Gender issues in rice based farming

systems

Krishna Srinath Director*

Directorate of Research on Women in Agriculture, Bhubaneswar

(Retired in 2013)*

Dedicated to The Memory Of

Dr Gopinath Sahu

Dr. Gopinath Sahu Memorial Lecture

Rice – A Women’s Crop

Rice was traditionally considered as a female crop taken care of by women individually or in groups

Rice was considered as a ‘girl child’ because of its delicacy and fragility, hence must be handled by women in its early stages

Rice farming scenario is usually represented by women performing transplanting which signifies their participation

Female slaves smuggled the seed grains of rice in their hair

They gained knowledge through close observation of plant growth cycle, growth habit, yield and cooking quality. They had good knowledge of land races

Separation of grains from the husk and bran is a highly skilled technique in which women had expertise

A Senegal women was buried with the mortar and pestle in honour of her labour

Rice – A Women’s Crop

Women and food security

The key to food security is in the hands of women

Physically, Annapurna is described as holding a golden ladle adorned with various kinds of jewels in her right hand and a vessel full of delicious porridge in her left

She who is full, complete and perfect with food and grains

She who gives nourishment At the household level, which is the

fundamental unit of civilization; women holds the key to the food security

Women and food security

In ancient Roman religion Ceres was a goddess of agriculture, grain crops and motherly relationships

Ceres was credited with the discovery of spelt wheat (far), the yoking of oxen and ploughing, the sowing, protection and nourishing of the young seed, and the gift of agriculture to human

Rural women are the main producers of the world’s staple crops – rice, wheat, maize, sorghum and millets – which provide up to 90 percent of the rural poor’s food intake

In Southeast Asia, women provide up to 90 per cent of labour for rice cultivation

In sub-Saharan Africa, women produce up to 80 per cent of basic foodstuffs both for household consumption and for sale

Women and food : Some facts and figures

Women perform from 25 to 45 per cent of agricultural field tasks in Colombia and Peru

Women constitute 53 per cent of the agricultural labour in Egypt

Fewer than 10 per cent of women farmers in India, Nepal and Thailand own land

An analysis of credit schemes in five African countries found that women received less than 10 per cent of the credit awarded to male smallholders

Only 15 per cent of the world’s agricultural extension agents are women

Source : www.fao.org/gender/en/agrib4-e.htm.

Women and food : Some facts and figures

Rice and nutritional security

Grown in 155 million hectare and supplies 1/5 of the global calorie

Enables producers to procure other food stuff by selling the commodity

The byproducts including hey, husk and bran support the livestock production in the villages

Intercropping and integrated cropping systems help to produce different crops which adds variety to the diet and contributes to other nutritional requirements in the rural areas

The Indian Scenario Rice is key to food security in India Rice covers about 42 million hectares of

the gross cropped area Grown in most diverse agro ecological and

geographical situations that encompasses wide socio economic and cultural diversity

Rice, both raw and cooked forms have religious and cultural significance

Rice based cropping systems in India

Cropping of single variety Mixed varietal cropping Intercropping with other crops Relay cropping Sequential cropping Integrated farming system

Changes in rice farming systems

Many changes have been witnessed in rice farming in the past years:

• Structural changes • Technological changes• Changes in socio economic dimensions

Structural changes

The changes lead to variety of consequences to the rural communities which to some extent affect their food security

Eg. When rice farming in ‘pokkali’ fields of Kerala were converted for shrimp production women lost employment opportunities, locally produced rice and its byproducts which in turn affected the livestock production in the village and also release of free human resource

World wide women play a very important role in crop, livestock and fish production

The nature and extent of participation varies with the agro production systems

Their role varies from mangers to landless labourers

In overall farm production their contribution is estimated at 55-60 per cent of the total labour, much higher in certain regions

Men’s participation remained constant around 52 per cent whereas that of women increased from 19 per cent to 26 per cent in 2001

Role of Women

The share of women among total agricultural labourers increased from 36.74 per cent in 1981 to 46.62 per cent in 2001

Among cultivators women’s share increased from 25 per cent to 32 per cent

According to FAO in Himalayas a pair of bullocks works 1064 hours, a man 1212 hours and a woman 3485 hours in a one hectare farm

About 20 crore people are estimated to be employed in the unorganized sector including women

Role of Women

Key gender statistics on work participation in India

Key Gender statistics on Work Participation in IndiaS. no

Parameters %

1 Overall work participation in India 39.252 Work Participation Rate amongst women 25.63 Work participation Rate amongst men 51.94 Cultivators to total workers 31.75 Agricultural Labourers to total workers 26.76 Women cultivators amongst total cultivators 32.367 Women amongst total Agricultural Labourers 46.628 (Men) Cultivators amongst total men workers 31.349 (Women) cultivators amongst women workers 32.5110 (Men) Agricultural Labourers amongst total men

workers20.82

11 (Women) Agricultural Labourers amongst women workers

39.43Source: Census 2001

States/UTs with distinction in Gender work participation

Sl. No.

Parameters State/ UT %

1 Highest Overall Work Participation Rate Mizoram 52.72 Highest men Work Participation Rate D &D 65.53 Highest women Work Participation Rate Mizoram 47.64 Highest % of cultivators amongst workers Himachal

Pradesh65.5

5 Highest % of AL amongst workers Bihar 48.06 Highest % of men cultivators amongst men

workersNagaland 55.6

87 Highest % of women cultivators amongst

women workersHimachal

Pradesh86.2

8 Highest % of Ag. Laborers amongst workers Bihar 48.29 Highest % of women AL amongst women

workersBihar 63.2

10 Highest % of Ag. Laborers amongst men workers

Bihar 42.7

11 Highest % of (C +AL) amongst workers Bihar 77.412 Highest % of (C +AL) amongst men Workers Bihar 74.313 Highest % of (C +AL) amongst women

WorkersHimachal

Pradesh89.0

C = Cultivators AL = Agricultural LabourersSource: Census 2001

Labor inputs in rainfed rice production (days/ ha)

 Country Villages Total

Male Female

Indonesia Jakenan, Central Java Sumber Central Java

161178

5459

4641

Thailand Ban Sai Khram, South Ban Don Paw Daeng

104102

4546

5554

Philippine

Carosucan, Sta. Barbara Tampac, Nueva Ecija

133188

7368

2732

Cambodia

Kandal and Takeo 167 54 46

Vietnam He Thu District 105 45 55Laos Khok Nghai, Xaythani

Ak-sang, Phonethong110117

2438

7662

India

Four locations in Faizabad district 187132211210

16334524

84675576

Nepal

Naldung, NagarkotMohana, RantnagarBaghmara, Rantnagar

26910195

425045

585055

Thelma R. Paris, Sept 23, 2009. Gender considerations in Partnership design and management Strengthening Partnerships and Networks ICRISAT, Patancheru, A.P. India

S. no

Activity Participation in %Male Female

1. Land preparation 100 Nil2. Seed preparation for sowing 8 823. Raising nursery and transplanting 25 754. Direct sowing 92 85. Irrigation 83 176. Applying FYM 75 257. Fertilizer application 83 178. Weeding 17 839. Plant protection 83 17

10. Harvesting 42 5811. Threshing 58 4212. Bagging/ storing of grain 17 8313. Marketing of produce 92 814. Storing dry fodder 66 34

Over all 60 40

Gender analysis of crop farming systems

Farm related activities include

Role and responsibility

- Land preparation- Seed selection- Seed treatment- Nursery raising- Plant protection - Transplanting- Irrigation

-Application of manure/ fertilizer -Harvesting-Labour management -Management of produce -Financial management

About 65 per cent women participate in farm related activities whereas men’s participation is about 72 per cent, typology being individual and joint participation

Gender issues in rice production

o Access to and control over resourceso Knowledge differences o Access to information, technology, extension and

marketo Technology bypass womeno Drudgery in agricultural operations o Inadequate and inequitable access to credit and

financial services o Low skills and poor access to skill training o Lack of market information and marketing channelso Inadequate holding premiseso Lack of business advice and guidanceo Migration

Gender differences in landholding

For developing countries for which data are available, between 10 percent and 20 percent of all land holders are women

The developing countries having both the lowest and highest shares of female land holders are in Africa

Among smallholders, farms operated by female-headed households are smaller in almost all countries for which data are available

Source : FAO, 2011

Share of male and female agricultural holders in main developing regions

Issues of Women Agricultural Labourers

Burden of feeding and

nurturing the children

Less time for child care

Health hazards

Less rest during prenatal and

post natal period

Exploitation by land owners

Physical drudgery

Insecurity at work place

Travel to distant

places for work

Limited right over family resources

Malnutrition or under nutrition

Low wage rate than male

Deprivation from health

servicesDeprivation from

education

Access to and control over resources

The access to and control over resources varies from region to region and for different assets.

Men have greater access to land, farm implements and marketing

In post harvest management women have more responsibility and better access

Access to information, technology, extension and market

Women’s access to information, technology and market is less than that of men

Women’s participation in knowledge gathering is marginal

Technology development in agriculture is mostly focused on mechanization and gender issues overlooked

Poverty, low level of literacy and remoteness of villages hinder access to information, technology and market

Technology types in rice farming

Production enhancing : Directly contribute to the output (seed, soil, fertilizer, pesticide etc)

Production supporting : Tools and equipments which provide a supporting role (power tiller, tractor, thresher, sprayer, harvester etc)

Post production : Processing and value addition (graders, parboiling units, dryers, grinders etc)

Drudgery in agricultural operations

Almost all farmwomen suffer from physical drudgery in various agricultural operations

Transplanting rice in mud in bending position for a long time in rains and scorching sun

Weeding by hand in sun, rain and cold for long hours, drying of produce, standing in scorching sun

Harvesting in bending position with traditional sickle

Winnowing in dust and sun for a long time Parboiling of rice by traditional arduous

methods Dehusking/shelling, pounding and grinding

by hand as well as hand operated chakki

Drudgery in agricultural operations

Drudgery level of agricultural activities as perceived by the agrarian women in paddy/jhum

cultivation

Activities  Overall drudgery status 

Reasons 

Transplanting/ Planting

 Heavy a.  Bending postureb. Long hour of standing in deep puddled

soilc. Discomfort on moving forward and

backward in wet field. Care and skill required for uniformity in transplanting/planting

 Threshing Heavy  a.  Bending postureb. High energy required for threshing

 Weeding  Moderately heavy

a. Long hours of sitting in wet fieldsb. Requiring difficult posture in handling

traditional implementsc. Selection of weed plants from

cultivated rice varietyd. Use of blunt and old implements

Activities  Overall drudgery status 

Reasons 

 Cutting  Moderately heavy

a.  Bending or sitting on toesb.  High energy required for cuttingc. Injuries while cutting by

traditional sickled. Setting the lodged plants

Carrying the harvested produce

 Moderately heavy

a. Difficulties in preparing bundles and carrying

b. Carrying head load of bundles causing stress and strain on eyes and neck

Drudgery level of agricultural activities as perceived by the agrarian women in paddy/jhum

cultivation

Parameters considered for ergonomic evaluation

Anthropometric data Muscular strength data Aerobic capacity, physiological cost of operation

(heart rate and oxygen consumption rate) Working posture and load carrying capabilities The technologies can help in reducing drudgery,

increasing utilization efficiency of inputs, ensure timeliness in field operations and reduce turn around time for the next crop, increase productivity, conserve energy, improve quality of work and quality of produce and ultimately enhance the quality of work life of agricultural labourers

In order to transplant 1 hectare of paddy the farmwomen has to dib her finger 30,000 times. This workload is however shared by about 10-12 women.

• Hand ridger• Fertilizer broadcaster• 4-row paddy drum seeder• 2-row paddy drum seeder• 2-row rice transplanter• 4-row rice transplanter• Twin wheel hoe • Cono weeder

Drudgery reducing tools and equipments for rice farming

• Foot operated paddy thresher • Pedal operated cleaner-grader • Wheel type of fertilizer broadcaster • Pedal thresher • Paddy parboiling unit• Spreading tool• Grain cleaner hanging type • Paddy winnower• Tools and equipment for value addition

Drudgery reducing tools and equipments for rice farming

Technology for rice farming and gender impact

Technologies Positive benefits for women farmersModern glutinous rice variety

• Increases land productivity • Provides independent income from

sale of glutinous rice cakesWeed tolerant varieties (Udayagiri, Ghanteswari, Nilagiri)

Better threshold weed density and weed tolerance which helps in drudgery reduction

SRI method Ease of crop management and weeding, increased production, saving in inputs and entrepreneurship development in preparation of mat nursery and transplanting

Combine harvester

Can be owned by women/ custom hired/ lending out to other farmers

Technologies

Positive benefits for women farmers

Post harvest machinery for processing rice; rice huller; rice micro mill; rice flour mill

• Reduces drudgery of hand pounding• Increases volume of rice processed• Saves time and provides flexibility in

time use• Provides additional income• Empowers women individually and as

a group

Rice husk stove

• Reduces use of purchased energy• Uses available biomass

Integrated pest management

• Increases savings on pesticides• Reduces/ eliminates harmful effects

of pesticides on human health and food in the natural habitat

Technology for rice farming and gender impact

Migration

Migration affects the social structure as well as agriculture and changes in agriculture sector leads to migration

Results in temporary/ long term female headed households and burden of agriculture falls on women

Leads to food insecurity and malnutrition

Gender Concerns in agriculture

Technology Access to resources Control over resources Post harvest process Institutional support Policy support Right to access safe and nutritious food Eradication of hunger Equal participation by men and women Control and management of natural resources Opportunities for off farm employment

In agriculture gender manifests in : Physical and mental efficiency Equity and distributional issues Food security Household welfare Human right Access to productive assets and resources

In the present socio-cultural settings all the above are skewed to men. Hence, gender mainstreaming in the present times has more emphasis on women.

Manifestation of Gender

Engendering agricultural Research

Distribution of gender studies into different theme areas

12.23

28.82

6.07

52.88

Extension, institution andtechnology transfer

Socio-economic andparticipation

Policy

Empowerment andmainstreaming

Gender studies in India

Attention to gender issues was first drawn in India by Dr M.S. Swaminathan when he was Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission by introducing a chapter in the Sixth Five Year Plan

At IRRI his strengthen and promoted the concept of women in rice based farming system

Studies related to women in agriculture and rural development in India dates back to 1961 and by 1988 more than 500 such studies were abstracted

Data base and tools on women in agriculture

There are many micro level studies on role of women. However at macro level the main sources of data are from secondary sources

Studies on role of women were initiated in India by Home scientists as early as 1960’s

Gender analysis in rice farming systems were initiated at IRRI and advanced the theory and practice of gender analysis. (Thelma Paris, 1991)

Gender analysis (SEAGA) Programme, Gender and Development Service (Vicke Wilde, 2001)

Sources of gender data All India Census NSSO FAO and studies and

World Bank Reports ILO Country level and

micro level studies (Eg.Gender Data Base & Studies of DRWA and studies under AICRP on Home Science)

Requirements of gender sensitive research

Gender perspective is incorporating gender concerns in research, extension and development and requires

Good contextual understanding of the environment in which it operates

Well defined gender objective Gender equity incorporated in participation,

prioritization design, decision making, implementation and evaluation

Appropriate research design exploratory, ex-post facto, experimental and action research

Expertise and organizational commitment

Research should aim to address

Role and status Occupational health hazards Drudgery Access to and control over resources and

inputs Technology refinement Policy advocacy Institutional measures Research methodology

SEAGA Approach

MARKETS Gender asymmetries in participation and power in land, labor, finance, and product markets• Distribution of risks and gains along the value chains

RISK & VULNERABILITY• Household composition/ labor availability (dependency ratios; migration; disability)• Physical and agro-ecological risks & gender-differentiated impacts• Gender-responsive social protection measures

INFORMATION & ORGANIZATION• Gender asymmetries in market information; extension services; and skills/training• Gender asymmetries in participation and leadership in rural organizations• Empowerment and political voice, especially of women

ASSETS Gender asymmetries in access to and control over social, physical, financial, natural, and human capitals

Sustainable livelihoods

Sustainable Livelihoods through a Gender Lens

Recent studies by DRWA

Studies conducted at nine states of India covering different agro-climatic zones indicated that

Women’s participation was more in homestead based agriculture

Joint participation in crop production – 75 per cent

Highest participation in Himachal and lowest in Uttarakhand with more of joint participation

Gender participation (%) in different

crops in Madhya Pradesh

Gender participation of women and men calculated on the basis of total percentage women hours in different crops showed that women’s participation in rice based cropping system was 44.5 per cent followed by finger millet (43.1%), vegetables (36.9%) and wheat (32.4%).

Gender participation (%) in different

crops in Madhya Pradesh

Some observations from Orissa

An ongoing study by DRWA with CRRI and other crop institutes indicated –

Women’s share in rice farming is about 40 per cent and constitute 1/3 of agriculture labour

Except ploughing women participate in almost all activities from selection of seed to fodder management

Excepting threshing and winnowing all the activities in rice farming are found to be carried out in traditional ways

Men and women opine that traditional technologies are easily available, affordable and specialized skilled not required

Closing the gender gaps• Can improve agricultural productivity,

additional benefits through raising, incomes of female farmers, increasing the availability of food and reducing food prices, and raising women’s employment and real wages

• Increases production and income• Generates broader social and economic benefits

by strengthening women’s direct to access to and control over resources and income

Evidences from Africa, Asia and Latin America consistently shows that families benefit when women have greater status and power within the household

Increased control over income gives women a stronger bargaining position over economic decisions

Female farmers are just as efficient as male farmers but they produce less because they control less land, use fewer inputs and have less access to important services such as extension advice

Closing the gender gaps

Approaches to closing gender gap

Policies and Programmes National Policy for Farmers National Food Security Mission RKVY NHM Mahila Kisan Shasaktikaran Pariyojana National Policy for Women in

Agriculture (Draft)

Models for closing gender gaps

• Women empowerment model• Gender sensitive para extension worker

model (Implemented at Simore, Kantamalim, Padasahi and Tangibanta)

• Public-private partnership for gender mainstreaming

• Cropping models for gender mainstreaming

Philosophy of agriculture development rests on the partnership between man and land and the man is in the centre stage of development, so is, the partnership between farm and home. Farm and home are inseparable, so are men and women like two wheels of a cart.