Palm is an important agricultural product of Nigeria.


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35. Botswana is the worlds largest producer of gem quality diamonds (jewellery diamonds).

36. Liberia is the largest producer of coffee & rubber in Africa.

37. Scandinavia applies to Norway, Sweden, Denmark & sometimes Iceland. Baltic states include Estonia,

Latvia & Lithuania. Mont Blanc is situated on the French-Italian border.

38. Bavaria is the largest state of Germany & Munich is its capital. Kalinangrad is a part of Russia but

separated from it by Lithuania.

39. The Baltic is connected with the North Sea by the Nord-Ostsee-Kanal (the Kiel or Kaiser Wilhelm Canal).

Murmansk is the only ice free port along the arctic ocean route to Vladivostok.

40. Two important varieties of Eucalyptus in Australia are Jarrah & Karri.

41. New Zeland generates 7 % of its energy from geysers. The highest peak of the country is Mt. Cook.

42. Amu Darya forms a part of the border between Afghanistan & Turkmenistan. The enormous desert that

covers Turkmenistan is Karakum.

43. The Euphrates originates in Turkey & flows past Syria & Iraq before meeting the Tigris. The joint waters

of Tigris & Euphrates are called Shat-al-Arab. The Tigris also originates from Turkey.

44. Hokkaido is connected to Honshu across Tsugaru strait by an under sea tunnel. Kurile Islands lie to the

NE of Hokkaido & separate the sea of Okhotsk from the Pacific.

45. The top 5 countries in terms of Hydro power potential are China, Brazil, CIS, Canada & India. While the

top 5 in installed capacity are USA, Canada, China, Brazil & Norway.

46. Chimborazo is the highest extinct volcano & lies in Ecuador.

47. Botswana has the highest prevalence rate of AIDs while South Africa has highest absolute number of

AIDS patients followed by India.

48. The great channel separates the Andaman & Nicobar Island from Sumatra.

49. Hammerfest, town in Northern Norway is the northernmost town of Europe. Stromboli is known as “the

light house of the Mediterranean”. Le Havre is a city in Normandy, northern France, on the English

Channel, at the mouth of the Seine.

50. Granite rock is metamorphosed into schist rock.

51. Grand Coulee dam (USA) is on Columbia river & Cobora Basa Dam (Mozambique) is on Oragnbe river.

Hoover Dam (USA) is on Colorado river.

52. Mixed farming refers to sowing two or more crops in mixture in the same field. Multiple cropping means

the planting of two or more different crops on the same acreage for harvest within the same crop year.

53. Liverpool, city in northwestern England, on the Mersey River, near its mouth on the Irish Sea.


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54. The following features are arranged in increasing geological age East African rift, Gulf of Aden, Atlantic

Sea & Mediterranean sea.

55. The Pantanal is the world’s largest freshwater wetland in Brazil. Pripet marshes are large wetlands along

Pripet river in Belarus. The Great Okefenokee Swamp is the largest swamp found in all of North America.

56. The Bie Plateau occupies most of central Angola & the Okavango river rises here. Huila plateau lies to its

south.

57. The top 5 wind power generating countries are Germany, Spain, USA, India & Denmark.

58. A geyser erupts intermittently. Hot springs are more common than geysers & the former are not explosive

in general.

59. Tibet is enclosed between Kunlun to the North & Himalayas to the south. Takla Makan desert, Tarim

basin & Turfan basin all lie between Tien Shan range to the north & Kunlun to the south.

60. Strato Cones (Cotopaxi), Dormant Volcano (Vesuvius), Shield Volcano (Mt. Kilavea, Mt. Etna),

Composite cone. Examples of composite volcanoes include Mount Fuji (Japan), Mount St Helens (USA)

and Mount Pinatubo (Philippines).

61. Cayman Trench, also called Bartlett Deep is a spreading ridge on the floor of the western Caribbean Sea

between Jamaica and the Cayman Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.

62. The Russian cities from NW to SE are St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod (Gorky near Kazan),

Magnitogorsk. Later from west to east Omsk, Novosibirsk, Novokuznetsk, Irkutsk, & Vladivostok.

63. Rostov (Gateway to Caucasus), St. Petersburg (largest port of Russia), Ivanovo (Machester of Russia) &

Nizhny Novgorod (Detroit of Russia).

64. Mt. Rainier, Mt. Hood, Mt. Shasta are from North to South in NW USA. Polland is the world most

polluted country.

65. The Cocos plate lies to the west of Panama in the Pacific north of Nazca plate. Caribbean plate lies east of

Panama in the Carribean region. Scotia plate lies to the south of South America.

66. Dead Sea, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Nyasa are all rift valley lakes but Lake Victoria is not. Mangala dam is

in Pakistan over river Jhelum. Tarelad Dam, the earth’s larges earthern dam is in Pakistan. Columbia

plateau is volcanic in origin. Ozark plateau is domed. Tibetan plateau is intermontane. The Finger Lakes

are glacially formed lakes in upstate New York. Cayuga is the longest of the finger lakes.

67. Azores, Bermuda, Canary Island & Cape Verde Island is the sequence from North to South.

68. White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian sea lie in that order from west to east.

69. In Bangladesh when Tista joins Brahmaputra it is known as Jamuna. When later Ganga joins the

combined river is called Padma first & Meghna further downstream.


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70. The mountain peaks in the Himalayas of Nepal going from west to east is Mt Api (W. Nepal), Mt

Dhaulagiri, Mt Annapurna, Mt Manaslu (Central Nepal) & Mt Gaurishankar, Mt Everest, Mt Makalu &

Mt Kanchenjunga (E. Nepal). Mt Pidurutalagala, the highest point in Sri Lanka.

71. Albania, Macedonia & Bulgaria lie to the North of Greece. Biskra depression is in Algeria.

72. Fremantle Doctor is a cooling afternoon sea breeze which occurs during summer months in coastal areas

of Western Australia. The Guba wind occurs along the Papua coast (South of Papua New Guinea).

73. Forests cover 64 percent of Japan’s land area & it is one of the world’s largest importers of wood. The

most densely populated province of Canada is Prince Edward Island. Klamath mountains are in California.

74. The lakes in Canada from North to south are Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Wollaston, Reindeer &

Winnipeg. The cities of Canada along the St. Lawrence from North to South are Montreal, Ottawa,

Toronto, Hamilton & Windsor. Sudbury lies to the north of Lake Huron.

75. Halifax (Nova Scotia), St. John (New Foundland) & Saint John (New Brunswick) are in Canada. The

centre for steel industry in Canada is Hamilton. The city of Toronto is the largest in Canada followed by

Montreal & Vancouver.

76. Basque people live along the Pyrenees in Spain. The Gap between the Pyrenees & the Central Massif is

called the Belfort gap. The physical feature of France from North to south are Ardennes, Vosges, Jura &

the Alps. Bohemian Forest is a highland region, rising mainly along the border between the Czech

Republic and Germany, and also in Austria.

77. The southernmost of Japanese islands is Ryuku which lies to the south of Kyushu & North of Taiwan.

Nagoya is the Detroit of Japan. Kitakyushu (Northern tip of Kyushu) is a conurbation of five cities. The

most populous province of China is Sichuan.

78. Fushun, Shenyang (Formerly Mukden – Main industrial cluster of Manchuria) & Anshan are in that order

from North to South all in Liaoning province. Lop Nor is famous for nuclear activity. Qaidam basin is to

the north of Tibet plateau & to the south of Kunlun Mountains.

79. The Sea of Galilee is Israel's largest freshwater lake & lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-

lowest lake in the world after the Dead Sea. It is to the north of Dead Sea.

80. Ahaggar Mountains, also Hoggar Mountains, plateau region, southern Algeria, in the center of the Sahara.

The major basin of Africa is El Djouf, now occupied by the Niger River Basin in West Africa. Karoo is a

semidesert plateau regions in southern South Africa. Adamawa Plateau region, west central Africa, is in

central Cameroon, extending into southeastern Nigeria and western Central African Republic. Futa Jallon,

highland region in west central Guinea. Tibesti mountainous region of the central Sahara, in northern

Chad, extending into northeastern Niger and southern Libya.


100

Landscape of Africa

Saudi Arabia

Rivers of South America


101

Natural Landscape of South America

China Provinces


102

United States Provinces

Iraq


103

Physical Geography Various Geographical Institutes

1. Hydrographic Biological Commission Scandinavia

2. Marine Biological Association United Kingdom

3. Research Institute of Marine Fisheries Canada

4. Coast & Geodetic Survey United States

Geographers & Contribution

1. Tetrahedral Hypothesis Lowthian Green

2. Pear Shaped earth deformation Jeans & Sollas

3. Concept of succession, climatic climax, mono climax Clements

4. Concept of Poly climax Whittaker

Marine Sediments

S Zone of Ocean Percentage of Total Marine Deposits

1. Continental Shelf 15 %

2. Continental Slopes 41 %

3. Continental Rises 31 %

4. Deep Ocean Floor 13 %

Oceanic Zones & Types of Deposits

1. Continental Margins Organic Matter

2. Shallow Sea Sands, Silts

3. Bathyl Region Blue mud, Green mud

4. Abyssal Plain Ooze


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Deposits & Percentage Area Occupied

1. Littoral & Shallow water Deposit 9 %

2. Deep Sea (Terrigenous) deposits 15 %

3. Pelagic Ooze & Red Clay 75 %

Terms used for Deserts

Hamada Bare rock or rock with a thin veneer of pebble (Arabic)

Reg Desert pavement of loose stones (N. Africa)

Serir Desert pavement of loose stones, coarser and older than reg (N. Africa)

Debba Extensive sandy plain (N. Africa)

Erg Vast region deeply covered with sand and topped by sand dunes (N. Africa)

Playa Extremely flat, vegetation free area of silt or clay in the lowest part of a

closed basin

Salina Playa with saline water or kept moist by rising groundwater

Chott Closed basin containing a dry lake or playa (N. African)

Clouds & Characteristics

Cirro Cumulus Mackerel Sky

Cirrus Mare’s Tail (As they resemble horse’s tail)

Cumulus Cauliflower Heads

Altostratus Watery Look

Terms

Megatherms Equatorial and tropical, tropical rain forests

Mesotherms Tropical and sub tropical, tropical deciduous forests

Microtherms Temperate and high altitude

Heskitotherms Arctic and alpine regions

Landforms Classification

First order Oceans, continents

Second order Mountain systems, physiographic. Provinces

Third order Mountain ranges, major valleys

Fourth order Volcanoes, fault blocks, valleys

Fifth order Cinder cones, deltas, playa lakes

Sixth order Sand dunes, terraces


1. The eastern regions of humid subtropical areas receive rainfall throughout the year like equatorial regions.

Isotherms are irregular but closely spaced in Northern Hemishpere.

2. Alpha centauri is also known as Proxima Centauri. Asthenosphere lies above mesosphere. Ox Bow lake is

a characteristic of the river in its old age.

3. Steam fog occurs when cold air blows over warmer waters & Advection fog occurs when moist air blows

over cold surface. The only gas, not uniformly distributed over the entire atmosphere is ozone.


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4. One nautical mile is equal to 1.85 kilometers & one mile is equal to 1.6 kms. Albatross Cordillera is in

Pacific ocean.

5. Prince Edward Crozet ridge & Amsterdam – St. Paul Plateau are located in the Indian ocean.

Lakshadweep-Chagos ridge, St. Paul ridge, Amsterdam-St. Paul plateau divide the Indian ocean into

almost two basins.

6. Emperor Seamount chain is in the Pacific Ocean. The maximum width of the continental shelf is off the

arctic coast of Siberia. The deepest continental shelves surround Antarctica. In most of the areas the

continental shelf is formed by constructive ocean.

7. The evolution of mid-Atlantic ridge can be dated back to Pliocene age.

8. Continental shelf has maximum depth of 200m. Continental slope has a depth of about 3600 m. Abyssal

hills have height of 1000 m & guyots are 1100 m high.

9. Zaire canyon is riverine, Canyons of south California are dendritic, Canyons of Bering Sea are the largest

& Oceanographer canyon is small gorge.

10. Atlantic Ocean has the maximum percentage of continental shelf area followed by Pacific & Indian.

11. Red clay deposit is widely found in Pacific Ocean. Pteropod is found mainly only in the Atlantic ocean.

Radiolarian & Diatom ooze can be found at greater depth than Pteropod & globigerina ooze because

siliceous ooze are less soluble while calcareous oozes are easily soluble.

12. A zone in which the density of water increase with increasing depth is called Pycnocline zone.

13. Silt is smaller in size than sand but larger than clay. Pebble is smaller than cobble.

14. Salinity of ocean is a function of latitude. Gulf of Bothnia records the lowest salinity of less than 2 %.

15. Lower the salinity higher is the freezing point.

16. Kiel Canal shortens the distance between London & Kaliningrad.

17. C horizon is not a part of mineral horizon. The dominant species of an ecosystem are more prone to

climatic changes. Trasnfromation process of pedogenic regime includes humification & mineralization.

Entisols are also highly productive in some regions. Chelating agents are associated with the process of

podzolization.

18. Climate & biotic factors are active soil forming factors whereas time, topography & parent rock are

passive. The transition zone between two ecosystems is called ecotone. Allelopathy is a phenomenon in

which toxins produced by one species inhibit the growth of other.

19. USDA soils & their zonal equivalents are: Vertisols (grumusols), Mollisols (Chernozem), Spodosols

(Podzols) & Alfisols (Degraded chernozems). The loess serves as an ideal parent material for chernozem

soils.


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20. Soils & the vegetation supported are: brown earths (deciduous forests), podzol (heath forest), chernozem

(steppe grasses), grumusol (savanna grasses). Tropical heath forest, also known as Kerangas forest, is a

type of forest found on the island of Borneo, especially in Brunei.

21. The types of humus in terrestrial environment are: mor, moder & mull. Mor is a type of humus, which

occur largely in coniferous forest soils and the moorlands soils. This humus arise under conditions of low-

biological activity in soil. Moder is a transitional form of humus between mull and moder, characteristic

for sod-podzolic soils, loesses and mountain grassland soils. Mull is a type of humus characteristic for

chestnut soils & arises under grassland conditions. Mull is well humified organic matter. The favourable

pH for the growth of cereal crops is 6.5.

22. Climax (community) which is the hypothetical optimal community that would eventually develop under

ideal conditions and without human interference. If climate dictates the nature of this community we

describe this as a climactic climax whereas if the soil conditions limit the type of climax that develops we

speak of an edaphic climax (E.g. Savannah). Where there has been some interference that degrades the

climax we say that secondary succession has occurred and if we now view this secondary community as

on its way back to the climax we can refer to this as a sub-climax.

23. Aestivation refers to the state of inactivity adopted by desert animals during the hottest & driest season.

The oldest animal fossil has been found in Zambia.

24. Devonian period is the age of fishes. Ambhibians & reptiles evolved during carboniferous period.

25. Sun Spots are cooler areas of the sun. The dark lines in corona are called ‘Fraunhofer lines’.

26. For an earthquake at a particular spot the shadow zone of P-waves invariably exist between 103 & 143

degree form the earthquake focus.

27. The variation of wind with elevation through the friction layer is represented by an equi angular spiral

known as the Ekman spiral. Beaufort scale ranges from 0 to 12.

28. Saturn is known as Jewel Planet & Venus as veiled planet.

29. Primary waves can change into secondary waves under certain conditions due to refraction. Surface waves

or long period waves cover the longest distance of all seismic waves. Focus is also known as hypo centre.

Essential Extra Reference:

• How to Calculate the sun’s latitude at solstice for various latitudes.

• World Population Data (K. Siddhartha –Ensemble-Appendix –Geo of India-page 13)

• Isostasy, Map references.


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Geography of India

Top States by Area & Population

S Area Population

1. Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh

2. Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

3. Maharashtra Bihar

4. Andhra Pradesh West Bengal

5. Uttar Pradesh Andhra Pradesh

6. J & K

7. Gujarat

8. Karnataka

9. Orissa

10. Chattisgarh

Goa is the smallest state by area & Sikkim is the smallest in Population.

Andamans & Nicobar is the biggest UT by area & Delhi by population.

Lakshwadeep is the smallest UT both in population & area

India’s World Rank in Various Commodities

I rank II rank III rank

1. Banana Oil Seeds Coconuts

2. Buffalo Milk Garlic Tobacco Leaves

3. Castor Beans Cauliflower Potatoes

4. Fresh Fruit Cashew Nuts Cotton seed

5. Ginger Lemons & Lime Rape Seed

6. Goat Milk Rice Sorghum

7. Jute Wheat

8. Lentils Cow Milk

9. Mangoes Fresh Vegetables

10. Tea Sugar Cane

11. Spices Dry Onions

12. Pulses Groundnuts in shell

13. Seaseme Seed

14. Pigeon Peas

Famous Ores of India

1. Kudremukh Iron Ore Karnataka

2. Aliabet Offshore oil field Gulf of Kambhat

3. Bailadila Iron Ore Chattisgarh

4. Gurumahisani Iron Ore Mayubhanj, Orissa

5. Balghat Copper, Manganese M.P (Malanjkhand)

6. Koraput Bauxite Orissa

7. Kolihan Copper Rajasthan

8. Kodarma Mica Jharkhand


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9. Lohardaga Bauxite Jharkhand

10. Gumla Bauxite Jharkhand

Various Geographical Features

1. New Moore Deltaic Island & disputed site between Bangladesh

& India

2. Kacchativu Fishing area leased to Sri Lanka

3. Mandav Hills Gujarat. North of Gir Hills.

4. Rarh Plains West Bengal.

5. Mikir & Rengma Hills Assam

6. Dudma Falls Machkund river, Orissa.

7. Thekkadi Sanctuary Kerala

8. Cambarjua Canal Goa

9. Sirhind Canal Sutlej

10. Upper Bari Doab Canal Ravi

11. Hampi Karnataka

12. Keibul Lamjao Only floating national park in Manipur Loktak lake.

13. Pulicat Lake Barred by long sandpit – Sri Harikota Island.

14. Gohana Lake Situated near Devprayag in Garhwal

15. Wular & Dal Lake Formed by tectonic forces of faulting.

Wetlands of India

Harike Punjab

Ashtamudi Kerala

Bhoj Madhya Pradesh

Kabar Bihar

Kanji Punjab

Kolleru Andhra Pradesh

Nalsarovar Gujarat

Pichola Rajasthan

Renuka Himachal Pradesh

Sasthamkotta Kerala

Sukhana Chandigarh

Ujni Maharashtra

Doabs of India

1. Sind Sagar Doab Indus & Jhelum

2. Jech/Chej Doab Chenab & Jhelum

3. Bari Doab Beas, Ravi & Satluj

4. Rachna Doab Ravi & Chenab

5. Jalandhar/Bist Doab Sutlej & Beas

Famous Beaches of India

1. Gopalpur & Chandipur beach Orissa

2. Bheemunipatnam beach Andhra Pradesh

3. Anjuna, Calangute & Baga beach Goa

4. Ahmedpur Mandvi Beach Gujarat


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5. Karwar, Maple beach Karnataka

Agri-Imports Agri Exports

1. Vegetables Oil 72 % Marine Product 18 %

2. Pulses 14 % Rice 12 %

3. Cashew Nuts 9 % Wheat 7 %

4. Fruits & Other Nuts 4 % Fruits & Vegetables 6 %

5. Milk & Cream .6 % Tea 5 %

Glaciers

1. Batura glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)

2. Hispar glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)

3. Skamri glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)

4. Biafo glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)

5. Baltora glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)

6. Siachen glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)

7. Sonapani glacier Pirpanjal region

8. Gangotri glacier Kumaon-Garhwal region (Uttaranchal)

9. Milam glacier Uttaranchal

10. Pindari glacier Uttaranchal

11. Rambang glacier Kanchenjunga-Everst region

12. Khumbu glacier Mt. Everest region

13. Zemu glacier Kanchenjunga-Everest region (Sikkim)

Forestry Research Institutions

1. Institute of Rain & Moist Deciduous Forests Jorhat

2. Institute of wood science & Technology Bangalore

3. Tropical Forestry Research Institute Jabalpur

4. Institute of Forest Genetics & Tree Breeding Coimbatore

5. Temperate Forest Research Institute Shimla

6. Centre for Forest Productivity Ranchi

7. Centre for Social Forestry & Environment Allahabad

8. CAZRI Jodhpur

Natural Gas Based Projects

1. Dahej Power Project Gujarat

2. Pata Petrochemical Project U.P.

3. Usar LPG project Maharashtra

4. Lakwa LPG project Assam


1. Largest SC community is chamar. The rainiest period for Tamil Nadu is October-November & not

December-January. Shola is a type of high-altitude stunted evergreen forest found in southern India

mainly in Karnataka, Kerala & Tamil Nadu. India has monopoly in the production of Lac.


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2. Rama's Bridge, Nala's Bridge or Adam's Bridge is a chain of limestone shoals, between the islands of

Mannar, near northwestern Sri Lanka, and Rameswaram, off the southeastern coast of India. The Pamban

Bridge also called Indira Gandhi Bridge lies on the Indian end of the Palk Strait that connects

Rameswaram island to mainland India.

3. Banbasa wild life sanctuary is in U.P. The largest tiger reserve in India is Nagarjuna Sagar – Sri Sailam

tiger reserve.

4. Rivers of East India from North to south are Damodar, Subarnarekha, Brahmani-Baitrani & Mahanadi.

5. The rivers of Peninsular India from North to south are Krishna, Penneru, Palar, Cauvery & Vaigai.

6. The major tribes who inhabit the mountains of Kerala are Kanis, Uralis, Kadar, Kanikkar, Paniyar etc..

They are considered to be the descendants of the Negrito race. Even the Angami Nagas & the Badgis of

the Rajmahal Hills in Bihar belong to the Negrito race.

7. The largest permanent migration of the Indian outside the country in the last century was associated with

the sugarcane plantations.

8. Vishakhapatnam is the deepest port. Kolkata is riverine port. Kandla is tidal port. Mumbai is biggest port.

Nava-Sheva (JLNP) is the busiest port.

9. Kadam project is in Andhra Pradesh & Gurusoppa project in Karnataka.

10. Bheraghat falls (Narmada), Sivasamudram falls (Cauvery) & Hundru falls (Subarnarekha)

11. Tungabhadra water dispute (A.P. & Karnataka), Krishna Water dispute (Maharashtra, Karnataka &

Andhra Pradesh).

12. The major fishing harbours of India are Cochin, Madras & Vishakhapatnam

13. The following steel plants are in order of decreasing capacity: Bhilai, Durgapur & Burnpur.

14. Kerala coast is an example of emergent coast. Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh; Sasthamkotta Lake in

Kerala are important.

15. In 2001 census, the proportion of children population to total population was the least among jains & the

sex ratio was the least among sikhs.

16. The correct sequence of ranges/hills in peninsular plateau region from north to south is Garhjat Hills,

Balaghat range, Palkonda range, Cardamom hills.

17. Valmiki Tiger reserve & Kabar Lake bird sanctary are in Bihar. Ujni wetlands is in Maharashtra & Deeper

Beel wetlands in Assam. Shahpur Kandi irrigation project is in Punjab & Teesta Barrage in West Bengal.

Kanheri National Park (Maharashtra) & Chandaka National Park (Orissa)

18. India is divided into five seismic zones. Zone I is most secure & Zone V being most vulenerable.

Aluminium plants are located near source of power & not near raw material.


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19. Uttar Pradesh has the largest area under ravines. Aliabet is the largest island in the estuary of the

Narmada.

20. Kanthi coastal plain is in West Bengal & Nadhra plain is in Eastern Ghat.

21. Saddle Peak (North Andaman), Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar), Mount Diavolo (Little Nicobar) & Mount

Ford (Rutland Island).

22. Amarkantak plateau has radial drainage pattern. Garland canal project connects the rivers of east & west

India.

23. Assam shares its boundary with seven other Indian states, Mizoram with three states & Tripura with 2

states. Both M.P touches 5 states & Chattisgarh touches 6 states. UP touches 8 states.

24. Total number of India states that form international border with the neighbouring countries is 17. Five

Indian states have common border with Bangladesh.

25. In India the international boundary shared with different countries is Bangladesh (4096 km), Pakistan

(3310 km), Myanmar (1458 Km).

26. Tso-morari is a huge mountain lake in Southeast Ladakh. Kolleru Lake is a large freshwater lake in India's

Andhra Pradesh state. Ashtamudi Lake (Ashtamudi Kayal) is in Kollam district of Kerala state in south

India. Ashtamudi Lake is designated a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.

27. Highest point is Singapore is Timah Hill. Lake Wular is the largest freshwater lake of India. Loktak lake

is formed due to faulting. Vembanad Lake due to offshore bar formation in backwaters of Kerala.

28. Brahmaputra River has maximum surface run off while Ganga has maximum catchment area.

29. The name of Pench National Park, M.P. was changed to "Indira Priyadarshini Pench National Park".

Orissa coast is mainly depositional in character.

30. Zojila pass is from Srinagar to Ladakh. Western ghats were uplifted in the Cenozoic period.

31. Tropic of Cancer passes through the following 8 states - Gujarat, Rajasthan, M.P, Chhattisgarh,

Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura & Mizoram. It does not pass through Orissa.

32. The most prominent India-Bangladesh border issues are the Tin Bigha Corridor, Muhuri Char and New

Moore ( or South Talpatty/ Purbasha island).

33. Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) comprised 16.2 percent and 8.1 percent respectively of

the total population, according to Census of India 2001.

34. Indian board of wildlife is headed by Prime Minister of India. Gulf of Kutchh is a coral reef area.

35. Ragi, Bajra & Jowar are the three most important millets produced in India. Groundnut, rapeseed &

mustard are the most important oil seeds produced in India. India imports 40 % of its oilseeds needed.


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36. U.P, Punjab & Rajasthan are the top 3 milk producing states in India. In terms of sheep population

Rajasthan ranks number one.

37. India is divided into 35 meterological sub divisions. IMD defines normal monsoon year as the rainfall

between june-september is within plus/minus 10 per cent of the normal figure of 88 cm for the whole

country.

38. The Pangong Tso (largest in Himalayas) & Tso Moriri lakes are in J & K region. Gurudogmar in Northern

Sikkim is the highest lake.

39. Port Blair is located on South Andaman. Biggest island on Andaman & Nicobar island is Middel

Andaman. Highest point in the whole island is Saddle Peak on North Andaman Island. Narcondam island

lies to the north of Barren Island, both being to the east of Andamans. Mallamalai hills, Palakonda range

(both in A.P), Javadi Hills & Shevaroy Hills, Panchamalai hills, Sirumalai hills, Varushnad Hills in the

eastern ghats (all 5 in Tamil Nadu) are in that order from north to south. Nilgiris (Extreme west TN),

Annamalai hills & Cardamom hills from north to south in western ghats.

40. Moran river drains into Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar in Uttar Pradesh. Chandor Hills lie to the west of

Ajanta range in Maharasthra. To the south of Ajanta range lies Balaghat. Rajmahal Hills lie in NE

Jharkhand, forming the NE edge of Chhotanagpur plateu. Ramgarh hills lie in North Chhattisgarh &

Bastar plateau in south Chhattisgarh. Dandakranya overlaps Bastar plateau. To the south of Satpura range

lies Mahadeo hills & Gawilgarh hills. Rayalseema uplands lie to the south of Telangana plateau.

41. Pondicherry consists of four small unconnected districts: Pondicherry, Karaikal (Tamil Nadu) and Yanam

(A.P) on the Bay of Bengal and Mahé (Kerala) on the Arabian Sea.

42. Zoji La (J&K) Bara Lacha, Shipki La (H.P) Thag La, Niti & Lipu lekh (Uttaranchal) in that order form

NW to SE.

43. Mountains (11 %), Hilly region (18.6 %), Plateau (27 %) & Plain area (43 %) of total india’s area.

Sectoral Consumption of electricity is Industrial (35%), Agriculture (31%), Domestic (21%) &

Commercial (6%)

44. The east coastal plain is known as Northern Circars between Mahanadi & Krishna & Carnatic between

Krishna & the Cauvery rivers.

45. Rectangular drainage pattern (Kosi & its tributaries), Superimposed pattern (Damodar & Chambal),

Radial pattern (Amarkantak & Kathiawar region).

46. The maximum number of National Parks is in M.P & maximum sanctuaries in Andaman & Nicobar

47. Peaty & organic soils are found in Kottayam & Alappuzha districts of Kerala where they are called Kari.

Tidal or Littoral forests occur around the deltas, estuaries.


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48. Bananas, Mango & Citrus are the top three fruits by production. Potato, tomato, onion & cabbage top in

vegetable production.

49. Tamil Nadu & Gujarat (Lamba, Okha, Mandvi) lead in the production of wind power. A tidal power plant

is located at Durgaduani creek in Sundarbans, West Bengal.

50. The Isobar of 1018 millibars runs through the Indo-Gangetic plains during January & it becomes 1000

millibars in July. Dharwar (Archaean), Cuddapah (Proterozoic) & Vindhyan (Paleozoic) rocks are in that

order from old to new.

51. Some important minor ports of India are: Okha, Porbander, Veraval (from north to south in Gujarat),

Talasseri (Kerala), Naganipattnam (Tamil Nadu), Kakinada & Machilipatnam (N to S in A.P.).

52. In religious communities, Christians have the highest sex ratio (1009) & Sikh the least (893). Sex ratio in

Muslims is (936) higher than that of Hindu (931).

53. Talpatty Island and Purbasha Island is disputed territory between Bangladesh and India. Kalipani region

between India & Nepal. Quatern Island is disputed among India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Sir Creek

between Pakistan & India.

Million Cities of India, 2001

1 Greater Mumbai 19 Ludhiana

2 Kolkata 20 Kochi

3 Delhi 21 Visakhapatnam

4 Chennai 22 Agra

5 Bangalore 23 Varanasi

6 Hyderabad 24 Madurai

7 Ahmadabad 25 Meerut

8 Pune 26 Nashik

9 Surat 27 Jabalpur

10 Kanpur 28 Jamshedpur

11 Jaipur 29 Asansol

12 Lucknow 30 Dhanbad

13 Nagpur 31 Faridabad

14 Patna 32 Allahabad

15 Indore 33 Amritsar

16 Vadodara 34 Vijayawada

17 Bhopal 35 Rajkot

18 Coimbatore

Essential Extra Reference:

1. Map of India for various important cities location important. Just refer political & physical map given at

the beginning of oxford atlas. See Mineral Maps of India too.


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2. Cities in India & their industry (E.g Firozabad glass), Cities situated on river banks.

River Basins of India


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Physical Geography

Geological Period

Cenozoic Holocene 10,000 Cultivated plants

Pleistocene 1.6 million Human beings. Indo-Gangetic plain, Thar desert,

Rann of Kachchh, Karewas of Kashmir

Tertiary Period Pliocene 5 million Horses, Ape like man, Upper Siwaliks

Miocene 24 million Apes developed

Oligocene 38 million Early horses, first Apes & Monkeys. Uplift of

Central Himalayan Axis (First Phase)

Eocene 55 million Grasses

Paleocene 65 million Small Mamals

Mesozoic Cretaceous 138 million Flowering plants increased, Deccan Traps

Jurassic 205 million Birds (Archaeopteryx), flowering plant-angiosperms

first appeared. Named after Jura Mountains

Triassic 240 million Dinosaurs

Paleozoic Permian 290 million Seed Plants, Hercynian Orogeny

Carboniferous 360 million Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish (in order)

Devonian 410 million Corals, First fish, Caledonian Orogeny,

Silurian 435 million First fish with Jaws, First Terrestrial Insects.

Ordovician 500 million Graptolites

Cambrian 570 million Tribolites

Pre-Cambrian Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Dharwar, Archean systems,

Aravallis

Rocks

Intrusive Igneous rocks Diorite, Granite, Gabbro (intrusive basalt) Pegmatite1 & Periodotite.

Extrusive Igneous rocks Andesite, Rhyolite (extrusive granite), Basalt

Felsic rocks Quartz, Feldspar

Metamorphic rocks Hornfels, Greenstone, Greenschist, Amphibolite, Granulite, And Eclogite

Facies, Marble, Quartzite, Schist, Slate, Gneiss

Foliated Metamorphic Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss (Formed by Regional Metamorphism)

Non Foliated Metamorphic Marble, Quartzite, Hornfel (Formed by Contact Metamorphism)

Sedimentary rocks Oolite (type of limestone) Shale, Sandstone, Conglomerate, Ironstone,

Travertine (light-coloured concretionary limestone), Evaporite, Coal

1- Pegmatite has composition of granite & has very large crystals indicating very slow cooling.

2- The most common metamorphic rocks are gneiss & schist.

Metamorphic rocks

Original rock Metamorphic rock

Limestone Marble

Sandstone Quartzite

Shales Schist

Shales or Clay Slate

Granites or conglomerates Gneiss


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Shale Phyllite

Gabro Serpentine

Volcanic Cones

Cinder/Ash Cones Mt. Jorullo & Mt. Paricutin (both in Mexico), Mt. Izalco (San Salvador)

Composite Cones Most of famous volcanoes. Eg Vesuvius, Cotopaxi, Mt. Mayon (S.E Luzon Is.)

Parasite Cone Mt. Etna (Sicily)

Basalt Cone Rangitoto

Effusive Eruption Kilauea (most active volcanic crater, Hawaii)

Explosive Volcano Mt. Pinatubo (Central Luzon, Philippines)

Nue Ardentes is a characteristic feature of Mt. Pelee & Mt. Katmai (valley of ten thousand smokes)

Jet Streams

Westerly Polar Jet Stream Located above the polar fronts between latitudes 30o & 70

o N with core

between 6 to 9 Km. Not continuous but found in both hemispheres.

Present throughout the year

Westerly Sub-Tropical Jet Located above subtropical highs between 20 & 50 N with core between 9

& 12 Km.

Easterly Tropical Jet Located above the Asiatic summer monsoon between the equator & the

20o N with core between 14 & 16 Km. Found only in Northern hemisphere

& confined to the Indian Ocean.

Softwoods/Hardwoods

Softwood/Conifers (Gymnosperms) Pines, cedars, spruces, larches, and firs

Hardwood/Broad Leaved (Angiospersm) Oak, maple, beech, walnut, mahogany, teak, and balsa.

Oceans

Ocean Av. Depth Deepest point

Pacific Ocean 4280 m Mariana trench (11000 m)

Atlantic Ocean 3600 m Puerto Rico Trench (8600 m)

Indian Ocean 3900 m Java trench (7700 m)

Arctic Ocean 1300 m

Relief of the Ocean Basins

Feature Depth range Width % area Specific % Area

Continental Shelf 100 fathoms

Or 180 m

65 Km 8.6 % Atlantic Ocean (13%), Pacific Ocean (6%)

Indian Ocean (4%)

Continental Slope 200-2000 m 8.5 % Atlantic Ocean (12%), Pacific Ocean (7%)

Indian Ocean (6.5%)

Deep Sea Plains 3000-6000 m 76 % Pacific (80.3%) Indian (80.1%) Atlantic (55%)

• The Arctic continental shelf is widest. The average slope of the continental slope is about 4o.

Physical Geography Terms

Clint Any of the masses of rock left standing between fissures (grikes) in a limestone region

Grike A fissure enlarged by rainwater dissolution between limestone clints.

Fetch Continuous distance that winds blow over a water surface


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Coulee Steep sided valley carved by water from the melting glacier

Bolson Term used for Playas mainly in Mexico & SW USA.

Calving The formation of icebergs from a glacier.

Butte Isolated hill with steep sides and flat top, similar to but narrower than a mesa.

Various Mediterranean Vegetation/Shrub-Lands

Chaparral California

Tomillares Spain

Macchia Mediterranean countries and South Africa

Phrygana Balkans

Brigalow shrub & Mallee Australia

Caatinga Brazil

Maquis Europe

Matorral Chile

Garrigue France

Forests/Biomes & their Species

Desert Climate Saguaro (spectacular cactus tree - Arizona)

Mid latitude broad leaf Elm

Temperate rain forest Redwood (or Sequoia)

Conifers Arborvitae; Cedar; Cypress; Douglas Fir; Fir; Hemlock; Juniper;

Larch; Pine; Sequoia; Spruce; Yew

Tropical Monsoon Teak, Sal

Tropical Savannah Trees with flattened crowns. E.g. Baobab

Mediterranean Cork,

Various Protocols

Vienna Convention Ozone Layer

Montreal Protocol Ozone Depleting Substances

Basel Convention Trans boundary movement of Hazardous Wastes

Kyoto Protocol Global Warming

Rio de Janeiro Convention on climate change & biological diversity

Stockholm Convention Persistent Organic Pollutants

Rotterdam Convention Prior Informed Consent procedure for certain hazardous material

Cartagena Protocol Bio Safety

Mean Elevation of Continents

Antarctica 1830 m

Asia 910 m

North America 610 m

Africa 580 m

South America 550 m

Europe 300 m

Australia 300 m


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Miscellaneous Facts

1. Astronomers estimate that about half of all stars in the sky belong to either a binary or multiple star

system. The planet Mars has a conspicuous river valley. The earth gets heavier each year because it picks

up some dust from space.

2. Longitudes unlike latitudes are not used for measuring distance because the latitudes are almost equally

spaced. Slight flattening at the poles causes the length of a degree of latitude to vary from 110.57 km at

the equator to 111.70 km at the poles. At equator, meridians of longitude 1 degree apart are separated by a

distance of 111.32 km but at the poles, meridians converge reducing the distance drastically.

3. The percentage of land surface in the northern hemisphere is maximum between 40 & 50 degree North.

4. In the Earth the divisions are Crust (30-100 km thick), Upper mantle (100-700 km deep), Lower mantle

(700-2900 km), Outer Core (2900-5150 km) & inner core (5150-6400 Km)

5. The temperature at various depths is 1100o C (100 km), 1900

o C (700 km), 3700

o C (2900 km) & 4300

o C

(5100 Km).

6. The Earths mantle comprises 66 % of its mass & 83% of its volume. The core forms 33 % of the mass &

16 % volume. The asthenosphere is made up of peridotite. The pre Cambrian shields are composed of

granites & gneisses. The Ethiopian plateau is volcanic in origin & is largely composed of basalt.

7. Patagonian Plateau (Piedmont plateau), South African Plateau (Continental plateau) & Bolivian plateau

(Intermontane plateau). Shields are convex in shape.

8. Lake Victoria Basin, Great Basin of Nevada & Tarim Basin are all rimmed by mountains.

9. Feldspars are the most abundant of all minerals and account for nearly half of the volume of the earth's

crust. Soapstone is also known as Steatite & is a massive variety of talc. Clay is porous but is

impermeable. The capacity to transmit water is permeability & not porosity.

10. Gondwanaland, ancient landmass that consisted of the present continents of South America, Africa,

Australia, and Antarctica as well as the Indian subcontinent. Bentley Subglacial Trench is the deepest

point in Antarctic.

11. .Earthquakes with negative Richter scale magnitudes occur every day, but are so small that they are

difficult to detect. The energy released by an earthquake increases 32 fold & the ground motion increases

by 10 times for each increase of one magnitude on the Richter scale. It is estimated that a magnitude 12


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earthquake would release enough energy to split the earth in half. The qualitative assessment of the

damage done by an earthquake is expressed by intensity.

12. Folding cannot occur due to tension. However, faulting though primarily a result of tension may also

occur due to compression.

13. Magnetic materials made of iron compounds lose their magnetic properties if heated beyond a certain

temperature called Curie point. Submarine fans constitute a large part of the continental rises. Outgassing

is the process which probably accounted for the surface waters.

14. An area of vegetation having uniformity of life form is called a biochore. Evergreen trees shed their leaves

but not simultaneously. The succession may begin in an area where some natural disaster has caused

removal of existing vegetation. Such a succession is called secondary succession. Where the succession

starts in an area where the physical conditions required for plant growth are already present is called

allogenic succession. When the succession starts in highly unfavourable conditions & the plants

themselves have to create a suitable physical environment for themselves it is called autogenic succession.

15. Before the climatic climax vegetation evolves there are some stages of short term equilibrium between

plants & the environment called Edaphic Climax. The profile of podzol soils is best developed.

16. An aquiclude is a body of relatively impermeable rock. An aquifer is called confined when it is bounded

above and below by aquicludes or unconfined when there is no aquiclude above it.

17. The blue mud occupies the greatest area among the various types of mud. Green colour of green mud is

because of mineral gluconite. Deep Sea regions are supposed to be more stable than tropical rainforests.

18. Conifers are named after cone shaped fruit bearing seeds.

19. When a succession starts at a dry place it is known as Xerosere; in case of wet place (Hydrosere).

Vegetation succession resulting from man’s interference is called Plagioseres.

20. Trees & their uses: Kapok (or Silk cotton tree – Pillows, Mattresses), Abaca/Manila hemp (ropes),

Toquilla (Hats) & Balata (Marine cables).

21. Earth is a geoid. The period of twilight (diffused light that occurs before sunrise & sunset) increases as

one goes towards the poles. The concept of primordial matter was given by Kant & the concept of

intruding star was given by James & Jeans.

22. Lithosphere is around 65-100 Km thick. The granitic continental curst is lighter than the basaltic oceanic

crust. P waves do reach the antipode & can pass through gas. S waves travel faster than surface waves.

Basalt is one of the finest grained extrusive rocks. Basaltic magma is hotter than silicate magma.

23. Igneous rocks generally do not show layers. Among Igneous rocks crystals in intrusive rocks are larger

than those in extrusive rocks. In some cases, the magma cools so rapidly that crystals have no time to


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form, and the magma hardens in an amorphous glass, such as obsidian. Felsic rocks (more viscous) are

light in colour & mafic rocks are usually dark.

24. In addition to lava flows, basalt is also found in the form of dikes and sills. Columnar jointing, as

exhibited by Devils Tower in Wyoming and the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, is a common feature of these

shallow intrusive bodies.

25. Surface currents in the Oceans are primarily caused by wind action.

26. Deposits of high-grade chromite ore found along the Great Dyke (largest dyke in the world) contribute

significantly to Zimbabwe's reserves of the minerals. Stock is an intrusive mass of plutonic rock with an

outcrop.

27. Anthracite is formed by metamorphism of bituminous coal. Marble is least affected by variations in

temperature. Exfoliation is more pronounced in granite. The process of oxidation is most effective in hot

& humid regions. The main cause of mass movement is gravity.

28. The term cataract, usually designating a series of rapids in a large river, is often applied to waterfalls of

large volume. The term ‘coulee lake’ is associated with glaciers. A lake in the course of a river is termed

as a transient lake. The part of the pediplain reduced in height due to erosion is called pediment.

29. The maximum load of a river moves in suspension. A river erodes its convex slope more than its concave

slope. The presence of salt in the sea plays a vital role in delta formaton. The deposition of silt & sand in

the course of a river is called diaras.

30. A dendritic drainage pattern tends to develop where a whole drainage basin is made up of the same type of

rock (uniform lithology). Annular drainage pattern (Henry mountain), Parallel drainage (Norway coast),

Trellis drainage (Appalachian) & deranged drainage (Canadian shield).

31. Yardangs have been called ‘cockscombe’ by Holmes. The Scottish lands are very close to the stage of

peneplain. The largest number of lakes are in the Scandinavian region.

32. Metamorphic rocks are more compact than the original rocks & are more resistant to weathering.

Lithification is the process of formation of sedimentary rocks through compression & cementation.

33. The largest division of geologic time is called an eon. Eons are divided into eras, which are divided into

periods. An epoch, the next division, is further divided into stages.

34. The degree of inclination of a stream is known as its gradient. A stream gradient usually forms a convex

shaped slope. The study of meteors helped in ascertaining the existence of ionosphere. The value of solar

constant is 2 calories/cm2/minute. The equatorial forests have one of the lowest albedo.

35. The warmest month in the northern hemisphere is july & the highest temperature is recorded at 20o N. The

position of thermal equator is normally at 5o N. The highest annual range of temperature is recorded in the


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Taiga region & the highest diurnal range of temperature is found in hot deserts (hot during day & cold

during night). Strong centrifugal force contributes to the low pressure at equator.

36. The percentage cloud cover at any time in the world is around 50%. The standard air pressure at the sea

level is 1013.25 mb which is equivalent to 760 mm of Hg.

37. The effect of Coriolis force is proportion to the speed of the moving object. Coriolis force causes the

maximum deflection at the poles & decrease toward the equator where there is zero deflection. The wind

blowing parallel to the isobars generally at a height of 600 m is known as geostrophic winds. Carribean

sea experiences one of the strongest land & sea breeze. Stratus clouds create more problems for

aeroplanes.

38. The southern oscillation index (SOI) is the difference in pressure between Tahiti in French Polynesia

representing the pacific ocean & port Darwin in North Australia representing Indian Ocean. Positive SOI

means higher Tahiti’s pressure than Port Darwin pressure. It signifies good monsoon for India.

39. Saffir–Simpson Scale is used to measure hurricane intensity based on wind speed. Tropical cyclones do

not occur in South Atlantic because during the summer season (January) its temperature is always below

25o C between 10

o & 20

o S. The ideal conditions for the development of tropical cyclone are western

margins of tropical oceans. The correct sequence of clouds in a temperate cyclone would be cirrus, cirro-

stratus, altostratus, altocumulus & nimbostratus.

40. The Atlantic Ocean has an average depth of 3,600 m (11,810 ft). At its deepest point, in the Puerto Rico

Trench, the bottom is 8,605 m (28,231 ft) below the surface. The average depth of the Indian Ocean is

3,900 m (12,800 ft), or slightly greater than that of the Atlantic, and the deepest known point is 7,725 m

(25,344 ft), off the southern coast of the Indonesian island of Java. Its average depth is 4,280 m

41. The passage of the cold front is often accompanied by the heaviest precipitation and the strongest and

gustiest winds. Occasionally, however, a line of thunderstorms may develop, out ahead of a cold front.

This line is called a squall line and it produces heavy rain and strong, gusty winds. Squall refers to a

violent gusty wind which lasts a few minutes usually accompanied by rain or hail & then subsides.

42. Cold front is marked with triangular spikes & warm front by semi-circles. The isobars of a temperate

cyclone are broad, shallow & weak.

43. Territorial waters extend up to 12 miles from shore. The EEZ extends offshore upto a distance of 200

nautical miles. The ocean outside EEZ is called high sea which is about 60 % of total oceans.

44. . Ninety-nine percent of the water in the oceans has a salinity of between 33 and 37 g/kg (Average is 35

gm/Kg). The halocline is the depth at which the salinity changes rapidly; it forms the boundary between

the two layers. From 100 m to approximately 1,000 m the temperature drops rapidly to about 5° C, and


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below this it drops gradually about another 4° to barely above freezing. The region of rapid change is

known as the thermocline or Pycnocline. The highest temperature of oceans is recorded in the West

Pacific ocean north of equator.

45. Spring tides occur twice a month (every 14.6 days) at New Moon & Full Moon when moon & sun are in

conjunction & opposition respectively. Gibbous moon is one when 75 % of the moon is illuminated.

46. The series of moon cycle is New Moon, Crescent, First Quarter, Gibbous, Full Moon, Gibbous, Last

Quarter, Crescent.

47. Seamount, is an undersea volcanic mountain that is at least 1000 m tall. Flat topped seamounts are called

guyots. The Telegraph plateau extends from Ireland to Labrador.

48. The proportion of gases dissolved in water is Nitrogen (46%), Oxygen (36%) & Carbon dioxide (15%).

The primary source of ocean’s dissolved oxygen is its photosynthetic plants. Oxygen & Nitrogen are

abundant near the surface & there is more carbon dioxide in deep water.

49. Quartz is a dominant mineral in ocean deposits. The sea water is slightly alkaline with it pH being 7.8.

50. Prop roots are associated with mangrove forests. The largest & longest algae (Kelps) is found along the

Peru coast. Herbs do not have woody stem but shrubs have woody stem.

51. Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans (temp around 20-21o C). They do not live in deeper waters

(more than 80 m deep). Both sediment water & fresh water is injurious to them. Hence they are not found

near river mouth. Salinity between 27-30 gm/Kg is suitable. Ocean currents & waves are suitable as they

bring food supply for the polyps. El Nino is associated with coral bleaching (coral death). The south

Atlantic has least coral formations.

52. The upper part of a soil profile, in which the soil-forming processes (illuviation & eluviation) mainly

occur is called Solum. The arrangement of soil particles is called soil structure. The size & organization of

particles in the soil in known as soil texture. The cohesion in soil is known as soil consistency.

53. As weathering forms soil in the humid tropics, iron and aluminum oxides filter downward, often resulting

in a well-defined, cementlike layer of ferricrete or plinthite meters below the Earth’s surface. When

overlying sediments are eroded away, these layers form a rock-hard crust.

54. . The northern needle leaf forest is known as boreal forest. Temperate forests have one of the least number

of species (lesser than Mediterranean & Monsoon forests).

55. Almost all known geysers are located in three countries of the world—New Zealand, Iceland, and the

United States. The cause of Iceland having geysers is its situation on mid Atlantic ridge.

56. The number of tributaries decrease downstream & the river widens here. The size of the valley increases

downstream. Ox bow lakes are more in the lower course than the middle course. A Barchan has an


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asymmetrical profile concave on the leeward side & convex on the side of the wind. A Parabolic dune is

opposite with concave side facing the wind.

57. Most of the jet steams blow parallel to latitudes & isobar as they are geostrophic. The wet adiabatic lapse

rate is lower than dry adiabatic rate as condensation releases latent heat. In cirrus clouds water vapour is in

solid form. Africa has the largest Savannah biome. Lateritic soils are porous in structure. Coniferous

forests are evergreen.

58. Bajada is the Spanish world for slope of alluvial material at the foot of the escarpment. Scleractinian

corals are the main contributors to a reef, but other organisms also add to it, such as hydrozoan corals,

calcareous algae, mollusks, and sponges. Hence Corals are not the only participants in coral formation.

59. Over 80 percent of the world’s fisheries are located in the coastal and ocean environment, and nearly 20

percent are found in inland freshwater fisheries. The largest fisheries group is made up of small, pelagic

(open ocean) fishes such as herring, sardine, anchovy, and related species

60. In Fisheries, Japan is the largest importer & Thailand is the largest exporter. USA is both the second

largest importer & exporter as it prefers certain varieties over others.

61. The 0 to 10 degree north receives more rainfall than corresponding southern latitudes due to ITCZ being

more extensive in north. The temperate latitudes of southern hemisphere receive more rainfall than that of

the northern hemisphere due to preponderance of Oceans in the former & deserts in the latter. Hails are

opaque due to trapped air bubbles. Lower pressure on open surface of water leads to higher rate of

evaporation.

62. Point bars develop where stream flow is locally reduced because of friction and reduced water depth. It is

a depositional feature. Deposits of braided stream mainly consists of sand & gravel

63. A cone shaped depression is formed when water is withdrawn faster than it can be replaced. Ozark Upland

(between Missouri & Arkansas) in United States is full of Karst features. Karst landscape is well

developed in Yucatan peninsula.

64. The coastal features are formed in the following order Headland, Cave, Arch & Stack. Carlberg ridge

divides the Arabian Sea into two parts. In northern Pacific Icebergs are rare.

65. Crevasses extend down in glaciers to the zone of plastic flow. Ice scoured plain is the subdued landscape

resulting from erosion by continental glacier. If a glacier has a balanced budget it remains stationary.

66. Longitudinal dunes (called seifs in Egypt) generally occur in areas of limited sand supply. The angle of

repose of dry sand controls the slope of the leeward side of the sand dune.

67. Dixie Alley & Tornado Alley refers to the high frequency areas of tornadoes in USA. Bog burst is term

used in Ireland for flowing of soil downslope.


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68. Lopoliths are saucer-shaped concordant intrusions. Well-known examples are the Bushveld complex in

South Africa and the Muskox intrusion in the Northwest Territories, Canada.

69. Laccoliths have a flat base and a domed ceiling, and are concordant with the neighboring rocks; they are

usually small. The classic area from which they were first described is the Henry Mountains in the state of

Utah.

70. Deep batholiths are often concordant, while shallow batholiths are usually discordant. Deep batholiths can

be extremely large; the Coast Range batholith of North America is 100 to 200 km wide and extends 600

km through Alaska and British Columbia, Canada.

71. The seismograph records first P waves followed by S waves, L waves & R waves in that order because of

differential speeds of these waves. Shallow focus earthquakes are usually the most damaging.

72. Rejuvenation can take place during any stage of river development. The correct sequence of deserts of

Australia in descending order is Great Victoria, Great Sandy, Gibson & Simpson.

73. The longest day at 66.5 degree N/S can be of 24 hours beyond which there is a sharp increase. For eg the

longest day is of 1 month at 67.4 degree & 2 months at 69.8 degree.

74. Tropical cyclones have a warm core. Over polar areas temperature inversion is normal throughout the

year. Wave refraction is the phenomenon of waves bending so that they move nearly parallel to the

shoreline.

75. Two second order stream meet to form a third order stream. The principle of Catastrophism fits the

vastness of the Earth’s age & the complexity of its rocks in a shortened time span (Eg. biblical flood). The

premise that present day processes have operated throughout geological time is called uniformitarianism.

76. The oldest surface rock yet discovered called Acasta Gneiss lies in Northwestern Canada. Barysphere is

the term used for the core of the earth.

77. Marshall Islands, Bermuda & Lakshwadeep are coral in origin.

78. Sounds usually occur along submerged coast. The grasses of temperate grasslands are shorter but more

nutritious than those of tropical grasslands.

79. In Maldives the most populous atolls are Male, the capital and principal commercial center; Suvadiva; and

Tiladummati. Belize has the biggest barrier reef in the Northern Hemisphere.

80. Highest life expectancy is for Andorra (83.5 years) followed by Japan (83.5).

81. The water hemisphere accounts for as much as 80 % of southern hemisphere. The average height of land

on the earth is approximately 900 m. The average depth of all the oceans is about 3800 m.

82. In Newfoundland the chief fish caught is Cod. St. John is the capital of Newfoundland & is the

headquarter of the Grand Banks fishing industry.


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83. In Karstic region the only mineral of importance is Lead. The thin warm layer on the ocean surface is

called Epilimnion. The lower cooler layer of water, below the thermocline is called hypolimnion.

84. Metamorphic facies are formed according to one of three processes: contact metamorphism, subduction-

zone metamorphism, and regional metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are considered generally as more

resistant to erosion than sedimentary & igneous rocks.

85. Regional metamorphism often produces a fabric quality called foliation. Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss

are foliated rocks. Rocks formed by contact metamorphism are generally nonfoliated. Quartzite, hornfels

& marble are non foliated.

86. Exfoliation (peeling off) is caused by the release of confining pressure. The point at which the sea wave

breaks is called the plunge line. It is where the depth of water & height of the wave are actually the same.

87. Terra Rossa are formed mainly in Mediterranean region. Lithosol is an azonal soil. Muskegs are bogs &

swamps which have leathery bushes & stunted trees in the Norhtern Coniferous biome.

88. C.F. Marbut’s first level of division of all middle latitude soils is into: Pedocals & Pedalfers. An epipedon

is a horizon that forms the sub soil portion.

89. V.V. Dokuchaiev is considered the pioneer of soil genesis & soil classification. Nuciform soil structure

refers to formless ped. The smalledst distinctive division of the soil of a given are to which the unique

single set of properties apply is called polypedon.

90. An iron pan is a common feature of the Gley type of soil formed in the water logged areas of tundra

region. Gleization is the process of formation of a gley soil by waterlogging and chemical reduction of

iron.

91. In Australia where reg (desert pavement of loose stones) are widespread, they are called Gibber plains.

92. Isotherms on the globe are more tightly packed in winter. Commensalism is an association between two

species in which one benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefited.

93. The correct sequence of distribution of fresh water on earth from maximum to minimum is Glaciers,

Ground water, Inland Seas & Atmosphere.

94. Acid rain is the major problem in Norway & Sweden. Ecologists often call the few common species the

ecological dominants & the rare species as incidentals.

95. Guano forms a significant player of phosphate cycle. A sciophilous plant (called sciophyte) is shade

loving. Thermoperiodism is the rhythmic response of plants to fluctuations in temperature.

96. One of the reasons behind choosing 0 degree meridian at Greenwhich is that the IDL at 180 degree mostly

passes through water thereby least disrupting the timezones in a country. The world is divided into 24 time

zones each with a longitudinal extent of 15 degrees or one hour duration.


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97. Russia has 11 time zones, USA has 7 time zones (including 2 time zones in territorial water), Canada has

5 time zones, Australia has 3 & China has a single time zone.

98. Horizontal movement of air is wind & vertical movement is currents.

99. Factors affecting ocean currents: As a rule water on the Ocean surface would tend to move form low

salinity to high salinity area. The earth’s rotation also affects ocean currents as its rotation form west to

east leads to the current being generated from east to west. Temperature also affects ocean currents as

warm water rises & cold water sinks. Water also moves from low atmospheric pressure areas to high

pressure areas.

Miscellaneous Facts II

1. A polished and frequently striated surface that results from friction along a fault or bedding plane is called

slickensides.

2. Shallow focus earthquakes (<70 Km), Intermediate focus earthquakes (70< 250 km) & deep focus

earthquakes (250-700 Km). John Mitchell was the first to recognize that earthquake spreads in waves &

destruction reduces outwards. The damage is not maximum at the epicenter but around it. Deep focus

earthquakes are found to be practically restricted to the circum pacific belt. Mid oceanic ridges have

shallow focus earthquakes. 90 % of the earthquakes have a focus less than 100 km deep. Areas that are

quiet & overdue for an earthquake are called seismic gaps. It is a place that possesses accumulated stress.

3. Tsunami in Japan means ‘Harbour waves’. Their wavelength runs into hundreds of kilometers.

Seismograph was invented by Fillipo Cecchi.

4. S waves are called shear waves because they move perpendicular to the direction of material through

which they travel producing shear stress in the material. As liquids & gases don’t have shear strength they

cannot pass through them.

5. About 75 % of all volcanoes are on the sea floor. Popa mountains of Burma are extinct volcano.

6. The Giant geyser in Iceland, the old faithful in Yellowstone National Park of USA & the Wiamangu

geyser in New Zealand are famous.

7. If the relative humidity is less than 70 % the air is dry. Between 70-90 % R.H. the air is moist. Cumulus

cloud is a fair weather cloud. It indicates bright, brisk & fair weather.

8. The collision coalescence theory of Simpson & Mason was modified by Longmuer. This theory happens

to be more valid for tropical areas.

9. The saturation vapour pressure is lower over ice crystals as compared to that over liquid droplets (Ice

Crystal theory). Solid carbondioxide (dry ice) & Silver Iodide smoke are used for cloud seeding.


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10. Subsolar point is that point on the earth’s surface where the sun is directly overhead. Sun’s declination is

the latitude of the sub solar point.

11. Peridotite makes up the earth’s mantle. Epeirogentic movements cause Emergence & subsidence.

Orogenetic movements cause folding, mountain building, faulting.

12. The west wind drift is the greatest ocean current of the world. Nappe is a French word meaning table

cover. Competent rocks are those which are very rigid compared to the layers of rock above or below this

layer. They tend to crack rather than distort as they fold. Harmonic folding occurs when the rocks have the

same degree of competence & disharmonic vice versa.

13. On 21st June what is going to be the sun’s rays at a place along

Altitude of Sun at a place = 90o – (distance in latitude of the place from the overhead sun’s place)

a. 10 N : 90 – (23.5 – 10) = 76.5 degrees

b. 23.5 S: 90 – (23.5 + 23.5) = 43 degrees

c. 80 N: 90 – (80 – 23.5) = 33.5

14. To find the antipode in case of latitude just reverse the N/S symbol & in case of Longitude (180 – given

longitude & change sign from E to W or W to E).

15. In general normal faults are steeper than reverse faults. A tear or wrench fault is one in which the blocks

of rocks slip sideways past each other. Bigger wrench faults are called transcurrent faults. A wrench fault

is also called strike-slip fault.


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World & Human Geography

Assorted Miscellaneous Facts

Liberia Fastest growth of population

Sierra Leone Least educated country

Mali Poorest country by GDP

East Timor Lowest rank in HDI

Yamalia Autonomous area in northwestern Siberia, Russia, south of Kara Sea.

Sao Paulo Is not a coastal city. Santos (main port) is very close.

Green Bay An extension of Lake Michingan.

Dallas City in Texas (8th

largest in US)

Austin Capital of Texas

San Diego City in South west corner of California (7th

largest). Harbor & Ship building

Houston Petroleum Hub of USA. City in southeastern Texas (4th

largest city)

Texas Highest producer of oil & natural gas in USA

Minnesota Largest supplier of iron-ore in USA

James Bay Southern extension of Hudson bay.

Waikiki Beach Honolulu, Hawaii

Badwater Death Valley, lowest point in western hemisphere

Seville Hottest place of Europe (Spain).

Khyber Pass Located in the Safed Koh range.

Bolan Pass Located in Brahui range (which lies between Sulaiman (N) & Kirthar range (S)

Golden Triangle Area where Burma, Laos & Thailand meet. 2/3rd

of world’s heroin production

Socotra Island, southeastern Yemen (belongs to Yemen)

Adana City in Turkey on Mediterranean Coast

Aceh Special region of Indonesia, located on the northwestern tip of the island of

Sumatra. Capital is Banda Aceh.

Kharg Island Small island of southwestern Iran, in the Persian Gulf (Petroleum reserves)

Kalimantan Region of the Republic of Indonesia, occupying the southern portion of the

island of Borneo Rich in oil & Gas.

Mt. Cotopaxi Ecuador (one of the highest active volcanoes)

Mt. Chimborazo Ecaudor (Inactive Volcano)

River Thames Makes London a port.

Ordos desert Eastern extension of Gobi desert in China through which Hwang Ho flows.

Mt. Goldsworthy Iron ore mine in NW Australia in Pilbara region (near Hamersley ranges)

Sudd Swampy lands of river White Nile in Sudan.

Siciliy Largest Island in Mediterranean Sea.

Flanders Plains of western Belgium

Uluru Or Ayers rock is an inselberg & a sacred place of Aboriginals

Blue Mountains Rugged plateau region on the eastern side of the Great Dividing Range, in the


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state of New South Wales, Australia

Mount St. Helens Active volcano, southwestern Washington, in the Cascade Range

Cairo Largest city in Africa & capital of Egypt.

Koum Term for sandy desert in Turkmenistan.

Teff A highly nutritious crop of Ethiopian Highlands

Pearl Harbour Located in Honolulu, the capital of Hawaii.

Kwajalein Largest atoll in the world (Marshall Island)

Bikni Atoll Major atoll in Marshall Island.

Funafuti atoll In Ellice Island (Tuvalu)

Quebracho Axe-breaker. Found in Gran Chaco. It yields tannin

Balata Produces latex. Abundant in Amazon forest

Naval Stores Trade name of turpentine & rosin.

Chickle Yields gum. Abundant in Central American forest.

Carnuaba Palm Yeilds wax.

Douglas Fir Leading timber of North America.

Sucre Legal Capital of Bolivia

Yerba Mate Tea like beverage extensively used in South America esp. in Brazil

Madeira Largest tributary of Amazon

Kjolen Mountains Run along the Norway Atlantic Coast.

Brooks Range Northern Boundary of Alaska (Continuation of Rockies)

Alaska Range Southern Boundary of Alaska (Mt. McKinley lies here)

Favela Slums in Brazil

Ranchos Slums in Venezuela

Kavettits Slums in Myanmar.

Tahiti Largest island of French Polynesia.

Gold Coast City City in southeastern Queensland. Second largest in Queensland after Brisbane

Brest One of the major fishing port of France

Bergen City & Seaport in Norway

Anchorage City & Seaport in Southern Alaska

Arnhem Land Historical region and Aboriginal reserve in Australia, in the northeastern part of

the Northern Territory

Lagos dos Patos Largest Lagoon in the world in South-East Brazil

Pico da Neblina Highest peak of Brazil in Guiana Highlands

Mount Kinabalu Highest peak of Malaysia.

Puerto Montt One of the principal ports in Chile.

Easter Islands Lie in Pacific & is the farthest South American (Chile) possession (3700 km)

Ogaden Arid Upland desert region in South eastern Ethiopia.

Oporto A leading port of Portugal & a chief economic centre

Betsiboka river Major river of Madagascar.

Tanezroufts Very dry areas in Sahara where no form of life is possible.

Regional Terms for Shifting Cultivation

Konuko Shifting cultivation in Venezuela

Ladang Malaysia

Caingin Philippines

Humah Indonesia


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Chena Sri Lanka

Milpa Central America & Mexico

Taungya Myanmar

Masole Congo

Roka Brazil

Podu Orissa

Penda Chhattisgarh

Deppa M.P.

Ray Laos, Vietnam

Mining Centers

Butte Copper mining centre in Montana (USA).

Itabira Iron ore region of Brazil

Potosi Mining Centre of Bolivia (Tin – major, copper & lead)

Mina-el-Ahmadi Petrochemical complex in Kuwait

Burgan Oil filed of Kuwait

Dhahran Oil filed of Saudi Arabia

Tampico & Tuxpam Oil filed of Mexico

Masjid-e-Sulaiman Oil filed of Iran

Maikop Oil field of Russia

Hassi R’Mel World’s largest natural gas field in Algeria

Groote Eylandt Mineral rich Island near Arnhem Land in Australia’s Northern territory.

Supplies 20 percent of the world's high-grade manganese ore.

Cerro Bolivar Iron ore region in Venezuela

Bor Copper mining region of Yugoslavia

Cerro de Pasco Copper mining region of Peru

Morococha Copper ore area of Peru

Miscellaneous Industrial Centres

Fort Worth Aircraft & Aerospace Industry (Texas)

Hamilton Canada’s Largest producer of steel. Known as ‘Birmingham of Canada’.

Toledo Centre of Glass Industry in USA (Ohio)

Saar Imporant Industrial centre of Germany on Saar river.

Coventry Automobile centre of England. First automobile manufactured here.

Limoges Pottery centre in France

Leipzig Musical & precision Instruments in Germany

Munich Optical Instruments & Lenses (Germany)

Arkangelsk Timber centre & seaport near white sea & Lake Onega in Russia

Important Canals in the Great Lakes Region, USA

Welland Canal Connects Erie & Ontario

Soo Canal Connect Lake Superior & Lake Huron. Also called Sault Sainte Marie Canal

Trent Canal Links Lake Huron with Ontario lake.

Rideau Canal Links lake Ontario with river Ottawa

Ludwig Canal Connects the Danube and Main rivers in Germany

Mittelland Canal Joins Ems, Wiser & Elbe

Types of Languages


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Monosyllabic Words have various meanings depending on the position in sentence

Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai & Tibetan

Agglutinative Words altered by prefixes & suffixes

Malay, Japanese, Swahili & most of the African languages.

Inflexional Flexible, modified to give required meaning

English, French, Hindi, Arabic, Urdu Bengali & other Indo-European language

Top 25 Cities of USA

1. New York City New York

2. Los Angeles California

3. Chicago Illinois

4. Houston Texas

5. Philadelphia Pennsylvania

6. Phoenix Arizona*

7. San Diego California

8. Dallas Texas

9. San Antonio Texas

10. Detroit Michigan

11. San Jose California

12. Indianapolis Indiana*

13. San Francisco California

14. Jacksonville Florida

15. Columbus Ohio*

16. Austin Texas*

17. Baltimore Maryland

18. Memphis Tennesse

19. Milwaukee Wisconsin

20. Boston Massachusetts*

21. Washington Washington DC

22. Nashville Tennesse*

23. El Paso Texas

24. Seattle Washington

25. Denver Colorado*

* - Captial cities of respective states

Some Important Land Locked Countries (Not Exhaustive)

Africa Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Malawi, Swaziland

Asia Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Laos,

Armenia, Azerbaijan

Europe Andorra, Austria, Belarus, Hungary, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein,

Macedonia, Moldova.

South America Bolivia & Paraguay.

Andorra, parliamentary principality, southwestern Europe, situated in the eastern Pyrenees Mountains,

bordered on the north and east by France, and on the south and west by Spain.


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Georgia is not landlocked because it lies on the Black Sea side.

Important Breeds of Cattle

Holstein Friesian Netherlands

Ayrshire/Ireshire Scotland

Jersey Channel Island

Brown Swiss Switzerland

Guernsey Channel Island

Principal Languages of the World

Language Branch

Mandarin Chinese

English Germanic

Russian Slavic

Hindi Indic

Spanish Romance

Arabic Semitic

Bengali Indic

Portuguese Romance/Latino

Malay-Indonesian Austro

Japanese Japanese-Korean

German Germanic

French Romance

Tribes

Tutsi Burundi & Rwanda. Killed in masses by Hutu a rival group

Hutu Rwanda & Burundi

Creole A descendant of European settlers or of Black slaves, in the

W. Indies or Central or S. America

Yoruba Nigeria & Benin

Dinka Native people of Sudan

Twa Original Inhabitants of Burundi

Hazara Central Agfhanistan (Main). Also in Pakistan & Iran

Tehuelche Collective name for the tribe of Patagonia

Aka Another name for Pygmies (Congo)

Pueblo Southwest USA. Known for Adobe buildings

Minhasa Indigenous people of Sulawesi (Celebes)

Filipinos are originally Malay people.

The Great Lakes & Important Cites Around

Lake Superior Duluth

Lake Michigan Milwaukee, Chicago & Gary

Lake Erie Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, Buffalo

Lake Ontario Toronto, Hamilton


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Major Airports of the World

Dulles International Airport Washington D.C.

George Bush International Airport Houston

Hartsfield International Airport Atlanta

John F. Kennedy International Airport New York

O’ Hare International Airport Chicago

Roissy – Charles de Gaulle International Airport France

McCarran International Airport Las Vegas

Gatwick International Airport London

Haneda International Airport Japan

Kimpo International Airport Seoul

Tribal Shelters

Bedouins Khaimas

Masai Kraals

Bushman Scheoms (thatched hut)

Kirghiz Kstau

Lapps Sijda (Sida)


Peltoratsk Ashkabad (Turkmenistan)

Hashemite Kingdom Jordan

Konigsberg Kaliningrad

Lanxang Laos

Andalas Sumatra

Trucial States UAE

Scientific Names of Common Plants

Rice Oriza Sativa Jute Corchorus capsularis

Wheat Triticum Aestivum Mustard Brassica nigra

Maize or Corn Zea Diploperennis Silk Worm Bombyx Mori

Oats Avena Sativa Abaca (Menila Hemp) Musa Textilis

Rubber Hevea Brasiliensis Banana Musa Sapientum

Barley Hordeum Vulgare Oil Palm Elaeis Guineesis

Tea Camellia Sinensis Teak Tectona Grandis

Grapes Vitis vinifera Sal Shorea Robusta

Soyabeans Glycine Max

Important Dams

Oroville Dam Feather river U.S.A.

Grand Coulee Dam Columbia river U.S.A.

Hoover & Boulder Dam Colorado river U.S.A.

Rogun Dam Tajikistan

Owen Falls Dam White Nile Uganda

Itaipu Dam Parana river Brazil/Paraguay

Bratsk Dam Angara river Russia


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Guri Dam Caroni river* Venezuela (Country’s major)

Inga Dam Zaire/Congo river Dem. Republic of Congo

Boyoma/Stanley Falls Zaire Congo

Dnepropetrovsk Dam Dneiper Ukraine

Kitimat Scheme Nechako River British Columbia, Canada

St. Anthony Falls Mississippi USA

Snowy Mountain Scheme Snowy & Eucumbene rivers New South Wales, Australia

Ord River Scheme Ord river Western Australia

* - Angel Falls is located on Rio Churún (Caroni) river.

Extemities

Cape Horn Southernmost tip of S. America

Cape Agulhas Southermost tip of Africa

Ellesmere Island Northernmost part of Canada

Pelee Island Southernmost part of Canada

Key West Southermost town of USA

Cape of Good Hope is erroneously regarded as the extremity of Africa.

Types of Fishes

Salt Water Fish Other Fishes

Pelagic Demersal Fresh Water Fishes Anadromous Fish

Sardines Cod Sturgeon Salmon

Herring Halibut Trout Chinook

Swordfish Hake Perch

Anchovies Haddock Carp

Tuna Pollock

Mackerel Flounder

Pilchards

• Pelagic Fish live near the surface of water & demersal fish near the ocean bottom

• Anadromous fish live in Saline water but return in fresh water to spawn.

• Catadromous fish live in fresh water but breed in Saline water

• Ichthyology is the study of fish

• Anchovies, Capelin & Menhaden are known as trash fish – used for non human consumption

Areas & Largest fish Catch

Coast of Peru Anchovies

Caspian Sea Sturgeon

USA’s East Coast Menhaden

West Coast of Canada Salmon

Key west, Florida Sponges

Chesapeake Bay Oyster

Southern Europe & Mediterranean Sea Sardine & Anchovy


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1. Continents in descending order of area are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica,

Europe and Australia.

2. Calgary is the largest city in the province of Alberta & is also known as the energy capital of the country.

Tar Sands deposits are found in Alberta & Venezuela. Uranium City is on the northern shores of Lake

Athabasca. Canada has the longest coastline (~60,000 miles) of any country in the world.

3. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado river is in northwest Arizona. Allegheny Mountains is a complex of

ranges and uplands of the Appalachian system. The name is usually applied to the ranges west of the Blue

Ridge in Pennsylvania & neighboring states. In the eastern United States a fall line forms the border

between the Piedmont Plateau and the Atlantic Coastal Plain.

4. The mountain ranges of USA from west to East is Coast Mountains, Cascade Range, Sierra Nevada & The

Rockies.

5. The term ‘Antilles’ applies to the whole of West Indies except the ‘Bahamas’. The Greater Antilles

includes Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico.

6. Australian provinces & their capitals are Northern Territory (Darwin), Queensland (Brisbane), New South

Wales (Sydney), Victoria (Melbourne), South Australia (Adelaide), Tasmania (Hobart), West Australia

(Perth).

7. The bottled trees (related to Baobab trees) are found in NW Australia especially in the Kimberley plateau

region. Murrumbidgee, river is the longest tributary of Murray Darling. Freemantle is the outport of Perth.

The most populated province of Australia is New South Wales.

8. The transcontinental Stuart Highway of Australia runs between Adelaide and Alice Springs near

Macdonnell ranges in Northern Territory. Between 1980-90 corals on large scale in the Great Barrier reef

were destroyed by the Crown of Thorns starfish.


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9. Taranaki plains of New Zealand is famous for dairy industry. The biggest city of New Zealand is

Auckland.

10. The Trans Amazon highway connects Rio Branco to Sao Louis

11. The Orentes river rises in Northern Lebanon, flows in a northerly direction parallel to Mediterranean in

Syria & enters Turkey & finally Mediterranean. Zaire is the only river to cross the equator twice.

12. The Grand Canal (Da Yunhe) of China is the world’s largest canal system & connects Yangtze Kiang &

Hwang Ho.

13. European countries in descending order of density are Netherlands, Belgium, U.K., Germany & Italy. In

ascending order the countries are Iceland, Russian Federation, Norway & Finland.

14. The evolution order of humans is Apes – Dyropithecus – Ramapithecus – Australopithecus (Pliocene age)

– Hamo Habilis – Homo Erectus (Fossils of Java Man & Peking man belong to Homo Erectus – appeared

during Pleistocene) – Neanderthal Man – Cro Magnon Man – Homo Sapiens.

15. A progressive age structure is one in which both birth & death rates are high. A regressive age structure is

one in which birth rates are low & declining.

16. A Mega city according to UNO is any city with a population of over 8 millions. In India the population

criteria for mega city is 5 million. A perforated state is one whose territory is completely surrounded by

another. Eg. Lesotho, Swaziland.

17. Trans Arabian Pipeline links the oil fields of Persian Gulf to Saida Lebanon.

18. According to Malthus Preventive (or negative) checks are celibacy and abstinence. Positive checks

included famine, war, disease etc. Zelinsky in his Mobility Transition theory basically incorporated impact

of migration on the Demographic transition theory.

19. Currently 50 % of the world’s fish comes from Pacific Ocean & 25 % are from North Pacific alone.

Horticulture includes pomology (growing of fruits), Olericulture (production of vegetable crops),

floriculture & Ornamental Horticulture (Landscape gardening).

20. In Brazil ‘Sertao’ refers to semi-arid regions. It consists mainly of low uplands that from Brazilian

highlands. Coffee is indigenous to Ethiopia. Potato is native to Andean Highlands.

21. Forward Capital: When a state relocates its capital to a sensitive area, perhaps near a zone of dispute with

an unfriendly neighbour in part to confirm its determination to sustain its position in that zone.

22. Von Thunen model has the following zones central city, market gardening & milk production, Firewood

& lumber production, crop farming without fallow, crop farming – fallow & pasture, three field system &

livestock farming. The margin between two zones of landuse is called margin of transference.


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23. The five stages of Rostow’s Model of Development are the Traditional Society, Preconditions for Take

off, Take off, Drive to Maturity & The Stage of Mass Consumption.

24. The Gatun lake, Panama forms the key to Panama canal system. Mittelland Canal joins the three major

rivers Ems, Weser & Elbe & continues eastwords to Berlin & into Poland. The Ludwig canal links a main

tributary of Rhine to the Danube & allows waterborne traffic from the Black sea to reach Atlantic via the

Rhine.

25. Lardarello, Italy was the first to produce geothermal energy. U.S.A is the largest producer of geothermal

energy. Iceland has highest percentage contribution of geothermal energy.

26. Tidal energy is produced at Rance river in Northwest France & Bay of Fundy in Canada. Bay of Fundy is

a large tidal inlet separating the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.

27. The top countries in solar energy production are Japan, USA, Germany & India.

28. Kharkov is the second largest city in Ukraine & Duluth is in N.E Minnesota. Entreport is a port where

goods are stored & deposited for further distribution.

29. The first five zones in Concentric zone, Sector & Multiple Nuclei model are all same:- Zone I – CBD,

Zone II – wholesale (or Transition), Zone III – low income houses, Zone IV – Medium class houses, Zone

V – high class housing (See Models).

30. In Christallers model K=3 (Marketing Principle), K=4 (Transport Principle) & K=7 (Administration). The

rank size rule was first noticed by F. Auerbach in 1913 but developed by G.K. Zipf in 1949 in his book

‘Human Behaviour & Principle of Least Effort’.

31. The age of town scheme in the form of infantile, juvenile, adolescent, early mature & mature was given by

Griffith Taylor. A dynamic explanation of urban development based on centrifugal & centripetal forces is

known as Colby’s Hypothesis.

32. Kibbutz (cooperative farming in Israel), Kung-She (China), Sovkhoz (state owned farms in Russia),

Kolkhoz (collective farms in Russia), Ejido (Communal farm in Mexico) & Volksguter (Germany)

33. Many of Israel’s rural Jews live in two types of cooperative communities, the kibbutz and the moshav. In

a kibbutz, residents own all property collectively and contribute work in exchange for basic necessities. In

a moshav, families own separate farms but cooperate in some aspects.

34. Lewis Mumford classified cities on the basis of technology into Eotechnic, Palaeotechnic, Neotechnic &

Biotechnic. He also divided cities on the basis of cultural rise & fall into Eopolis, Polis, Metropolis,

Megalopolis, Megalopolis, Tyrannopolis & Necropolis (City of the dead).

35. Weight loosing industry (Mineral Smelting), Weight Gaining industry (Bread Manufacturing), Bulk

loosing industry (Cotton Textile), Bulk Gaining Industry (glassware).


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36. The correct sequence of European river from North to South is Elbe, Weser (End in Germany’s Atlantic

region) Rhine, Meuse (Netherlands) Seine, Loire, Dordogne (France) Ebro, Duero, Tagus & Guadiana &

Guadalquivir (Spain).

37. Hebrides or Western Isles is an archipelago of about 500 islands, western Scotland, in the Atlantic Ocean.

New Hebrides is Vanuatu.

38. The correct chronological order of the arrival of various racial groups in India is as follows Negroids,

Palaeomediterraneans, Mediterranean’s & Nordics.

39. In Malaysia & Indonesia an irrigated rice field is known as ‘Sawah’. Rubber plantation is concentrated on

the western coast of Malaysian peninsula. The underground channels slightly inclined used to bring water

for irrigation from aquifers near the base of a mountain to neighbouring lowland areas esp. in Sahara are

called Foggra. Population per unit of cultivable land is known as physiological density. Mongolia is the

least densely populated country & Monaco the most.

40. Hispaniola is the second largest island in West Indies & is divided into the separate countries of Haiti,

which occupies the western third of the island, and the Dominican Republic. Patagonia is a cold desert.

41. The rivers arranged in descending order of discharge volume are Amazon, Congo, Mississippi-Missouri,

Rio de la Plata-Parana, Congo & Ganga. The Parana river is formed by the confluence of Rio Grande and

Paranaíba River. Andes is the longest mountain chain in the world.

42. Norway has virtually no illiteracy. India has longer railway network than Australia & Germany. The

countries in descending order of road networks are U.S.A, India, Brazil & China.

43. The largest islands are Greenland, New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar, Baffin & Sumatra. The following

four lakes are arranged in descending order Superior, Victoria, Huron & Michigan. The Yangtze river is

the third largest in the world & is longer than Mississippi-Missouri combined. Yenisey-Angara, Ob-Irtysh

& Lena are all longer than Volga. Volga is the longest in Europe.

44. South America has the highest percentage forest area in the world. Large mammals are rare in Brazil as

the dense Amazon forest does not support free movement.

45. Asal lake, a salt lake located in Djibouti is the lowest point in Africa & Valdes peninsula is the lowest

point in S. America. The river by length in Africa are Nile, Zaire (Congo), Niger river & Zambezi. In

Africa most of the cities are primate cities.

46. Lake Nasser (Behind Aswan dam) in Southern Egypt & Northern Sudan is the larges artificial lake in

Africa. The ‘Great Man Made River’, an ambitious irrigation scheme is in Libya. Jabal al Akhdar (Green

Mountains) also lies in Libya.


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47. The people of Madagascar originated from Indonesia. Benguela seaport lies in Angola. Orange Free State

is a part of South Africa. In Africa the heaviest rainfall is recorded in Cameroon.

48. Suez canal (built by French engineer Ferdinand De Lesseps) utilizes three bodies of water—Lake

Manzilah, Lake Tims�h, and the Bitter Lakes. It is a sea level canal without locks.

49. Tea plantations in India, China & Sri Lanka are carried out on acidic soils. In New Zealand sheep

outnumber people by 20 is to 1.

50. Bush fallowing is a form of shifting cultivation in West Africa where only the clearings are shifted & the

settlement is permanent.

51. Africa is known as plateau continent & Australia is topographically the lowest continent. Antarctica has

the maximum mean elevation. A series of nearly parallel faults produced by compressional forces when

the crust is horizontally shortened is referred to as Echelon fault.

52. Mount Fujiyama & Mt. Krakatau are dormant. In Philippines, two well-known volcanoes that have been

active in recent years, Mount Pinatubo and Taal Volcano, are each about 80 km from Manila. Solfatara is

small volcano on the outskirts of Naples. It takes it name form the sulphur gases which escape from it.

53. Paricutin Volcano is in Mexico. It is the youngest mountain in the world & was created from an eruption

of lava and ash through a fissure in 1943 growing to more than 400 m in year. Mount Kelut & Tambora

are one of the major volcanoes of Indonesia.

54. Laki & Surtsey volcanic island are major volcanoes of Iceland. Mount Taupo is one of the greatest

volcanoes of New Zealand which created the Taupo crater lake (largest lake of New Zealand).

55. The largest active shield volcano in the world is Mt. Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Kilauea, the most active

volcanic crater in the world, is located on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa.

56. The stretch between the rock of Gibraltar (Spain) & Cape Ceuta (Morocco) is called the Pillar of the

Hercules. The Atlas Mountains are an extension of the Alpine system of Europe. The Tell or Maritime

Atlas are lower slopes of the Atlas Mountains. The coastal belt of Mediterranean climate if referred to as

Tell in Algeria.

57. Alberta is coal & petroleum rich in Canada. Labrador & Newfoundland are iron mining regions of

Canada. Texas, Alaska & Gulf of Mexico are rich in petroleum deposits in USA. California is the most

populous state of USA. Florida is the largest producer of orange. Kansas is the largest producer of wheat.

Badlands of the Dakota are famous in USA.

58. The Hudson river flows between the Taconic range & the Catskill Mountains (both belonging to the

Appalachians).


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59. The US NE region cities from North to South are Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore &

Washington DC. The coca cola company is based in Atlanta (Capital of Georgia).

60. The major sources of revenue of Monaco is Casino (mainly in Monte Carlo). The countries/regions with

decreasing number of islands are Oceania (25000), Indonesia (14000), Philippines (7100), Japan (3000).

61. Australia is an exporter of wheat. Australia boasts the world’s largest known recoverable resources of

lead, mineral sands, tantalum, uranium, silver, and zinc. The southwest coast of the south island in New

Zealand is characterized by deep fiords (Fiordland National Park, largest in the country lies here).

62. In Lebanon 90 % of the population is Urban. In Turkey literacy rate is around 87 %. Pyongyang & Seoul

are both coastal cities. Jordan is not land locked because of Gulf of Aqaba.

63. Malaysia is not the leading producer of tin in the world (China & Indonesia lead). Copper is the leading

mineral of Philippines. Iran also has one of the world's largest reserves of copper

64. With a mean elevation of approximately 650 m (2,100 ft) above sea level, Africa is high compared to

other continents.. Gold is Ghana’s principal mineral resource. More than 90 % of Burundi’s population is

rural. River Niger has two deltas—an inland delta in central Mali and a coastal delta along the Gulf of

Guinea

65. South East Asian countries in descending order of population density are Philippines (290), Indonesia

(132) Thailand (125) Malaysia (70) & Brunei (62). Area wise the descending order is Indonesia, Thailand,

Malaysia & Philippines.

66. Europe has longer coastline than North America Rhine is connected to Rhone & hence the Mediterranean.

About 50 % of Netherland’s landmass lies below sea level.

67. The ten highest peaks of USA are in Alaska. The Great Lakes were formed during the ice age. The largest

single cause of the decline in the Amu Darya’s water level is the Garagum Canal, the longest canal in the

former Soviet Union and one of the longest in the world. The Aral Sea is a remnant of Tethys Sea.

68. France has a major tidal power plant on the Rance River in Brittany. France produces more electricity than

it uses and is a major exporter of electricity to neighboring countries, including the United Kingdom, Italy,

and Switzerland.

69. Kuwaiti Oilfields are located at Fao, Burgan, Wafra. The largest lakes of Brazil are are Sobradinho, on the

São Francisco; Tucuruí, on the Tocantins; Balbina, on the Amazon; and Furnas, on the Paraná.

70. The world’s top waterfalls in a descending order of discharge of volume of water are Niagara falls,

Victoria falls, Iguazu falls (On Parana river in Argentina-Brazil border) & Kaieteur Falls (on river Potaro

in Guyana, S. America).


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71. In Africa the leading states for various commodities are: Tea (Kenya), Oil Palm (Nigeria), Cocoa (Ghana),

Coconuts (Tanzania), Cotton (Egypt). S. Africa leads in wheat, maize, fruits & wool.

72. Kalahari means ‘the great thirst’ & a major part of it is in Botswana. Khartoum is located at the

confluence of Blue Nile (Lake Tana) & White Nile (Lake Victoria). White Nile (longer) lies to the west of

Blue Nile & contains sudds (the swampy land). A region of inland drainage in Africa is Lake Chad.

73. South Africa has 3 capitals: Cape Town (legislative capital); Pretoria (Executive/Administrative capital);

and Bloemfontein, the judicial capital.

74. The four most populous countries of Africa are Nigeria, Egypt, Ethiopia & Zaire. Countries comprising

the horn of Africa are Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia & Somalia.

75. River Limpopo forms the boundary between S. Africa & Botswana. River Orange forms the boundary

between S. Africa & Namibia.

76. Ethiopia & Liberia were never colonized. Eritrea was carved out of Ethiopia during 1990s. Djibouti faces

the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Countries bordering lake Victoria are Tanzania, Kenya & Uganda

77. Panama city is the only capital city of the Central American Country having a coastal location. The cities

on the edges of Panama canal are Balboa (Pacific side) & Colon (Atlantic side). Chagres Locks, Pedro

Miguel Lock & Mira Flores lock are on the Panama Canal.

78. Central American Countries: Puerto Rico is the largest exporter of Chemicals. El Salvador is the only

country on having an Atlantic Coastline. Belize is the only country not having a Pacific coastline. El

Salvador is the smallest in area & has the highest density. Guatemala the most populous in the region.

Trinidad is the only Carribean Island with large oil reserves.

79. Jura (mountains), mountain range, is located along the border between France and Switzerland (& not

Germany). Vosges are in Germany.

80. Rhode Island is the smallest state of USA. California is the most populated state of USA. The confluence

of Mississippi & Missouri is at St. Louis. Niagara falls lie between Lakes Erie & Ontario. ‘Big Apple’

describes the city of New York.

81. The number of provinces & federal territories in Canada is 10 & 3 respectively (total 13). Quebec is the

largest province of Canada & Ontario is the most populous. The capital of various provinces of Canada

are Quebec (Quebec city), Ontario (Toronto), Manitoba (Winnipeg), Saskatchewan (Regina), Alberta

(Edmonton), British Columbia (Victoria).

82. Mahaweli Ganga is the longest river of Sri Lanka. Hawaii is known as crossroads of the Pacific. At Basel,

Rhine River turns north and enters the Rhine rift valley, a flat-floored rift valley lying between the Vosges

on the west and the Black Forest (Schwarzwald) on the east.


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83. Lake Albert, Lake Edward, Lake Kivu, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi is the correct sequence of the

Lakes form north to south in Middle Africa.

84. English is the official language of Nigeria. Copenhagen (Entreport), Honolulu (port of call) are different

types of ports. New York is known as a city that never sleeps. Minnesota is known as land of 10,000

lakes, which is an understatement as it has more than 15000 lakes. Colorado accounts for the largest

production of Uranium in USA. Missouri & Tennessee share borders with the maximum number of other

states in USA (each borders 8 states).

85. Mackinder termed British & Japanese islands as offshore islands. Extensive agriculture is characterized by

high per capita production but poor per acre production.

86. Shannon river is the longest in the British Isles. Guano (mainly Peru) is a source of phosphatic fertilizer.

Nitrate fertilizers are prepared form Caliche (Chile – Chile saltpeter or NaNO3)

87. Shinano river is the longest river of Japan.

88. Belem is the biggest cocoa exporting port of Brazil. Hudson Bay is the world’s largest bay & Davis Strait

is the worlds broadest strait. British Columbia accounts for half of Canada’s timber.

89. The coasts of Canada are highly indented as eustatic changes in the past have led to the submergence of

low lying land.

90. Queensland is the largest producer of Sugarcane & leads in cattle (40% of total) in Australia. Australia is

the world’s largest producer of both gem/near-gem and industrial-grade diamonds, producing about two-

fifths of the global total. Tasmania is the leading producer of apples in Australia.

91. Western Australia is the largest province in terms of Area . Dongara in south west Australia is known for

Natural gas. Whyalla is a city and port in southern Australia near Adeilade & is important for ship

building. Located on the northwest shore of Spencer Gulf, an arm of the Indian Ocean, Whyalla is a center

of heavy industry, with gas refineries and chemical industries.

92. Danube crosses through the maximum countries of the world. The capital cities of Vienna, Budapest,

Bratislava (Slovakia) & Belgrade (Serbia & Montenegro) lie on its bank. Iceland’s economy mainly

depends on exports of fish.

93. Kuwait is the most urbanized Arab State (virtually entire population is urban). Turkey has virtually no

desert & is quite unlike middle east. The Anatolian plateau (Asian Turkey) is bounded by Pontine

mountains to the north & Taurus mountains to the south.

94. Maldives has a density of 1100 persons/sq km. The top four most dense countries of south Asia are

Maldives, Bangladesh, India & Sri Lanka. In Pakistan 33 % of the population is urban & Sri Lanka has 23

% urbanization. Western Sahara is the most urbanized in Africa. Djibouti also has one of the highest


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urbanization (85%). South Africa has 60 percent urbanization. Uruguay is the most urbanized nation in

South America.

95. Ferro-nickel is one of the prominent exports of Dominican Republic.

96. Christchurch is the main urban centre of the Canterbury plains in New Zealand. Kruger National Park, is

in northeastern South Africa, adjacent to the Mozambique border & is among the ten largest national parks

in the world.

97. Texas is known for the maximum number of tornadoes in USA. Greenland is more sparsely populated

than Mongolia. Canada produces the maximum hydroelectricity in the world.

98. The correct sequence of Chinese cities in descending order of population is Shanghai, Beijing, Tianjin &

Nanjing. Within China Chernozem soils are only found in Manchuria.

99. The Chinese cities form North to South are: Fushun, Shenyang, Anshan, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai &

Wuhan. Nanjing is almost at the same latitude as Shanghai & is close to it.

100. The correct decreasing order of population concentration in various Japanese provinces is Honshu,

Kyushu, Hokkaido & Shikoku. The population of following Japanese cities in descending order is Osaka,

Nagoya, Kobe & Kyoto.

Miscellaneous Facts II:

1. Muroran is an important industrial centre in Hokkaido. Chiba is another industrial centre near Tokyo.

2. River Mekong is called the Danube of SE Asia. A fragmented strip of Malaysia (Sarawak) separates

Brunei into two divisions. Brunei is a member of Commonwealth of Nations.

3. Borneo is an ancient stable crust pushed above the sea level by tectonic forces & is not subject to

volcanism. Indonesia is the worlds largest archipelago. The Indonesian Islands in decreasing order of area

is Kalimantan (Borneo Island), Sumatra, Irian Jaya (or Papua), Java & Bali. Java is the most populous

island.

4. Jakarta is the largest city of SE Asia followed by Manila. Borneo is the least developed part of Indonesia.

Indonesia is the largest producer of Liquefied Natural Gas in the world.

5. Palembang (Sumatra), Bogor (Java), Balikpapan (Kalimantan), Manado (Sulawesi) are some of the

principal cities of Indonesia. Makassar is the largest city and chief port of Sulawesi

6. Hmong is a minority ethnic group that lives primarily in China and Southeast Asia. About 2 million

Hmong live in Southeast Asian countries, such as Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. Another 10

million Hmong live in the southern provinces of China.


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7. The correct sequence of cities north to south in SE Asia is Hanoi, Vientiane, Yangon & Bangkok. Ferries

on Bangkok’s extensive system of canals (khlongs) serve thousands of commuters every day. Bangkok

has in the recent years faced the problem of sinking ground due to excessive withdrawal of water. In the

eastern part of Thailand lies the Khorat plateau which comprises of sandstone & is a region of cassava

production.

8. Sjælland, also Zealand, island of eastern Denmark is the largest and most important island of Denmark

9. Pennine chain of Mountains is in England & Pyrenees is in Spain. Cantabrian Mountain chain is also in

Spain lying west from the Pyrenees to the Atlantic Ocean

10. Prut (also Pruth or Prutul river) flows through southwestern Ukraine, western Moldova, and eastern

Romania & is a major tributary of the Danube River. The northern Dvina flows into the White Sea. The

port of Arkhangelsk lies on its bank. The western dvina called Daugava rises in Belarus & flows

northwest through Latvia, emptying into the Gulf of R�ga. The Duero river lies in Spain & Portuagal.

11. Russia, Ukraine & France are the top 3 countries in Europe by Area.

12. Australia is the driest & the hottest continent of the world. Gulf of Joseph Bonaparte lies to the west of

Arnhem land in Australia. Sharks Bay lies to the west of Hammersley ranges. Gulf of Spencer is near

Adeliade & Flinders range. Significant petroleum deposits have been exploited in Barrow Island, Bass

Strait and southern Queensland.

13. In Russia the various ports are Murmansk (Barents Sea), Magadan (Sea of Okhotsk), St. Petersburg (Gulf

of Finland) & Arkhangelsk (White Sea). The various cities are Nizhny Novogorod (Central region),

Magnitogorsk (Ural region), Kazan (Volga region) & Novosibirsk (Kuzbas).

14. The largest proportion of world electricity comes from thermal power. The Ruwenzori mountain range in

Africa is a block mountain produced by faulting.

15. In Pakistan Baluchistan lies to the west of Kirthar ranges & Sind lies to the east. Pakistan has higher

percentage of irrigated land than India, Bangladesh & Nepal. Mardan has the largest sugar factory in

Pakistan. Sylhet is the most important teas cultivation area of Bangladesh.

England & Ireland


145

Geography of India

Various Geographical regions/terms

Kalakot Coalfields Located in J & K.

Indira Col Northern most point of India

Walong Town Eastern Most point of India in Arunachal Pradesh

Rajheera Creek Western most point of India in Kachhch

Kukrail Project Protection of crocodiles

Goran Ghat Located in Rajasthan.

Char Uplands in the Ganga Delta

Bils/bhils Marshy lands / Ox Bow lakes in Assam

Teris/Theris Coastal sand dunes in Kerala (Malabar Coast)

Bhur Elevated piece of land situated along the bank of Ganga


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Barind Bhangar in deltaic region of Bengal having extensive laterite formations

Pats Lateritic plain (High level)

Chalkas Name for red soils in Telengana district.

Thali Sandy plain

Konda Residual Hillocks on the Telengana Plateau

Pensi La Connects Himachal Pradesh with Kargil

Dahej Centre of Chemical industry in Gujarat

Saharanpur Famous for Paper Industry

Pancham Island Lies near Gujarat

Osam & Barda Volcanic hills in Kathiawar.

Dapha Bum Highest peak in Eastern Himalayas (Mishmi Hills).

Blue Mountain Highest peak of Mizo hills

Barail Range Separates Naga hills from Manipur Hills

Jelep La Connects Kalimpong with Lhasa. Located in Sikkim

Karbi Analong Another name for Mikir Hills (Assam)

Nakki Lake Rajasthan

Mulshi Lake Maharashtra

Important Institutes

Central Soil & Materials Research Station New Delhi

Central Water & Power Research Station Pune

National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee

Wool Research Association Thane

National Ship Design & Research Centre Vishakhapatnam

National Mangrove Genetic Association Orissa

Forest Resource & Human Resource Development Chhindwara

Indian Boundaries

Bangladesh 4096 Km

China 3917 Km

Pakistan 3310 Km

Nepal 1752 Km

Myanmar 1458 Km

Bhutan 578 Km

Important Industrial Centers of India

Guntur Tobacco Andhra Pradesh

Vijaywada Pharmaceuticals & Toy Making Andhra Pradesh

Rajmundhury Paper Mill Andhra Pradesh

Machilipatnam Imitation Jewellery, Hand-woven clothes Andhra Pradesh

Porvorim Computer Floppy Disk

Palem Pig Iron Plant

Mangalore Roofing Tiles Karnataka

Trichur Diamond cutting & Polishing

Punaloor Paper Industry


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Dhuravani India’s First telephone manufacturing facility

Hubli Cotton Textile Bangalore

Karimnagar Silver Filigree Articles Andhra Pradesh

Kurnool Hydrogenated Oil Andhra Pradesh

Warangal Woolen Carpets Andhra Pradesh

Baleshwar Automobiles Tyres & Tubes Orissa

Modinagar Synthetic Fiber U.P.

Patna Aluminium Foils Bihar

Rai Bareli Passenger Car U.P

Greater Noida Telephone U.P

Jind Tannery Haryana

Pithampur Automobile (Scooter) M.P.

Naini Compressors & Pumps

Bhopal Heavy Electric Machinery M.P

Kota Precision Instruments Rajasthan

Ludhiana Bicycle parts Punjab

Saharanpur Sugar Industry U.P.

Panki Automobile

Important Agricultural Districts

Nagpur Orange

Jalgaon Banana

Nasik Onion

Bijapur & Dhule Grapes

Kolar Silk

Alleppey Cotton

Rayapuram Synthetic Fibre.

Geyser/Springs Sites of India

Manikaran Kulu, Himachal Pradesh

Tatapani Shimla, Himachal Pradesh*

Jwalamukhi Kangra, Himachal Pradesh

Rajgir Patna

Puga Valley J & K

Shahastradhara Uttaranchal

Uni Gujarat

Tapovan Bihar

Naraini Rajasthan

Foot Sachu Sikkim

Nimboli Maharashtra

Mineral sites

Koh Dariba Copper Rajasthan (Alwar)

Malanjkhand (Balaghat) Copper M.P.

Aridongri Iron Ore Chhatisgarh

Kendujhar Manganese, Chromite Orissa


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Lota Pahar Copper Rajasthan (South of Khetri)

Kolihan Copper Rajasthan

Jamar Kotra Rock Phosphate Rajasthan

Kalol Oil Gujarat

Naomundi Iron Ore Jharkhand

Ghatsila Copper Bihar

Chalk Hills Magnesite Salem

Nagaur Gypsum Rajasthan

Agnigundala Copper

Babaduan Hills Iron Ore Karnataka

Newly Created States:

Area Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand & Uttaranchal.

Population Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh & Uttaranchal

Population density Jharkhand, Uttaranchal & Chhattisgarh.

Sex Ratio Chattisgarh has highest

Highest Decadal Growth Jharkhand


1. The correct chronological scale of the Indian time scale is Archaean (Dharwar – Early Precambrian),

Purana (covers Cuddapah & Vindhyan systems – Late Pre Cambrian), Dravidian (400-600 million years

ago) & Aryan (400 million till date).

2. The peninsular plateau cover around 70 % of the India’s land area. Most of the peninsular rivers have

reached their base level of erosion.

3. The major syntaxial bends of Himalayas are near Pamir (where the Karakoram meets Hindukush) & in

Arunachal Pradesh where there is a sharp change from East-west to Southerly trend.

4. The Karakoram range & the Laddakh plateau lie to the north of Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone & originally

formed a part of the Eurasian plate.

5. Tectonic earthquakes cause maximum damage. The north-western Himalayas are more prone to

earthquakes than the eastern Himalayas. Dharwar system has the most important mineralized rocks of

India which are the earliest formed sedimentary rocks found today in metamorphic forms. The major

rocks of the Dharwar system include Schist, Quartzite, Slates, Dolomites etc. Vindhyan mountains exhibit

the oldest glaciation. The recent rocks are Aryan rocks. Quartzite & cement grade limestone is obtained

from the Cuddapah System.

6. Awadh plains lie to the east of Rohilkhand plains in U.P. Bhabar (8-16 km wide) extends from Indus to

Teesta & is not suitable for cultivation. Ajodhya hills lie in West Bengal. The Great Boundary Fault lies

along the Aravallis


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7. The length of the regional division of the Himalayas in descending order is: Nepal Himalayas, Assam

Himalayas, Punjab Himalayas & Kumaon Himalayas.

8. The submarine canyons along the Indian coasts are found only in a small portion in Kutch coastal region.

9. The Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage. It rises in the lower slopes of the Himalayas &

forms boundary between Haryana & Punjab & is lost in dry sand near Hanumangarh. Purvanchal hills

have trellis drainage pattern.

10. Reserved forests (54 % of total) are under direct supervision of government. In protected forests local

people are allowed to collect timber. About one percent of India’s forest is ‘Private Forest’.

11. The Sambhar, Degana, Didwana lakes are the proof of the recession of the Arabian Sea. Parts of the

Indian deserts also resulted due to the recession. The western part of Thar has longitudinal dunes &

eastern part is characterized by Barkhans. The 25 cm Isohyet form the limit of Thar desert.

12. Jhelum & Beas are not antecedent but Satluj, Saryu (Kali), Ghagara, Kosi, Teesta & Manas River are

antecedent. River Son, Damodar, Chambal & Banas are fine examples of superimposed drainage. The

following states are arranged in descending order of area: Assam, Jharkhand, Uttaranchal & Himachal

Pradesh. Lakshadweep has the smallest area among UTs. Gujarat has the longest coastline in India

followed by Andhra Pradesh.

13. The south-west monsoons of India represent equatorial westerlies. Mizoram is the least irrigated states of

India. Shivsamudram is the oldest hydro electricity project.

14. Ganga river has the maximum flow in August & September. Jhelum has the maximum flow in May &

June. The Ganga Cauveri link is likely to connect Thanjavur to Patna.

15. In India the top river basins are Ganga (26.2%), Indus (9.8%), Godavari (9.5%), Krishna, Brahmaputra &

Mahanadi. Brahmaputra leads in terms of annual water yield & rate of flow. Storage capacity is highest

for Ganga.

16. Black soils are suitable for citrus & leguminous crops. Red soils are suitable for Tapioca & cashewnuts.

Gangetic soil can be described as azonal. Rock Cover is the most important factor of soil formation.

Fallow land in India is about 10 %. The highest area under maize is in the state of M.P. Highest yield of

wheat is found in Punjab.

17. M.P & U.P are the top two states in number of cattle & U.P & Punjab are top two in milk production.

Cattle density if highest in Manipur.

18. Coal in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Rajasthan, Kerala, J & K & Tamil Nadu

belongs to Tertiary Era. The States with highest coal reserves - Jharkhand, West Bengal Orissa & M.P.


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19. In fish production the top 4 states are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and West Bengal. West Bengal is the

leading producer of inland fish.

20. The states in order of electricity installed capacity are Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh & Tamil Nadu.

21. Bauxite is associated with Lateritic soil. The Rourkela plant was built with German collaboration.

22. BARC centers are at Trombay, Kalpakkam, Indore & Thiruvananthapuram. Centre for Wind Power &

Energy is located in Chennai. The Kayathar & Muphandal wind farms are located in Tamil Nadu.

23. Mundas are the most underdeveloped tribe of India. The period 1971-81 recorded the highest growth rate

of population. Agricultural density is highest in West Bengal followed by Kerala & U.P.

24. The widest continental shelf of India is off Mumbai & narrowest off the Godawari Delta. The total

number of river basins in India is 113 (14 major, 44 medium & 55 minor). Of the panchnad rivers Beas

river basin is completely in India.

25. The Bhagirathi originates from Gaumukh glacier & Alaknanda from Satopanth glacier. Shifting

cultivation is known as Podu in Orissa, Penda in Chhattisgarh & Deppa in M.P. Vishnu Prayag is the

confluence of Alaknanda & Dhauli Ganga. Nand Prayag is the confluence of Alaknanda & Mandakni.

26. All INSATs were launched from Kourou French Guyana.

27. The States with descending order of metropolitan cities are U.P (6), Maharashtra & Gujarat (4 each),

Andhra Pradesh, M.P & Tamil Nadu (3 each).

28. Jhingurda (Singrauli-Shahdol) in M.P with 130 m thickness is the thickest coal seam of India.

29. Conifers are found in Himalayas at the altitude of 1500 m to 3500 m. The following states/UTs are

arranged in the descending order of mangrove forests – West Bengal, Gujarat, Andaman & Nicobar and

Andhra Pradesh. The correct sequence of forest cover of India is Dense forest, Open forest & Mangrove.

Mangrove forests are also found in the Krishna Delta.

30. Assam has boundary with 7 states including West Bengal but not with Sikkim.

31. India is the largest producer of sponge iron in the world.

32. Rajmahal hills are block mountains & Dalma is volcanic in origin. Laterite soils are the most preferable

for Dryland farming. Salher & Kalsubai are two important peaks located in the western ghats

33. Rihand is a tributary of Son & Banas is the tributary of Chambal. The extension of Aravallis to the city of

Ambala forms the river divide between Ganga & Indus. The Vindhyan range acts as a water divide

between the Ganga system & the river system of South India.

34. The Deccan Traps have been formed by both the fissure eruption (western side) & central eruption

(eastern side). Sal, Teak, Sandalwood & Sheesham are related to tropical moist deciduous forest.


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35. Black soil is found in the Deccan Plateau region. Red soil is found in the periphery of the plateau &

Laterite soil is found on highland plateau.

36. 25 % of the rainfall is received during winter season. About 55 % of the country is vulnerable to

earthquakes. East of Maikal range is the Baghelkhand Plateau made of limestones & sandstones on the

west & granite on the east.

37. Chilka Lake & Keoladeo National Park are protected under the Ramsar convention. The tertiary rocks are

mostly found in the Himalayas. In the Peninsula they occur in the coastal areas of Gujarat, Kerala & Tamil

Nadu. The western slopes of Sahyadris are more steeper than eastern slopes as the western part is highly

faulted

38. Karakoram range has the maximum glaciers. Namcha Barwa is 7750 metres high & Gurla Mandhata 7728

metres. The theories of monsoon generation are thermal concept (Hadley), Dynamic Concept (Flohn) and

Southern Oscillation Theory (Walker).

39. Bhutan touches 4 Sates of Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Nepal touches the

following 5 states - Uttaranchal, U.P. Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim. Bangladesh touches 5 states of

West Bengal Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura & Mizoram.

40. In Assam Brahmaputra has a highly braided course. Purna falls is on Tons river.

41. Vizhingam in Kerala produces wave energy. Muppandal in Tamil Nadu – Wind Energy.

42. The types of Montane forests according to decreasing height are: Alpine (3000-4000 m), Moist Temperate

Forest (2000-3000 m), Pine Forest (1500-1750 m) & Wet Temperate Forest (200-1000 m).

43. Hyundai Motors, Hindustan Motors, Ashok Leyland are all in Chennai.

44. Vishakhapatnam is a landlocked harbour & the ships are protected by the Roass hill in the North &

Dolphin’s Nose to the south. Gujarat will benefit most from the water allocated in Sardar Sarovar Project

& M.P will be the main beneficiary in terms of electricity. The Reliance Petroleum Refinery at Jamnagar

refines imported petroleum.

45. Alang is the leading ship breaking centre of India of the three centres of Alang, Sachna & Mumbai.

46. India imports cashew nut from the countries of East Africa. The processing industries of Cashew Kernels

is concentrated in Quilon. The imported raw cashew nut is processed & exported to other countries.

47. Large part of Deccan plateau is poor in minerals because the Lava has buried the mineral bearing old

rocks baring very few exposures of mineral bearing rocks.

48. Marble is quarried along the western region of Sambhar Lake & Sandstone in Kaimur range. Lac is the

secretion of tiny insect called the lac insect which lives on the sap of trees like Kusan, ghont, palas, khair,

ber etc.


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49. .The coalfields arranged from west to east are Bokaro, Jharia & Raniganj.

50. The States arranged in descending order of cropping intensity are Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar

Pradesh & Mizoram.

51. The utilization of Ground water potential is very high in Punjab area, High in Maharashtra region,

Moderate in Tamil Nadu region & low in NE region.

52. Grount Nut is the principal crop of Rayalsema region.

53. The following Urban agglomerations are arranged in descending order of their population & are the last 5

among the 35 million cities - Faridabad, Allahabad, Amritsar, Vijaywada & Rajkot.

54. The following territories are arranged in descending order of their population size: Delhi, Pondcherry,

Chandigarh, Andaman & Nicobar, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu & Lakshadweep.

55. Uttar Pradesh is the chief producer of vegetables & tanned hides. Cardamom is the leading cash crop of

southern Sikkim & is mainly exported.

56. The shortest National Highway 47A connects Wellingdon Island & Cochin Bypass. The following

features of the Indian Ocean are arranged from North to South Socotra-Chagos Ridge, Carlsberg ridge,

Mascarene basin & Prince Edward Crozet ridge.

57. The largest number of Muslim population in India is in Uttar Pradesh.

58. Banas & its tributaries have carved the Mewar upland into a rolling peneplain. The Mandovi Zuari Creek

in Goa is an important embayment in the coastline. Parasnath Hill is situated in Haraibagh plateau. The

Kaimur hills belong to the Vindhyan range. Dhupgarh (Satpuras), Mahendragiri (Garhjat Hills),

Gorakhnath peak (Girnar Hills), Mulangiri (Baba Budan Hills).

59. Siachen glacier is in Nubra valley. Amarnath cave is situated near Kalahoi glacier.

60. The longest beach of India is in Chennai. Dense forests have a tree canopy cover of more than 40 %. The

true dense cover in India is about 12 % of the total land area. Western Ghats have two different types of

vegetation on its two slopes. The largest portion of India’s wasteland occurs in degraded pastures &

grazing land.

61. The name of forest & corresponding state is: Manas (Assam), Betla (Bihar), Gorumara (West Bengal) &

Madumalai (Tamil Nadu).

62. The centrally sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) programme was launched in the year 1973-

74. Forest conservation Act was passed in 1980. Cyclonic activity in India is a characteristic of the pre &

post monsoon periods. Worlds highest observatory is in Hanle, Laddakh.


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63. The Gangetic plain has been created by both exogenic & endogenic forces. The expression of earliest

volcanic activity is found in India in Dalma hill of Bihar. Soil erosion in India occurs in almost all the

states but it is most serious along the coast of Kerala.

64. Chhattisgarh is the only tine producing state in India.

65. The peninsular India has not undergone marine submergence since Archean times. The Aravalli

Mountains were one of the oldest geosynclines in the world. Shillong plateau is also known as

‘Meghalaya’ meaning ‘abode of clouds’. It was so named by S.P Chatterjee.

66. The cultural gap theory given by Ogburn states that material aspects (money etc) change faster with time

than the non material aspect (like social values) therefore it results in cultural gap.

67. Sunderbans, Simplipal & Manas are the three biosphere reserves which are also tiger reserves. Kaziranga

National Park, Nandadevi, Manas wildlife park are among India’s world heritage site. Corbett National

park (earlier Hailey national park) was the first national park of India & Vedanthagal bird sanctuary is the

first bird sanctuary of India. Longest navigable waterway is in Uttar Pradesh.

68. Midnapore canal is on Kosi river. Gujarat is the leading producer of ‘Beedi Tobacco’ in India. Groundnut

is the leading oilseed in India.

69. Wattle a tanning material used in leather industry is grown in Nilgiri & Palni Hills & from here major

supplies are done for the entire country.

70. The plants & their power source are Bokaro Steel plant (Jharia), Bhilai Steel plant (Korba), Indian Iron &

Steel Co. (DVC power supply) & Visveswaraya Iron & Steel Co (Shravati power project).

71. India’s production of gold has been declining. Raniganj is the oldest coalfield in India. In Karnataka

plateau the hilly region is known as Malnad & the rolling plain as Maidan. Vindhyas form watershed

between the Ganga System & peninsular river system. Cardamom hills is a branch of Annamalai hills.

72. Lakshwadeep (Atoll), Gulf of Kutch (Platform), Palk Bay (Fringing reef) are the types of reef in India.

73. The term ‘Bhabhar’ implies piedmont plain & it is extensive in the west & narrow in the east. Kolleru lake

was formed when marine transgression had taken place forming a lagoon, but at present it is almost a fresh

water lake.

74. Atari is the last Indian railway station before crossing into Pakistan on the Amritsar Lahore line. Leh lies

between Ladakh & Zaskar.

75. Hoggenakkal falls is on Kaveri river as soon as it enters Tamil Nadu. Wular lake is tectonic, Rakas lake is

glacial & Didwana lake is Aeolian.

76. In 2004 a new biosphere reserve was inaugurated in Arunachal Pradesh.


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77. During 1901-2001 the population of India has increased by about 4 times. The sex ratio on a worldwide

scale is 986. The sex ratio of India in 1901 was 972 & the density in 1901 was just 77 persons/km2.

78. The sex ratio of various religious communities/ other communities is Scheduled tribe (978), Scheduled

Caste (936), Jains (940), Sikhs (893).

79. 1921 is taken as the year of demographic divide & 1931 as urbanization divide.

80. Jains have the highest literacy rate (overall, male as well as female) followed by Christians in all the three

categories. Muslims have the highest proportion of children population among their total population. The

census is conducted under the Census Act 1948. The census moment was 00:00 hours of 1st March, 2001.

India has 2.3 % of world‘s area & 16 % of total population. The district having least population density is

Lahul & Spiti (2 person/Km2) & the highest density is in NE Delhi (29400)

81. Sikhs have recorded the lowest decadal growth rate of 16.9 %. Jain population has registered growth rate

of population @ 26 % (highest among all religions) in 1991-2001 compared to 4.6 % during 1981-1991.

Parsi population has shown signs of decline.

82. The sex ratio of India in 1991 was 927 which has improved to 933. The density of India in 1991 was 267

which has increased to 324 per/km2 during 2001 adding 57 persons per square km.

83. The over concentration of urban population in the big urban centers of India is called population

implosion. As per the census a person is deemed as literate if he/she can read & write in any language with

understanding. For the first time since independence there is a decline in the absolute number of illiterates

during a decade.

84. The census 2001 has provided for the first time report on religious data.

85. The correct decreasing order in terms of sex ratio is Kerala (1058), Chhattisgarh (990), Tamil Nadu (986).

Among UTs sex ratio is highest for Pondicherry (1001).

86. The urbanization is highest in Goa (49.7), Mizoram (49.5), Tamil Nadu (43.8) & Maharashtra (42.4). The

least urbanized state in India is Himachal Pradesh (9%) Bihar (10%) & Sikkim (11%). In terms of

absolute number of people living in Urban areas Maharashtra leads followed by UP. U.P has the

maximum number of illiterates in absolute number followed by Bihar.

87. Lakshwadeep has the minimum population & maximum literacy rate (87.5) among UTs. Pondicherry has

the maximum sex ration (1001)

88. The total number of districts in India in 2001 were 593 & total number of towns is 5161. Tamil Nadu has

the maximum number of towns in India. Total number of urban agglomeration in India is 384 (maximum

in M.P). The life expectation at birth in India is 61 years.


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89. The Mediterraneans are considered to be the bearers of earliest form of Hinduism in India. Bulk of the

population among lower caste is also comprised by the Mediterraneans in Northern India.

90. Jains have the minimum gap in literacy levels of male & female in India. Muslims have the lowest literacy

levels.

Geographical Thought

Geographers & their Contribution

Neo Determinism Griffith Taylor

Demographic Transition Model W.S. Thomson & Frank W. Notestein

Mobility Transition Model Zelinsky

Cylindrical Equal Area Projection J. Heinrich Lambert

Polar Zenithal Equal Area Projection J. Heinrich Lambert

Sea Floor Spreading Harry Hess

Geosynclinal Theory of Mountain Building Kober

Optimum Population Theory Sidgwick (Later Dalton, Robbins, Carr Saunders)

Economic Theory of Population Leibenstein

Least Cost Theory Weber

Locational Interdependence Palender

Sub-Optimal Location Smith

Economic Rent Ricardo

Agricultural regions Whitlessey

Natural Regions Herbertson

Five Stages model of Development W.W. Rostov

Growth Pole Francois Perroux

Atmospheric Circulation Model Palmen

Convection Current Hypothesis Arthur Holmes

Theory of Intervening Opportunities S.A. Stouffer

Theory of Intervening Obstacles E.S. Lee

Concept of Urban Village H.J. Hans

Concept of Urban Continuum R.E. Pahl

Concept of Rural Urban Fringe Pryor

Geosophy concept (subjective conceptions) John Wright

Geopacifics Concept Griffith Taylor

Geopolitics Concept K Haushofer

Geonomics Concept G. T Renner

Density-size rule R.H. Best

Demographic Index B.J.L. Berry

Population Potential G Tornqvist

Centrality Index Preston

Origin of rift valley Bullard

Morphometric Analysis Strahler

Panplane concept Crickmay

Primarumpf concept Penck

Panfan concept Lawson.

Concept of Base Level Powell


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Core-Periphery Model Friedmann

Cultural Hearth Sauer

Concept of Sequent Occupance Whittlesey

Mental Map Lynch & Gould

Differential Heating concept of Monsoon Halley

Crop Combinations Theory J.C. Weaver

Line of Compensation Pratt

Etchplain Pugh & Thomas

Gravity Model T. Q. Stewart

Plastic Space Pip Feror

Compage Whittlesey

Density & Fecundity Theory Saddler

Cultural Realms of the World Broek & Webb

Concept of Regional Synthesis Berry

Regional Science Concept Isard

Regional System Concept Tuan

Uniformitarianism Hutton

Mountain Root Theory Airy

Cumulative Causation Theory Gunnar Myrdal

Maximum Revenue Theory A Losch

Concept of Natural Boundary Layer

G Scale (Scale of Natural Values) Hagget & Chorley

Incubator Hypothesis Hoover & Vernon

Time Space Convergence Theory D Janelle

City of Need & City of Death (Concepts) W. Bunge

Treppen Concept Albrecht Penck

Tangent of Average Slope E Raisz & J Henry

Use of Dots A H Robinson

SIAL, SIMA, NIFE classification E. Suess

Identified four basic pedogenic regimes Simonson

Concept of City Region R.E. Dickinson

Concept of ‘Garden City’ Ebenezer Howard

Social Physics Stewart

Human Welfare concept David Harvey

Spatial Organization Smith

Philosophies & Geographers

Behaviouralism Huff, Haggerstand, Cox, Peter Gould, Tobbler

Humanism John wright, Lowenthal, Kirk, Tuan

Universalism Talcot Parsons

Particularism Hoselitz

Idealism Leonard Guelke

Realism John Scott, Gibson

Pragmatism Pierce

Positivism Auguste Comte, BJL Berry, David Harvey, William Bunge

Marxism David Harvey


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Welfare Approach D.M Smith & David Harvey

Radicalism Peet

Probabilism O.H.K. Spate

Works of Geographers

Meterologica Aristotle

Guide to Geography Ptolemy

Quadriparitum (effect of position of celestial bodies on Humans) Ptolemy

On Airs, Water & Places Hippocrates

History of Plants Theophrastus

General Treatise Strabo

Exposition of the World System Laplace

The World & its People H.J Fleure (British)

Prologue to Population Geography W. Zelinsky

Jyotisiddhanta Aryabhatta

The Economics of Location A. Losch

The Earth & its resources Finch, Trewartha & Shearer

Statistical Analysis in Geography L.J.King

Land of Britain – Its use & Misuse Stamp

Editor of Antipode R. Peet

Methods of Regional Analysis Isard

On Geography & its History D. Stoddart

Post Modern Geographies E. Soja

The Major Natural Regions of the World A. J. Herbertson

Comparative Method Carl Ritter

Cosmographic Universalis Sebastian Munster

Nouvelle Geographic Universelle Elisee Reclus

Realm of Nature H Robert Mill

Territorial Production Complex Kellossvosky

Ill Million Marco Polo

Jewahirat Al Biruni

Description of the Earth Al Battani

The History of Geography J N L Baker

Geography as Human Ecology H H Barrows

Theoretical Geography William Bunge

Radical Geography R. Peet

Rural Settlement & Landuse M. Chisolhm

Systematic Geography W. M Davis

Geography as fundamental research discipline E. A. Ackerman

Where is the Research Frontier E. A Ackerman

Approaches to Regional Analysis: A Synthesis B.J. L Berry

Geographic Influences on American History Albert Parry Birmingham

Principles of Geology Charles Lyell (1830)


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City Region & Regionalism R.E. Dickinson

Economic Geography of Britain Smith

Isaiah Bowman The Pioneer Fringe

The spatial organization of Society Morill

Silent Spring Carson

Famous Saying/Quotation/Thought

Earthquakes & Volcanoes are caused by winds Aristotle

Soil Erosion & Land destruction are parts of culture, history & repeated in many places Plato

Our senses can tell us fire is hot but not why it is hot Aristotle

Geography is the science which deals with the art of map making Ptolemy

The best economic programme for a country to follow is determined by nature & it is

geographers duty to interpret this programme

Stop & Go

Determinism

As body is made of soul, the physical globe is made for mankind Carl Ritter

We must ask the earth itself for its laws Carl Ritter

Geography is the mirror of man; to know the world is to know yourself Yi Fu Tuan

Give me the map of a country & I pledge myself to tell you what the man of the

country will be & what part that country will play in history

Ratzel

People of cold climate are physically stron, more courageous, less suspicious & less

cunning than those in the warm climate

Montesquiue

The environment in essentially neutral Edward Ullman

Environment taken by itself is a meaningless phrase; without man environment does

not exist

O.H.K. Spate

The main obstacle between Hindus & Muslims is the Varna system Al-Biruni

Geography is the Study of partial distribution & space relations on the earth’s surface E. A. Ackerman

Man can never get entirely rid himself of the hold his environment has on him L Febvre

Human environment relationship is dynamic rather than static Semple

Human geography is the study of changing relationship between unresting man & the

unstable earth

Semple

Present is the Key to the past James Hutton

I traveled, I sketched, I described Ratzel

Cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural group. Culture is

the agent, the natural area the medium, the cultural landscape the result

Sauer

Geography is the study of things associated in areas, mutually interacting,

characterizng particular segments on the earth surface.

Blache

Who gets what, where & how Welfare Geography

Nature to be commanded must be obeyed (Neo determinism) Fracis Bacon

Regional geographers may be trying to put boundaries that do not exist around areas

that do not matter

Kimble

It is the links in the landscape rather than the breaks that impress the scientific mind Kimble

Defined geography as ‘Discovery of predictive patterns’ during quantitative revolution Bunge

Dimension of society are analogous to the physical dimensions & include numbers of

people, distance & time

Social Physics

Geography comes through the soles of one’s shoes Grieve


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Classical Geographical Concepts

Lebensrauam Ratzel

Ort Lichkeiten Richthofen

Zusammenhang (Harmonius unity among diverse phenomena on earth) Humboldt

Principle of Activity & Principle of Interaction Jean Brunhes

Concept of World Island Mackinder

Space time concept Kant

Ancient Names

Erythrean Sea Arabian Sea/Indian Ocean Scythia Ukraine

Istre Po Sinus Arabicus Red Sea

Ivernia Iceland Taprabone Sri Lanka

Irene Ireland Rha Volga

Palus Maeotis Sea of Azov Tanais Don

Boresthenes Dneiper Euxine Black Sea

Hyrcanian Caspian Sea Elephantine Cataract Aswan

Sea of Larvey Arabian Sea Sea of Kendrej Gulf of Thailand

Sea of Shelhat Malacca Sea Coniaci Cape Comorin

Arbela Mesopotamia (Iraq) Mother of Euxine Sea of Azov

Nishad Hindukush Mountains Zaradrus Sutlej

Krishnagiri Karakoram Acesipes Chenab

Menkagiri Siwalik Hydratoes Ravi

Kimpurusa Tibetan Plateau Hyphasis Beas

Arbud Aravalli Chyrse Malay Peninsula

Rhapton Tanganyika Arabicus Sinus Red Sea

Aromata Somali Coast

* - Name in Italics are Puranic Names

Miscellaneous Facts

1. The term latitude & longitude were first used by Ptolemy. Ptolemy also developed the polyconic

projection. Ptolemy considered the Indian ocean as an inland sea. The Greek cartography is said to have

attained its culmination (reach zenith) at the hands of Ptolemy.

2. Eratosthenes is considered father of geodesy. Elisee Reclus was an anarchist geographer.

3. The main contribution of Romans was in the field of Historical & regional geography. Anaximander used

the term ‘latitude’ & longitude’ for the first time. Hippocrates was the founder of medical geography (also

father of medicine). The T-O map was developed during the dark ages (Christian parts – 200 to 700 AD)

& was oriented towards east.

4. The main contribution of Al Idrisi was in the field of Cartography & that of Ibn Khaldun in Human

Geography.

5. Varenius ‘General Geography’ was ‘Systematic Geography’ & ‘Special Geography’ was ‘Regional’.


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6. The Prime Meridian of the classical Indian geographers used to be drawn through the city of Ujjain, Lanka

& Mt. Meru (North Pole). The Vedic planets are Buddha (Mercury), Brihaspati (Jupiter), Mangala (Mars)

& Shukra (Venus).

7. Humboldt attempted to formulate general or abstract laws. He believed that all the races of man had a

common origin. Ritter was the first professor of Geography. The “principle of interaction” was introduced

by Brunhes.

8. Strabo is considered the father of Chorology ie ‘regional geography’. Strabo attempted to explain that

slope, relief & climate were all the work of god. Griffith Taylor applied the concept of ‘Zones & Strata’

for the evolution of races of mankind. Kant Freed Geography from its tight bonds with theology.

9. Herodotus was associated with Pythagorean School of philosophy. Hipparachus prepared catalogue of

star. Thales was associated with Ionian School of Philosophy. Archytas measured the total length of the

land & sea. Archimedes deducted that the surface of the sea must be convex.

10. Ruling deity & directions were: Yama (South), Indra (East), Varuna (West), Kuber (North) & Brahma

(Zenith). The first Indian university to establish geography department was Madras University. The first

detailed map of India was prepared by Ptolemy. Bhaskaracharya was the ancient Indian scholar who

divided earth into 360 degrees.

11. The ancient Puranic directions were North West (Vayavya), North East (Isana), South West (Nairitya) &

South East (Agneyay).

12. Hartshorne rejected environmental determinism as it separates nature from man & is thus disruptive of

fundamental unity of the field. Oscal Peschel was the originator of the dualism between Physical &

Human Geography.

13. W.M Davis concept was down wasting & Penck’s Concept was back wasting. The quantitative models

recognize men as passive agents.

14. G.K. Gilbert was the first to establish the relationship between load of a river, its volume, velocity &

gradient. He gave the concept of grade.

15. Thales was the first Greek scholar to be concerned about the measurement & location of things on the

surface of the earth. Thales applied the principles of geometry to measuring land area. Herodotus is often

called the father of ethnography.

16. Plato conceived the world as having been created in perfection but now in the process of decline from

perfection.

17. Aristotle was a teleologist. In fact he is considered the father of teleologist concept as he believed that

everything was changing according to a pre-existing plan. Aristotle founded his own school in Athens


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which he named Lyceum. Aristotle added ‘ether’ to the list of four basic substances (earth, water, fire &

air) comprising all materials on the earth. He considered equatorial regions as uninhabitable.

18. Eratosthenes accepted an invitation from the king of Egypt to become the royal tutor & was also named as

‘Alpha fellow’ at the museum in Alexandria.

19. Pytheas was the first Greek to tell about ocean tides & showed that tides were related to the phases of the

moon. Eudoxus, a contemporary of Plato developed the theory of zones of climate based on increasing

slopes (Klima) away from the sun on a spherical surface.

20. Homer was considered by Strabo as the founder of all geographical knowledge but Strabo considered

Herodotus as a ‘fable monger’ & ‘fiction retailer’. Herodotus described about the “dumb commerce”

practiced by Carthagians with primitive tribes in western Africa.

21. As a result of the voyage of Ibn Haukal to the south of equator the wrong notion about the inhabitability of

the torrid zone came to an end.

22. Al-Masudi said that there is no place on the earth that is always covered with water, nor one that is always

land but a constant revolution takes place. Al Masudi also said that the power of the earth vary in their

influence on man on account of three causes viz water, natural vegetation & topography. Al Masudi

correlated the colour of ocean water & its salinity

23. Al-Biruni referred to the “Mountain of Moon” situated near the equator which was the source of Nile river

& was of the opinion that floods in the Nile occurred because of the heavy rains in the upper reaches of

the Nile.

24. Pferre d’Ally wrote ‘Imagine Mundi’ which influenced Columbus to search a route to Asia moving

westward from the Canary Islands.

25. Varenious in his treatise on regional geography outlined its contents under three sections: Celestial

properties, terrestrial properties & human properties.

26. Kant recognized the importance of commercial geography, theological geography, moral geography &

mathematical geography & saw them heavily influenced by underlying physical geography. Kant believed

that physical geography is the first part of knowledge of the earth.

27. Ritter emphasized that he was teaching a ‘new scientific geography’ in contrast to the traditional lifeless

summary of facts about countries. ‘Erdkunde’ means earth science.

28. The term ‘anthropogeographic’ was coined by Ratzel & was used by him for the Organic theory of society

& state.

29. Sauer established a research group at Berkeley School that focused on the historical – ecological study of

cultural landscapes.


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30. Chisolhm is considered father of economic geography. Mackinder renamed his ‘Pivot Area’ as

‘Heartland’ in his famous book ‘Demographic ideals & reality’.

31. Humanism emphasizes the importance of participant observation, iconography, place & hermeneutics.

The humanistic geography aims at ‘Verstehn’ which means understanding of man in his environment.

32. Behavioural geography did not bring about a revolution away from quantitative geography, it became an

attachment to it. Behavioural geography also adopted positivist approach. Preds work represents an

attempt to incorporate probability into the locational analysis.

33. White had presented the PhD thesis on ‘Human response to floods’. Taylor on the basis of climatic cycles

evolved a theory known as the ‘Migration zone theory of race evolution’ where he assumed that climate

has been a cause of human migrations.

34. O’ Riordian has given forms of environmentalism. ‘Ecocentrism’ & ‘Technocentrism’ are the two major

forms of Environmentalism according to him.

35. The basic dictum of existentialism is ‘Man makes Himself’. To the existentialist for every landscape or

existential geography someone can be held accountable.

36. To the idealist the explanation of an action is complete when the agent’s goal & theoretical understanding

of his situation have been discovered.

37. The American School represents the major tradition of Cultural Geography in the 20th

century.

38. Patanjali described the crop regions on the basis of climate & soil. The area drained by Saptasindhu

contained all the rivers of Punjab along with Saraswati & Present Gagghar.


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Techniques of Geographical Analysis

Various Measuring Instruments

Hydrometer Relative density of a liquid/ Measurement of water flow in currents

Atmometer Rate of Evaporation

Campbell Strokes Recorder Sunshine

Cielometer Height of Clouds

Octas Amount of Cloud cover

Reversing Thermometer Temperature of Ocean Depth

Sundial Duration of Sunshine

Wind Vane Wind Direction only (not windspeed).

Optical Square For short off-sets from chainline to any object close by

Cynometer Blueness of Sky

Analemma Scale drawn on the globe to show daily declination of the sun

Tachometer indicates rotational (angular) speed in revolutions per minute (rpm)

Tacheometer Measurement of horizontal & vertical position of a point

Odometer Measuring distance traveled by a vehicle

Rotameter Measuring length (esp stream lines on map)/ rate of fluid flow

Auxanometer Measuring growth in plants

Udometer A rain guage

Wentworth Scale Classify particles ranging from boulders to colloids

Saffir Simpson scale Measuring Hurricane Intensity

Fujita Scale Measures Relative severity & damage of Tornado


1. Cadastral map can be best reduced by Pantograph & wall maps are generally reduced with the help of

Camera Lucida. A map with diagrammatic statistical information is known as Cartogram. One yard is

equal to 3 feet. 1760 yards make a mile.

2. Gall’s Projection is most suitable for general purpose world map. In Mercator projection the scale along

the Meridians & Parallel is the same & hence it maintains accuracy of shape.

3. Sinusoidal (Sansom Flamsteed) projection is suitable for Africa. For drawing map of small countries like

Nepal, Sri Lanka, France, Portugal the Simple conical projection with one standard parallel is most

suitable. Galls projection is rectangular in shape & is most suitable for General purpose map of the world.


164

4. The Ria coast contours are shown below the sea level. The chorographical maps are drawn on a very small

scale & give more or less highly generalized information.

5. Hypsometer measures the proportion of area of the surface at different elevation above or below the sea

level. Most globes are formed from a series of roughly triangular maps called gores, which are glued on

the outside of a sphere. The earliest known globe is said to have been constructed by a Greek scholar

Crates about 150 BC.

6. The Indian topographical maps have the scale 1’’ = 1 mile. The scale of degree sheets published by the

Survey of India is 1:250,000. Aerial photographs of India are supplied by Survey of India. March to April

& September to October is the best period for aerial photography.

7. Europe (Polyconic projection) Asia (Zenithal Equidistant), General purpose map of India (Bonnes) &

USA (Lambert’s Zenithal Equal Area) Distribution map of world (Cylindrical Equal Area)

8. The Gnomonic Projection is a great circle projection. Transverse Mercator’s projection is also known as

Gauss conformal projection & it never shows pole.

9. LANDSAT orbit allows the imaging of the location about every two & a half weeks.

10. Topographical maps are prepared on a smaller scale than a map of Delhi.

11. Halley prepared the first weather map of the world. In the year 1884 the meridian that passes through the

royal observatory at Greenwich in London was established as the global starting point for measuring

longitudes.

12. Conical map projections were the first map projections developed by ancient Greeks. Pole is represented

by an arc in conical projections. Cardinal points refer to the four main directions on a compass.

13. In Azimuthal projection the direction of one point with respect to the other point is the same as it is on the

globe. In all cylindrical projections, meridians are equispaced. In all cylindrical projections latitudinal

scale is correct only along the equator.

14. Perspective projection is also known as geometrical projection. In Mercators projection, a straight line

drawn is a line of constant bearing (Loxodrome) but it does not give the shortest distance. Still it is

popular among navigators as they project the great circles into smaller loxodromes & then navigate

through Mercators projection.

15. The stereographic projection is suitable for navigational chart. Gnomonic projection is used for air routes

in the higher latitudes. Mercator projection is also referred to as Cylindrical Orthomorphic projection.

16. The counters showing vertical cliff come very close to meet each other but do not intersect each other.

Longitudinal profile would suit to show a waterfall.


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17. The direction of the hachures is the same as that in which water would flow ie the direction of slope.

Hachures cut contours obliquely. Hill Shading is a modern substitute for hachures. It involves shading the

slopes which are usually shadowed form the sun.

18. The true north is called geographic north.

19. For a map, horizontal equivalent is generally not constant, however the vertical equivalent is constant.

20. The various colours used in making maps are Cultivated area (yellow), Grasslands (light green), Forests

(Dark Green) & Built up area (Brown).

21. The balloon borne instrument used to measure different atmospheric elements & sending information to

the ground is called Radio Sounde.

22. The wet bulb & dry bulb thermometer is used to measure Humidity.

23. Equal area projections are Cylindrical equal area, Bonnes projection, Sinusoidal projection, Stereoscopic

projection & Mollweids projection.

24. The world is divided into 136 million sheets. The million sheets are further divided into 16 parts – A to P.

The reduced bearing equivalent of whole circle bearing 225o is S 45

o W.

25. On a topographical map built up areas like village site, towns, roads are shown by brown colour.

26. SPOT was the first satellite to offer a stereoscopic cover. Quick bird is the highest resolution satellite of

the world. At international date line west side of the line is always one day ahead of the east side.

27. The IRS satellite has a polar, sun synchronous orbit. It returns to its original orbit after 22 days. The

satellite takes about 103 minutes for completing one orbit.

28. Daylight Saving, system of setting clocks 1 or 2 hours ahead so that both sunrise and sunset occur at a

later hour, producing an additional period of daylight in the evening. Daylight saving was first proposed

by Benjamin Franklin.

29. China with a longitudinal extent of 50 degrees has only one time zone corresponding to the eastern part of

the country.

30. Africa cannot be shown suitably on Bonnes projection.

31. Ancient period maps: Circular showing Europa north of Asia surrounded by Oceanus on all sides

(Hecataeus), Rectangular having cylindrical projection (Eratosthenes) & Conical shape projection

(Ptolemy), Heart shaped map (Peter Apian), world in two hemispheres (Mercator) – [Refer last 3-4 pages

of S.K Manocha for map].

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