UG PRINCIPLES

R E C U R S I O N : the property of allowing a given structure

to contain more than one instance of a given category.The term ‘recursion’ has been used in generative grammar to describe two separate but related phenomena, one concerning the internal structure of linguistic expressions and the other, the computational mechanisms that generate those structures. From an internalist perspective, the latter is primary, while the former is apparently of secondary importance. This becomes clear when we consider the rationale behind the reduction of “transformational grammar” to the single operation Merge, i.e. the sole structure-building operation in a grammar. The recursive structure-building character of Merge accounts for the unbounded character of human language, involving a DISCRETE INFINITY of interpretable expressions. Given that the former determines the properties of the latter, we also need to consider the role of the lexicon in this discussion of recursion.

In the classical theory of gravity, [which is based on real space-time], the universe can either have existed for an infinite time or else it had a beginning as a singularity at some finite time in the past, [the latter possibility of which, in fact, the singularity theorems indicate], although the quantum theory of gravity, on the other hand, suggests a third possibility [in which it is possible for space-time to be finite in extent and yet to have no singularities [that formed a boundary or edge because one is using Euclidean space-times, {in which the time direction is on the same footing as directions in space}].

BINARITY principle:Every phonological, morphological and

syntactic structure is inherentlybinary branching.

BINARY BRANCHING IN PHONOLOGY:A syllable like “bat” has a binary structure consisting of:the onset /b/ and the rhyme /at/The rhyme at the same time, has a binary structure, consisting of:the nucleus /a/ and the coda /t/

BINARY BRANCHING IN MORPHOLOGYMorphological structures are also binary:

indecypherability1. prefix ‘de’ + N ‘cypher’ = V

‘decypher’2. derivational suffix ‘able’ + V ‘decypher’

= A ‘decypherable’ 3. prefix ‘in’ + A ‘decypherable’

= A ‘indecypherable’ 4. derivational suffix ‘ity’ + A

‘indecypherable’= N ‘indecypherability’

BINARY BRANCHING IN SYNTAXSyntactic units or phrases are also binary:clauses & sentences are particular kinds of phrases

Phrases are derived by means of successive BINARY merger operations, which can be

analysed in a bottom-up fashion:to form the following maximal TP projection:

they are trying to help you• the maximal VP projection ‘trying to help you’

merges (as COMPLEMENT)with the minimal projection (i.e. HEAD) T ‘are’

• the resulting intermediate projection T-barmerges with the SPECIFIER maximal projection

DP ‘they’ to form the maximal TP projection

ENDOCENTRICITY (HEADNESS principle):Every syntactic structure is a projection of a head.CONSTITUENT TESTS(testing structure through standard heuristics)coordination:(a) what does he do to keep fit?(b) run up the hill and up the mountain.(a) What did he do about his bills?(b) *ring up the phone company and up the electricity company substitution:“He” is substituted for “the chairman”:The chairman has resigned from the board, and he is now living in utopia.“So” is substituted for “resigned from the board”:The press say that the chairman has resigned from the board and so he has.

• Constituent structures are organised in an endocentric and hierarchical configuration

• Endocentricity is a UG-admitted mode of organising categorial structures

• X-bar Theory embodies the principles of endocentricity an X-bar-theory tree diagram provides a graphic representation of the principles

of hierarchy and endocentricity

• A language of the endocentric type generally has a rigid word order

Determiner Phrase Prepositional Phrase DP PP

D N Adv P’that idea right

P DP between

the eyes

Verb Phrase Tense PhraseVP TP

D V’ D T’ we we

V DP T VP support should

that idea complain

She talked to her with sympathy.

Dshe

V’

Vtalked

VP

VPPto

VP

PPP

withDøD

her

DP

T'

TP

CP

Cø

[dec]

PP

Nsympathy

Dshe

Tpastperf3S

She talked to her with sympathy.

Dshe

V’

Vtalk

VP

VPPto

VP

PPP

withDøD

her

DP

T’

TP

CP

Cø

[dec]

PP

Nsympathy

ed

Dshe

Tpastperf3S

She often visits Mary at her house.

Dshe

V’

V

VP

VP

VP

Advoften

Pat

Dher

DP

T’

TP

CP

Cø

[dec]

PP

Dshe

Tpresimp3S

Dø

DP

NMary

V°visits

D[gen]

D’

Nhouse

Advoften

Advoften

Dshe

She often visits Mary at her house.

Dshe

V’

V

VP

VP

VP

Advoften

Pat

Dher

DP

T’

TP

CP

Cø

[dec]

PP

s

Dshe

Tpresimp3S

Dø

DP

NMary

V°visit

D[gen]

D’

Nhouse

Advoften

PASSIVISATIONOBJECTIVE CASE:DIRECT OBJECTINDIRECT OBJECTOBLIQUE OBJECT

1. DIRECT OBJECTPeter sent the material to us. → Peter sent it to us.It/the material was sent to us [by Peter]

2. INDIRECT OBJECTPeter sent us the material. → ?Peter sent us it.We were sent the material [by Peter]

3. OBLIQUE OBJECTThe gorilla has sat on the night-table.The night-table has been sat on [by the gorilla].

4. OBLIQUE OBJECTPeter looked at the guests.The guests were looked at [by Peter].

1. Someone may have seen all of those teachers at the party.

2. All of those teachers may have been seen at the party.

3. Those teachers may have been seen all at the party.

4. Those teachers may have been all seen at the party.

5. Those teachers may have all been seen at the party.

6. Those teachers may all have been seen at the party.

the P A R T I T I V E

phrase

1. all [individuals/members]

( of )2. those teachers

1. PART2. WHOLE

These works of graffiti, painted alongside Regent’s Canal, were each done by two separate artists, Mighty Monkey and Sweet Toof.

They were each taken in for questioning by the police as suspects in a monetary theft.

Six different test spiders were each given a different drug and were observed spinning webs.

The dream sequences and flashbacks were each done in different creative styles that I enjoyed.

Boston and New York papers each published their own transcripts which were snapped up hot off the press.

CONTROL and ECM constructions

ECM = exceptional case marking

They both expected to attend the meetingwith some degree of

excitement.

TP

T’

CP

C

ø[decl]

Dthey

TP

T’

TPastImperf3P

QP

Qboth

NP

Nø

PP

Pø

VP

V’

Vexpected

VP

DPRO

Tto

VP

V’

Vattend

DP

Dthe

Nmeeting

PP

with some degree of excitement

PP

DP

They both expected to attend the meeting

with some degree of excitement.CP

C

ø[decl] D

they

TP

T’

TImpPast3P

QP

Qboth

NP

Nø

Pø

VP

V’

Vexpected

VP

DPRO

TP

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Vattend

DP

Dthe

Nmeeting

Pwith

PP

Dsome

NP

PP

Pof

Ndegree

DP

Dø

Nexcitement

On Friday, I watched them go up the stairs.

On Friday, I watched [them go up the stairs].

On Friday, I watched [the football match].

ECM constructions:Can anyone advise me on how to deal with my boyfriend?I find him quite mean and money driven.I’ve been with my boyfriend since I was 19. I find him quite boring.Some people find him difficult, but I find him quite easy to wear.You may find him/her/it/us/them inspiring/attractive/annoying...I consider/judge/believe / I judge him a fool / I judged it (to be) right I want it very cold. / I want that (to be) played at my own funeral.“I'll go ahead and assign Jason to this task. I want him (to be) working on this for about two hours each day for the next five days.”“I can't tell you how good this guy is when it comes to working on your scooter because I have left him five messages over the course of a month and he has never called. I figure if he can't work a phone, do I want him working on a vehicle?I prefer it more subtle/simple. I prefer him tall and lanky. I have to admit that I prefer him tall, dark and handsome, but this too will pass.

Who does he expect to call?

Who does he expect you to call?

Who does he expect to call you?

CONTROL:Who does hei expect PROi to call WHOWHO?

ECM:Who does hei expect youh to call WHOWHO?

ECM:Who does hei expect WHOWHOh to call you?

Who does he expect to call?

CP

C'

C

QQ

TP

T'

Tdoes

VP

Dhe

V'

Vexpect

TP

T'

Tto

VP

V’

Vcall

Dhe

Tdoes

DPROD

PROD

whoD

who

Tdoes

Dhe

DPRO

Dwho

Who does he expect to call?CP

C’

C

QQTP

T’

Tdoes

VP

Dhe

V’

Vexpect

TP

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Vcall

Dhe

Tdoes

DPROD

PROD

whoD

who

Who does he expect you to call?

CP

C’

C

QQ

TP

T’

Tdoes

VP

Dhe

V’

Vexpect

TP

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Vcall

Dhe

Tdoes

DyouD

youD

whoD

who

Tdoes

Dhe

Dyou

Dwho

Who does he expect you to call?CP

C’

C

QQTP

T’

Tdoes

VP

Dhe

V’

Vexpect

TP

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Vcall

Dhe

Tdoes

DyouD

youD

whoD

who

Who does he expect to call you?

CP

C’

C

QQ

TP

T’

Tdoes

VP

Dhe

V’

Vexpect

TP

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Dyou

Dwho

Dhe

Tdoes

DwhoD

who

Dwho

Tdoes

Dhe

Vcall

Who does he expect to call you?CP

C’

C

QQTP

T’

Tdoes

VP

Dhe

V’

Vexpect

TP

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Vcall

Dyou

Dwho

Dhe

Tdoes

DwhoD

who

OBJECT-CONTROL

The unambitious caretaker must have tried to tell his daughter to expect us to

do them a favour.

CP

Cø

[dec]

TP

T’

Tmust

PerfP’

Perf’

Perfhave

VP

V’

Vtried

DP

Dthe

FP

Aunambitious

F’

F[agr]

Ncaretaker

Control predicateTP

to tell his daughter to expect us to do them a favour

V’

Vtried

TP

DPRO

T’

Tto

VP

V’

V’

Vtell

DP

Dhis

D’

D[gen]

Ndaughter

TP

to expect us to do them a favour

Control predicate

Object control predicate

TP

DPRO

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Vexpect

TP

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Vdo

Dthem

Dus

V’

DP

Da

NfavourECM predicate

Double object predicate

V’

V’

Vtell

DP

his daughter

The unambitious caretaker must have

CP

Cø

[dec]

TP

T’

Tmust

PerfP’

Perf’

Perfhave

VP

V’

Vtried

TP

DPRO

T’

Tto

VP

V’

V’

DP

Dthe

FP

Aunambitio

us

F’

F[agr]

Ncaretake

r

Vtell

DP

Dhis

D’

D[gen]

Ndaughter

TP

to expect us…

TP

DPRO

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Vexpec

t

TP

T’

Tto

VP

V’

Vdo

Dthem

Dus

V’

DP

Da

Nfavour

tried

totell

his daughter to

expect

us to do

them a favour.

Control predicateObject control

predicateECM predicateDouble object

predicate

Our master would allow us all to lie in the sun.Analysed as an ECM structure DISCARDED

c-command

1. polarity expressions + affective

constituents

2. anaphoric pronouns

(i.e. reflexive/reciprocals)

+ their (suitable) antecedent