gender differences in depression in college students

Sex Roles, VoL 25, Nos, 11/12, 1991

Gender Differences in Depression in College Students 1

Ann K. Boggiano 2 and Marty Barrett

University of Colorado

Although there is much evidence indicating that females report more depressive symptoms on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) relative to males, virtually no research has examined or reported gender differences on several other measures tapping negative affect--namely, the Expanded Attributional Styles Questionnaire (EASQ) and the Selves Questionnaire. Our first study examined gender differences on both the BDI and EASQ, and found that females reported more depressive symptoms and a more maladaptive attributional style than males. In our second study, the data revealed that, again, females were found to have a more maladaptive attributional style than males. In addition, on the Selves Questionnaire, there was a significant discrepancy between actual and ideal self for females, but not for males. When delineating most frequently used ideal categories, the data revealed that females were more likely than males to report greater strivings for Meal attributes relevant to interpersonal relationships and body image~attractiveness, whereas males reported more ideal strivings for intelligence. These data suggest some content areas in which females and males differ with regard to "traits" to which they aspire, and which may produce dejection and negative affect if not attained.

Much previous research indicates that there is a significant positive relationship between a maladaptive attributional style (as indexed by the Attributional Styles Questionnaire or Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire) and depression (as indexed by the Beck Depression Inventory; (see Peterson & Seligman, 1984, for a review; see also Nolen-

1This research was funded in part by a grant from the Spencer Foundation. 2To whom correspondence should be addressed at Department of Psychology, Campus Box 345, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO. 80309-0345.

S95

0360--0025/91/1200-0595506.50/0 © 1991 Plenum Publishing Corporation

$96 Boggiano and Barrett

Hoeksema, Girgus, & Seligman, 1986). However, several reviews of the relation between these two measures have reported discrepant and inconsistent findings (e.g., Coyne & Gotlib, 1983). As astutely noted by researchers reviewing findings relevant to gender differences for these two measures, virtually no published study has examined the potential for a differential relationship on attributional style between females and males (Handal, Gist, & Wiener, 1987). This paucity of research on gender differences in attributional style and depression in college samples is particularly surprising given the burgeoning evidence that females are disproportionately more depressed than males, regardless of whether depression is assessed by clinical interviews, by examining differential numbers of females and males at- tending therapy, or by other measures (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987; see also Radloff, 1975).

A second major concern raised by Handal et al. (1987) is that an investigation of the possibility for a differential correlational relationship for females vs. males on the Attributional Styles Questionnaire (ASQ) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) has not been conducted. However, contrary to the literature base indicating increased depression for females relative to males, the authors did not find significant differences for females vs. males on either the ASQ or BDI. The findings revealed a significant positive correlation between the ASQ composite and BDI scores (Handal et al., 1987). Interestingly, this significant relation was a funciton of the strength of the positive correlation for males (r = .47) and not females (r = .08).

Our first study reexamines these important issues. First, differences b e tween col lege females and males on scores on the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ) and BDI are assessed, given the few studies examining this issue. Second, correlations, both collapsed across gender and within gender, between the EASQ and BDI scores, are computed.

STUDY 1

Method

Subjects

One hundred thirty-three subjects (64 men, 69 women) participated in partial fulfillment of class requirements for an introductory psychology course at the University of Colorado, Boulder.

Gender Differences in Depression 597

Procedure

Subjects completed two questionnaire: the BDI and the EASQ. Following completion of these measures, subjects were debriefed about the hypotheses of the study and thanked for their participation.

Measures

Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, 1967). The BDI is a well-validated self-report measure of depression. The BDI has been found to correlate highly with clinical ratings of depression derived from psychiatric interviews with college students (Bumberry, Oliver, & McClure, 1978). The BDI assesses the extent and severity of 21 common depressive symptoms such as sleep disturbance, guilt, and sadness, with responses coded on a 0-2 scale. A total score is computed by summing across responses to the 21 items, with higher scores indicating greater levels of depression.

Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (Peterson & Seligman, 1984). The EASQ assesses the level of respondents' maladaptive or negative explanatory style, i.e., the extent to which they attribute causes of negative events to internal (vs. external), stable (vs. unstable), and global (vs. specific) factors. The EASQ presents to respondents a series of 24 events, e.g., "You give and important talk in front of a group and the audience reacts negatively." Subjects read each event and generate what the most probable cause would be if the event happened to them. They then rate each self-generated cause on 7-point scales for its degree of internality, stability, and globality. The EASQ is an expanded version the ASQ (Peterson, Semmel, von Baeyer, Abramson, Metalskry, & Seligman, 1982). Validity of the ASQ has been demonstrated by research showing that ASQ scores predict actual attributions subjects make for specific life events (Metalsky, Halberstadt, & Abramson, 1987; Peterson & Seligman, 1984). The EASQ contains the 6 positive and 6 negative events from the ASQ, as well as 12 negative events from the Life Events Questionnaire (Marx, Garrity, & Bowers, 1975).

Although a number of scores can be derived from the EASQ, e.g., mean scores for the internal, stable, and global dimensions for positive events and for negative events, we focused primarily on the composite score, derived by taking the mean across the internal, stable, and global dimensions across all of the negative events, as in previous research (e.g., Peterson & Seligman, 1984; Peterson et al., 1982).

598 Boggiano and Barrett

Results

Attributional Style

Scores on the internal, stable, and global subscales were combined into a composite score, representing the mean of the three scores across the negative events. Examining the composite scores, a significant gender difference was found [F(1, 98) = 8.56, p < .004]. As predicted, females reported more of a maladaptive attributional style than males, i.e., made more internal, stable, and global attributions for negative events (M = 4.63 vs. M -- 4.37 for females and males, respectively).

Depression

We also examined gender differences in depression, as indexed by the BDI. 3 As predicted, females reported greater levels of depression than males [F(1, 131) = 4.54, p < .04; M = 8.52 vs. M = 6.66 for females and males, respectively]. 4 Moreover, we examined the distribution of BDI scores for males and females. Although 35% of the females had scores over 9, indicating at least mild depression (Beck, 1970; Bumberry et al., 1978), only 23% of the males had scores above 9.

Attributional Style and Depression

Finally we examined the correlations between attributional style and depression, collapsed both across gender and within gender. However, none of the correlations approached significance.

Discussion

The findings from our first s tudy indicated that female college students are indeed more depressed, as indexed by their scores on the EASQ composite score as well as on the BDI, in comparison to their male coun- terparts. Contrary to findings reported by Handal et al. (1987), however, we did not find a significant correlation between EASQ composite negative

3Thirty-three subjects completed a pilot version of the EASQ designed to assess anxiety about possible future outcomes. Those results are not discussed in this article. Because those subjects did complete the BDI, however, their data are included in the depression analyses.

4This finding was replicated with a second sample of subjects from a different introductory psychology course subject pool [F(1, 27) = 6.01,p = .02, M = 10.00 vs. M = 4.15 for females and males, respectively].


and BDI scores for males. Although the explanation for these discrepant findings are unclear, this difference may not be particularly surprising given that Handal et al.'s (1987) findings are unique in demonstrating a reliable correlation for males on the ASQ and BDI measures. Also of interest was that we did not find an overall significant correlation between the EASQ and BDI. This finding responds to a review calling for additional research to examine the relation between attributional style and the BDI, given the often conflicting data reported on this issue (Peterson, ViUanova, & Raps, 1985).

Our findings from Study 1 raised the issue of the content of the basis for depression for female relative to male college students. Perhaps one important source of depression for female college students is concern over interpersonal relations. Females are heavily socialized to be concerned about others and to develop intimate relationships (Katz, Boggiano, & Silvern, in press), and it may well be that this source of identity becomes predominant during this period, and many do not achieve the goals of positive and intimate relationships that they idealized.

A second source of depression for females at this age centers on attractiveness and body image. Since virtually 90% of college-aged women are dissatisfied with their body image (Boggiano & Cooper, 1991)--e.g., they report they want to lose ten pounds or more--this inability to achieve the "ideal" body image promulgated by the media (Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986) may well contribute to feelings of depression in women.

The First, we found on

purpose of Study 2, then, was to examine the following issues. felt it important to attempt to replicate the gender differences the EASQ in our first study. Second, we assessed gender differ-

ences on an idiographic measure developed by Higgins (1987, 1989) that assesses the discrepancy between individuals' reports of attributes that they feel they possess ("actual" traits) vs. attributes for which they strive but have not achieved for themselves ("ideal" traits).

The measure developed by Higgins and colleagues (Higgins, Klein, & Strauman, 1985; see also Higgins, 1987, 1989), termed the Selves Questionnaire, which includes assessment of actual-ideal discrepancy, has been reliably related to dejection or sadness, as indexed by its significant association to responses on the BDI, the Blatt Depression Experiences Questionnaire, and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (Higgins, 1987). However, no research has yet assessed gender differences in discrepancies between actual and ideal self on the Selves Questionnaire.

The present study expands, then, on the Higgins model by investigating differences between females and males on their actual vs. ideal selves. In addition, the present study also examines gender differences in


the content of female vs. male ideal selves. It may well be that females and males differ with regard to attributes to which they aspire. For example, females may idealize a nurturant, likeable interpersonal self or body image/sense of attractiveness, whereas males may idealize success or intelligence.

To sum, then, Study 2 addressed the following hypotheses. First, we predicted that we would replicate Study 1 findings regarding gender differences on the EASQ. Second, because of the preponderance of literature indicating a high level of depression for females relative to males, we as- sumed females would report a greater actual-ideal discrepancy relative to males on the Selves Questionnaire. Finally, we predicted that the content of attributes or traits idealized would depend on gender. Moreover, we examined the correlation between the EASQ and the Selves Questionnaire, both collapsed across sex and for males and females separately.

STUDY 2

Method

Subjects

One hundred seventy-two subjects (77 men and 95 women) participated in partial fulfillment of course requirements at the University of Colorado, Boulder.

Procedure

Subjects completed the EASQ, used in Study 1, and the Selves Questionnaire. Following completion of these measures, subjects were debriefed about the hypotheses of the study and thanked for their participation.

Selves Questionnaire (Higgins, 1987, 1989; Higgins et al., 1985). This measure was designed to measure self-perceptions, as well as others' perceptions (e.g., mother's), of self along three dimensions: actual self, ideal self, and ought self. Only self-perceptions of the actual and ideal self were assessed in the present study. The actual self is defined as one's representation of the attributes that one actually possesses, and the ideal self as one's representation of the attributes that one would strive to possess ideally (i.e., a representation of one's goals, hopes, or wishes). Subjects also rate on a 4-point scale (1 = slightly to 4 = extremely) the extent to


which they think they actually possess or ideally would like to possess each attribute.

Scores are computed to quantify the level of discrepancy between the actual vs. ideal selves (see Higgins, 1987, 1989). First, at tr ibutes in the actual self-concept are compared to attributes in the ideal self-concept and are paired as antonyms or synonyms. Synonyms are defined in terms of Roge t ' s Thesaurus. To assess actual vs. ideal discrepancies, words that cannot be paired as antonyms or synonyms are dropped. Attr ibutes are anto- nym mismatches if they are antonyms; synonym mismatches if they are synonyms that differ by more than 2 scale points (e.g., receiving a 1 in actual self but a 4 in ideal self); and matching synonyms if the attr ibutes are synonyms with ratings not differing more than 2 points. The total number o f an tonym mismatches is multiplied by 2, the total number o f synonym mismatches by 1, and the total number of synonym matches by 1. The score for synonym matches is then subtracted f rom the combined score for an- tonym and synonym mismatches. Thus, the lower or more negative the number, the less self discrepancy in the actual- ideal self-state.

R e s u l t s

Attributional Style

We replicated the analyses presented in Study 1. That is, for the composite score across the internal, stable, and global dimensions for negative events, there was significant effect for gender [F(1, 164) = 8.51, p < .004]. Females again reported a more maladaptive style than males (M = 4.50 vs. M = 4.24 for females and males, respectively). 5

Self-Discrepancy

A n analysis examining gender differences in s tudents ' level of self- discrepancy between their actual and ideal self-states was conducted. As predicted, the overall level of self-discrepancy was larger for females than for males [F(1, 155) = 7.81, p < .006; M = - .62 vs. M = -1.71 for women

5Although the mean differences between males and females were not extremely large on the composite score, examination of the distribution of scores for males and females revealed some interesting differences. On the composite score, as well as the internal, stable and global subscales, females' scores ranged higher than males' scores. That is, the lowest score for females was always higher than the lowest score for males, whereas the highest score for males was always lower than the females' highest score. Moreover, these differences were found in both Studies 1 and 2.


and men, respectively, where lower or more negative numbers indicate less self-discrepancy].

Content of Ideal Self

We also wished to examine the content of males' vs. females' ideal selves. After examining the ideal attributes reported by female and male subjects, trained coders created four categories: success oriented, intelligence, interpersonally oriented, and body image/attractiveness (interrater reliability = .94). For each subject, the number of attributes that fit each of our four categories was tallied (the few attributes that did not fit any of the categories were dropped).

We then examined each of the four categories for gender differences. For success, there were no differences, perhaps because the sample was composed of college students. However, for intelligence, there was a significant difference [F(1, 171) = 5.37, p < .02] such that males listed more of these types of attributes than females as ideal (M = 1.21 vs. M = .86, for males and females, respectively). For body image/attractiveness, females listed significantly more attributes relevant to this category than males [F(1, 171) = 5.82, p < .02; M = .34 vs. M = .13 for females and males, respectively). There was also a marginal gender difference on the interpersonally oriented category [F(1, 171) = 3.67, p < .057]: females tended to list more attributes relevant to interpersonal qualities than males, M = 3.78 vs. M = 3.22 for females and males, respectively.

Attributional Style and Self-Discrepancy

Finally, we examined the relationship between a maladaptive attributional style and level of actual-ideal self-discrepancy. As expected, a more maladaptive style, as indexed by the composite score on the EASQ, was significantly correlated with greater levels of self-discrepancy [r(158) = .33, p < .001]. We than examined the relation between these two measures for males and females separately. As predicted, for females, the relation was highly significant [r(89) = .42, p < .0001], whereas for males, although in the same direction as females, the relation did not reach significance (p = .15).

Discussion

The results of Study 2 on gender differences on the EASQ replicated those of Study 1. In addition, females were found to have a grea ter


actual-ideal self-discrepancy overall relative to males--a measure that previous findings demonstrate is associated with feelings of sadness and dejection (Higgins, 1989).

Interestingly, examination of the content domains of the ideal selves for females and males revealed differential attributes. Perhaps not surpris- ingly, females continue to strive to have highly positive intimate relationships to a greater extent than males. Although this set of traits relevant to concerns for others is deemed as healthy if not admirable (Surrey, 1985), an "excessive" concern for nurturing others at the expense of caring for oneself does not appear to be adaptive (Miller, 1976; Radloff, 1975). For example, the findings from a recent study suggest that the value of nurturance for others relative to self is associated with eating disorders (Duvall, Shields, & Boggiano, 1991). This relationship may well reflect the need to soothe or nurture oneself to compensate for excessive caring and giving to others (Johnson & Connors, 1987).

Our data suggest that socialization pressure for women to be affable and likeable, as reflected in their desire for many close and important relationships, still appears to be alive and well. It is generally believed women should be the emotional caretakers or "healers" of peers and/or family members, and negative affect may well ensue from the "impossibility" of this virtually unattainable goal (Belle, 1982; Miller, 1976). It would appear that consistent empathy together with total availability to others cannot be achieved without cost to one's sense of self (Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1986; Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, 1986).

Differences in the ideal of attractiveness/body image certainly comes as no surprise to anyone browsing through magazines or watching televi- sion. As noted by Silverstein et al. (1986), the ideal body image of females in several magazines has become increasingly slimmer over the past two decades. Concurrently, eating disorders among women are reported more frequently. Attempts at using adages such as "big is beautiful" or "muscular bodies look better than thin, unmuscular ones" do not seem to have miti- gated women's negative feelings about their sense of concern with being thin. Much research is warranted to develop ways of altering both female and male beliefs about the importance of thinness and attractiveness for females relative to males.

Overall, males had less of a sense of discrepancy of actual-ideal self relative to females. However, they idealized intelligence to a greater extent than females. Perhaps intelligence is a stereotype ascribed to males to which they still aspire (Rosenkrantz, Vogel, Bee, Broverman, & Broverman, 1968). The question that arises from these data is why should not aspiring to this ideal lead to overall actual-ideal discrepancies for males relative to females? One potent ia l reason may center on the enti ty theory of


intelligence (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Many students believe intelligence is a stable, enduring trait. Although in the early college years students may feel some disappointment with their beliefs about their own intelligence relative to others, perhaps the belief that although intelligence cannot be altered strategies for success can be developed (as a number of politicians have demonstrated) is such that negative affective feelings about intelligence are attenuated.

To sum, as noted by Nolen-Hoeksema (1987) in a brilliant review article regarding gender differences in depression, there is no question that females are more depressed than males, regardless of socioeconomic status, etc. However, few studies have documented depression in college-aged females relative to males (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987). The pattern of data obtained in the studies presented here suggest that negative affect, e.g., maladaptive attributional styles or depression, is currently experienced by some college-aged females. It is now time to delineate the unrealistic domains to which women and men aspire that may produce negative affect, and actively seek methods of altering those beliefs. Numerous methods could be noted. For example, more female role models who are compelling and confident without necessary being nurturant at the expense of caring for self could be included in the media and the professional worlds of business, academia, and government.

REFERENCES

Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, eaperimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper & Row.

Beck, A. T. (1970). Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Belle, D. (1982). Social ties and social support. In D. Belle (Ed.), Lives in stress." Women and depression. Beverly Hills: Sage.

Boggiano, A. K., & Cooper, M. (1991). Gender diffelences hz perceptions of body image. Unpublished manuscript, University of Colorado.

Bumberry, W., Oliver, J. M., & McClure, J. N. (1978). Validation of the Beck Depression Inventory in a university population using psychiatric estimate as the criterion. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 150-155.

Coyne, J., & Gotlib, I. (1983). The role of cognition in depression: A critical appraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 472-501.

Duvall, S., Shields, A., & Boggiano, A. K. (1991). Eath~g disorders: The mediating roll of self and other nurturance. Unpublished manuscript, University of Colorado, Boulder.

Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273.

Handal, P. J., Gist, D. C., & Wiener, R. L. (1987). The differential relationship between attribution and depression for male and female college students. Sex Roles, 16, 83-88.

Hare-Mustin, R. T., & Marecek, J. (1986). Autonomy and gender: Some questions for therapists. Psychotherapy, 23, 205-212.


Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.

Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer? In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology. (Vol. 22). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Higgins, E., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1985). Self-concept discrepancy theory: A psychological model for distinguishing among different aspects of depression and anxiety. Social Cognition, 3, 51-76.

Johnson, C., & Connors, M. E. (1987). The etiology and treatment of bulimia nervosa: A biopsychosocial perspective. New York: Basic Books.

Katz, P., Boggiano, A. K., & Silvern, L. (in press). Theories of female personality. In F. Denmark (Ed.), Handbook on the psychology of women. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Marx, M. B., Garrity, T. F., & Bowers, F. (1975). The influence of recent life experience on the health of college freshmen. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 19, 87-98.

Metalsky, G. I., Halberstadt, L. J., & Abramson, L. Y. (1987). Vulnerability to depressive mood reactions: Twoard a more powerful test of the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components of the reformulated theory of depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 386-393.

Miller, J. B. (1976). Toward a new psychology of women. Boston: Beacon Press. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory.

Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259-282. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. (1986). Learned helplessness in children:

A longitudinal study of depression, achievement, and explanatory style. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 435-442.

Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and evidence. Psychological Review, 91, 347-374.

Peterson, C., Villanova, P., & Raps, C. S. (1985). Depression and attributions: Factors responsible for inconsistent results in the published literature. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94, 165-168.

Peterson, C., Semmel, A., von Baeyer, C., Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1982). The attitudinal style questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6, 287-299.

Radloff, L. S. (1975). Sex differences in depression: The effects of occupation and marital status. Sex Roles, 1, 249-265.

Rosenkrantz, P., Vogel, S., Bee, H., Broverman, I., & Broverman, D. M. (1968). Sex-role stereotypes and self-concepts in college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 32, 287-295.

Silverstein, B., Perdue, L., Peterson, B., & Kelley, E. (1986). The role of mass media in promoting a thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. Sex Roles, 14, 519-532.

Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L. R., & Rodin, J. (1986). Toward an understanding of risk factors for bulimia. American Psychologist, 41, 246-259.

Surrey, J. L. (1985). Self-in-relation: A theoly of women's development. Stone Center for Developmental Services and Studies, no. 13. Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College.

gender differences in depression in college students

Documents