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Historical Point of ViewStereotypes and DiscriminationCommunication StylesPower in the WorkplaceLaws Regarding the Workplace and EnforcementCareer TheoriesWorkplace ProgramsRole of the Counselor

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Before the Industrial Revolution, both men and women worked, not for wages, but for family survival and maintenance. In this context, men and women were considered partners. However, with the occurrence of the Industrial Revolution, labor was divided into a male work sphere that was paid, public, and external to the family and a female family sphere that was unpaid and private (Cleveland, Stockdale, & Murphy, 2000, p. 6).

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With the onset of WWII, women increased their presence in such fields as teaching, nursing, and clothing manufacture. Additionally, women entered lumber mills, auto and aircraft factories, electrical and munitions industries, and telephone operation. Once the war was over, women returned to more female-dominated work(Cleveland et. al., 2000, p. 8)

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"By 1985, men provided the sole income in less than 15% of U.S. households." (Cleveland, et. al., 2000, p. 10)

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Studies show that women are often stereotyped as the ones who take care while men are stereotyped as the ones who take charge, the latter being a notion more connected to prerequisite behaviors for top-level job positions (Brantner, 2006).

Sex-role spillover refers to the carryover of gender-based expectations about behavior into the workplace. When women are outnumbered by men, as in a traditionally masculine occupations, they tend to "stick out" and to be seen as women rather than as workers (Stockdale, Visio, & Batra, 1999, p. 638).

Gender stereotyping, one of the key barriers to womens advancement in corporate leadership, leaves women with limited, conflicting and often unfavorable options no matter how they choose to lead. (Bobinski, 2011)

"Women are relatively well represented in lower and midlevel management positions in American and European organizations but are woefully underrepresented in top level executive positions " (Cleveland et. al., 2000, p. 146)

The Glass Ceiling- women can only get so far in executive level careers "Women comprise only 15.4 percent of corporate officers in Fortune 500 companies" (Nixdorff & Rosen, 2010)

An interesting question is whether women who use strong influence tactics are equally disliked or whether they are more disliked than men who use such tactics. Well-known female leaders such as Hillary Rodham Clinton and Margaret Thatcher have been heavily criticized for their use of direct, assertive influence strategies. Thatcher, for example, who is not known for her feminist tendencies, has had her share of thinly disguised hostile comments on her style and tactics of influence. When she received the following backhanded compliment from a Labour Party official (the opposing political group), "May I congratulate you on being the only man on your team," she replied, "That's one more than you've got on yours!" (Cleveland, et. al., p. 140)

Once obtained, men's strong use of power may provide yet another barrier for women. Because of the metamorphic effects of power, women, who are more likely to be in powerless positions compared to men, may be perceived as weak, ineffective, and unable to influence others. Indeed, decades of stereotyping researchshows that given no specific information to the contrary, women are perceived to be weak, dependent, passive, and unmanagerial (Cleveland et. al., 2000, p. 147)

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The Equal Pay Act of 1963 represents one of the first post-World War II attempts to address gender discrimination in the workplace. The act forbids paying men and women different rates for "equal work on jobs the performance of which requires equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and which are performed under similar working conditions."

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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 states that it is illegal for an employer to "fail to hire or discharge an individual, or to discriminate with respect to compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment because of such individual's race, color, gender, religion or national origin."

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The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission enforces Federal laws prohibiting employment discrimination. These laws protect employees and job applicants against employment discrimination when it involves:

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Unfair treatment because of race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age (40 or older), disability or genetic information.Harassment by managers, co-workers, or others in the workplace, because of race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age (40 or older), disability or genetic information.

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Denial of a reasonable workplace accommodation that the employee needs because of religious beliefs or disability.Retaliation because the employee complained about job discrimination, or assisted with a job discrimination investigation or lawsuit.

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The FMLA entitles eligible employees of covered employers to take unpaid, job-protected leave for specified family and medical reasons with continuation of group health insurance coverage under the same terms and conditions as if the employee had not taken leave. Eligible employees are entitled to:

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Twelve workweeks of leave in a 12-month period for:the birth of a child and to care for the newborn child within one year of birth; the placement with the employee of a child for adoption or foster care and to care for the newly placed child within one year of placement;

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to care for the employees spouse, child, or parent who has a serious health condition; a serious health condition that makes the employee unable to perform the essential functions of his or her job;any qualifying exigency arising out of the fact that the employees spouse, son, daughter, or parent is a covered military member on covered active duty; or

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Although career development theories can contribute to our understanding of women's career development, these theories may not fully explain this process. career-development models have emphasized men's aspirations and accomplishments and are based on nearly exclusively male samples (Cleveland, et. al. , 2000, p. 259)

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Studies show that "marital status, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and career choice directly affect the career development of women." (Gibbons, Woodside, Hannon, Sweeney & Davison, 2011)

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Donald Super classified career development for women:StableHomemakingConventionalStable workingDouble trackInterruptedUnstableMultiple Trial

*as cited in http://freedownload.is/ppt/career-counseling-with-special-populations-26534871.html

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Ginzberg noted three lifestyle dimensions:Traditional (homemaker oriented)Transitional (more emphasis on home than on work)Innovative (equal emphasis on job and home)

Gottfredsons theory addresses the fact that men and women tend to differ in their occupational aspirations

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Sexual Harassment training is mandatory in California all California employers with 50 or more employees must provide two hours of sexual harassment prevention training to their supervisors and managers every two years, starting in 2005 ("Harassment training regulations," 2007)

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Affirmative action means positive steps taken to increase the representation of women and minorities in areas of employment, education, and business from which they have been historically excluded. When those steps involve preferential selectionselection on the basis of race, gender, or ethnicityaffirmative action generates intense controversy (Fullinwider, 2011).

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Diversity programs may espouse high ideals around gender parity, but unless these programs incite male leaders to action, unconscious bias and hidden mindsets will hold back women from participating fully in the corporate world, says Gary Namie, senior consultant at Work Doctor and author of The Bully-Free Workplace (Mannino, 2012).

"A woman might enter the workforce to satisfy survival, pleasure, and contribution needs. However, this employment outside of the home is in addition to, rather than instead of, work in the home" (Nevill, 1997)

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A career counselor can also help the client investigate her outcome expectations and goals when her roles interplay in the work-family interaction. Outcome expectations provide the counselor with insight into the client's estimate of the probability of an outcome (Slan-Jerusalim & Chen, 2009)

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Educate client of the lawsAssist in evaluating the balance of being a working womanSalience Inventory:help the client and counselor gain a better understanding of the woman's participation in, commitment to, and values expectations for major life roles, which could provide the basis for an intervention (Slan-Jerusalim & Chen, 2009)

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Assist in the examination of:multiple roles of womenclarifying personal beliefs and valueshelp to prioritize time and energy (Slan-Jerusalim & Chen, 2009)

Inform of workplace rightsEncourage a support network

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Bobinski, D. (2011, July 24). Retrieved from http://www.workplace-excellence.com/gender-stereotypes-in-the-workplace-are-far-from-healthy-yet-they-persist/Brantner, P. (2006, December 1). Gender stereotyping in the workplace and the discrimination it creates. Retrieved from http://www.todaysworkplace.org

/2006/12/01/gender-stereotyping-in-the-workplace-and-the-discrimination-it-creates-danica-dodds/ Cleveland, J. N., Stockdale, M., & Murphy, K. R. (2000). Women and Men in Organizations Sex and Gender Issues at Work. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved June 23, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24471461

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Fair Employment and Housing Commission, (2007). Harassment training regulations. Retrieved from website: http://www.fehc.ca.gov/act/harass.aspFullinwider, Robert, "Affirmative Action", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta(ed.), URL = . Gibbons, M. M., Woodside, M., Hannon, C., Sweeney, J. R., & Davison, J. (2011). The Lived Experience of Work and Career: Women Whose Parents Lack Postsecondary Education. The Career Development Quarterly, 59(4), 315+. Retrieved June 23, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5049737221Mannino, B. (2012, June 12). Men's role in breaking gender stereotypes in the workplace read more: http://www.foxbusiness.com/personal-finance/2012/06/12/men-role-in-breaking-gender-stereotypes-in-workplace/

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Nevill, D. D. (1997). The Development of Career Development Theory. The Career Development Quarterly, 45(3), 288+. Retrieved June 23, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5037622138Nixdorff, J. L., & Rosen, T. H. (2010). The Glass Ceiling Women Face: an Examination and Proposals for Development of Future Women Entrepreneurs. New England Journal of Entrepreneurship, 13(2), 71+. Retrieved June 23, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5048267346Slan-Jerusalim, R., & Chen, C. P. (2009). Work-Family Conflict and Career Development Theories: A Search for Helping Strategies. Journal of Counseling and Development, 87(4), 492+. Retrieved June 23, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5033047626Stockdale, M. S., Visio, M., & Batra, L. (1999). The sexual harassment of men: Evidence for a broader theory of sexual harassment and sex discrimination. Psychology, Public Policy, And Law, 5(3), 630-664. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.5.3.630

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