Geochemical analysis of thermal fluids from southern Mount Meager, British Columbia,

Canada

Katherine Huang

Faculty of Earth Sciences

University of Iceland

2019

Geochemical analysis of thermal fluids from southern Mount Meager, British

Columbia, Canada

Katherine Huang

60 ECTS thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of a

Magister Scientiarum degree in Geology

MS Committee

Andri Stefánsson

Master’s Examiner

Snorri Guðbrandsson

Faculty of Earth Sciences

School of Engineering and Natural Sciences

University of Iceland Reykjavik, May 2019

Geochemical analysis of thermal fluids from southern Mount Meager, British Columbia,

Canada

Mount Meager Thermal Fluids Geochemical Analysis

60 ECTS thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of a Magister Scientiarum degree in

Geology

Copyright © 2019 Katherine Huang

All rights reserved

Faculty of Earth Sciences

School of Engineering and Natural Sciences

University of Iceland

Sturlugata 7

101, Reykjavik

Iceland

Telephone: 525 4000

Bibliographic information:

Katherine Huang, 2019, Geochemical analysis of thermal fluids from southern Mount

Meager, British Columbia, Canada, Master’s thesis, Faculty of Earth Science, University

of Iceland, pp. 92.

Printing: Háskólaprent Ltd

Reykjavik, Iceland, May 2019

Abstract

Geothermal exploration has been ongoing intermittently in the Mount Meager geothermal

area, British Columbia, Canada, since the 1970s. However, a geochemical interpretation of

the many fluid samples collected during this time period has not been carried out for several

decades, leaving gaps in understanding of the system which modern techniques can help fill.

Thermal fluids from springs and wells in the southern Mount Meager geothermal field were

analyzed to understand the fluid origin, controls on chemistry from effects of mixing and

water-rock interaction, and to determine the reservoir temperature and composition.

Chloride and boron concentrations ranged from 100 to 3300 ppm and 0.3 to 28 ppm,

respectively. These very high conservative element concentrations cannot alone be explained

by rock dissolution and are instead likely supplied by a single magmatic source. Calculated

reservoir compositions suggest that select deep wells have experienced significant CO2

degassing from reservoir to the surface, and high SO4 content present from surface samples

is traced down to the reservoir. These data corroborate the hypothesis that a magmatic

component exists and contributes to B, Cl, CO2 and SO4 fluid composition, although CO2

and SO4 may have alternate sources. Select geothermometers calculated reservoir

temperatures of up to 283 °C for central deep wells and as low as 30 °C and 5 °C for hot

springs and cold springs, respectively. Like many high-temperature geothermal systems, the

compositions of thermal fluids appeared to be controlled by the equilibrium between the

fluid and observed secondary minerals. Hot springs and wells on the eastern and northern

sides of the reservoir are of low temperature and likely define the boundaries of peripheral

waters. Wells to the southeast contained anomalously high Cl and SO4, suggesting a possible

magmatic input of these components which may be controlled by the east-west running

Meager Creek Fault Zone. There is a significant source of hot, Cl- and CO2-rich thermal

waters supplying deep wells MC-1, MC-2, MC-6 and MC-8, and possibly MC-3. These

NaCl waters likely define the high temperature, central location of the geothermal reservoir.

Útdráttur

Á Mount Meager jarðhitasvæðinu í Bresku-Kólumbíu, Kanada, hefur síðan á áttunda

áratugnum staðið yfir könnun á jarðhita þar, þó með hléum. Á þessu tímabili hefur miklum

fjölda vökvasýna verið aflað en þau hafa hingað til ekki verið túlkuð með aðferðum

jarðefnafræðinnar. Slík túlkun getur aukið skilning á jarðhitasvæðinu töluvert, sér í lagi með

nýjum jarðefnafræðilegum aðferðum sem þróaðar hafa verið síðustu áratugina.

Jarðhitavökvi úr náttúrulegum uppsprettum og borholum á suðurhluta jarðhitasvæðisins var

rannsakaður til að skorða betur uppruna vökvans, skoða áhrif blöndunar og samspil vatns og

bergs á efnafræði vökvans og greina samsetningu og hitastig djúpvökvans. Klór-styrkur

mældist á bilinu 100 til 3300 ppm og bór-styrkur 0.3 til 28 ppm. Háan styrk þessara efna er

ekki hægt að útskýra eingöngu með uppleysingu bergs en benda frekar til þess að vökvarnir

séu upprunnir úr kviku. Reiknuð samsetning djúpvökvans bendir til að í sumum borholunum

hafi átt sér stað mikil afgösun CO2, frá djúpvökva til yfirborðs og að háan styrk SO4 í

yfirborðssýnum megi rekja til djúpvökvans. Þessi gögn styðja þá tilgátu að djúpvökvinn eigi

sér uppruna að hluta í kviku, sem eykur hlut B, Cl, CO2 og SO4 í vökvanum, þótt CO2 og

SO4 í vökvanum gætu komið úr fleiri uppsprettum. Valdir jarðhitamælar gefa allt að 283°C

reiknað hitastig djúpvökva í borholum miðsvæðis, allt niður í 30°C fyrir hveri og 5°C fyrir

kaldar uppsprettur. Líkt og mörg háhitasvæði virðist samsetning jarðhitavökvans stýrð af

jafnvægi milli vökvans og síðsteinda sem koma fram. Hverir og borholur á austur- og

norðurhluta svæðisins skilgreina sennilega vatnaskil. Borholur á suðausturhluta svæðisins

eru óvenju rík af Cl og SO4, sem bendir til mögulegs kvikuuppruna þessara efna sem

mögulega er stýrt af Meager Creek misgengjabeltinu. Það er töluvert magn af heitum, Cl- og

CO2-ríkum jarðhitavökva sem streymir í borholur MC-1, MC-2, MC-6 og MC-8 og

mögulega MC-3. Þessi Na-Cl vötn skilgreina líklega miðju háhitadjúpvökvans.

vii

Table of Contents

List of Figures ................................................................................................................... viii

List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... ix

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. xi

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 13

2 Study area ...................................................................................................................... 15 Hydrology .............................................................................................................. 16 Geothermal activity ............................................................................................... 19

2.2.1 Previous work on fluid geochemistry .......................................................... 19

3 Database ......................................................................................................................... 25

4 Data handling ................................................................................................................ 29 Data filtering.......................................................................................................... 29

Estimation of fluid origin and mixing using conservative element behavior ........ 31

Reservoir fluid composition, reservoir temperature, aqueous speciation, and

mineral saturation .................................................................................................. 32 Distribution of geothermal activity ....................................................................... 34

5 Chemical characteristics of samples ........................................................................... 39

6 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 41 Fluid origin and mixing using boron and chloride systematics............................. 41

Reservoir temperature and fluid composition ....................................................... 44 6.2.1 Fluid-mineral interaction ............................................................................. 48

Distribution of geothermal activity ....................................................................... 51

7 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 55

References........................................................................................................................... 57

Appendix A ......................................................................................................................... 65

Appendix B ......................................................................................................................... 75

Appendix C ......................................................................................................................... 85

viii

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Left: Geomorphological belts of the Canadian Cordillera (after Harris et al.,

1997). Right: The Mount Meager Volcanic Complex (in yellow box) sits

at the intersection of the Pemberton and Garibaldi Belts (Lewis & Souther,

1978). ................................................................................................................ 15

Figure 2.2 Geological map showing the volcanic assemblages of the MMVC (adapted

from Proenza, 2012). ........................................................................................ 17

Figure 2.3 Hot springs and previously drilled wells in the southern reservoir of the

MMVC (adapted from Proenza, 2012; GeothermEx, 2005). ........................... 18

Figure 4.1 Calculated percentage ion balance plotted against select element

concentrations. Dotted lines are interpreted intrumental detection limits.

Red indicates data point from a sample of M12-80D, black indicates data

point from a sample of MC-2. .......................................................................... 30

Figure 5.1 Piper plot of all sampled waters. ........................................................................ 40

Figure 6.1 The relationship between (A) B and Cl and (B) Cl/B molal ratio and Cl for

the thermal waters. Precipitation content is plotted along with average

compositions of andesite and basalt. Progressive rock leaching (ξ) from

0.01 to 1 is also graphed ................................................................................... 43

Figure 6.2 Comparison of different geothermometers. ....................................................... 45

Figure 6.3 CO2 and SO4 composition of all waters from sampling (blue) and for wells

using reservoir composition calculated from WATCH. ................................... 47

Figure 6.4 Activities of major cations as a function of temperautre. The solid line

shows logK for each reaction. .......................................................................... 50

Figure 6.5 Distribution of key variables Cl, CO2, SO4, and temperature. ........................... 54

ix

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Geothermometry results from past literature vary between source and

geothermometer used. Temperatures are in °C. ............................................... 21

Table 3.1 Overview of database. .................................................................................... 26-27

Table 4.1 Summary of lithologies encountered during well drilling. .................................. 32

Table 4.2 Composition of sources that are considered to be contributing Cl and B to

the geothermal waters. Cl and B are in ppm. .................................................... 32

Table 4.3 Equations for geothermometers used. Concentrations are in mg/kg. T is in

°C. ..................................................................................................................... 36

Table 4.4 Balanced reactions used to calculate loqQ. ......................................................... 37

Table 6.1 Temperatures ranges for all geothermometers for each well and hot spring

type. .................................................................................................................. 44

Table 6.2 Range of concentrations for reservoir compositions of samples that

degassed. ........................................................................................................... 46

Table 6.3 Averages and standard devations of reservoir Cl, CO2, SO4 and temperature

for sample locations. Concentrations are in ppm; temperatures are in °C. ...... 52

xi

Acknowledgements

My greatest thanks goes to Andri Stefánsson for his seemingly infinite knowledge on fluid

geochemistry and geothermal energy. I am grateful for his patience, guidance, help, and for

everything I’ve learned, and I hope to one day have a fraction of his wisdom. Thank you to

Jóhann Gunnarsson Robin for help with WATCH and to my peers in Iceland for sharing

interest and love of geology, volcanology, geothermal energy, and geochemistry. I am also

grateful for my family and for my partner Michael for the support during my time here in

Iceland.

I could not have written this thesis without the projects and research previously conducted

over many decades. I appreciate all of the work that was done before my time, as well as the

pioneers who have been pushing for geothermal energy in Canada- I can only hope that this

research may contribute. Finally, I would like to thank my dear friend Sally Innis, for I would

not be studying geology today without her.

13

1 Introduction

Geochemical composition of thermal fluids may be used to understand fluid origin, mixing

between two or more fluid sources, degree of water-rock interaction, and to estimate

reservoir temperature and composition. As such, geothermal geochemistry is one of the key

tools applied in geothermal exploration (Arnórsson & D'Amore, 2000).

Among the key questions that arise when considering the utilization of geothermal resources,

as well as their general nature, is the origin of the water itself. Stable and radiogenic isotopes

and conservative elements have been studied to address these questions in the past. The

pioneering work by Craig (1961, 1963) and Friedman et al. (1964) and later, for example

Árnason (1976, 1977) led to the extensive work on stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of

cold and geothermal waters and precipitation. Conservative elements such as boron and

chloride have also been applied to trace water sources and degree of mixing of two or more

water types, and also to assess water-rock interaction (Arnórsson & Andrésdóttir, 1995). In

meteoric source water, their concentrations are usually low and, upon water-rock interaction

and mixing with for example seawater, the elemental concentrations and relative ratios

change. These changes can, in turn, be used to quantify the various sources of the two

elements.

Studies of alteration mineralogy and fluid composition in geothermal systems show that

equilibrium is closely approached between the geothermal fluids and secondary minerals

formed in the systems except for mobile elements such as chloride and boron (e.g.,

Giggenbach 1981, 1988; Arnórsson 1983a; Pang & Reed 1998; Stefánsson & Arnórsson,

2000). Such mineral-fluid equilibria provides the basis for application of calculating

reservoir temperatures using solute and gas geothermometry. Solute geothermometers

include quartz (Arnórsson et al., 1983a; Fournier, 1977; Fournier & Potter; 1982),

chalcedony (Arnórsson et al., 1983b; Fournier, 1977), and the cations such as Na-K

(Arnórsson et al., 1983b; Fournier, 1979a; Giggenbach, 1988; Tonani, 1980; Truesdel,

1976), K-Mg (Giggenbach, 1988), Na-K-Ca (Fournier & Truesdel, 1973), Na-K-Ca Mg

(Fournier & Potter, 1979) and Na-Li (Fouillac & Micard, 1981). Univarient

geothermometers, such as quartz and chalcedony, are based on single element concentrations

and may be subject to secondary changes upon boiling, fluid mixing, and condensation.

Ratio chemical geothermometers like Na-K overcome this challenge by using element ratios

that are affected to the same degree by these secondary processes. They are, however, limited

by equilibrium and rate conditions. Many of the geothermometers vary in the temperature

ranges that they operate in based on mineral-solution equilibrium systematics and therefore

the appropriate geothermometer(s) must be selected for the geothermal system being studied.

Numerous fluid geochemistry studies have been carried out for thermal fluids in the Mount

Meager geothermal field as part of earlier exploration programs. Chemical analysis of the

hot springs and/or well fluids have been published by Hammerstrom and Brown (1977),

Adams et al. (1985), Ghomshei et al. (1986), Adams and Moore (1987), Ghomshei and Clark

(1993), and Grasby et al. (2000). Chemical analyses of reservoir rocks and drill core have

been published by Moore et al. (1983), Moore et al. (1985), and Adams and Moore (1987)

to reconstruct the hydrothermal events in the system. Stable and radioactive isotope data

14

have been studied by Clark et al. (1982), Ghomshei and Clark (1993), Phillips (1994), and

Clark and Phillips (2000). Despite the number of publications on thermal fluid geochemistry

in the area, there is still uncertainty about the temperature and characteristics of the

geothermal reservoir. Presently, researchers agree that the geothermal system in general is

composed of NaCl fluids, while fluid flow is limited by low permeability throughout the

reservoir. However, there is debate about the fluid origin and amount of mixing within the

system. Some research presents evidence of mixing between brine and non-thermal

groundwaters (Ghomshei et al., 1986; Ghomshei & Clark, 1993), while others suggest that

there is no indication of mixing (Adams et al., 1985; Adams & Moore, 1987). As a

geochemical analysis of the 200+ fluid samples has not been carried out in 30 years,

reviewing the data with modern programs and present knowledge of thermal fluid

geochemistry may provide more insight on the geothermal system.

Here, the aim is to use existing data to classify the origin of the geothermal waters, to

understand the controls on water chemistry and the effects of mixing and water-rock

interaction, and to calculate the reservoir temperatures of the southern Mount Meager

geothermal reservoir. Due to lack of geochemical fluid data in the north reservoir, this

research focuses on the south reservoir where most of the deep wells have been drilled.

Reservoir fluid temperatures and compositions were estimated using geothermometry and

geochemical modeling, respectively. In addition, conservative elemental relations were used

to assess the source and mixing of fluids. Together, these results help to construct an overall

model of the geothermal system to support future geothermal development at Mount Meager.

15

2 Study area

The Canadian Cordillera in western Canada is composed of five geomorphological belts:

The Insular Belt, Coast Belt, Intermontane Belt, Omineca Belt, and Foreland Belt. The

Pleistocene to Recent Mount Meager Volcanic Complex (MMVC) within the Coast Plutonic

Belt sits 150km north of Vancouver, British Columbia (Figure 2.1) (Read, 1977). The

complex is transected by the north-northwest trending plutonic Pemberton Belt and the

north-south trending Garibaldi Belt composed of Quaternary volcanoes. Both belts are

associated with subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate (Lewis & Souther, 1978).

Figure 2.1 Left: Geomorphological belts of the Canadian Cordillera (after Harris et al.,

1997). Right: The Mount Meager Volcanic Complex (in yellow box) sits at the intersection

of the Pemberton and Garibaldi Belts (Lewis & Souther, 1978).

The MMVC is dominantly calc-alkaline and made up of assemblages composed of andesite

and dacite flows, basaltic lava flows and pyroclastic deposits, dacite domes and flows, and

pyroclastic units, all which lie unconformably on a basement of plutonic (granitic to quartz

diorite) and metamorphic rocks (Stasiuk & Russell, 1989; Read, 1977)Error! Reference

source not found.. These units are shown on the geological map in Figure 2.2. The

assemblages are products of around 2.2 My of intermittent volcanic activity (Read, 1977,

1990). The initial eruption was explosive and gas-rich, which fractured the basement; it has

been postulated that this caused the basement to seal itself, creating a geothermal reservoir

(Lewis & Souther, 1978). The uppermost assemblage is the Pebble Creek formation

16

(formerly Bridge River Ash Assemblage), composed of eruptive products of lava domes,

flows, and rhyodacite volcaniclatics from the most recent 2350 B.P. ±140 years eruption

(Stasiuk et al., 1996; Hickson et al., 1999; Stewart, 2002; Stewart et al., 2003; Nasmith et

al., 1967; Clague et al., 1995).

The complex is cut by numerous steeply dipping faults thought to be of crustal magnitude

(NSBG, 1974). The Meager Creek Fault Zone is a northeast-dipping normal fault that runs

east-west along Meager Creek. The exact size is unknown, but it is postulated to be the major

conduit for ascending geothermal fluids in the area. Several smaller faults run perpendicular

to this fault, including the No Good Discontinuity, the Camp Fault, and the Carbonate Fault.

The No Good Discontinuity is a north-south striking, east-dipping fault interpreted to bisect

the volcanic complex along a linear zone of volcanic vents. The Camp Fault is a northeast-

striking, nearly-vertical dipping fault (NSBG, 1981). The Carbonate Fault dips away from

the reservoir and is thought to control the flow of cool water to the carbonate springs (NSBG,

1980). The faults are shown on the geological map in Figure 2.2.

Hydrology

Hydrology research has been published by Moore et al. (1985) and Adams and Moore

(1987), and reported by NSBG (1980) and GeothermEx (2004). Geothermal waters originate

from the quartz diorite basement and occupy permeable fractures and faults (NSBG, 1980).

NSBG (1980) noted that large volumes of fluid loss during shallow well drilling indicate

high permeability in the basement rock. However, permeability in the upper portions of the

reservoir is low, which limits fluid flow above basement rock (Moore et al., 1985).

Petrographic, mineralogical, and trace element studies by Adams and Moore (1987) have

established that upward movement of geothermal fluids in the reservoir is focused by fault

and fracture zones, steeply dipping dikes, and hydrothermal breccias related to recent

volcanic activity.

Because there is disagreement regarding fluid mixing, there is no universally accepted

conceptual hydrology model for the Mount Meager geothermal system. However,

temperature and chemical data provide relatively clear boundaries of the reservoir. The No

Good Discontinuity or nearby Carbonate Fault is likely the western temperature boundary

of the system. Chemical evidence and temperature measurements suggest either that the No

Good Discontinuity is the boundary, featuring a downflow zone or that the Carbonate Fault

is the boundary that circulates flowing water upward (GeothermEx, 2004; NSBG, 1980).

The southern boundary is still poorly defined but is postulated to be the Meager Creek Fault

Zone along Meager Creek (NSBG, 1980). Thermal fluids from wells MC-1 and MC-2 are

likely part of an upflow and outflow zone which flows south to feed into hot springs along

Meager Creek (GeothermEx, 2004). Slimwells drilled in between the deep wells show

evidence of convection of high temperature fluids at shallow depths; this area is possibly in

the center of the geothermal reservoir anomaly (GeothermEx, 2004).

17

Figure 2.2 Geological map showing the volcanic assemblages of the MMVC (adapted from Proenza, 2012).

18

Figure 2.3 Hot springs and previously drilled wells in the southern reservoir of the MMVC (adapted from Proenza, 2012; GeothermEx, 2005).

19

Geothermal activity

Six hot spring complexes lie within the general north-northwest trend of the Pemberton Belt

within the Canadian Cordillera (Lewis & Souther, 1978). Hot and cold springs in this area

originate from the basement rock (Read, 1977). Among these spring complexes are the

Meager Creek Hot Springs, Placid Hot Springs, and No Good Warms Springs which all lie

along Meager Creek on the southeast edge of the MMVC and discharge chemically similar

water at 20-55 ºC (Clark et al., 1982). Water from these springs are thought to be related to

recent volcanic activity (Lewis & Souther, 1978).Carbonate and siliceous sinters appear in

surface deposits at Meager Creek Hot Springs and other hot springs south along Meager

Creek, while white carbonate deposits are found around the CaCO3 Cold Springs (Moore et

al., 1985).

2.2.1 Previous work on fluid geochemistry

The hot springs on the southeast end of the MMVC (Placid Hot Springs, Meager Creek Hot

Springs, and No Good Warm Springs) are all Na-Cl dominated, oversaturated in amorphous

silica, and are thought to be recharged from meteoric water locally on the volcanic complex

and mixed with older thermal water. Stable isotope and Cl- data analysis however, suggest

that thermal waters from Meager Creek Hot Springs originate from mixing between cold

groundwater and MC-1 water (Gomshei & Clark, 1993). Based on He isotope data, the

mixing ratio of cold water to MC-1 thermal water could be approximately 2:1 (Clark &

Phillips, 2000).

Isotope and major element analyses contradict these mixing models, suggesting that thermal

water from MC-1 and hot springs, although likely all originate from meteoric water, are

chemically and isotopically distinct (Adams et al., 1985; Adams & Moore, 1987). Piper plots

and TDS with isotope analyses show three distinct water groups: Moderate TDS NaCl waters

with large isotope shifts (MC-1), low TDS NaCl waters with small isotope shifts (Meager

Creek Hot springs), and high TDS NaCl waters with moderate isotope shifts (shallow wells

and other springs). The difference in TDS as well as isotope shifts between MC-1 and

Meager Creek Hot Springs waters suggests separate histories of deep, subvolcanic fluid flow

and shallow fluid flow, respectively. Thermal waters from shallow wells and other springs

are possibly cooled geothermal fluid with a long residence time. Overall, the data suggest

the geothermal reservoir is composed of multiple small geothermal systems with few faults

and fracture systems limiting the degree of mixing.

Early studies by Hammerstrom and Brown (1977) analyzed hot spring and shallow well

chemistry. Based on distribution of species calculations, the thermal waters appear to be in

equilibrium with near-surface alteration assemblages. Similarly, constant ion concentration

ratios published by Ghomshei et al. (1985) suggest that the reservoir is in thermochemical

equilibrium and has experienced fluid mixing. They propose that well MC-1 is fed by a

single brine which experienced either steam loss or mixing with cold, NaCl fresh water.

GeothermEx (2004) proposes yet another model that features five distinct groups of water

with various mixing patterns. The first group is represented by unmixed MC-1 and MC-2

NaCl waters. In this area, deep, 200 °C NaCl water is overlain by 50-130 °C Na-SO4-HCO3

20

waters, which does not mix with other waters. Near-surface NaCl waters interact with cold

groundwater and this mixture presents at the surface. To the west, MC-3 and MC-5 waters

are rich in Na-SO4 and NaHCO3 with lower and variable concentrations of Cl. GeothermEx

(2004) proposes that the deep NaCl water in this area mixes with the overlying Na-SO4-

HCO3 waters, creating Na-SO4, HCO3, NaCl surface waters. Bicarbonate waters exist on the

periphery of the deep wells in wells M2 and M6 formed from mixing of CO2-rich gas with

groundwater. These carbonate springs are thought to represent the lateral margins of the

geothermal system. A fourth group of shallow wells and cold springs exists even further

from the deep wells. The fluid compositions plot closely to MC-5 fluids on the Cl-SO4-HCO3

ternary diagram, but concentrations of components are significantly higher. This suggests

that this area is composed of cool, saline waters with a history of high temperature. Finally,

the No Good Warm Springs, Placid Hot Springs, and Meager Creek Hot Springs all have

similar fluid compositions which suggest mixing of NaCl waters from MC-1 and MC-2 with

Na-SO4-Na-HCO3 waters and groundwater.

The source of fluids from deep wells is still unknown, and much of the past research was

conducted before wells MC-6, MC-7, and MC-8 were drilled. Therefore, current knowledge

of the deep system is mostly based on data from MC-1. He isotopes indicate a possible

volcanogenic input of He (Phillips, 1994; Clark & Phillips, 2000). High PCO2 values,

enriched δ13CDIC, elevated 3He/CO2 ratios, and elevated Cl- may be explained by subduction

of Juan de Fuca plate sediments and pore water (Clark & Phillips, 2000).

Multiple studies have been published with geothermometry calculations for hot springs and

wells. Results are summarized in Table 2.1.

21

Table 2.1 Geothermometry results from past literature vary between source and geothermometer used. Temperatures are in °C.

Source Geothermometer Meager Creek MC-1 MC-2 MC-3 MC-5

Clark et al., 1982 Mg-corrected Na-K-Ca 105

Gomshei et al., 1984 Silica 200-210

Silica (steam loss) 185-195

Na/K 180-200

Adams and Moore (1987) Na/Li 280

Na-K-Ca(-Mg) 50-70 190

Grasby et al., 2000 Amorphous Silica 60

Quartz 184

Chalc 163

Na/K 222

Na-K-Ca 188

Mg/Li 87

GeothermEx, 2004 Silica 190-205 190-205 230-235 230-235

22

Chemical analyses of reservoir rocks and drill core have been published by Moore et al.

(1983), Moore et al. (1985), and Adams and Moore (1987) to understand the hydrothermal

events in the system. Analyses of core and cuttings suggest that the area has been affected

by at least two hydrothermal events. The older event is characterized by chalcopyrite

mineralization and propylitic alteration of the crystalline basement (Moore et al., 1983). The

younger event characterized by volcanic activity less than 2 My ago, resulted in secondary

mineral assemblages in dikes and breccias and in the crystalline basement. Alteration in the

dikes and breccias is predominantly characterized by distributed sheet silicates, including

smectite, chlorite, illite, saponite, and talc. Assemblages of epidote, K-feldspar, and

actinolite were found at depths below 1625m. Veins of carbonate ± quartz ± hematite as well

as sulfide deposits (mainly pyrite) were sporadically distributed. Many fractures in the upper

portion of the reservoir were infilled with carbonate during hydrothermal brecciation and

fluid boiling, which may contribute to the reservoir’s low permeability (Moore et al., 1985).

The crystalline basement of mainly meta quartz diorite was also highly altered with smectite

and illite, as well as kaolinite. Other secondary minerals included chlorite, Fe-Ti oxides,

epidote, and carbonate, the latter predominately present as veins in the upper 1800m of the

rock. Veins of quartz, hematite, and silicate minerals including epidote, chlorite, K-feldspar,

actinolite, and biotite were also found at depths below 700m. Many of these assemblages

cannot be distinguished between pre- and post-volcanic activity, although the sheet silicates

in the basement are certainly post-volcanic products. Within both the dikes/breccias and the

basement, four distinct alteration zones define the secondary mineral assemblages and their

respective temperature ranges (e.g. Muffler & White, 1969; Elders et al., 1979; McDowell

& Elders, 1980; Bird et al., 1984). The upper smectite zone is normally found in geothermal

areas which have experienced temperatures of 50-175 °C while the interlayered illite-

smectite zone is normally formed in the range of 150-225 °C. The illite and chlorite

assemblage is formed above 200 °C, but can exist at temperatures as low as 150 °C. Finally,

the epidote zone and the actinolite, biotite, and talc zone form in geothermal systems at >200-

250 °C and >300 °C, respectively.

A 1970s energy crisis spurred an onset of geothermal exploration in British Columbia,

sponsored by the federal government and the government-owned utility company, BC Hydro

(Ghomshei et al., 2004). Initial exploration included geophysical and geochemical

exploration and temperature gradient/slimhole drilling in the north and the south Meager

areas. In the early 1980s, three deep exploration wells, MC-1, MC-2, and MC-3 were drilled

to depths of approximately 3500 m in south Meager, as well as several more shallow

slimwells. The deep wells were targeted to a significant low resistivity anomaly, but

insufficient detailed information on subsurface geometry caused them to miss the target. The

wells encountered temperatures up to 270 ºC at 300 m, but all three lacked permeability. By

1982, three deep wells and 19 temperature gradient/slimhole wells had been drilled.

The project halted in 1985 due to financial cutbacks, and in 1989 the geothermal lease at the

Meager site was transferred to Meager Creek Development Corp., a subsidiary of Western

GeoPower Corp. Work finally resumed in the early 1990s when MC-5 was drilled. After

drilling, work halted again until 2000, when Western GeoPower Corp. extended work to the

north (Ghomshei et al., 2004). A 2001 MT survey placed the low resistivity anomaly much

further north, towards Pylon Peak extending to the north of Meager Creek. The next three

wells, M17, M18, and M19 targeted this anomaly and were drilled at much higher elevations

in 2001-2002. High temperature gradients encountered in the wells corroborated the MT

data. In 2002, Western GeoPower Corp. drilled deep wells MC-6, MC-7, and MC-8 to target

23

an inferred upflow zone to the north of Meager Creek. Drill collar locations, bottomhole

projections, and hot springs are show in Figure 2.3. Of the 19 temperature gradient/slimhole

wells drilled, only M1-74, M2-75D, M7-79D, and M12-80D had complete fluid analyses

(explained in Chapter 4) and therefore are the only wells included in maps and analyses. For

simplification, they are labelled on maps as M1, M2, M7, and M12, respectively.

25

3 Database

Hot spring geochemistry data has been collected and published by Souther (1976), NSBG

(1975, 1980), Hammerstrom and Brown (1977), Michael and Fritz (1979), Shenker (1980),

and Clark et al. (1980). Fluid chemistry from wells has been published by NSBG (1975,

1980, 1981), Hammerstrom and Brown (1977), Michael and Fritz (1979), Shenker, (1980),

Clark et al. (1980), BC Hydro (1983), and Western GeoPower Corp. (2009). Results were

compiled recently by Proenza (2012).

In the south reservoir, data are available from a total of 251 fluid samples from three

hot/warm springs, three cold springs, six shallow wells, and five deep wells. Shallow and

deep well depths range from 45-899 m and 2380-3606 m, respectively. For each sample

location, there was at least one samples that analyzed the major elements SiO2, Na, K, Ca,

Mg, Cl, SO4 and C as HCO3, CO3, and/or CO2. Other components analyzed varied between

samples and included Fe, Mn, F, B, Li, As, and NH4. An overview of what has been analyzed

is shown in Table 3.1.

From these compiled sources, only the data that met the selection criteria outlined in the

following section were used.

26

Table 3.1 Overview of database.

Name Type Count Depth (m) Source Elements Analyzed

Meager Creek

Hot Springs Hot Spring 11 Surface

NSBG, 1975; NSBG, 1980;

Hammerstrom & Brown, 1977;

Michael & Fritz, 1979; Shenker,

1980; Clark et al., 1980

SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe, Mn,

F, B, Li

Placid Hot

Springs Hot Spring 1 Surface Clark et al., 1980 SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe, Mn

No Good

Warm Spring Hot Spring 9 Surface

NSBG, 1975; Hammerstrom &

Brown, 1977; Shenker, 1980;

Clark et al., 1980

SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe, Mn,

F, B, Li

Boundary Cold

Springs

Cold

Spring 1 Surface Clark et al., 1980 SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe, Mn

CaCO3 Springs Cold

Spring 6 Surface

NSBG, 1975; Clark et al., 1980;

Shenker, 1980

SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe, Mn,

F, B, Li

Problem Cold

Spring

Cold

Spring 1 Surface Clark et al., 1980 SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe, Mn

EMR-1 Shallow

Well 9 45

NSBG, 1975; Hammerstrom &

Brown, 1977; Michael & Fritz,

1979; Shenker, 1980; Clark et al.,

1980

SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe, Mn,

F, B, Li

M1-74D Shallow

Well 6 347.5

NSBG, 1975; Michael & Fritz,

1979; Clark et al., 1980

SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe, Mn,

F, B, Li

M2-75D Shallow

Well 2 774 NSBG, 1975; Clark et al., 1980 SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Fe, Mn

M7-79D Shallow

Well 1 899 NSBG, 1981

SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, CO3, Fe,

Mn, F, B, Li

(Continued)

27

Table 3.2 Overview of database (continued).

M12-80D Shallow

Well 2 605 NSBG, 1981

SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3,

CO3, Fe, Mn, F, B

MC-1 Deep Well 145 3040 BC Hydro, 1985 SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, CO2, NH4,

F, B, As, Li

MC-2 Deep Well 20 3605.6 BC Hydro, 1985 SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, CO2, NH4,

F, B, As, Li

MC-3 Deep Well 26 3503 BC Hydro, 1985 SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, CO2, NH4,

F, B, As, Li

MC-6 Deep Well 6 2662 Western GeoPower Corp. 2009 SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3,

CO3, B

MC-8 Deep Well 3 2380 Western GeoPower Corp. 2009 SiO2, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, F,

B

29

4 Data handling

Handling of the fluid chemistry data involved three steps:

(1) Filtering of available data from the literature

(2) Estimation of fluid origin and mixing using conservative element behavior

(3) Calculation of reservoir fluid composition, estimation of reservoir temperature,

calculation of aqueous speciation and mineral saturation indices

For the third step, the calculations were done with the aid of the WATCH program

(Arnórsson et al., 1982) version 2.4 (Bjarnason, 2010) as well as the PHREEQC program

and the WATEQ database (Parkhurst and Appelo, 2013).

Data filtering

The available data on fluid composition were filtered based on data quality and extent of

elements analyzed. First, samples with an incomplete set of data that did not include the

major elements Si, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, and HCO3 were removed for consideration.

Second, the overall quality of the chemical analysis were assessed from the percentage ion

balance (% IB) defined by the formula,

%IB = ∑ 𝑚𝑖

+𝑧𝑖+ − |∑ 𝑚𝑖

−𝑧𝑖−|

∑ 𝑚𝑖+𝑧𝑖

+ + |∑ 𝑚𝑖−𝑧𝑖

−|× 100

(1)

where 𝑚𝑖+ and 𝑚𝑖

− are the 𝑖𝑡ℎ aqueous species molal concentrations and 𝑧𝑖+ and 𝑧𝑖

− are the

𝑖𝑡ℎ charges for cations and anions, respectively. The ion balance calculations were carried

out with the aid of the PHREEQC program at the temperature of each pH measurement.

The results were plotted as a function of total elemental concentration (Figure 4.1). As

observed, samples with low element concentrations had higher percentage errors, which

follows the general relationship of increased errors of the chemical analysis with decreasing

concentration. At concentrations above the instrumental detection limits, which were

estimated from the plots, samples with outliers over ±10% IB error were removed. Only two

samples, one from well M12-80D and one from well MC-2, were contributing to high %IB

above instrumental detection limits for most elements.

Of the 251 available fluid samples, 200 samples were included in the final table after data

filtering. Their chemical compositions are given in Appendix A.

30

Figure 4.1 Calculated percentage ion balance plotted against select element

concentrations. Dotted lines are interpreted intrumental detection limits. Red indicates

data point from a sample of M12-80D, black indicates data point from a sample of MC-2.

31

Estimation of fluid origin and mixing using

conservative element behavior

Typically, water stable isotopes (δD and δ18O) have been applied to establish the origin of

the geothermal water and assess mixing behaviour. Such water isotope data are currently not

available for geothermal fluids at Mount Meager, therefore, conservative element analysis

was instead used. Conservative elements including Cl and B have been studied to trace the

origin of geothermal waters (Truesdell, 1975; Arnórsson et al., 1989; Giggenbach,

1991; Arnórsson & Andrésdóttir, 1995) and mixing between non-thermal and geothermal

waters (Ellis, 1970; White, 1970; Arnórsson; 1970, Stefánsson & Arnórsson, 1975;

Fournier, 1977, 1979b, 1985; Truesdell, 1991). Boron and Cl are considered to be

incompatible during weathering and low-temperature geothermal alteration of most rocks,

meaning that they generally do not precipitate once added to the fluid phase (e.g., Arnórsson

& Andrésdóttir, 1995). The sources of B and Cl in geothermal waters may be considered to

be the source water including seawater and meteoric water, rock leaching, and magma

degassing. These elements originate from sea spray in precipitation, directly from seawater

filtering through the groundwater systems. The boron and chloride composition of seawater

is well established (Bruland, 1983) and meteoric water (precipitation) closely follows the

B/Cl seawater ratio (Arnórsson & Andrésdóttir, 1995). Upon water-rock interaction (water

dissolving the rock), the water becomes more enriched in B relative to Cl and the reaction

will continue until the Cl/B ratio reaches that of the rock. These elements are therefore able

to trace water source(s) and assess the effects of progressive water-rock interaction and

mixing ratios between different water sources.

In order to assess the various boron and chloride sources and their contributions to the waters,

data on chemical composition of precipitation and rocks are needed. No such data are

available for rocks at Mount Meager or local precipitation. Lithological units encountered

during well drilling are summarized in Table 4.1 and indicate that, although there is high

variability in lithology, the most common rock unit is quartz diorite. Past literature has also

described meta quartz diorite as the major rock component of the area (Adams & Moore,

1987). Therefore, quartz diorite was taken as a proxy for the host rock of the thermal fluids.

The chemical composition of precipitation in Canada is highly variable, ranging from Cl

concentration of <0.1 to >10 ppm (e.g., Rutherford, 1967; Aherne et al., 2010) and following

Arnórsson and Andrésdóttir (1995) B/Cl ratio in precipitation may be assumed to follow that

of seawater and the B concentration of precipitation can be estimated from the respective

elemental seawater ratio and Cl concentration in precipitation. Chloride and B

concentrations of andesite, the aphanitic form of diorite, have been measured at around 200-

300 ppm and 17-20 ppm, respectively (Sanchez, 1993; Gméling et al., 2005). The upper

concentrations of andesite are used in this study to show the maximum amount of chloride

and boron that the host rock can contribute to the thermal waters. Basalt composition was

also plotted for comparison, using theoleiite Cl and B compositions of 170 ppm and 1.2 ppm,

respectively (Arnórsson & Andrésdóttir, 1995). A summary of the range of B and Cl rocks,

seawater/precipitation used in this study is listed in

Table 4.2.

32

Table 4.1 Summary of lithologies encountered during well drilling.

Well From (m) To (m) Lithology

EMR-1 17 45 Quartz Diorite

M1-74D 124 347 Gneissic Quartz Diorite

M2-75D 11 91 Gneissic Quartz Diorite

M7-79D 26 120 Gneissic Quartz Diorite, Quartz Diorite, Faults

120 168 Feldspar Porphyry with Faults

168 367 Gneissic Quartz Diorite, Quartz Diorite, Rhyolite,

Feldspar Porphyry

M12-80D 14 605 Quartz Diorite with Andesite and Dacite Dykes

and shear zones near surface

MC-1 30 2000 Amphibolite- Quartz Diorite with Dykes

2000 3041 Quartz Diorite with Pyroxene Basalt Diabase

Dykes

MC-2 0 1215 Quartz Diorite with Dykes

1215 3503 Gneiss with Dykes

MC-3 30 3500 Quartz Diorite with Dykes

MC-6 400 1600 Quartz Diorite

1600 2400 Gneiss

2400 2663 Hornblende Biotite and Quartz Diorite

MC-8 400 1500 Quartz Diorite with Volcanic/Andesite Dikes

1500 2380 Gneiss

Table 4.2 Composition of sources that are considered to be contributing Cl and B to the

geothermal waters. Cl and B are in ppm.

Contributor Cl B Cl/B Molal Ratio Source

Seawater 1330 Arnórsson and Andrésdóttir,

1995

Rainwater 0.1-10 <0.0023 1330 Rutherford, 1967; Aherne et

al., 2010

Andesite 200 20 3.05 Sanchez, 1993

Basalt 170 1.2 43 Arnórsson and Andrésdóttir,

1995

Reservoir fluid composition, reservoir

temperature, aqueous speciation, and

mineral saturation

The WATCH speciation program of Arnórsson et al. (1982), version 2.4 (Bjarnason, 2010),

was used to calculate the component concentrations in the reservoir fluid for the present

study. For these calculations, the chemical compositions of samples from non-thermal and

33

sub-boiling wells was taken to represent the compositions of the waters in the producing

reservoir. On the other hand, water samples collected from the two-phase wells (vapour and

liquid) and boiling hot springs are not representative of the parent reservoir water, since

boiling and degassing have modified the chemical composition from the reservoir to surface.

The WATCH program uses data on water and steam samples collected at the surface to

calculate the reservoir fluid composition. In the case of unavailable steam data, steam loss

and gas (CO2 and H2S) partitioning can be estimated assuming the reservoir and sample

collection temperatures to be known. For these calculations, boiling was taken to be adiabatic

(isolated thermodynamic system) and no steam was assumed to be present in the reservoir

beyond the zone of depressurization boiling. It follows that steam fraction (𝑋𝑣) at sampling

is calculated from the equation,

𝑋𝑣 =ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠 − ℎ𝑠,𝑙𝑞

ℎ𝑠,𝑣 − ℎ𝑠,𝑙𝑞

(2)

where ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠 is the enthalpy of the reservoir fluid taken to be equal to liquid enthalpy at the

reservoir temperature and ℎ𝑠,𝑣 and ℎ𝑠,𝑙𝑞 are the vapour and liquid enthalpies at the sampling

temperature, respectively. Following, the reservoir fluid 𝑖𝑡ℎ elemental concentrations are

calculated using conservation of mass,

𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑋𝑣𝑚𝑖

𝑠,𝑣 + (1 − 𝑋𝑣)𝑚𝑖𝑠,𝑙𝑞

(3)

where 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 is the 𝑖𝑡ℎ elemental reservoir concentration, and 𝑚𝑖

𝑠,𝑣 and 𝑚𝑖

𝑠,𝑙𝑞 are the respective

concentrations in the sampled vapor and liquid phases.

It follows that, in order to calculate the reservoir fluid composition from data of wells and

spring discharges at surface, a specific temperature needs to be selected, here termed the

reference temperature. For sub-boiling and non-thermal waters, the first choice for reference

temperature is the measured temperature of the water at the time of sampling. Inevitable

daily variations in the temperature of surface waters may affect the measured temperatures,

but such changes are considered to be relatively small. Also, the temperatures of the waters

may reflect mixing of two or more water components of different temperatures. If the water

sources have significantly different temperatures, the calculated fluid composition of the

mixed water, based on the mixed temperature, will match neither any reservoir water with

this temperature nor any aqueous species activities that may have equilibrated locally with

specific minerals.

It has been suggested that geothermal systems are characterized by anisotropic permeability

where hot water flow is controlled by tectonic fractures. Under this assumption, the water

entering a well or discharging from a spring must be a mixture of many components from

different sources of varying distances as dictated by the three dimensional distribution of the

permeability. Therefore, the analytical data of the fluid samples becomes unreliable for

testing local mineral-solution equilibrium/disequilibrium. The best conditions for assessing

equilibrium are met when temperature remains relatively constant with depth within the

geothermal system. The situation is more complicated for two-phase hot water wells because

the measured temperature at the wellhead does not represent the reservoir temperature. Also,

data from the water and steam samples collected at the wellhead/surface may not easily

reconstruct the chemical composition of the reservoir. Although boiling is commonly

34

assumed to be adiabatic for such calculations, the mechanism may be characterized by an

open system where vapour and gases can separate from the liquid phase. Such degassing is

dealt with in the WATCH program by assigning an arbitrary degassing coefficient for

example.

In the present study, the reference temperatures for all the samples with temperatures greater

than 100 °C were based on calculated geothermometry temperatures. If the quartz

geothermometer yielded T<180 °C, this was the temperature used. If it yielded T>180 °C,

then the chalcedony geothermometer temperature was used. This changeover temperature

has been found to be valid for most active geothermal systems associated with geologically

young volcanic rocks (Stefánsson & Arnórsson, 2000). However, the silica geothermometry

is based on the assumption of equilibrium between solution and chalcedony or quartz, and

proof may be lacking to verify this assumption. Partial re-equilbrization may also have

occurred during cooling in the upflow, causing an underestimation of aquifer temperatures.

The use of geothermometry for estimating the reservoir temperatures of geothermal waters

may seem to be a circular argument. This study avoids this issue by studying the saturation

state of the feldspars at a temperature that corresponds to equilibrium either with chalcedony

or quartz or with measured aquifer temperatures.

In addition to the silica geothermometry, other cation geothermometers based on Na, K, Ca,

and Mg were used to estimate the reservoir temperatures. The geothermometers and their

equations are listed Table 4.3 and their results later compared. Once the reservoir

temperatures were chosen, WATCH was again used to reconstruct reservoir fluid

composition and pH prior to boiling.

Following, aqueous speciation and mineral saturation states were calculated using the

PHREEQC program. These calculations used the reservoir pH from the WATCH program,

as this is based on the measured pH values assigned to the reservoir temperature assuming

conservation of alkalinity.

Alteration minerals observed in cuttings and cores of Mount Meager wells included smectite,

chlorite, illite, saponite, talc, epidote, K-feldspar, actinolite, carbonate, quartz, hematite,

pyrite, and Fe-Ti oxides (Moore et al., 1985). Surface and near-surface deposits include

calcite, siderite, dolomite, quartz, K-feldspar, and pyrite veins. Saturation indices could not

be calculated for Al- and Fe-bearing minerals as these elements were not in included in

geochemical analysis of most fluids. Instead, mineral-fluid reactions of secondary minerals

were balanced, then 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑄 for each reaction was calculated based on cation activities (𝑎)

calculated by PHREEQC and, for some reactions, reservoir pH or anion concentration. The

input was the database of reservoir composition, pH, and temperature listed in Appendix C.

These reactions and calculations are listed in Table 4.4. Finally, the solubility (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾) was

calculated for each reaction and graphed with 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑄 to assess how closely each mineral

approached equilibrium.

Distribution of geothermal activity

The distribution of major components was mapped to help visualize the distribution of

geothermal activity as well as hydrogeochemical controls on thermal fluid movement. From

the calculated reservoir temperature and composition, averages of CO2, SO4, and Cl content

35

and temperature were calculated for each sample location. The data were input into ArcMap

version 10.5 (Esri, 2016) where sample location coordinates have previously been mapped

(Proenza, 2012). Following, the components were analyzed using the Natural Neighbor

interpolation tool to interpolate values between samples (Sibson, 1981).

36

Table 4.3 Equations for geothermometers used. Concentrations are in mg/kg. T is in °C.

Geothermometer Equation for T Range Source

Quartz −42.2 + 0.28831𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 3.6686 × 10−4(𝑆𝑖𝑂2)2 + 3.1665× 10−7(𝑆𝑖𝑂2)3 + 77.034𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑂2

25-900 Fournier and Potter (1982)

Quartza −53.5 + 0.11236𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 0.5559 × 10−4(𝑆𝑖𝑂2)2 + 0.1772× 10−7(𝑆𝑖𝑂2)3 + 88.390𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑂2

Fournier and Potter (1982)

Chalcedony 1032

4.69 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑂2− 273.15

0-250 Fournier (1977)

Na-K 933

0.993 + 𝑙− 273.15

25-250 Arnórsson et al. (1983b)

K-Ca 1930

3.861 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐾/√𝐶𝑎)− 273.15

Tonani (1980)

K-Mg 4410

14.00 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐾2/√𝑀𝑔)− 273.15

Giggenbach (1988)

Na-K-Cab 1647

2.24 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑁𝑎/𝐾) + 𝛽𝑎 (𝑙𝑜𝑔(√𝐶𝑎/𝑁𝑎))− 273.15

4-340 Fournier and Truesdell (1973)

a Silica concentrations in water initially in equilibrium with quartz after adiabatic boiling to 100 °C. bConcentration in mol/kg. 𝛽 = 4/3 for t<100 °C; 1/3 for t>100 °C and for log(√𝐶𝑎/𝑁𝑎)<0.

37

Table 4.4 Balanced reactions used to calculate loqQ.

Balanced Mineral-Fluid Reactions 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑸

𝑤𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 2𝐻+ + 𝐻2𝑂 = 𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝐻4𝑆𝑖𝑂4 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝐻2𝑆𝑂4) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝐶𝑎2+) + 2𝑝𝐻

0.6𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 + 2𝐻+ = 0.4𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 0.6𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑧 + 0.8𝐻2𝑂 + 𝐶𝑎2+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝐶𝑎2+) + 2𝑝𝐻

1.5𝑝𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 2𝐻+ = 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 1.5𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑧 + 4𝐻2𝑂 + 𝐶𝑎2+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝐶𝑎2+) + 2𝑝𝐻

𝐾𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑟 + 𝑁𝑎+ = 𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 𝐾+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑁𝑎+) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝐾+)

0.8𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 0.2𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 5.4𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑧 + 2𝐾+ = 2.8𝐾𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑟 + 1.6𝐻2𝑂 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑀𝑔2+) + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝐾+)

𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑒 = 𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝐶𝑂32−

𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝐶𝑎2+) + 𝐶𝑂3−

39

5 Chemical characteristics of samples

The measured temperatures, pH values, and major element concentrations of the water

samples considered here are listed in Appendix A. Measured temperatures of cold springs,

hot springs, and shallow wells ranged from 0-9 °C, 29-39 °C, and 25-69 °C, respectively,

and pH values ranged from 7.3-8.3, 5.9-7.2, and 6.1-8.1, respectively. The pH of these waters

were sampled both on site and in a lab; both sampling techniques yielded similar pH values

within each sample location. All waters sampled from deep wells had alkaline pH values of

8-9, taken at 19-25 °C, and temperatures at bottom hole depths (2300 to 3500 m) of around

215-250 °C.

The Piper Plot in Figure 5.1 illustrates the major chemical features of geothermal waters

from springs and wells in the study area. For the cold springs, along with shallow wells M2

and M7, major cations are Ca2+ and Na+ with small amounts of Mg2+. The major anion is

HCO3- with a trend-line towards increasing SO4

- content, which may be attributed to small

amounts of SO4- remaining in the gas phase. These waters are likely calcium bicarbonate

springs formed by interaction of condensed CO2-rich gas with groundwater and perhaps a

small amount of mixing and are therefore considered peripheral waters.

The Meager Creek Hot Springs, Placid Hot Springs, and well EMR-1, which all lie on the

western edge of the N-S running Meager Creek, classify as sodium alkali chloride and

sodium chloride waters. The dominant cation is Na+, and the waters are variable in Cl- and

CO32- + HCO3

- content, indicating either boiling or mixing of cold bicarbonate water with

Cl--rich reservoir water. The No Good Warm Springs, which lie on the north edge of the E-

W running section of Meager Creek, are chemically similar but classify as sodium

chloride/sodium bicarbonate waters, suggesting a mixing component. The dominant cation

is Na+ but trends towards Ca2+ which also suggests mixing, perhaps with the calcium

bicarbonate cold springs. Overall, these springs are alkali chloride waters and likely

represent mature waters with a component of mixing and/or boiling.

All deep wells are classified as sodium chloride waters with Na+ as the dominant cation.

Anion content, however, varies between wells. MC-1, MC-2, and MC-8 waters are neutral

to slightly alkaline with Cl- as the dominant anion. MC-1 waters trend towards higher

SO42- and HCO3- content. These wells are alkali-chloride waters and represent mature,

unmixed waters.

Waters from MC-3 are high in Cl- but trend toward increasing SO42- content, indicative of a

sulfur input. Waters from the shallow wells M1-74D and M12-80D are similar in

composition. They may classify as acid sulphate-chloride waters which are typical for acid

sulphate primary fluids, where the sulfur is volcanic in origin. However, because the sulfur

source is unknown, MC-3 waters could also be the same alkali chloride waters as MC-1,

MC-2, and MC-3 with a sulfur input.

40

MC-6 waters consist of near-equal proportions of SO42-, Cl-, and HCO3

-. A slight trendline

showing variable Cl- and SO42- content may be indicative of mixing. MC-6 therefore

represents mature waters within the geothermal system.

Figure 5.1 Piper plot of all sampled waters.

41

6 Discussion

The primary purpose of this study was to understand the controls on water chemistry and the

effects of mixing and water-rock interaction at the Mount Meager field, including estimation

of geothermal reservoir temperatures and distribution of the geothermal activity within the

area using the various chemical signatures.

Conservative elements B and Cl were used to trace water sources and mixing of various

waters in geothermal systems as well as progressive water-rock interaction. In meteoric

source water, the concentrations of B and Cl are usually low, and upon water-rock interaction

and mixing with for example seawater, the elemental concentrations and relative ratios

changes. These changes can, in turn, be used to quantify the various sources of the two

elements, including the origin of the water and mixing ratios between water types (Arnórsson

& Andrésdóttir, 1995).

Reservoir temperatures of geothermal fluids are commonly estimated using gas, solute,

and/or isotopic geothermometers. Solute geothermometers are either univarient or ion ratios.

Univarient geothermometers, such as quartz and chalcedony, are based on a single element

concentration and may be subject to secondary changes upon boiling, fluid mixing, and

condensation. Ratio chemical geothermometers like Na-K overcome this challenge by using

element ratios that are affected to the same degree by these secondary processes like boiling.

They are, however, limited by equilibrium and rate conditions. Geothermometry is based on

the assumption that chemical equilibrium is attained between the reservoir fluids and

secondary geothermal minerals. Such equilibrium may not have been attained in some cases,

and re-equilibration with other minerals upon fluid ascent to surface may also occur. It is,

therefore, important to assess if fluid-mineral equilibrium is truly attained within the

geothermal system. The geothermal reservoir temperatures determined from

geothermometery calculations may be used to assess the reservoir fluid composition.

Moreover, for waters of various origin, for example a mixture of surface and geothermal

reservoir water, such calculations have limited significance.

Fluid origin and mixing using boron and

chloride systematics

The relationships between B and Cl concentration, and the Cl/B molal ratio with chloride

concentration are shown in Figure 6.1. Chloride and B concentrations ranged from 100 to

3300 ppm and 0.3 to 28 ppm, respectively. Hot spring waters contained the lowest Cl and B

content (100-675 ppm and 1-3.3 ppm), followed by deep well waters MC-3 and MC-6, MC-

1 and MC-2, MC-8 (250-3030 ppm and 1.6-20.7 ppm), and finally shallow wells with the

highest concentrations (2640-3300 ppm, 22-28.2 ppm). The latter were possibly

anomalously high due to sampling error. Non-thermal springs do not include B data but

contain the lowest Cl content (0.3-1.2 ppm).

42

The mixing trends between non-thermal waters and geothermal waters are difficult to assess

based on the chloride and boron relations. First, data on B concentration are often missing,

especially for the non-thermal waters. Second, the trends when data are available for both

elements showed a cluster of Cl values between 500-3000 ppm. In all cases, a positive linear

relationship between Cl and B concentration was observed, and most samples had similar

Cl/B molal ratios. They grouped from 30-55, apart from MC-6 waters, which showed a

linear increase from 25 to 37. The Cl and B concentrations of the waters were far too high,

and Cl/B ratios far too low, to consider seawater or meteoric water (precipitation) as the

dominant source of Cl and B. In contrast, the Cl and B systematics suggest the water to be

of meteoric origin with Cl and B concentrations similar to what can be expected in the region,

followed by leaching of Cl and B from the primary rocks and minerals. Given the geological

complexity of the area, it is highly unlikely that all the reservoir fluids have encountered the

same host rock composition and mineralogy in all cases, and the waters reflected more

closely the Cl/B ratio of basalts rather than andesite. The reason for this is unclear. Also, the

Cl and B content reflects high rock to water ratio (ξ) corresponding to >1 kg of rock dissolved

per liter of water. Such high values may suggest an additional source of Cl and B than only

dissolution of primary rocks, for example direct magmatic degassing (e.g., White, 1970;

Bégué et al., 2015). Given the linear Cl and B systematics, a magmatic gas source of similar

origin would be more likely rather than multiple magmatic sources. Characterizing and

quantifying the magmatic component using only these relations is difficult if not impossible

due to similar chemical signals as upon rock leaching (Bégué et al., 2015). However, the

generally elevated Cl and B concentrations of Mount Meager thermal waters may be

indicative of magma degassing associated with slab subduction (Symonds, 1992; Sanchez,

1993; Arnórsson, 2000; Bégué et al., 2015. Guðmundsson, 2015; McCaig et al., 2018; Wang

& Xiao, 2018). Such elemental addition been observed from stable water isotope systematics

of subduction related geothermal systems (Giggenbach, 1992).

Re-sampling fluids to include B concentrations, as well as gathering B and Cl data on

precipitation and rock composition, would be beneficial to continue the conservative element

analysis of the thermal waters.

43

Figure 6.1 The relationship between (A) B and Cl and (B) Cl/B molal ratio and Cl for the

thermal waters. Precipitation content is plotted along with average compositions of

andesite and basalt. Progressive rock leaching (ξ) from 0.01 to 1 is also graphed

44

Reservoir temperature and fluid composition

Reservoir temperatures are commonly estimated using gas, chemical, and isotopic

geothermometers which utilize equations or models based on temperature-dependent fluid-

rock equilibria. Here, various geothermometry temperatures were calculated (see Table 4.3).

The results are given in Appendix B and compared in Figure 6.2. Negative values are

considered unrealistic, so only positive values were plotted. The ranges of each

geothermometer for cold springs, hot springs, shallow wells, and deep wells are summarized

in Table 6.1. For all temperatures, the chalcedony geothermometer yielded results that

closely followed those of quartz, calculating slightly lower temperatures. For quartz

geothermometer temperatures of Tquartz<100-150 °C, the Na-K and K-Ca cation

geothermometers calculated highly scattered and unusually high temperatures, while the K-

Mg and Na-K-Ca geothermometers linearly increased with increasing Tquartz. For

temperatures Tquartz>100-150 °C, the cation geothermometer temperatures did not increase

with increasing Tquartz. The K-Ca geothermometer calculated the lowest temperatures,

followed by K-Mg, Na-K, and finally Na-K-Ca geothermometer yielding the highest

temperatures.

The Na-K and K-Ca geothermometry data are likely scattered at Tquartz <100-150 °C because

ratio chemical geothermometers are limited by equilibrium which may not be attained in low

temperature and non-thermal waters. Fluid mixing may also contribute to the observed

trends.

At temperatures around 150-250 °C, the solubility of quartz controls the concentration of

dissolved silica, and equilibrium between water and quartz is closely approached at around

180°C (Fournier & Rowe, 1977). At lower temperatures, chalcedony appears to control

dissolved silica concentration, while equilibrium is closely approached between water and

chalcedony at about 100 °C (Fournier, 1977). Therefore, the quartz geothermometer and

chalcedony geothermometer were taken as reservoir temperature if the quartz

geothermometer yielded temperatures above 180 °C and between 100 to 180 °C,

respectively. For samples with measured temperature of less than 100°C, the measured

temperature was used as reservoir temperature. These reservoir temperatures are reported in

Appendix B and range from 4.5 to 9.0 °C, 29.5 to 56.0 °C, 10.1 to 68.5 °C, and 101.6 to

282.8 °C for cold springs, hot springs, shallow wells, and deep wells, respectively.

Table 6.1 Temperatures ranges for all geothermometers for each well and hot spring type.

Geothermometer Cold Springs Hot Springs Shallow Wells Deep Wells

Quartz 19.1-65 105.6-172.5 49.6-172.3 129.3-282.8

Chalcedony -9.6-32.7 75.6-149.7 17.6-149.5 101.6-268

Na/K 134.7-214.4 201.1-284.2 96.8-321.8 141.3-252.4

K/Ca 270.9-359.6 134.1-181.3 139.4-269.7 81.0-182.6

K/Mg 1.1-55.3 97.8-123.3 60.8-128.0 105.9-242.9

Na-K-Ca -43.2-25.8 99.8-162.1 34.7-162.3 154.2-246.4

45

Figure 6.2 Comparison of different geothermometers.

Using the selected reservoir temperatures, reservoir fluid composition was calculated using

the WATCH program. Here, we used the results both to construct reservoir fluid composition

of boiled waters and to assess the effects of boiling on fluid composition. The WATCH

program reads the chemical analysis of waters sampled at the surface and computes chemical

composition of downhole fluids. WATCH ran a boiling hot springs model using equilibrium

degassing and boiling temperature of 100 °C. The model cannot calculate results for samples

with reservoir temperatures of T<100 °C (cold springs, hot springs, EMR-1, M1-74D, M2-

75D, M7-79D, and M12-80D), so they were considered non-boiled waters and their sampled

compositions were taken as reservoir compositions. For wells with reservoir temperatures of

T>100 °C (MC-1, MC-2, MC-3, MC-6, and MC-8), results from the boiling hot spring model

are taken as reservoir composition. The compositions are reported in Appendix C.

The concentration ranges of these samples are given in Table 6.2. For MC-1 and MC-2, the

concentration range of each element was large, especially for CO2 and SO4. MC-3 samples

had a more moderate range in element concentration, while MC-6 and MC-8 had low

concentration variations within each element. For non-boiled waters from cold springs, hot

springs, and shallow wells, reservoir compositions are the same as previously described.

46

Table 6.2 Range of concentrations for reservoir compositions of samples that degassed.

MC-1 MC-2 MC-3 MC-6 MC-8

B 6.3 – 13.2 2.7 – 49.6 1.4 – 8.5 3.6 – 8.1 14.7 – 15.8

SiO2 86.7 – 342.6 124.1 – 367.9 211.3 – 361.4 97.9 – 192.3 408.0 – 462.1

Na 615.8 –

1238.8

347.9 –

5010.4 255.3 – 982.8

724.4 –

1201.6

1267.0 –

1316.8

K 47.8 – 107.1 24.4 – 429.5 23.8 – 68.7 40.9 – 91.4 200.3 – 212.4

Mg 0.2 – 96.7 0.5 – 13.6 0.7 – 2.5 0.2 – 5.7 0.02 – 0.2

Ca 2.8 – 408.6 29.1 – 725.3 10.3– 96.4 48.8 – 62.6 33.8 – 47.7

F 0.1 – 2.6 0.7 – 6.9 0.6 – 2.1 – 1.7

Cl 823.0 –

1898.7

504.5 –

7921.2

220.1 –

1206.4 302.2 – 686.9

2164.0 –

2306.2

CO2 282.7 –

43692.5

243.2 –

11277.4

170.8 –

3240.7

5110.0 –

23789.7

3582.4 –

6279.0

SO4 71.4 – 946.8

117.4 –

1336.1 283.0 – 473.8 356.0 – 421.3 65.9 – 71.0

To assess the how boiling affects water composition from the reservoir to surface, fluid

composition was compared between the boiling hot springs (degassing) model and the

sampled compositions. For all deep wells, major element component concentration (SiO2,

Mg, Cl, B, Na, K, Ca) increased only slightly compared to the sampled compositions. CO2

and SO4 content change is shown in Figure 6.3. Comparing results between the degassing

model and sampled composition suggests that CO2 content changes for some sample

locations when degassing is considered, while SO4 content does not. Samples from MC-6

have experienced moderate to significant CO2 degassing between 100-150 °C. MC-1 has

undergone CO2 degassing at around 190 °C. Some waters from MC-1 and MC-2 were

sampled with high SO4 content; this concentration did not alter significantly with the boiling

hot springs model. These samples also did not alter in CO2 concentration when degassing

was considered, indicating that the surface waters represent reservoir waters in terms of CO2

and SO4 gas content. This suggests that a source such as magma contributes to the high in

these waters. Non-boiled waters from M1-74D and M12-80D were even higher in SO4

content.

47

Figure 6.3 CO2 and SO4 composition of all waters from sampling (blue) and for wells

using reservoir composition calculated from WATCH.

48

6.2.1 Fluid-mineral interaction

The activities of major aqueous species were used to study the saturation state of geothermal

waters. Past studies have suggested that the composition of geothermal waters is controlled

by equilibrium between minerals and solution for major components of the system except

chloride (Ellis, 1970; Michard, 1991; Arnórsson & Andrésdóttir, 1995). For example,

equilibrium is closely approached between water and microcline, a form of K-feldspar, and

low-albite for temperatures above 200 °C (Browne, 1978; Stefánsson & Arnórsson, 2000).

It has been suggested that this equilibrium, based on the reaction low-albite + K+ =

microcline + Na+, controls the Na+/K+ activity ratio in high temperature waters (Giggenbach,

1981; Arnórsson et al., 1983a). Similarly, the equilibrium between the solution and

wollastonite and H2SO4, grossular, clinozoesite, and quartz, prehnite, clinozoesite and

quartz, muscovite, clinochlorite, quartz, and K-feldspar, and calcite controls the activities of

H2SO4 and Ca2+, Ca2+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+, and Ca2+, respectively, based on the reactions

listed in Table 4.4. The solubility constants of each reaction are based on the assessment of

thermodynamic data of the minerals, as well as thermodynamic properties of liquid water.

For this study, variations of major cation activities with reservoir temperature were studied

and compared to their respective solubility curves. The select cations are based on alteration

minerals observed in the system, including epidote (as clinozoesite), calcite, chlorite (as

clinochlorite), K-feldspar, and quartz together with wollastonite, garnet (grossular) and

prehnite that have not been unambiguously reported within the geothermal system. As Fe

and Al concentrations were rarely reported in the dataset of the fluid samples, mineral buffer

reactions were constructed to study mineral-fluid equilibria together with some single

mineral- solute reactions. The following chemical reactions were considered:

A. wo + 2H+ + H2O = Ca2+ + H4SiO4

B. 0.6gro + 2H+ = 0.4czo + 0.6qtz + 0.8H2O + Ca2+

C. 1.5pre + 2H+ = czo + 1.5qtz + 4H2O + Ca2+

D. K-feld + Na+ = alb + K+

E. 0.8mus + 0.2chl + 5.4qtz + 2K+ = 2.8K-feld + 1.6H2O + Mg2+

F. cc = Ca2+ + CO32-

where wo = wollastonite, gro = grossular, czo = clinozoesite, qtz = quartz, pre = prehnite,

K-feld = K-feldspar, alb = albite, mus = muscovite, chl = clinochlore and cc = calcite.

49

The reaction quotients (𝑄) based on the aqueous speciation calculations are compared with

solubility curves (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾) for the reactions as a function of reservoir temperature in Figure

6.4. Figure 6.4A,B,C all show very similar trends with 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑄 values lower than the

corresponding 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾 values, but following the solubility curve as temperature increases with

some minor offsets. Figure 6.4D shows minerals approaching saturation and reaching

equilibrium at reservoir temperatures around 200-250 °C. Minerals in Figure 6.4E follow

the saturation curve and reach 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑄 values greater than 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾 values above approximately

150 °C. In Figure 6.4F, it appears that equilibrium is reached with the minerals and solution

for all reservoir temperatures, with some minor offsets.

These data suggest that activities of H2SO4 and Ca2+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ and K+ are likely

controlled by equilibrium between the solution and secondary minerals observed in the

geothermal systems. The slight discrepancies observed in Figure 6.4 may be attributed to

several factors. Many of the secondary minerals involved are solid-solutions which affected

the exact value of the mineral buffer equilibrium values. Further, the calculations of the

reaction quotients rely on the aqueous speciation to be accurate. The current dataset does

not allow such assessment and calculations in most cases and are in turn dependent on

assumptions. Complete samples of liquid and vapour phases from T>100 °C samples were

not available, resulting in reconstruction of the vapour phase during modeling. The pH of

the reservoir fluids was further constructed from such calculations with the measured pH

sometimes not available. These all led to uncertainties in calculating reservoir fluid aqueous

species distribution as well as reaction quotients. In fact, inspection of calcite saturation

revealed systematic undersaturation suggesting some problems related to, for example,

reconstruction of pH, aqueous species activities, and modeling steam and CO2 loss upon

boiling. Many of these problems related to the limitations of the available data. Indeed, in

cases of reactions where such effects were minor, like involving K-feldspar and albite and

the Na+/K+ ion ratio, a very close approach to equilibrium at T>175 °C was observed (Fig.

6.4D). Also, inspection of the figure reveals water mixing at reservoir temperatures below

around 175 °C.

Overall, the cation activities indicate that equilibrium is observed between secondary

minerals and solution at high temperatures, and that there is likely mixing of colder waters

with the thermal fluids. The observed trends are in accordance with other geothermal waters

globally, especially the close approach between calcite and solution (i.e. Giggenbach, 1981;

Arnórsson et al., 1983a, Stefánsson & Arnórsson, 2000; Arnórsson, 1978; Arnórsson, 1989).

Future fluid analyses that includes Fe and Al content will be imperative for confirming which

secondary minerals control water composition, as the balanced mineral reactions use

assumptions about end-member compositions of solid solutions. These assumptions may

affect the calculations, as well as the database used for calculated 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾 of each reaction.

Future studies extending from this research may consider addressing these assumptions and

calculations to better understand the mineral-solution equilibria.

50

Figure 6.4 Activities of major cations as a function of temperautre. The solid line shows

logK for each reaction.

51

Distribution of geothermal activity

To further understand the geothermal activity and its distribution within the MMVC, key

variables were mapped. The distribution of these parameters may indicate hydrogeological

and geochemical controls and distribution on the system. The mean and standard deviation

of Cl, SO4, CO2, and temperature for each location are listed in Table 6.3. These averages

were used to create the distribution maps in Figure 6.5. Highest temperatures are found at

deep well MC-8 and extend to MC-1 and MC-2. There is also a temperature anomaly at MC-

3. Temperature decreases with distance away from these wells and is lowest at shallow wells

M2-75D and M7-79D, as well as both cold springs. Cl distribution is high around the

temperature peak at MC-8, MC-1, and MC-2, and also increases around shallow well M1-

74D, and further increases towards the south at M12-80D. This southerly-trending anomaly

is correlated with the elevated SO4 concentration of the waters. There is also a slight SO4

content elevation around MC-6. CO2 content peaks around deep well MC-6 and decreases

with distance from MC-6.

The overall data suggest a significant source of hot, Cl- and CO2-rich thermal waters around

deep wells MC-1, MC-2, MC-6, and MC-8, and possibly MC-3, although more data is

required to confirm the latter. The Carbonate Fault or the No Good Discontinuity to the east

of MC-3 may be controlling cold water supply to the CaCO3 Cold Spring and to M7. The

east-west running Meager Creek Fault Zone may structurally control the Cl- and SO4-rich

waters presenting at M1-74D and M12-80D to the south, with the source of Cl and SO4

possibly related to rock composition or deep magma degassing. The latter is, however, not

correlated with elevated CO2 concentration as would be expected.

Aside from the deep wells, distance between sample locations is large, creating greater

uncertainty in the respective contour lines. Anomalies and patterns in these areas are

therefore more difficult to constrain and more data points are required to optimize the

distribution maps. Many of the shallow wells are situated between these locations but are

missing complete data sets and therefore could not be considered for analysis. Future

research may involve re-sampling of fluids from these wells to decrease the size of the

contour lines and better understand the subsurface reservoir.

52

Table 6.3 Averages and standard devations of reservoir Cl, CO2, SO4 and temperature for

sample locations. Concentrations are in ppm; temperatures are in °C.

Location Cl CO2 SO4 Temp

Mean StDev Mean StDev Mean StDev Mean

Meager Creek Hot

Springs 492.2 148.6 458.3 94.9 115.2 45.2 48.6

No Good Hot Springs 258.2 109.7 357.0 79.3 66 25.8 31.3

Placid Cold Springs 674.0 398.0 2.0 45.1

Boundary Cold Springs 66.3 2.0 5.0

CaCO3 Cold Springs 0.6 0.5 316.0 39.2 33.3 17.3 7.0

Problem Cold Springs 0.8 594.0 36.1 9.3

EMR-1 541.8 63.5 525.0 99.3 178.0 4.7 59.9

M1-74D 2670.0 30.0 1136.5 136.5 2285.0 85.0 54.2

M2-75D 0.6 233.0 22.6 10.1

M7-79D 40.0 200.0 47.0 25.0

M12-80D 3300.0 499.0 2800.0 -

MC-1 1626.7 181.7 2768.0 4490.1 122.8 78.4 213.6

MC-2 1941.8 2172.4 2403.3 3035.3 283.0 357.0 211.6

MC-3 792.5 294.7 1727.9 988.7 346.2 51.4 198.6

MC-6 587.9 198.2 10799.8 6749.1 391.6 24.5 128.3

MC-8 2216.9 63.5 5288.9 1211.8 68.0 2.2 275.5

For simplification, M1-74D, M2-75D, M7-79D, and M12-80D are shown on figures as M1,

M2, M7, and M12, respectively.

53

54

Figure 6.5 Distribution of key variables Cl, CO2, SO4, and temperature.

55

7 Conclusions

For this study, geochemistry of thermal fluids from the southern reservoir at Mount Meager

was analyzed to delineate fluid origin, reservoir temperature and composition, degree of

mixing and boiling, and saturation state of the waters.

Conservative element analysis used chloride and boron content of the waters to understand

degree of water-rock interaction and mixing and to identify the sources for the fluids. High

Cl and B concentrations of 100 to 3300 ppm and 0.3 to 28 ppm, respectively, as well as high

Cl/B molal ratios of 25 to 55, indicated that a single magmatic source is likely contributing

to fluid composition.

Several geothermometers were compared, and the quartz and chalcedony geothermometry

results were taken as reservoir temperature when the quartz geothermometery yielded

temperatures of Tquartz>180 °C and 100 °C<Tquartz<180 °C, respectively. Measured

temperature was taken as the reservoir temperature for low-temperature samples. Reservoir

temperatures ranged from 4.5 to 9.0 °C, 29.5 to 56.0 °C, 10.1 to 68.5 °C, and 101.6 to 282.8

°C for cold springs, hot springs, shallow wells, and deep wells, respectively. Calculated

reservoir fluid compositions indicate that wells MC-1 and MC-6 experienced significant CO2

degassing during fluid ascent, while high SO4 content of wells to the south of the Meager

Creek Fault Zone can be traced down to the reservoir. Saturation states of the waters

indicated that the Mount Meager south reservoir is of a typical geothermal system where the

thermal waters are controlled by equilibrium between the solution and observed secondary

minerals at high temperatures. The results also suggested a component of colder water

mixing with the thermal waters.

Hot springs and wells on the eastern and northern sides of the reservoir, which are of low

temperature and low CO2, likely define the boundaries of peripheral waters. Wells to the

southeast contained anomalously high Cl and SO4, suggesting a magmatic input of these

components that may be controlled by the east-west running Meager Creek Fault Zone.

There is a significant source hot, Cl- and CO2-rich thermal waters supplying deep wells MC-

1, MC-2, MC-6 and MC-8, and possibly MC-3. These NaCl waters likely define the high

temperature, central location of the geothermal reservoir. Overall, the deep wells seem to

have drilled into the high-temperature geothermal reservoir at Mount Meager.

Additional research on several geological aspects can help to further understand the system.

In terms of fluid chemistry, a more complete chemical analysis of the fluids that includes

more major elements, especially Al and Fe, will improve the raw data set. Mineral-solution

equilibrium systematics can also be further studied to understand the fluid system. To

improve conservative element analysis, B and Cl content of the host rock and precipitation

is required. Structurally, the MMVC is not well understood and can benefit greatly from

more in-depth fault and fracture mapping.

57

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65

Appendix A

Final database after data filtering, and input for WATCH. T is temperature in °C. Element concentrations are in ppm.

Sample Name T pH SiO2 B Na K Ca Mg Fe F Cl HCO3 SO4

Meager Creek (Souther 1976) 55 164.0 450.0 47.0 81.0 25.0 675.0 468.0 110

Meager Creek (N.S-B.G 1974) 59 7.20 164 2.00 450 47 81 25.0 0.00 675 468.0 110

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 31 6.50 56 165 23.7 92 15.4 0.45 133 503.0 25

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 30 6.80 54 248 27 83.5 17.1 0.50 295 260.0 50

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 49 6.40 80.5 347 44 92 24.8 0.00 428 450.0 65

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 56 6.05 92 377 46.2 94 34.1 0.15 466 458.0 170

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 57 6.15 96 410 52 105 40.5 0.30 500 686.0 180

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 50 6.60 102 390 48.5 92 31.0 0.00 500 595.0 145

Meager Creek (Grasby 2000) 47 7.20 172 419 44.6 77.5 24.7 0.05 543 445.0 125

Meager Creek (vent #19; Clark et

al 1980) 50 6.24 142 440 50 78 24.5 605 437.0 130

Meager Creek main vent (Table 1,

GT7, N.S-B.G 1975) 58 6.6 150 330 54 51 15 600 504 190

Meager Creek main vent (NSBG,

1981; NSBG 1980) 50 6.54 162 439 45.5 81.9 26.2 0.12 528 464 122

66

Meager Creek main vent (NSBG,

1981; Shenker, 1980) 57 6.6 170 3.3 400 43 80 24 0.30 560 350 110

Meager Creek main vent (NSBG,

1981; Shenker, 1980) 48 6.5 180 440 46 86 24 0.30 600 400 120

Upper Meager Creek (Spring 79D)

(NSBG 1975) 33 6.7 108 150 32 40 275 387 76

Placid Hot Springs Vent 2 (NSBG

1981; Clark et al 1980) 45 5.89 138 433 53.5 114 27.6 0.35 674 398 174

No Good Warm Spring #1 (NSBG

1981; Hammerstrom and Brown,

1977)

30 6.8 54 248 27 83.5 17.1 295 260 50

No Good Warm Spring #1 (NSBG

1981; Shenker, 1980) 35 6.4 120 320 32 88 16 470 310 110

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; NSBG 1975) 33 6.7 108 150 32 40 7.6 275 387 76

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; Hammerstrom and Brown,

1977)

31 6.5 56 165 23.7 92 15.4 133 503 25

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; Clark et al, 1980) 30 6.82 101 175 22.4 75.6 13.7 196 382 69

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; Clark et al, 1980) 30 6.8 110 160 22 82 14 180 300 66

Boundary Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; Clark et al 1980) 5 8.31 6 4.84 0.54 12.2 5.42 0 0 66.3 2.02

CaCO3 Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; NSBG 1975) 9 7.96 21 3.2 0.16 95 9.6 0.5 278 44

CaCO3 Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; Shenker 1980) 7 7.3 10 3 2 120 15 1.2 300 47

CaCO3 Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; Clark et al 1980) 6 7.62 8.9 3.2 1.75 98.6 12.5 0 370 8.95

67

Problem Cold Spring #1 (Clark et

al 1980) 9 7.65 10.9 11.9 5 106 44.9 0.8 594 36.1

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981;

Hammerstrom and Brown, 1977) 56 6.05 92 377 46.2 97 34.1 0.15 466 458 170

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981;

Hammerstrom and Brown, 1977) 57 6.15 96 410 52 105 40.5 0.3 500 686 180

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981; Clark et al,

1980) 58 6.06 155 424 48.4 107 36.2 0.14 571 526 182

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981; Shenker,

1980) 69 6.6 180 440 46 120 38 0.3 630 430 180

M1-74D (NSBG 1981; Clark et al,

1980) 52 6.23 104 22 2390 98.1 223 90.3 0.16 2640 1273 2370

M1-74D (NSBG 1981; Clark et al,

1980) 56 6.6 110 2400 79 400 94 0.9 2700 1000 2200

M2-75D (NSBG 1981; Clark et al

1980) 10 7.7 15.5 23 6.93 32.9 18 0.1 0.56 233 22.6

M7-79D (NSBG 1981) 25 8.09 14 28 4.2 72 8 0.48 0.18 40 200 47

M12-80D (NSBG 1981) 6.53 110 28.2 2800 130 440 360 3300 499 2800

MC-1 MM-32 6.7 87 9.2 820 48 410 97 0.15 1060 990 950

MC-1 MM-35 7 140 7.2 700 69 3 65 0.4 870 966 400

MC-1 MM-36 7.7 21 -1 24 1.6 15 3.5 -0.1 0.55 50 -5

MC-1 17/03/1982 8.4 430 7.9 1050 74 26 0.2 2.9 1440 74 210

MC-1 07/07/1982 8.3 320 11 1130 84 36 0.2 2.1 1660 80 160

MC-1 09/07/1982 6.3 350 10.8 1100 80 31 0.4 2.2 1640 53 150

MC-1 22/07/1982am1 8.6 300 9.7 1160 82 43 0.2 2.2 1770 64 160

MC-1 22/07/1982pm2 8.5 300 8.6 980 74 42 0.5 2 1520 54 140

MC-1 22/07/1982web1 7.9 280 9.3 1100 80 44 0.2 2.2 1680 79 150

MC-1 22/07/1982web2 8.2 340 9.2 1110 82 46 0.3 2.2 1690 71 150

MC-1 17/08/1982 1000 8.3 363 11.8 1100 88 39 0.6 2.1 1780 52 140

MC-1 10/09/1982 0900 8.3 370 9.8 870 74 134 1.4 1.4 1360 245 210

68

MC-1 12/09/1982 0400 8.1 324 14.6 1400 102 60 0.3 2.3 2130 119 220

MC-1 13/09/1982 1300 7.5 280 14.8 1350 105 91 0.6 2.2 2190 32 150

MC-1 14/09/1982 1030 8.5 171 14 1320 106 73 0.6 2.6 1940 70 140

MC-1 14/09/1982 1100 8.3 168 13.6 1310 114 62 0.4 2.8 1980 50 140

MC-1 14/09/1982 1200 8.2 159 14.1 1330 106 54 0.4 2.7 2000 50 150

MC-1 14/09/1982 1100 8 185 12.1 1140 104 55 0.4 2.6 1790 50 120

MC-1 14/09/1982 1130 8.2 165 13.6 1220 104 53 0.4 2.7 1910 48 130

MC-1 25/09/1982 8.4 373 13.1 1210 94 36 0.6 2.2 1930 46 150

MC-1 27/09/1982 8.5 376 12.4 1210 95 37 0.8 2 1940 41 140

MC-1 01/10/1982 8.3 374 13.4 1260 99 37 1 2.3 1990 57 140

MC-1 09/10/1982 8.3 217 13 1250 98 37 1 2.3 1930 50 130

MC-1 18/10/1982 1200 8.4 390 13 1290 108 38 0.8 2.1 2070 46 130

MC-1 23/10/1982 1200 8.3 370 12.8 1260 98 40 0.8 2.1 1990 52 120

MC-1 24/10/1982 1200 8.2 390 13.2 1320 100 37 1 2 2030 69 130

MC-1 25/10/1982 1200 8.2 400 13.8 1320 101 37 1 2.1 2040 68 130

MC-1 28/10/1982 2400 8.7 340 7.6 740 59 33 0.8 1.8 1090 51 170

MC-1 29/10/1982 0800 8.2 370 11.6 1130 92 47 1 1.9 1720 52 160

MC-1 29/10/1982 2400 8.7 400 14.5 1440 114 82 1.5 2.3 2210 54 190

MC-1 30/10/1982 0800 8.6 290 13.7 1310 101 74 4.6 2 2020 51 170

MC-1 30/10/1982 2400 8.4 330 15 1420 106 64 20 2.6 2210 63 190

MC-1 31/10/1982 0830 8.1 330 15.4 1480 126 65 23 2.8 2270 61 170

MC-1 07/11/1982 1200 8.4 360 12.6 1190 97 41 1.2 1.9 1940 43 150

MC-1 09/11/1982 1200 8.2 340 11.9 1170 95 37 1.2 1.8 1870 46 130

MC-1 11/11/1982 0715 8.3 370 12.8 1210 100 37 1.2 1.9 1990 45 140

MC-1 11/11/1982 0945 8.3 390 13.4 1220 100 37 1.3 2 2030 48 130

MC-1 11/11/1982 0945 8.3 360 12.2 1180 96 36 1.2 1.9 1940 45 130

MC-1 15/11/1982 1200 8.1 220 8.1 750 61 36 1.7 1.3 1210 46 86

69

MC-1 20/11/1982 1100 8.3 360 13.1 1270 100 37 1.2 2 1980 45 130

MC-1 23/11/1982 1100 8.3 360 12.8 1270 100 36 1.3 2 1970 44 130

MC-1 23/11/1982 1400 7 260 10.3 940 75 27 0.9 1.5 1490 54 96.8

MC-1 28/11/1982am 8.3 370 13.3 1280 93 36 1.3 2 1990 39 140

MC-1 01/12/1982pm 8.3 390 13.3 1280 93 37.1 1.4 2 1990 40 130

MC-1 06/12/1982 1400 8.2 370 13.5 1270 93 36.5 1.4 2 1990 41 140

MC-1 09/12/1982 1400 8.3 380 13.8 1260 92 36.5 1.4 2 2000 37 140

MC-1 12/12/1982 1000 8.3 380 13.4 1260 93 36 1.4 2 2080 39 140

MC-1 15/12/1982 0900 8.4 380 13.8 1270 92 35.5 1.4 2 1990 38 140

MC-1 19/12/1982 0900 8.3 370 13.6 1280 93 36 1.4 2 1990 38 140

MC-1 23/12/1982 0900 8.3 390 14 1310 110 36 1.6 2.1 2000 44 130

MC-1 26/12/1982 1200 8.3 370 13.4 1290 110 37 1.5 2.1 1990 44 130

MC-1 29/12/1982 1200 8.3 370 13.6 1290 113 46 1.4 2.1 2010 44 140

MC-1 02/01/1983 1600 8.7 380 13.6 1290 110 37 1.4 2.1 1980 66 140

MC-1 05/01/1983 1300 8.2 380 14 1270 112 36 1.4 1.9 1980 45 130

MC-1 09/01/1983 0900 8.2 370 13.5 1270 118 36 1.4 1.9 1970 45 120

MC-1 13/01/1983 1500 8.2 390 14 1280 112 36 1.3 2 1990 45 120

MC-1 16/01/1983 1500 8.2 380 13.8 1280 118 36 1.3 2 1990 45 120

MC-1 20/01/1983 1300 8.3 360 13.9 1280 120 38 1.3 1.9 1960 45 120

MC-1 30/01/1983 0900 8.4 350 15 1380 125 45 1.2 2.1 2100 47 130

MC-1 02/02/1983 1200 8.6 390 15.1 1520 117 58 0.7 2.5 2280 8.6 130

MC-1 06/02/1983 1730 8.5 350 13.6 1360 106 52 0.4 2.2 1930 38 140

MC-1 09/02/1983 1500 7.1 360 12.7 1180 97 55 3.8 1.9 1870 126 120

MC-1 13/02/1983 2030 8.6 390 15.1 1420 110 45 0.2 2.3 2220 40 140

MC-1 19/02/1983 1200 8.4 370 14 1320 106 39 1.1 2.2 2090 42 150

MC-1 24/02/1983 0900 8.4 380 14.1 1330 107 38 1.3 2.2 2100 35 140

MC-1 27/02/1983 0900 8.4 380 14 1290 109 38 1.4 2.1 2080 35 160

70

MC-1 02/03/1983 1330 8.4 380 14.4 1300 117 39 1.5 2.8 2060 33 130

MC-1 06/03/1983 0900 8.3 370 14.3 1330 116 39 1.5 2.7 2040 36 130

MC-1 09/03/1983 0900 8.4 370 14 1320 114 39 1.5 2.7 2030 34 130

MC-1 13/03/1983 0900 8.4 380 13.9 1320 109 40 1.4 2.8 2060 35 130

MC-1 16/03/1983 0900 8.4 380 13.6 1310 111 38 1.5 2.7 2050 34 130

MC-1 20/03/1983 0900 8.4 380 14.5 1280 110 39 1.5 2.7 2040 34 130

MC-1 23/03/1983 0900 8.4 380 13.8 1290 114 39 1.5 2.7 2040 34 130

MC-1 27/03/1983 0900 8.4 370 14.6 1310 113 40 1.5 2.7 2030 34 130

MC-1 30/03/1983 8.5 380 15 1290 110 38.6 1.3 2 2060 40 140

MC-1 03/04/1983 8.5 410 16 1420 120 41.9 0.5 2.2 2230 42 140

MC-1 06/04/1983 8.4 410 15 1320 110 38.8 0.4 2.2 2130 42 130

MC-1 10/04/1983 8.4 310 14 1320 110 37.6 1.4 2 2060 43 140

MC-1 14/04/1983 8.4 370 14 1310 120 36.2 1.5 2 2030 43 140

MC-1 18/04/1983 8.4 380 13 1280 110 36.2 1.6 2 2040 43 140

MC-1 21/04/1983 8.4 380 14 1360 120 37.9 1.6 1.9 2020 44 140

MC-1 24/04/1983 8.4 390 14 1260 110 36 1.6 1.9 2010 43 140

MC-1 27/04/1983 8.4 390 14 1310 110 36.5 1.6 1.9 2020 42 140

MC-1 01/05/1983 8.4 380 14 1280 110 36.1 1.6 1.9 2010 43 140

MC-1 04/05/1983 8.4 380 15 1270 110 34.2 1.6 1.9 2010 40 130

MC-1 08/05/1983 8.4 350 15 1290 110 36 1.6 1.9 2000 43 140

MC-1 12/05/1983 0930 8.4 370 14 1280 100 35 1.5 2.2 2000 43 140

MC-1 05/06/1983 0900 8.3 380 14 1350 110 34 1.5 2.2 2000 42 130

MC-1 09/06/1983 0900 8.4 370 14 1250 100 34 1.5 2.2 2000 44 120

MC-1 12/06/1983 0900 8.4 370 14 1240 100 34 1.5 2.2 2000 41 150

MC-1 16/06/1983 8.3 370 14 1240 100 34 1.5 2.2 2010 44 150

MC-1 19/06/1983 8.4 360 14 1240 100 34 1.5 2.2 2010 44 150

MC-1 22/06/1983 8.4 400 14 1270 110 33 1.7 2.1 2010 43 150

71

MC-1 26/06/1983 8.3 350 14 1270 110 33 1.6 2.1 2010 42 160

MC-1 29/06/1983 8.4 350 14 1270 110 33 1.6 2.1 2000 41 150

MC-1 03/07/1983 8.4 340 14 1260 110 32 1.6 2 1990 41 150

MC-1 04/09/1983 8.2 280 15 1360 110 53 0.7 2.4 2130 69 150

MC-1 11/09/1983 8.3 340 15 1370 110 49 1 2.5 2110 61 120

MC-1 18/09/1983 8.3 360 15 1370 120 50 1 2.6 2130 58 130

MC-1 09/10/1983 8.4 340 14 1320 120 36 1.4 2.5 2040 39 130

MC-1 16/10/1983 8.4 330 14 1300 120 36 1.5 2.4 2030 38 130

MC-1 23/10/1983 8.3 340 14 1260 110 35 1.5 2.5 2030 38 140

MC-1 05/12/1983 0900 8.5 220 14 1330 120 34 1.4 2 1430 29 88

MC-1 05/12/1983 8.3 270 11 1040 90 26 1.1 1.6 2030 36 140

MC-1 11/12/1983 0900 8.5 280 12 1098 92 27 1.1 1.7 1330 28 83

MC-1 11/12/1983 8.3 320 12 1180 100 29 1.3 1.8 2020 36 150

MC-1 18/12/1983 0900 8.4 280 12 1050 89 27 1.1 1.7 2010 43 130

MC-1 18/12/1983 8.3 260 10 980 86 25 1.1 1.5 1550 29 120

MC-1 25/12/1983 0900 8.4 340 15 1300 110 31 1.4 2.1 2020 42 130

MC-1 25/12/1983 8.3 360 13 1290 110 33 1.4 2 2030 38 140

MC-1 01/01/1984 0900 8.4 340 14 1290 110 32 1.3 2.1 2010 42 130

MC-1 01/01/1984 8.4 350 13 1290 110 32 1.4 2 2030 35 140

MC-1 12/01/1984 0900 8.4 350 14 1300 110 32 1.4 2.1 2010 42 130

MC-1 15/01/1984 8.3 350 14 1310 110 33 1.4 2 2030 36 140

MC-1 22/01/1984 0900 8.4 350 14 1310 110 31 1.3 2.1 2020 41 130

MC-1 22/01/1984 8.4 350 14 1310 110 33 1.3 2 2020 36 140

MC-1 29/01/1984 0900 8.4 360 15 1290 110 31 1.3 2.1 2010 42 130

MC-1 29/01/1984 8.2 310 13 1230 91 46 1 2 2010 36 140

MC-1 15/07/1984 8.6 360 15 1370 120 37 0.8 2 2140 21 130

MC-1 25/07/1984 8.6 360 15 1370 120 35 0.8 2.2 2160 18 130

72

MC-1 31/07/1984 8.4 360 15 1360 120 38 0.8 2.1 2150 29 130

MC-1 09/08/1984 8.4 360 15 1380 120 38 0.8 2.2 2150 28 130

MC-1 15/08/1984 8.4 370 15 1370 120 38 0.9 2.3 2140 26 120

MC-1 23/08/1984 8.4 370 15 1370 120 38 0.9 2.3 2150 36 120

MC-1 31/08/1984 8.4 360 16 1370 130 37 0.9 2.3 2150 36 120

MC-1 06/09/1984 8.4 370 15 1360 120 38 0.9 2.3 2140 36 120

MC-1 13/09/1984 8.6 370 15 1350 120 37 0.8 2.3 2140 26 120

MC-1 20/09/1984 8.4 370 15 1360 120 38 0.8 2.3 2140 34 120

MC-1 28/09/1984 8.4 370 15 1380 130 37 0.8 2.3 2140 35 120

MC-1 04/10/1984 8.4 360 14 1350 130 37 0.9 2.3 2140 35 120

MC-2 03/06/1982 8.5 240 5.6 740 72 33 4.3 0.8 990 106 200

MC-2 22/10/1982 0800 8.8 260 3.1 400 28 50 1.5 0.8 580 30 180

MC-2 23/10/1982 1000 8.6 430 6.8 700 58 58 1.7 1.5 1070 42 160

MC-2 24/10/1982 1400 2.4 440 9.4 820 77 55 1.8 1.5 1340 11 160

MC-2 25/10/1982 0600 8.7 470 10.5 950 93 49 0.6 1.6 1490 32 150

MC-2 13/11/1982 1000 8.3 270 12.7 1160 92 130 6.6 1.5 1820 41 180

MC-2 13/11/1982 1400 9.1 320 19.9 2010 180 140 6.3 2.6 3010 31 420

MC-2 13/11/1982 1600 8.5 410 12.8 1110 92 100 9.1 1.8 1760 42 160

MC-2 13/11/1982 1800 8.5 430 12.9 1190 104 180 17 2.2 1900 25 190

MC-2 13/11/1982 1900 7 130 52 5250 450 760 2.2 7.2 8300 58 1400

MC-3 16/10/1982 1900 9.1 340 6 770 52 32 0.8 1.7 850 101 420

MC-3 20/10/1982 1600 9.6 450 10.4 1180 78 106 2.7 2.6 1360 39 590

MC-3 21/10/1982 1000 8.5 260 9.6 1130 79 26 2.9 1.2 470 114 400

MC-3 25/10/1982 2000 8.3 240 1.6 290 27 50 1.9 0.7 250 68 370

MC-3 26/10/1982 0400 8.4 290 3.3 450 37 26 1.8 1 450 87 390

MC-3 26/10/1982 2000 9.3 380 6.1 810 61 118 2.3 1.8 900 91 550

MC-3 27/10/1982 0900 8.7 320 5.1 630 51 28 2.4 1.2 750 111 390

73

MC-3 28/10/1982 1000 9.1 290 7.1 800 59 12 0.9 1.2 960 61 390

MC-3 02/11/1982 1400 8.8 320 6.7 770 57 20 1.6 1.3 950 101 360

MC-3 02/11/1982 2200 8.6 330 7.3 800 58 25 2.2 1.4 960 112 390

MC-3 09/11/1982 1200 8.8 340 8.9 960 70 19 1.4 1.3 1330 107 340

MC-3 09/11/1982 2000 9 280 9.3 970 66 29 1.9 1.7 1270 90 390

MC-3 11/11/1982 1436 8.9 300 9.9 970 71 13 0.8 1.4 1280 120 350

MC-3 11/11/1982 1834 9 240 9.7 1010 71 35 1.3 1.9 1370 71 410

MC-6 166.51 7.71 161 3.86 779 43.95 67.33 4.07 325 382 453

MC-6 177.76 7.84 215 4.92 868 58.78 68.74 6.39 448 352 398

MC-6 190.97 8.07 122 8.09 1290 93.86 55.5 1.46 848 382 442

MC-6 193.68 133 8.89 1322 100.5 57 0.2 849 305 422

MC-6 195.59 8.76 8.9 1200 94.6 47.9 1080

MC-6 190.38 7.88 105 6.58 943 74.65 52.37 0.23 737 290

MC-8 (Thermochem Air Lift

Analysis, 2008) 7.95 630 20.1 1760 273 46.1 0.027 2.36 2950 43.1 91.6

MC-8 (Thermochem Air Lift

Analysis, 2008) 8.02 619 20.1 1720 279 47.4 0.03 2.35 2960 46.9 89.4

MC-8 (Thermochem Air Lift

Analysis, 2008) 7.37 536 20.7 1730 279 62.6 0.212 2.21 3030 11.8 93.3

75

Appendix B

Geothermometry calculations. Temperatures are in °C.

Sample Name Measured Quartz Chalcedony Na/K K/Ca K/Mg Na-K-Ca Reservoir

Meager Creek (Souther 1976) 55.0 165.1 141.4 205.6 148.4 115.2 145.6 55.0

Meager Creek (N.S-B.G 1974) 59.0 164.3 140.5 205.6 148.4 115.2 145.6 59.0

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 01 31.4 107.4 77.5 241.5 180.6 99.2 100.1 31.4

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 03 30.0 105.6 75.6 210.9 172.4 102.0 112.7 30.0

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 05 48.5 125.4 97.3 227.3 153.6 113.3 134.9 48.5

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 06 (GSC1) 56.0 132.6 105.3 222.9 152.0 112.4 137.6 56.0

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 17 (GSC1) 56.5 134.9 107.8 226.5 149.5 114.7 140.9 56.5

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 18 50.0 138.0 111.3 224.5 149.6 114.6 141.0 50.0

Meager Creek (Grasby 2000) 47.0 167.3 143.9 207.5 149.6 113.8 143.4 47.0

Meager Creek (vent #19; Clark et

al 1980) 49.8 157.7 133.1 214.6 145.1 117.2 149.3 49.8

Meager Creek main vent (Table 1.

GT7. N.S-B.G 1975) 57.5 160.7 136.4 253.9 134.1 123.3 162.1 57.5

Meager Creek main vent (NSBG.

1981; NSBG 1980) 50.1 165.6 142.0 204.7 149.9 113.9 143.4 50.1

Meager Creek main vent (NSBG.

1981; Shenker. 1980) 57.0 168.6 145.3 208.7 151.7 112.9 140.1 57.0

76

Meager Creek main vent (NSBG.

1981; Shenker. 1980) 47.5 172.5 149.7 205.6 150.4 114.9 142.4 47.5

Upper Meager Creek (Spring

79D) (NSBG 1975) 33.0 141.2 114.7 284.2 149.6 133.0 33.0

Placid Hot Springs Vent 2 (NSBG

1981; Clark et al 1980) 45.1 156.1 131.4 223.5 150.0 118.4 140.5 45.1

No Good Warm Spring #1 (NSBG

1981; Hammerstrom and Brown.

1977)

30.0 105.6 75.6 210.9 172.4 102.0 112.7 30.0

No Good Warm Spring #1 (NSBG

1981; Shenker. 1980) 34.5 147.5 121.8 201.1 166.1 107.3 121.5 34.5

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; NSBG 1975) 33.0 141.2 114.7 284.2 149.6 112.7 133.0 33.0

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; Hammerstrom and Brown.

1977)

31.4 107.4 77.5 241.5 180.6 99.2 100.1 31.4

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; Clark et al. 1980) 29.5 137.3 110.4 228.4 178.6 98.4 103.6 29.5

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; Clark et al. 1980) 29.5 142.1 115.8 236.3 181.3 97.8 99.8 29.5

Boundary Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; Clark et al 1980) 4.5 19.1 -9.6 214.4 359.6 22.8 2.2 4.5

CaCO3 Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; NSBG 1975) 8.5 65.0 32.7 134.7 1.1 -43.2 8.5

CaCO3 Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; Shenker 1980) 7.0 37.6 6.5 345.0 42.2 -5.1 7.0

CaCO3 Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; Clark et al 1980) 5.6 33.4 2.7 348.0 40.5 -4.7 5.6

Problem Cold Spring #1 (Clark et

al 1980) 9.0 40.7 9.3 270.9 55.3 25.8 9.0

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981;

Hammerstrom and Brown. 1977) 56.0 132.6 105.3 222.9 152.7 112.4 136.7 56.0

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981;

Hammerstrom and Brown. 1977) 56.5 134.9 107.8 226.5 149.5 114.7 140.9 56.5

77

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981; Clark et al.

1980) 58.4 163.3 139.4 214.8 152.8 113.4 137.6 58.4

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981; Shenker.

1980) 68.5 172.3 149.5 205.2 157.3 111.5 132.6 68.5

M1-74D (NSBG 1981; Clark et al.

1980) 52.3 139.2 112.6 111.6 139.4 128.0 159.2 52.3

M1-74D (NSBG 1981; Clark et al.

1980) 56.0 142.0 115.7 96.8 159.8 120.9 144.1 56.0

M2-75D (NSBG 1981; Clark et al

1980) 10.1 53.7 21.5 321.8 216.3 67.5 60.6 10.1

M7-79D (NSBG 1981) 49.6 17.6 246.4 269.7 60.8 34.7

M12-80D (NSBG 1981) 142.1 115.8 121.9 141.6 125.9 162.3

MC-1 MM-32 129.3 101.6 144.7 182.6 105.9 154.2 101.6

MC-1 MM-35 155.1 130.2 197.4 81.0 118.3 226.1 130.2

MC-1 17/03/1982 234.6 220.6 161.5 114.9 165.2 190.2 234.6

MC-1 07/07/1982 209.3 191.6 168.7 115.2 171.6 192.1 209.3

MC-1 09/07/1982 221.8 206.1 166.1 114.6 162.7 191.6 221.8

MC-1 22/07/1982am1 202.7 184.1 164.0 118.9 171.0 188.1 202.7

MC-1 22/07/1982pm2 204.2 185.8 170.7 122.1 158.5 188.9 204.2

MC-1 22/07/1982web1 200.3 181.3 166.9 120.0 170.4 188.6 200.3

MC-1 22/07/1982web2 215.1 198.3 168.0 120.4 166.5 188.9 215.1

MC-1 17/08/1982 1000 220.8 204.8 175.9 115.4 162.3 194.8 220.8

MC-1 10/09/1982 0900 219.9 203.9 181.5 144.3 148.3 182.2 219.9

MC-1 12/09/1982 0400 209.9 192.4 166.0 117.3 175.2 190.1 209.9

MC-1 13/09/1982 1300 202.5 183.9 173.5 123.2 170.3 189.4 202.5

MC-1 14/09/1982 1030 162.7 138.7 177.6 117.8 172.7 193.6 138.7

MC-1 14/09/1982 1100 163.6 139.7 185.8 112.5 179.7 199.7 139.7

MC-1 14/09/1982 1200 160.6 136.3 176.7 112.5 177.0 196.3 136.3

MC-1 14/09/1982 1100 171.4 148.5 190.8 113.8 175.7 200.8 148.5

78

MC-1 14/09/1982 1130 163.1 139.1 183.7 112.9 176.1 198.7 139.1

MC-1 25/09/1982 222.6 206.9 172.8 111.9 164.6 195.7 222.6

MC-1 27/09/1982 222.8 207.2 174.0 112.0 162.3 196.0 222.8

MC-1 01/10/1982 222.9 207.3 174.1 110.6 161.8 196.8 222.9

MC-1 09/10/1982 180.8 159.1 175.0 109.5 163.9 197.4 180.8

MC-1 18/10/1982 1200 226.5 211.3 180.5 108.3 167.0 200.7 226.5

MC-1 23/10/1982 1200 222.2 206.5 173.3 112.2 163.5 195.5 222.2

MC-1 24/10/1982 1200 226.5 211.4 170.4 110.4 161.9 195.5 226.5

MC-1 25/10/1982 1200 228.8 214.0 171.3 110.2 162.2 196.1 228.8

MC-1 28/10/1982 2400 213.3 196.3 175.3 126.2 145.7 188.8 213.3

MC-1 29/10/1982 0800 222.9 207.2 177.4 117.1 159.1 194.5 222.9

MC-1 29/10/1982 2400 225.8 210.5 174.3 119.5 162.9 192.1 225.8

MC-1 30/10/1982 0800 200.1 181.1 172.7 121.0 149.9 190.3 200.1

MC-1 30/10/1982 2400 211.8 194.6 169.0 117.2 138.4 191.1 211.8

MC-1 31/10/1982 0830 213.3 196.3 182.4 111.6 143.0 199.4 213.3

MC-1 07/11/1982 1200 219.7 203.7 177.8 112.9 159.5 196.9 219.7

MC-1 09/11/1982 1200 215.8 199.1 177.7 111.7 159.0 197.5 215.8

MC-1 11/11/1982 0715 222.5 206.8 179.2 110.3 160.5 199.0 222.5

MC-1 11/11/1982 0945 227.0 212.0 178.4 110.4 159.5 198.6 227.0

MC-1 11/11/1982 0945 220.2 204.2 177.8 111.1 159.2 197.9 220.2

MC-1 15/11/1982 1200 183.4 162.0 179.2 125.3 142.1 190.0 183.4

MC-1 20/11/1982 1100 220.1 204.0 174.5 110.2 160.7 197.2 220.1

MC-1 23/11/1982 1100 220.1 204.1 174.5 109.7 159.9 197.4 220.1

MC-1 23/11/1982 1400 197.0 177.5 176.8 113.6 154.3 195.7 197.0

MC-1 28/11/1982am 222.7 207.0 166.3 112.2 157.1 192.9 222.7

MC-1 01/12/1982pm 227.3 212.3 166.3 112.9 156.2 192.5 227.3

MC-1 06/12/1982 1400 223.1 207.5 167.0 112.5 156.4 193.1 223.1

79

MC-1 09/12/1982 1400 225.1 209.8 166.7 112.9 155.9 192.7 225.1

MC-1 12/12/1982 1000 225.0 209.7 167.8 112.3 156.3 193.4 225.0

MC-1 15/12/1982 0900 224.5 209.1 165.9 112.4 155.9 192.6 224.5

MC-1 19/12/1982 0900 222.7 207.1 166.3 112.2 156.4 192.9 222.7

MC-1 23/12/1982 0900 227.1 212.0 180.8 106.8 161.1 201.7 227.1

MC-1 26/12/1982 1200 222.5 206.8 182.5 107.1 162.0 202.1 222.5

MC-1 29/12/1982 1200 222.5 206.9 185.2 109.8 163.6 201.6 222.5

MC-1 02/01/1983 1600 220.6 204.6 182.6 107.2 162.5 202.1 220.6

MC-1 05/01/1983 1300 225.2 209.9 185.9 106.2 163.2 204.0 225.2

MC-1 09/01/1983 0900 222.9 207.3 191.6 104.4 165.3 207.2 222.9

MC-1 13/01/1983 1500 227.5 212.5 185.2 106.3 163.7 203.7 227.5

MC-1 16/01/1983 1500 225.2 209.9 190.7 104.5 165.8 206.9 225.2

MC-1 20/01/1983 1300 220.1 204.0 192.6 104.7 166.8 207.5 220.1

MC-1 30/01/1983 0900 216.8 200.3 189.0 106.0 169.2 205.2 216.8

MC-1 02/02/1983 1200 226.1 210.9 172.1 112.7 171.3 194.8 226.1

MC-1 06/02/1983 1730 216.6 200.0 173.5 113.8 173.5 194.7 216.6

MC-1 09/02/1983 1500 221.1 205.2 179.0 117.9 149.2 194.4 221.1

MC-1 13/02/1983 2030 224.7 209.3 172.6 110.5 181.3 196.3 224.7

MC-1 19/02/1983 1200 221.9 206.1 176.2 109.2 163.5 198.5 221.9

MC-1 24/02/1983 0900 224.5 209.1 176.4 108.6 162.2 199.0 224.5

MC-1 27/02/1983 0900 224.6 209.2 181.1 108.0 162.2 201.3 224.6

MC-1 02/03/1983 1330 224.7 209.3 188.1 106.1 164.2 204.9 224.7

MC-1 06/03/1983 0900 222.8 207.1 184.8 106.3 164.0 203.6 222.8

MC-1 09/03/1983 0900 222.3 206.6 183.9 106.8 163.3 202.8 222.3

MC-1 13/03/1983 0900 224.6 209.2 179.2 108.8 162.2 199.9 224.6

MC-1 16/03/1983 0900 224.6 209.3 181.8 107.4 162.2 201.7 224.6

MC-1 20/03/1983 0900 224.6 209.3 183.3 108.1 161.8 201.9 224.6

80

MC-1 23/03/1983 0900 224.7 209.3 186.2 106.9 163.2 203.7 224.7

MC-1 27/03/1983 0900 222.3 206.5 183.7 107.5 163.0 202.3 222.3

MC-1 30/03/1983 223.5 208.0 182.4 107.9 163.2 201.7 223.5

MC-1 03/04/1983 230.1 215.5 181.3 106.6 175.3 202.1 230.1

MC-1 06/04/1983 231.1 216.5 179.9 108.2 174.1 200.5 231.1

MC-1 10/04/1983 207.1 189.1 180.5 106.9 163.5 201.4 207.1

MC-1 14/04/1983 221.9 206.1 189.8 104.0 165.2 207.0 221.9

MC-1 18/04/1983 224.3 208.9 183.1 106.9 161.2 202.6 224.3

MC-1 21/04/1983 224.1 208.7 185.9 104.8 164.5 204.9 224.1

MC-1 24/04/1983 226.6 211.5 184.7 106.8 161.1 203.2 226.6

MC-1 27/04/1983 226.6 211.4 180.7 107.1 161.1 201.5 226.6

MC-1 01/05/1983 224.2 208.8 183.1 106.8 161.2 202.6 224.2

MC-1 04/05/1983 224.3 208.9 184.1 105.9 161.3 203.5 224.3

MC-1 08/05/1983 217.0 200.6 182.6 106.5 161.7 202.5 217.0

MC-1 12/05/1983 0930 221.9 206.1 173.5 109.3 158.5 197.4 221.9

MC-1 05/06/1983 0900 224.8 209.4 177.8 105.8 161.8 201.1 224.8

MC-1 09/06/1983 0900 221.9 206.1 176.2 108.9 158.5 198.6 221.9

MC-1 12/06/1983 0900 222.0 206.2 176.6 108.9 158.5 198.9 222.0

MC-1 16/06/1983 222.5 206.8 176.5 108.9 158.5 198.9 222.5

MC-1 19/06/1983 219.5 203.4 176.7 108.8 158.6 198.9 219.5

MC-1 22/06/1983 228.8 214.0 183.6 105.5 160.4 203.7 228.8

MC-1 26/06/1983 217.7 201.3 183.9 105.1 161.7 204.0 217.7

MC-1 29/06/1983 217.2 200.7 184.0 105.1 161.7 204.0 217.2

MC-1 03/07/1983 214.7 197.9 184.9 104.5 161.8 204.7 214.7

MC-1 04/09/1983 199.4 180.3 177.5 112.3 170.6 197.0 199.4

MC-1 11/09/1983 214.6 197.7 176.8 111.5 166.2 197.1 214.6

MC-1 18/09/1983 219.5 203.4 185.4 109.1 169.3 202.0 219.5

81

MC-1 09/10/1983 214.8 198.0 189.4 103.6 166.3 206.9 214.8

MC-1 16/10/1983 212.4 195.2 191.1 103.6 165.8 207.5 212.4

MC-1 23/10/1983 215.5 198.8 185.0 106.0 162.4 203.8 215.5

MC-1 05/12/1983 0900 180.8 159.0 189.8 101.6 168.3 207.8 180.8

MC-1 05/12/1983 197.5 178.2 184.7 107.1 158.9 202.8 197.5

MC-1 11/12/1983 0900 199.3 180.1 181.9 107.0 159.6 201.5 199.3

MC-1 11/12/1983 210.7 193.3 182.0 105.9 160.5 202.7 210.7

MC-1 18/12/1983 0900 199.4 180.3 182.6 108.1 158.3 201.3 199.4

MC-1 18/12/1983 195.1 175.4 186.4 107.8 157.4 202.9 195.1

MC-1 25/12/1983 0900 214.6 197.7 182.0 104.0 163.1 203.7 214.6

MC-1 25/12/1983 220.3 204.3 182.4 105.2 162.8 203.3 220.3

MC-1 01/01/1984 0900 214.7 197.8 182.8 104.5 163.7 203.7 214.7

MC-1 01/01/1984 217.5 201.0 182.5 104.6 162.9 203.7 217.5

MC-1 12/01/1984 0900 217.1 200.6 181.9 104.6 162.9 203.4 217.1

MC-1 15/01/1984 218.0 201.6 180.9 105.1 162.9 202.7 218.0

MC-1 22/01/1984 0900 217.1 200.6 181.1 104.1 163.6 203.4 217.1

MC-1 22/01/1984 217.3 200.9 181.0 105.1 163.6 202.7 217.3

MC-1 29/01/1984 0900 219.4 203.3 182.6 104.2 163.5 203.9 219.4

MC-1 29/01/1984 208.6 190.9 168.5 116.6 159.6 191.1 208.6

MC-1 15/07/1984 218.5 202.2 185.5 104.2 171.4 205.0 218.5

MC-1 25/07/1984 218.6 202.3 185.4 103.4 171.4 205.5 218.6

MC-1 31/07/1984 220.0 203.9 186.1 104.7 171.4 205.0 220.0

MC-1 09/08/1984 220.0 204.0 184.6 104.7 171.4 204.4 220.0

MC-1 15/08/1984 222.5 206.8 185.4 104.8 170.1 204.7 222.5

MC-1 23/08/1984 222.0 206.3 185.4 104.8 170.1 204.7 222.0

MC-1 31/08/1984 219.6 203.5 193.9 101.7 173.4 209.9 219.6

MC-1 06/09/1984 222.0 206.3 186.2 104.8 170.1 205.0 222.0

82

MC-1 13/09/1984 220.7 204.7 187.1 104.3 171.3 205.5 220.7

MC-1 20/09/1984 222.1 206.4 186.2 104.8 171.3 205.0 222.1

MC-1 28/09/1984 222.1 206.3 193.0 101.8 174.4 209.5 222.1

MC-1 04/10/1984 219.8 203.7 195.4 101.7 173.4 210.5 219.8

MC-2 03/06/1982 186.5 165.6 196.5 118.2 139.6 200.8 186.5

MC-2 22/10/1982 0800 193.5 173.5 162.9 162.7 117.6 167.4 193.5

MC-2 23/10/1982 1000 236.0 222.0 178.7 138.1 137.6 184.2 236.0

MC-2 24/10/1982 1400 244.2 231.1 194.4 126.7 146.6 194.7 244.2

MC-2 25/10/1982 0600 243.4 230.2 196.0 118.2 163.0 201.0 243.4

MC-2 13/11/1982 1000 197.7 178.4 175.5 134.3 143.8 184.4 197.7

MC-2 13/11/1982 1400 194.4 174.5 186.5 112.4 167.8 200.9 194.4

MC-2 13/11/1982 1600 231.6 217.2 179.4 130.8 139.2 187.8 231.6

MC-2 13/11/1982 1800 237.4 223.6 184.6 137.4 137.9 186.5 237.4

MC-2 13/11/1982 1900 151.0 125.6 179.6 108.0 222.6 201.8 151.0

MC-3 16/10/1982 1900 205.7 187.5 155.9 130.2 141.4 180.6 205.7

MC-3 20/10/1982 1600 210.8 193.4 153.8 138.1 143.9 176.0 210.8

MC-3 21/10/1982 1000 191.1 170.8 160.3 111.2 145.8 192.0 191.1

MC-3 25/10/1982 2000 189.2 168.6 188.5 164.0 115.1 176.9 189.2

MC-3 26/10/1982 0400 202.0 183.2 174.5 138.6 124.4 183.7 202.0

MC-3 26/10/1982 2000 211.2 193.9 165.5 149.5 137.4 175.5 211.2

MC-3 27/10/1982 0900 206.9 188.9 173.4 128.3 131.9 188.2 206.9

MC-3 28/10/1982 1000 193.3 173.3 165.5 108.4 145.4 195.7 193.3

MC-3 02/11/1982 1400 205.5 187.2 165.3 118.4 138.9 190.1 205.5

MC-3 02/11/1982 2200 209.5 191.9 162.6 121.8 136.7 187.5 209.5

MC-3 09/11/1982 1200 209.4 191.8 164.3 110.8 146.8 193.8 209.4

MC-3 09/11/1982 2000 190.8 170.5 158.3 119.4 142.9 186.4 190.8

MC-3 11/11/1982 1436 197.0 177.5 165.3 103.8 152.7 198.1 197.0

83

MC-3 11/11/1982 1834 179.4 157.5 161.8 119.7 149.4 187.5 157.5

MC-6 2230 166.5 160.7 136.4 141.3 84.4 242.8 244.0 136.4

MC-6 40 177.8 178.6 156.6 157.9 84.1 242.9 246.4 156.6

MC-6 515 191.0 141.3 114.8 165.3 87.7 219.6 243.2 114.8

MC-6 745 193.7 151.3 126.0 169.4 148.8 125.4 165.8 126.0

MC-6 190.4 134.9 107.8 177.3 138.6 130.1 176.7 107.8

MC-8 (Thermochem Air Lift

Analysis. 2008) 13851-2 282.8 268.0 247.6 117.3 159.5 190.1 282.8

MC-8 (Thermochem Air Lift

Analysis. 2008) 13851-3 279.6 265.4 252.4 115.6 181.1 192.7 279.6

MC-8 (Thermochem Air Lift

Analysis. 2008) 13851-4 264.2 251.5 251.2 124.0 168.7 189.6 264.2

85

Appendix C

Reservoir fluid compositions calculated using WATCH. Temperatures are in °C; element concentrations are in ppm.

Sample Name B SiO2 Na K Mg Ca F Cl Fe CO2 SO4

Meager Creek (Souther 1976) 164 450 47 25 81 675 468 110

Meager Creek (N.S-B.G 1974) 2 164 450 47 25 81 0 675 468 110

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 01 56 165 23.7 15.4 92 133 0.45 503 25

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 03 54 248 27 17.1 83.5 295 0.5 260 50

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 05 80.5 347 44 24.8 92 428 0 450 65

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 06 (GSC1) 92 377 46.2 34.1 94 466 0.15 458 170

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 17 (GSC1) 96 410 52 40.5 105 500 0.3 686 180

Meager Creek (Hammerstrom

1977) 18 102 390 48.5 31 92 500 0 595 145

Meager Creek (Grasby 2000) 172 419 44.6 24.7 77.5 543 0.05 445 125

Meager Creek (vent #19; Clark et

al 1980) 142 440 50 24.5 78 605 437 130

Meager Creek main vent (Table 1,

GT7, N.S-B.G 1975) 150 330 54 15 51 600 504 190

Meager Creek main vent (NSBG,

1981; NSBG 1980) 162 439 45.5 26.2 81.9 528 0.12 464 122

Meager Creek main vent (NSBG,

1981; Shenker, 1980) 3.3 170 400 43 24 80 0.3 560 350 110

86

Meager Creek main vent (NSBG,

1981; Shenker, 1980) 180 440 46 24 86 0.3 600 400 120

Upper Meager Creek (Spring

79D) (NSBG 1975) 108 150 32 0 40 275 387 76

Placid Hot Springs Vent 2 (NSBG

1981; Clark et al 1980) 138 433 53.5 27.6 114 674 0.35 398 174

No Good Warm Spring #1 (NSBG

1981; Hammerstrom and Brown,

1977)

54 248 27 17.1 83.5 295 260 50

No Good Warm Spring #1 (NSBG

1981; Shenker, 1980) 120 320 32 16 88 470 310 110

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; NSBG 1975) 108 150 32 7.6 40 275 387 76

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; Hammerstrom and Brown,

1977)

56 165 23.7 15.4 92 133 503 25

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; Clark et al, 1980) 101 175 22.4 13.7 75.6 196 382 69

No Good Warm Spring #2 (NSBG

1981; Clark et al, 1980) 110 160 22 14 82 180 300 66

Boundary Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; Clark et al 1980) 6 4.84 0.54 5.42 12.2 0 0 66.3 2.02

CaCO3 Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; NSBG 1975) 21 3.2 0.16 9.6 95 0.5 278 44

CaCO3 Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; Shenker 1980) 10 3 2 15 120 1.2 300 47

CaCO3 Cold Springs (NSBG

1981; Clark et al 1980) 8.9 3.2 1.75 12.5 98.6 0 370 8.95

Problem Cold Spring #1 (Clark et

al 1980) 10.9 11.9 5 44.9 106 0.8 594 36.1

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981;

Hammerstrom and Brown, 1977) 92 377 46.2 34.1 97 466 0.15 458 170

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981;

Hammerstrom and Brown, 1977) 96 410 52 40.5 105 500 0.3 686 180

87

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981; Clark et al,

1980) 155 424 48.4 36.2 107 571 0.14 526 182

EMR-1 (NSBG 1981; Shenker,

1980) 180 440 46 38 120 0.3 630 0 430 180

M1-74D (NSBG 1981; Clark et al,

1980) 22 104 2390 98.1 90.3 223 2640 0.16 1273 2370

M1-74D (NSBG 1981; Clark et al,

1980) 110 2400 79 94 400 0.9 2700 0 1000 2200

M2-75D (NSBG 1981; Clark et al

1980) 15.5 23 6.93 18 32.9 0.56 0.1 233 22.6

M7-79D (NSBG 1981) 14 28 4.2 8 72 0.18 40 0.48 200 47

M12-80D (NSBG 1981) 28.2 110 2800 130 360 440 3300 499 2800

MC-1 MM-32 9.2 86.7 817.2 47.8 96.7 408.6 0.1 1056.4 5485.9 946.8

MC-1 MM-35 6.8 132.5 662.2 65.3 61.5 2.8 0.4 823.1 43692.5 378.4

MC-1 17/03/1982 6.3 342.6 836.6 59.0 0.2 20.7 2.3 1147.3 4011.0 167.3

MC-1 07/07/1982 9.2 269.1 950.2 70.6 0.2 30.3 1.8 1395.8 3477.9 134.5

MC-1 09/07/1982 8.9 289.7 910.6 66.2 0.3 25.7 1.8 1357.6 23132.9 124.2

MC-1 22/07/1982am1 8.2 255.0 986.1 69.7 0.2 36.6 1.9 1504.6 1636.2 136.0

MC-1 22/07/1982pm2 7.3 255.0 833.0 62.9 0.4 35.7 1.7 1292.1 1734.0 119.0

MC-1 22/07/1982web1 8.0 240.7 945.5 68.8 0.2 37.8 1.9 1444.1 4707.6 128.9

MC-1 22/07/1982web2 7.7 282.9 923.6 68.2 0.3 38.3 1.8 1406.3 3941.8 124.8

MC-1 17/08/1982 1000 9.7 298.6 904.7 72.4 0.5 32.1 1.7 1464.0 2756.1 115.2

MC-1 10/09/1982 0900 8.0 303.3 713.1 60.7 1.1 109.8 1.1 1114.7 9575.9 172.1

MC-1 12/09/1982 0400 12.3 271.9 1174.7 85.6 0.3 50.3 1.9 1787.2 6014.1 184.6

MC-1 13/09/1982 1300 12.7 240.7 1160.4 90.3 0.5 78.2 1.9 1882.4 3380.6 128.9

MC-1 14/09/1982 1030 12.9 157.8 1218.2 97.8 0.6 67.4 2.4 1790.4 900.0 129.2

MC-1 14/09/1982 1100 12.6 155.4 1211.7 105.4 0.4 57.4 2.6 1831.4 914.5 129.5

MC-1 14/09/1982 1200 13.1 148.1 1238.8 98.7 0.4 50.3 2.5 1862.9 961.1 139.7

MC-1 14/09/1982 1100 11.1 169.0 1041.2 95.0 0.4 50.2 2.4 1634.8 1654.3 109.6

MC-1 14/09/1982 1130 12.6 153.0 1131.0 96.4 0.4 49.1 2.5 1770.7 1000.0 120.5

88

MC-1 25/09/1982 10.7 305.3 990.3 76.9 0.5 29.5 1.8 1579.6 2112.1 122.8

MC-1 27/09/1982 10.1 307.3 988.9 77.6 0.7 30.2 1.6 1585.6 1609.7 114.4

MC-1 01/10/1982 11.0 306.0 1030.7 81.0 0.8 30.3 1.9 1627.9 3016.8 114.5

MC-1 09/10/1982 11.6 193.9 1116.7 87.6 0.9 33.1 2.1 1724.2 1396.9 116.1

MC-1 18/10/1982 1200 10.6 316.6 1047.2 87.7 0.6 30.9 1.7 1680.3 2207.3 105.5

MC-1 23/10/1982 1200 10.5 303.3 1032.8 80.3 0.7 32.8 1.7 1631.1 2772.0 98.4

MC-1 24/10/1982 1200 10.7 316.6 1071.5 81.2 0.8 30.0 1.6 1647.8 4320.4 105.5

MC-1 25/10/1982 1200 11.1 323.1 1066.4 81.6 0.8 29.9 1.7 1648.0 4360.6 105.0

MC-1 28/10/1982 2400 6.3 283.0 615.8 49.1 0.7 27.5 1.5 907.1 1351.7 141.5

MC-1 29/10/1982 0800 9.5 303.3 926.2 75.4 0.8 38.5 1.6 1409.8 3274.6 131.1

MC-1 29/10/1982 2400 11.7 323.2 1163.6 92.1 1.2 66.3 1.9 1785.8 1384.0 153.5

MC-1 30/10/1982 0800 11.7 247.9 1119.8 86.3 3.9 63.3 1.7 1726.7 1161.9 145.3

MC-1 30/10/1982 2400 12.5 276.0 1187.8 88.7 16.7 53.5 2.2 1848.6 2320.3 158.9

MC-1 31/10/1982 0830 12.9 276.0 1237.9 105.4 19.2 54.4 2.3 1898.7 3598.9 142.2

MC-1 07/11/1982 1200 10.4 296.6 980.3 79.9 1.0 33.8 1.6 1598.1 1921.1 123.6

MC-1 09/11/1982 1200 9.9 282.9 973.6 79.1 1.0 30.8 1.5 1556.1 2698.2 108.2

MC-1 11/11/1982 0715 10.5 303.3 991.8 82.0 1.0 30.3 1.6 1631.1 2447.3 114.8

MC-1 11/11/1982 0945 10.9 316.6 990.3 81.2 1.1 30.0 1.6 1647.8 2714.8 105.5

MC-1 11/11/1982 0945 10.0 296.5 972.0 79.1 1.0 29.7 1.6 1598.0 2398.8 107.1

MC-1 15/11/1982 1200 7.2 196.2 668.7 54.4 1.5 32.1 1.2 1078.8 1876.6 76.7

MC-1 20/11/1982 1100 10.8 296.5 1046.1 82.4 1.0 30.5 1.6 1631.0 2370.0 107.1

MC-1 23/11/1982 1100 10.5 296.5 1046.1 82.4 1.1 29.7 1.6 1622.7 2334.8 107.1

MC-1 23/11/1982 1400 9.0 226.1 817.4 65.2 0.8 23.5 1.3 1295.7 7455.9 84.2

MC-1 28/11/1982am 10.9 303.3 1049.2 76.2 1.1 29.5 1.6 1631.1 2147.1 114.8

MC-1 01/12/1982pm 10.8 316.6 1039.0 75.5 1.1 30.1 1.6 1615.4 2318.9 105.5

MC-1 06/12/1982 1400 11.1 303.3 1040.9 76.2 1.1 29.9 1.6 1631.1 2635.0 114.8

MC-1 09/12/1982 1400 11.3 310.0 1027.7 75.0 1.1 29.8 1.6 1631.3 2092.0 114.2

MC-1 12/12/1982 1000 10.9 310.0 1027.7 75.9 1.1 29.4 1.6 1696.6 2201.3 114.2

MC-1 15/12/1982 0900 11.3 310.0 1035.9 75.0 1.1 29.0 1.6 1623.2 1793.4 114.2

89

MC-1 19/12/1982 0900 11.1 303.3 1049.2 76.2 1.1 29.5 1.6 1631.1 2089.8 114.8

MC-1 23/12/1982 0900 11.4 316.6 1063.4 89.3 1.3 29.2 1.7 1623.5 2502.0 105.5

MC-1 26/12/1982 1200 11.0 303.3 1057.4 90.2 1.2 30.3 1.7 1631.1 2383.3 106.6

MC-1 29/12/1982 1200 11.1 303.3 1057.4 92.6 1.1 37.7 1.7 1647.5 2362.2 114.8

MC-1 02/01/1983 1600 11.1 310.0 1052.4 89.7 1.1 30.2 1.7 1615.3 1674.2 114.2

MC-1 05/01/1983 1300 11.4 309.9 1035.9 91.4 1.1 29.4 1.6 1615.0 2920.6 106.0

MC-1 09/01/1983 0900 11.1 303.3 1040.9 96.7 1.1 29.5 1.6 1614.7 2854.6 98.4

MC-1 13/01/1983 1500 11.4 316.6 1039.0 90.9 1.1 29.2 1.6 1615.3 3002.6 97.4

MC-1 16/01/1983 1500 11.3 309.9 1044.0 96.3 1.1 29.4 1.6 1623.1 2927.2 97.9

MC-1 20/01/1983 1300 11.4 296.5 1054.4 98.9 1.1 31.3 1.6 1614.5 2345.3 98.9

MC-1 30/01/1983 0900 12.4 289.8 1142.5 103.5 1.0 37.3 1.7 1738.6 1943.8 107.6

MC-1 02/02/1983 1200 12.3 316.8 1234.5 95.0 0.6 47.1 2.0 1851.8 282.7 105.6

MC-1 06/02/1983 1730 11.3 289.8 1126.0 87.8 0.3 43.1 1.8 1597.9 1351.0 115.9

MC-1 09/02/1983 1500 10.5 296.5 971.9 79.9 3.1 45.3 1.6 1540.2 18855.3 98.8

MC-1 13/02/1983 2030 12.3 316.6 1152.8 89.3 0.2 36.5 1.9 1802.3 1272.8 113.7

MC-1 19/02/1983 1200 11.5 303.3 1082.0 86.9 0.9 32.0 1.8 1713.1 1896.3 123.0

MC-1 24/02/1983 0900 11.5 310.0 1084.9 87.3 1.1 31.0 1.8 1712.9 1649.8 114.2

MC-1 27/02/1983 0900 11.4 310.0 1052.2 88.9 1.1 31.0 1.7 1696.6 1651.8 130.5

MC-1 02/03/1983 1330 11.7 310.0 1060.4 95.4 1.2 31.8 2.3 1680.3 1555.8 106.0

MC-1 06/03/1983 0900 11.7 303.3 1090.1 95.1 1.2 32.0 2.2 1672.1 1967.8 106.6

MC-1 09/03/1983 0900 11.5 303.3 1082.0 93.4 1.2 32.0 2.2 1664.0 1565.4 106.6

MC-1 13/03/1983 0900 11.3 310.0 1076.7 88.9 1.1 32.6 2.3 1680.3 1653.4 106.0

MC-1 16/03/1983 0900 11.1 310.0 1068.6 90.5 1.2 31.0 2.2 1672.2 1619.5 106.0

MC-1 20/03/1983 0900 11.8 310.0 1044.1 89.7 1.2 31.8 2.2 1664.0 1597.7 106.0

MC-1 23/03/1983 0900 11.3 310.0 1052.2 93.0 1.2 31.8 2.2 1664.0 1613.7 106.0

MC-1 27/03/1983 0900 12.0 303.3 1073.8 92.6 1.2 32.8 2.2 1664.0 1550.8 106.6

MC-1 30/03/1983 12.2 310.0 1052.3 89.7 1.1 31.5 1.6 1680.4 1523.9 114.2

MC-1 03/04/1983 12.9 329.7 1141.9 96.5 0.4 33.7 1.8 1793.3 1690.3 112.6

MC-1 06/04/1983 12.1 329.7 1061.4 88.5 0.3 31.2 1.8 1712.8 2080.0 104.5

90

MC-1 10/04/1983 11.8 262.1 1116.0 93.0 1.2 31.8 1.7 1741.6 1597.3 118.4

MC-1 14/04/1983 11.5 303.3 1073.8 98.4 1.2 29.7 1.6 1663.9 1942.7 114.8

MC-1 18/04/1983 10.6 310.0 1044.1 89.7 1.3 29.5 1.6 1664.0 2025.2 114.2

MC-1 21/04/1983 11.4 310.0 1109.3 97.9 1.3 30.9 1.6 1647.7 2038.1 114.2

MC-1 24/04/1983 11.4 316.6 1022.8 89.3 1.3 29.2 1.5 1631.6 2053.1 113.7

MC-1 27/04/1983 11.4 316.6 1063.4 89.3 1.3 29.6 1.5 1639.8 2009.2 113.7

MC-1 01/05/1983 11.4 310.0 1044.1 89.7 1.3 29.5 1.6 1639.5 1998.6 114.2

MC-1 04/05/1983 12.2 310.0 1035.9 89.7 1.3 27.9 1.6 1639.5 1849.1 106.0

MC-1 08/05/1983 12.4 289.8 1068.0 91.1 1.3 29.8 1.6 1655.8 1806.9 115.9

MC-1 12/05/1983 0930 11.5 303.3 1049.2 82.0 1.2 28.7 1.8 1639.4 1945.7 114.8

MC-1 05/06/1983 0900 11.4 310.0 1101.1 89.7 1.2 27.7 1.8 1631.3 2341.0 106.0

MC-1 09/06/1983 0900 11.5 303.3 1024.6 82.0 1.2 27.9 1.8 1639.4 1988.4 98.4

MC-1 12/06/1983 0900 11.5 303.3 1016.4 82.0 1.2 27.9 1.8 1639.4 1864.2 123.0

MC-1 16/06/1983 11.5 303.3 1016.4 82.0 1.2 27.9 1.8 1647.5 2367.3 123.0

MC-1 19/06/1983 11.5 296.6 1021.4 82.4 1.2 28.0 1.8 1655.7 1929.7 123.6

MC-1 22/06/1983 11.3 323.2 1026.0 88.9 1.4 26.7 1.7 1623.9 2111.3 121.2

MC-1 26/06/1983 11.6 289.8 1051.4 91.1 1.3 27.3 1.7 1664.0 2141.4 132.5

MC-1 29/06/1983 11.6 289.8 1051.4 91.1 1.3 27.3 1.7 1655.8 1758.0 124.2

MC-1 03/07/1983 11.7 282.9 1048.5 91.5 1.3 26.6 1.7 1656.0 1704.6 124.8

MC-1 04/09/1983 12.9 240.7 1169.0 94.6 0.6 45.6 2.1 1830.9 2884.8 128.9

MC-1 11/09/1983 12.5 282.9 1140.0 91.5 0.8 40.8 2.1 1755.8 2808.7 99.9

MC-1 18/09/1983 12.4 296.5 1128.5 98.9 0.8 41.2 2.1 1754.5 2860.6 107.1

MC-1 09/10/1983 11.7 282.9 1098.5 99.9 1.2 30.0 2.1 1697.6 1623.9 108.2

MC-1 16/10/1983 11.7 276.0 1087.4 100.4 1.3 30.1 2.0 1698.1 1534.8 108.7

MC-1 23/10/1983 11.6 282.9 1048.5 91.5 1.2 29.1 2.1 1689.2 1895.6 116.5

MC-1 05/12/1983 0900 12.5 196.2 1185.9 107.0 1.2 30.3 1.8 1275.1 610.9 78.5

MC-1 05/12/1983 9.5 233.4 899.2 77.8 1.0 22.5 1.4 1755.1 1449.5 121.0

MC-1 11/12/1983 0900 10.3 240.7 943.9 79.1 0.9 23.2 1.5 1143.3 842.1 71.4

MC-1 11/12/1983 10.1 269.1 992.2 84.1 1.1 24.4 1.5 1698.6 1742.8 126.1

91

MC-1 18/12/1983 0900 10.3 240.7 902.6 76.5 0.9 23.2 1.5 1727.8 1471.1 111.8

MC-1 18/12/1983 8.7 226.1 852.3 74.8 1.0 21.7 1.3 1348.0 1176.3 104.4

MC-1 25/12/1983 0900 12.5 282.9 1081.8 91.5 1.2 25.8 1.7 1681.0 1719.3 108.2

MC-1 25/12/1983 10.7 296.5 1062.6 90.6 1.2 27.2 1.6 1672.2 2048.2 115.3

MC-1 01/01/1984 0900 11.7 282.9 1073.5 91.5 1.1 26.6 1.7 1672.6 1742.7 108.2

MC-1 01/01/1984 10.8 289.8 1068.0 91.1 1.2 26.5 1.7 1680.6 1545.8 115.9

MC-1 12/01/1984 0900 11.6 289.8 1076.3 91.1 1.2 26.5 1.7 1664.1 1798.8 107.6

MC-1 15/01/1984 11.6 289.8 1084.5 91.1 1.2 27.3 1.7 1680.6 1868.6 115.9

MC-1 22/01/1984 0900 11.6 289.8 1084.6 91.1 1.1 25.7 1.7 1672.4 1761.1 107.6

MC-1 22/01/1984 11.6 289.8 1084.6 91.1 1.1 27.3 1.7 1672.4 1562.0 115.9

MC-1 29/01/1984 0900 12.4 296.6 1062.6 90.6 1.1 25.5 1.7 1655.7 1830.0 107.1

MC-1 29/01/1984 11.0 262.1 1039.8 76.9 0.8 38.9 1.7 1699.2 1933.5 118.4

MC-1 15/07/1984 12.4 296.6 1128.8 98.9 0.7 30.5 1.6 1763.2 639.5 107.1

MC-1 25/07/1984 12.4 296.6 1128.8 98.9 0.7 28.8 1.8 1779.7 551.5 107.1

MC-1 31/07/1984 12.4 296.6 1120.3 98.9 0.7 31.3 1.7 1771.1 1291.9 107.1

MC-1 09/08/1984 12.4 296.6 1136.8 98.9 0.7 31.3 1.8 1771.1 1250.4 107.1

MC-1 15/08/1984 12.3 303.3 1123.0 98.4 0.7 31.2 1.9 1754.2 1201.2 98.4

MC-1 23/08/1984 12.3 303.3 1123.0 98.4 0.7 31.2 1.9 1762.3 1625.0 98.4

MC-1 31/08/1984 13.2 296.6 1128.6 107.1 0.7 30.5 1.9 1771.1 1557.6 98.9

MC-1 06/09/1984 12.3 303.3 1114.8 98.4 0.7 31.2 1.9 1754.1 1625.2 98.4

MC-1 13/09/1984 12.3 303.3 1106.7 98.4 0.7 30.3 1.9 1754.4 808.4 98.4

MC-1 20/09/1984 12.3 303.3 1114.8 98.4 0.7 31.2 1.9 1754.1 1541.9 98.4

MC-1 28/09/1984 12.3 303.3 1131.2 106.6 0.7 30.3 1.9 1754.1 1584.7 98.4

MC-1 04/10/1984 11.5 296.6 1112.1 107.1 0.7 30.5 1.9 1762.8 1561.2 98.9

MC-2 03/06/1982 4.9 211.3 651.5 63.4 3.8 29.1 0.7 871.5 2478.6 176.1

MC-2 22/10/1982 0800 2.7 226.1 347.9 24.4 1.3 43.5 0.7 504.5 586.8 156.6

MC-2 23/10/1982 1000 5.4 342.6 557.7 46.2 1.4 46.2 1.2 852.5 1715.4 127.5

MC-2 24/10/1982 1400 7.5 348.9 650.3 61.1 1.4 43.6 1.2 1062.7 11277.4 126.9

MC-2 25/10/1982 0600 8.2 367.9 743.7 72.8 0.5 38.4 1.3 1166.4 1095.4 117.4

92

MC-2 13/11/1982 1000 11.0 233.4 1002.9 79.5 5.7 112.4 1.3 1573.5 1490.0 155.6

MC-2 13/11/1982 1400 16.8 269.7 1693.9 151.7 5.3 118.0 2.2 2536.6 243.2 353.9

MC-2 13/11/1982 1600 10.3 329.7 892.6 74.0 7.3 80.4 1.4 1415.3 1702.2 128.7

MC-2 13/11/1982 1800 10.3 342.6 948.1 82.9 13.5 143.4 1.8 1513.8 1024.4 151.4

MC-2 13/11/1982 1900 49.6 124.1 5010.4 429.5 2.1 725.3 6.9 7921.2 2420.0 1336.1

MC-3 16/10/1982 1900 5.0 283.0 641.0 43.3 0.7 26.6 1.4 707.6 1152.8 349.6

MC-3 20/10/1982 1600 8.4 361.4 947.7 62.6 2.2 85.1 2.1 1092.3 170.8 473.8

MC-3 21/10/1982 1000 8.3 226.1 982.8 68.7 2.5 22.6 1.0 408.8 2772.5 347.9

MC-3 25/10/1982 2000 1.4 211.3 255.3 23.8 1.7 44.0 0.6 220.1 2461.8 325.7

MC-3 26/10/1982 0400 2.8 247.9 384.6 31.6 1.5 22.2 0.9 384.6 3240.7 333.4

MC-3 26/10/1982 2000 5.0 310.3 661.4 49.8 1.9 96.4 1.5 734.8 693.3 449.1

MC-3 27/10/1982 0900 4.3 269.1 529.8 42.9 2.0 23.6 1.0 630.7 2635.4 328.0

MC-3 28/10/1982 1000 6.1 248.0 684.1 50.5 0.8 10.3 1.0 820.9 626.4 333.5

MC-3 02/11/1982 1400 5.6 269.1 647.6 47.9 1.3 16.8 1.1 798.9 1962.5 302.8

MC-3 02/11/1982 2200 6.1 276.0 669.2 48.5 1.8 20.9 1.2 803.0 3130.2 326.2

MC-3 09/11/1982 1200 7.4 283.0 799.0 58.3 1.2 15.8 1.1 1106.9 2088.8 283.0

MC-3 09/11/1982 2000 8.0 240.8 834.1 56.8 1.6 24.9 1.5 1092.0 968.6 335.4

MC-3 11/11/1982 1436 8.4 255.1 824.7 60.4 0.7 11.1 1.2 1088.3 1639.3 297.6

MC-3 11/11/1982 1834 8.5 211.4 889.4 62.5 1.1 30.8 1.7 1206.4 647.1 361.1

MC-6 2230 3.6 149.7 724.4 40.9 3.8 62.6 302.2 8227.2 421.3

MC-6 40 4.4 192.3 776.5 52.6 5.7 61.5 400.8 10539.1 356.0

MC-6 515 7.4 111.9 1183.7 86.1 1.3 50.9 778.1 6332.8 405.6

MC-6 745 8.1 120.9 1201.6 91.4 0.2 51.8 771.7 23789.7 383.6

MC-6 6.1 97.9 878.9 69.6 0.2 48.8 686.9 5110.0

MC-8 (Thermochem Air Lift

Analysis, 2008) 13851-2 14.7 462.1 1291.1 200.3 0.0 33.8 1.7 2164.0 6279.0 67.2

MC-8 (Thermochem Air Lift

Analysis, 2008) 13851-3 14.8 456.0 1267.0 205.5 0.0 34.9 1.7 2180.4 6005.1 65.9

MC-8 (Thermochem Air Lift

Analysis, 2008) 13851-4 15.8 408.0 1316.8 212.4 0.2 47.7 1.7 2306.2 3582.4 71.0