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FREE SAMPLER
Thomas Garavan, Carole Hogan, Amanda Cahir-O’Donnell & Claire Gubbins
LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
Strategy, Evidence and Practice
2
Published by Oak Tree Press, Cork, Ireland www.oaktreepress.com / www.SuccessStore.com
© 2020 Thomas Garavan, Carole Hogan, Amanda Cahir-O’Donnell, Claire Gubbins
A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978 1 78119 429 4 (hardback) ISBN 978 1 78119 431 7 (ePub) ISBN 978 1 78119 432 4 (Kindle) ISBN 978 1 78119 433 1 (PDF)
Cover image: Preechar Bowonkitwanchai / 123rf.com Cover design: Kieran O’Connor Design
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording or electronically without written permission of the publisher. Such written permission also must be obtained before any part of this publication is stored in a retrieval system of any nature. Requests for permission should be directed to Oak Tree Press, [email protected].
iii
CONTENTS
Figures xxi
Tables xxv
Abbreviations xxviii
Foreword xxxii
Preface 1 Pedagogical Features 2 Structure 3 Acknowledgements 8
SECTION 1: CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS OF L&D IN ORGANISATIONS
13
Chapter 1: L&D: Concepts, Context and Processes 15 Learning Objectives 15 Key Concepts 15
1.1 Introduction 16 1.2 Defining L&D 16
1.2.1 Learning 17 1.2.2 Training 19 1.2.3 Development and Education 19 1.2.4 Instruction and Teaching 20 1.2.5 Human Resource Development and Workplace
Learning 21
Case Study 1.1: L&D in PwC 22 1.3 The Historical Evolution of L&D in Organisations 23
iv LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
1.3.1 The Emergence of the Classroom and Structured On-the-job Training
23
1.3.2 eLearning and Digitisation 24 1.3.3 Blended Learning 24 1.3.4 Social Learning 25 1.3.5 Personalised learning 25
1.4 The Context of L&D 26 1.4.1 The External Context of L&D 26 Case Study 1.2: L&D and the Gig Economy 30 1.4.2 The Changing Organisational Context 33 1.4.3 Changes in Perspectives on Managing People 37
1.5 Defining Strategic L&D 40 1.5.1 Strategic L&D: Approach and Philosophy 41 1.5.2 The Case for Investment in Strategic L&D 42 Critical Reflection 1.1 44 Critical Reflection 1.2 44 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 1 47 Conclusion 48 Summary 48 Review Questions 49 Strategic L&D in Action 1 49 Case Study 1.3: Investing in the Development of Employees: Amazon, Google, Dell and Intel
50
Further Reading 51
Chapter 2: Strategic L&D in Organisations: Theory, Frameworks, Structures and Governance
53
Learning Objectives 53 Key Concepts 53
2.1 Introduction 54 2.2 Theoretical Perspectives: Explaining the Contribution of L&D 54
2.2.1 The Universalistic Approach to L&D 55 Critical Reflection 2.1 56 2.2.2 The Contingency Approach to L&D 56 2.2.3 The Configurational Approach to L&D 56 Case Study 2.1: L&D in InfoSys 57 2.2.4 The Architectural Approach to L&D 57
2.3 Explaining the Link between L&D, Individual and Organisational Performance
58
CONTENTS
v
2.3.1 Human Capital Theory and L&D 58 2.3.2 The Resource-based View and L&D 60 2.3.3 The Behavioural Approach and L&D 61 2.3.4 Ability-Motivation-Opportunity Theory and L&D 62 2.3.5 Attribution Theory and L&D 62 2.3.6 Social Exchange Theory and L&D 63 2.4 Conceptual Frameworks to Understand L&D in Organisations 63 2.4.1 The Systematic L&D Model 64 2.4.2 The Open Systems Training Model 66 2.4.3 Garavan’s Process Model of L&D 68 2.4.4 Fairhurst’s Future L&D Scenarios Approach 70 2.4.5 Ulrich & Brockbank’s Updated Model and Caldwell’s
Change Model 73
Case Study 2.2: Implementing a New Vision at Virgin Trains – The Role of L&D
74
2.5 Structuring L&D in Organisations 74 2.5.1 L&D Structure Considerations 74 2.5.2 Structural Options for the L&D Function 76 Critical Reflection 2.2 87 2.5.3 L&D Governance in Organisations 87 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 2 88 Conclusion 88 Summary 89 Review Questions 89 Strategic L&D in Action 2 90 Case Study 2.3: L&D Strategy and the ESB’s Brighter Future
Strategy 90
Further Reading 91
Chapter 3: Strategic L&D: Strategy, Processes and Resources 93 Learning Objectives 93 Key Concepts 93 3.1 Introduction 94 3.2 What is L&D Strategy? 94 3.3 How Does L&D Strategy Support Organisational Strategy? 95 3.3.1 L&D Supporting Business Strategy 95 3.3.2 L&D’s Role in Shaping Strategy 96 Case Study 3.1: People Strategy in the Irish Police Force 97 3.4 Developing L&D Strategy: Content Issues 98
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3.4.1 Why does L&D Matter? 103 3.4.2 What Should L&D Strategy Focus On? 104 3.4.3 How Will L&D Be Facilitated? 106 3.4.4 Where Does Responsibility for L&D Sit? 107 3.4.5 Who Supports L&D? 107 3.5 Developing L&D Strategy: Process Issues 108 3.6 Developing L&D Strategy: Implementation Issues 110 3.6.1 Successful Implementation of L&D Strategy 110 3.6.2 Executive and Senior Management Responsibility for
L&D Strategy Implementation 112
3.6.3 The Role of the Line Manager in L&D Strategy Implementation
113
3.6.4 The Role of the Employee in L&D Strategy Implementation
117
3.6.5 The Role of L&D Professionals in L&D Strategy Implementation
118
Case Study 3.2: Using L&D to Implement Strategy in the Raffles Hotel
119
Critical Reflection 3.1 119 3.7 Resourcing L&D in Organisations 120 3.7.1 Financial Resources 120 3.7.2 Physical Resources 122 3.7.3 Human Resources 123 3.8 Developing a Learning Culture and Climate 124 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 3 127 Conclusion 127 Summary 128 Review Questions 128 Strategic L&D in Action 3 128 Case Study 3.3: Stryker’s Global Engineering Development
Programme 129
Further Reading 129
SECTION 2: THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF L&D 131 Chapter 4: Adult Learning, Learner Motivation and Engagement 133 Learning Objectives 133 Key Concepts 133 4.1 Introduction 134 4.2 What Are Learning and Learning Outcomes? 134
CONTENTS
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4.3 The Historical Evolution of Adult Learning Theory 137 Critical Reflection 4.1 138 4.3.1 Pedagogy and Andragogy 138 4.3.2 Scaffolding and Guided Discovery Learning 142 4.4 Categories of Adult Learning Theory 142 4.4.1 Instrumental Learning Theories 143 4.4.2 Humanistic Learning Theories 145 4.4.3 Transformative Learning Theory 146 4.4.4 Social Theories of Learning 146 4.4.5 Recent Theories of Adult Learning 147 4.5 Adult Learning Styles 148 4.5.1 Kolb’s Learning Style Theory 149 4.5.2 Honey & Mumford’s Learning Styles 150 4.5.3 The VARK Model 151 4.5.4 Implications for L&D 151 Critical Reflection 4.2 153 4.6 Multiple Intelligences and Adult Learning 153 4.7 Training Motivation and Engagement 154 4.7.1 Training Motivation 154 Case Study 4.1: What Is Autonomous Learning and What Does It
Mean for Employees? 160
4.7.2 Training Engagement Theory 160 4.8 Misconceptions about Adult Learning in Organisations 162 4.8.1 Learners Over a Certain Age Cannot Learn 162 4.8.2 Technophobia 162 4.8.3 The Person Who Learns Fast Is Best Suited to the Job 163 4.8.4 Strong Correlation Between Academic Success and
Performance On-the-job 163
4.8.5 People Learn All They Need to Know On-the-job 164 4.8.6 People Learn Nothing from Mistakes 164 4.8.7 People Learn All They Need to Know at the Beginning of
Their Career 164
4.8.8 Telling and Exhorting by an Instructor is the Same as Learning by Listening
165
Case Study 4.2: Designing Training for Older Employees 165 4.9 The Implications of Adult Learning Theories for L&D 166 4.9.1 Sequencing the Training Material 166 4.9.2 Whole versus Part Learning 166 4.9.3 Setting Objectives and Sub-objectives 167
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4.9.4 Providing a Meaningful Context for Learning 167 4.9.5 Directing Attention, Guidance, Prompting and Cueing 168 4.9.6 Practice and Rehearsal 169 4.9.7 Distribution of Practice 169 4.9.8 Feedback, Knowledge of Results and Reinforcement 170 4.9.9 Retention and Forgetfulness 170 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 4 171 Conclusion 173 Summary 173 Review Questions 173 Strategic L&D in Action 4 174 Case Study 4.3: Personalised and Self-directed Learning at
Mastercard 174
Further Reading 175
Chapter 5: Identifying and Prioritising L&D Needs 177 Learning Objectives 177 Key Concepts 177 5.1 Introduction 178 5.2 What Are Learning Needs and Learning Needs Analysis? 178 5.3 Approaches to L&D Learning Needs Analysis 182 5.3.1 The Analytical Approach 182 5.3.2 The Competency Approach 183 5.3.3 The Problem-solving Approach 183 5.3.4 The Strategic L&D Approach 184 Case Study 5.1: Identifying L&D at Nestlé 184 Critical Reflection 5.1 185 5.4 L&D Needs Analysis: Organisational, Job / Task and Individual
Levels 185
5.4.1 Organisational L&D Needs Analysis 185 Critical Reflection 5.2 187 5.4.2 Job / Task Analysis 188 5.4.3 Individual / Person Level Analysis 190 Case Study 5.2: Learning Needs Analysis in Small Organisations:
An Informal Approach 191
5.5 Why Identifying L&D Needs is Important 192 5.5.1 The Benefits of L&D Needs Analysis 192 5.5.2 Responding to L&D Triggers in Organisations 193 5.6 Who Should Be Involved in the L&D Needs Assessment Process? 197
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5.7 L&D Needs Analysis Methods 200 5.7.1 L&D Needs Analysis Methods at the Organisational
Level 202
5.7.2 L&D Needs Assessment Methods at the Job / Task Level 204 5.7.3 L&D Needs Analysis Methods at the Person Level 207 5.8 Analysing L&D Data and Determining L&D Priorities 208 5.9 Challenges Encountered when Conducting L&D Needs Analysis 210 5.9.1 Political Considerations 211 5.9.2 Poor L&D Processes and Expertise 211 5.9.3 Lack of Leadership and Employee Buy-in to the Needs
Analysis process 212
5.9.4 Time, Cost and Confidentiality Issues 212 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 5 213 Conclusion 213 Summary 213 Review Questions 214 Strategic L&D in Action 5 214 Case Study 5.3: Identifying the Training Needs of Loco Pilots at
Indian Rail 214
Further Reading 215
Chapter 6: Designing Classroom, Digital, Blended and Flipped Learning Solutions
217
Learning Objectives 217 Key Concepts 217 6.1 Introduction 218 6.2 Defining the Key Components of the L&D Design Process 218 6.3 The Make or Buy Decision and L&D 221 6.4 Designing L&D: Models and Approaches 222 6.4.1 The ADDIE Model 222 6.4.2 The Instructional Systems Design Model 224 6.4.3 The Rapid Prototyping Model 225 6.4.4 The Layers of Negotiation Model 226 Case Study 6.1: Meeting the Learning Needs of Boomers and
Seniors 227
6.5 The Development of Learning Objectives 227 6.5.1 Typologies of Learning Objectives 230 Critical Reflection 6.1 234 6.6 Developing Classroom Learning Content 236
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6.6.1 Strategies to Develop Learning Content for the Classroom
238
6.7 Designing and Developing Digital Learning Solutions 241 6.7.1 What is Digital Learning? 241 6.7.2 Designing Effective Digital Learning Solutions 242 Case Study 6.2: Using Technology to Deliver L&D in Hewlett
Packard 247
6.8 Designing Blended and Flipped Learning Solutions 247 6.8.1 What Are Blended and Flipped Learning? 247 Critical Reflection 6.2 251 6.8.2 Using Blended and Flipped Learning 252 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 6 255 Conclusion 257 Summary 257 Review Questions 257 Strategic L&D in Action 6 258 Case Study 6.3: Designing and Delivering Induction and Initial
Training at Chill Insurance 258
Further Reading 259
Chapter 7: Off-the-job L&D Methods 261 Learning Objectives 261 Key Concepts 261 7.1 Introduction 262 7.2 L&D Methods: Formal and Informal Methods 262 7.2.1 What is a L&D Method? 262 7.2.2 The Spectrum of L&D Methods 263 7.2.3 L&D Methods and Business Strategy 265 Critical Reflection 7.1 266 7.2.4 What Does Formal Mean in the Context of Off-the-job
and On-the-job Learning Methods? 266
Case Study 7.1: Du Pont’s STOP Safety Training Programme 267 7.2.5 Informal L&D Methods 268 7.3 How L&D Methods Differ 268 7.3.1 Learning Modality 268 7.3.2 Learning Environment 269 7.3.3 Location of Learning and Trainer 269 7.3.4 Trainer Presence 269 7.3.5 Interactions Between Learners and Trainers 269
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7.3.6 Time Demands 270 7.3.7 Cost Issues 270 7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Formal Off-the-job L&D
Methods 270
7.4.1 Didactic Formal Off-the-job L&D Methods 270 7.4.2 Experiential Formal Off-the-job L&D Methods 276 Case Study 7.2: Using Action-based Learning in Heineken to
Develop Front-line Managers 284
Critical Reflection 7.2 284 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 7 289 Conclusion 291 Summary 291 Review Questions 291 Strategic L&D in Action 7 292 Case Study 7.3: Using Blended Learning Methods in Starbucks to
Develop Front-line Employees 292
Further Reading 293
Chapter 8: On-the-job L&D Methods 295 Learning Objectives 295 Key Concepts 295 8.1 Introduction 296 8.2 Key Features of Structured On-the-job Training 296 8.2.1 Near-the-job Training 297 8.3 Different Types of Structured On-the-job L&D 297 8.3.1 Job Instruction Training 297 8.3.2 Development Discussions and Planning 301 Critical Reflection 8.1 303 Case Study 8.1: Flight Attendant Training at JetBlue 304 8.3.3 Job Performance Aids 304 8.3.4 Job Rotation and Transfers 305 8.3.5 Job Shadowing 306 8.3.6 Internships 307 8.3.7 Apprenticeships 307 8.3.8 Coaching 308 8.3.9 Mentoring 309 8.4 Using Informal L&D Methods in Organisations 310 8.4.1 Different Types of Informal On-the-job Learning
Methods 311
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8.5 Micro Learning in Organisations 315 Case Study 8.2: Informal Learning in Small Organisations 318 8.6 Blended Learning and the 70:20:10 Model 319 8.6.1 The Concept of Blended Learning 319 8.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Blended Learning 320 8.6.3 The 70:20: 10 Model 321 Critical Reflection 8.2 323 8.7 When are Structured Off-the-job and On-the-job and Informal
L&D Methods Appropriate? 323
8.7.1 Learning Objectives 323 8.7.2 Learner Characteristics 323 8.7.3 Trainer Characteristics 324 8.7.4 Organisational Context, Cost and Resource Issues 325 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 8 325 Conclusion 328 Summary 328 Review Questions 328 Strategic L&D in Action 8 329 Case Study 8.3: Training within Industry and Toyota 329 Further Reading 330
Chapter 9: Implementing and Delivering Classroom-based L&D in Organisations
331
Learning Objectives 331 Key Concepts 331 9.1 Introduction 332 9.2 Defining Training Implementation and Delivery 332 9.3 Instruction versus Facilitation 333 Critical Reflection 9.1 337 9.3.1 Trainer Style and Effectiveness 337 9.3.2 Trainer Presence in the Classroom 339 9.4 Applying Learning Theory to the Delivery of Classroom Training 341 9.4.1 Pre-training Interventions 341 9.4.2 Interventions During Training 343 Case Study 9.1: Using Humour in the Classroom 347 9.5 Developing Lesson Plans for Classroom Training 348 9.6 Delivering a Classroom Training Session Using Instruction and
Facilitation 349
9.6.1 Using Instruction to Deliver Training 350
CONTENTS
xiii
9.6.2 Using Facilitation in Training 351 Critical Reflection 9.2 355 9.7 Creating an Effective Classroom Training Environment 355 9.7.1 Seating Arrangements for Effective Training 357 9.7.2 Training Site, Materials, Equipment and Scheduling 359 9.8 Delivering Training in the Classroom: Key Challenges 359 9.8.1 Disruptive Learners in the Classroom 359 9.8.2 Challenges for L&D Practitioners in Delivering
Classroom Training 362
Case Study 9.2: Using the Classroom to Onboard Employees at Bristol-Myers Squibb
367
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 9 367 Conclusion 368 Summary 369 Review Questions 369 Strategic L&D in Action 9 369 Case Study 9.3: Cultural Differences in Reactions to L&D Methods 370 Further Reading 371
Chapter 10: Using Technology to Deliver L&D in Organisations 373 Learning Objectives 373 Key Concepts 373 10.1 Introduction 374 10.2 Defining Technology-based Learning and Digital Learning 375 10.3 The Shift to Technology-based Training and Digital Learning 375 10.3.1 Shifts in Thinking about Learning 375 10.3.2 The Changing Performance Agenda for L&D 378 10.3.3 The Emergence of New Technology Tools 378 10.4 eLearning 380 10.4.1 Instructor-led or Self-directed 380 10.4.2 Asynchronous or Synchronous 380 10.4.3 Effectiveness and Advantages / Disadvantages 381 Critical Reflection 10.1 382 10.5 Massive Open Online Courses 385 10.6 Mobile Learning 386 10.6.1 Accessibility 387 10.6.1 Distractibility 387 Case Study 10.1: Mobile Learning at Merrill Lynch 389 10.7 Gamification and L&D 390
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Case Study 10.2: Using Games in the Deloitte Leadership Academy
392
10.8 Computer-based Simulations, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality and Training
3393
10.8.1 Virtual Reality 394 10.8.2 Virtual Worlds 394 10.8.3 Augmented Reality 395 10.9 Learning Management Systems and L&D 395 10.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology-based Training
and Digital Learning 399
10.10.1 Advantages and Disadvantages for Learners 399 10.10.2 Advantages and Disadvantages for L&D Specialists 400 10.10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages for Organisations 402 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 10 403 Conclusion 404 Summary 405 Review Questions 405 Strategic L&D in Action 10 406 Case Study 10.3: Virtual Reality and Training of Employees in
Walmart 406
Further Reading 407
Chapter 11 : Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning in Organisations
409
Learning Objectives 409 Key Concepts 409 11.1 Introduction 410 11.2 Defining Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning Processes 411 11.2.1 How do Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning
Differ? 411
Critical Reflection 11.1 414 11.3 Different Types of Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning 414 11.3.1 Learning in Networks 414 11.3.2 Collective Team Learning 415 11.3.3 Learning in Communities of Practice 417 11.3.4 The Learning Organisation and Organisational
Learning 419
Critical Reflection 11.2 421 11.4 Social Media and the New Social Learning 421 11.4.1 The New Social Learning 422
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11.4.2 Social Media and Social Learning 422 Case Study 11.1: Using Social Media for Training in Marks & Spencer 430 11.5 Collective Social Learning Processes and Tools 430 11.5.1 Learning Circles and Organisational Dialogue 431 11.5.2 Advocacy and Inquiry 433 11.5.3 Open Space Technology 434 11.5.4 World Café 436 11.5.5 Time out of Time 437 Case Study 11.2: Social learning: The Sea Salt Learning Approach 439 11.6 Contextual Conditions Facilitating Social, Collaborative and
Collective Learning 439
11.6.1 Learning Culture 440 11.6.2 Teamwork 440 11.6.3 Trust and Social Capital 440 11.6.4 Leadership, Champions and Communication 441 11.6.5 Resources 441 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 11 442 Conclusion 445 Summary 446 Review Questions 446 Strategic L&D in Action 11 447 Case Study 11.3: Citigroup’s Journey to a Culture of Continuous
Learning 447
Further Reading 448
Chapter 12: Transfer of Training in Organisations 449 Learning Objectives 449 Key Concepts 449 12.1 Introduction 450 12.2 What is Training Transfer? 450 12.3 Why is Training Transfer Important for Organisations? 451 12.4 Transfer of Training Theory 452 12.4.1 The Theory of Identical Elements 452 12.4.2 The Stimulus Generalisation Theory 452 12.4.3 The Cognitive Theory of Transfer 453 12.5 The Training Transfer Process 453 12.5.1 Baldwin & Ford’s Model of the Training Transfer Process 453 12.5.2 The Kontoghiorghes Model 457 12.5.3 Haskell’s Taxonomy of Transfer and Transfer Principles 459
xvi LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
12.6 The Learning Transfer Environment 462 Case Study 12.1: Embedding Training in Wegmans 464 12.7 Facilitating Training Transfer: Strategies Before, During and After
Training 465
12.7.1 Transfer of Training Strategies Before Training 465 12.7.2 Transfer of Training Strategies During Training 471 12.7.3 Transfer of Training Strategies After Training 473 Critical Reflection 12.1 477 Case Study 12.2: Using Brain Science to Enhance Training Transfer 477 12.8 Training Transfer Interventions 478 12.8.1 Transfer of Training Interventions at the End of Training 478 12.8.2 Transfer of Training Interventions On-the-job Post
Training 480
12.9 Auditing your Organisation’s Training Transfer Potential 482 Critical Reflection 12.2 482 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 12 486 Conclusion 488 Summary 488 Review Questions 489 Strategic L&D in Action 12 489 Case Study 12.3: Embedding Compliance in BNP Paribas 489 Further Reading 490
Chapter 13: Evaluating L&D in Organisations 493 Learning Objectives 493 Key Concepts 493 13.1 Introduction 494 13.2 Defining Evaluation and How It Differs from Related Concepts 494 13.3 Why Evaluate L&D? 497 13.3.1 The Case for Evaluating L&D 497 13.3.2 Barriers to Evaluating L&D 498 Critical Reflection 13.1 501 13.4 Models of Training Evaluation 501 13.4.1 Kirkpatrick’s Hierarchical Model of Evaluation and New
World Kirkpatrick Model 501
Case Study 13.1: How Johnson & Johnson Trains Doctors 504 13.4.2 The COMA Model of Evaluation 508 13.4.3 The Decision-based Evaluation Model 509
CONTENTS
xvii
13.4.4 The Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness
510
13.4.5 The Multilevel Training Evaluation Taxonomy 511 13.4.6 The Omnidirectional Training Evaluation Model 513 13.5 Conducting Evaluations: Process and Outcome Evaluations 515 13.5.1 Process Evaluation 515 13.5.2 Outcome Evaluation 516 Case Study 13.2: What Are Organisations Doing to Evaluate L&D? 526 13.5.3 Measuring Job Behaviour 529 13.5.4 Measuring Organisational Results 530 Critical Reflection 13.2 532 13.6 Data Collection Designs for Training Evaluation 532 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 13 534 Conclusion 536 Summary 537 Review Questions 537 Strategic L&D in Action 13 538 Case Study 13.3: GE’s Brilliant Learning Programme 538 Further Reading 539
Chapter 14: Return on Investment and Learning Analytics 541 Learning Objectives 541 Key Concepts 541 14.1 Introduction 542 14.2 Defining Return on Investment, Learning Analytics and Evidence-
based L&D 542
14.2.1 Return on Investment 542 14.2.2 Learning Analytics 543 14.2.3 Evidence-based L&D 543 14.3 Why Organisations Calculate Return on Investment 544 14.3.1 Does L&D Make a Difference? Some Findings 545 14.4 Costing L&D 545 14.4.1 Distinguishing Learning, Training and Opportunity
Costs 545
14.4.2 Direct and Indirect Costs 548 14.5 Measuring the Benefits of Training 550 14.6 Calculating Return on Investment on Training 555 Case Study 14.1: Measuring the Return on Investment in L&D in
Wipro 557
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14.6.1 Different Return on Investment Methodologies 558 14.6.2 Utility Analysis and Break-Even Analysis 559 14.6.3 The Balanced Scorecard and L&D 563 Critical Reflection 14.1 564 14.7 Learning Analytics and L&D 564 14.7.1 Defining Learning Analytics 564 14.7.2 Benchmarks and Data Analytics 567 14.7.3 Evidence-based L&D 568 Case Study 14.2: Why Has Our Training Stopped Working? 568 Critical Reflection 14.2 568 14.7.4 L&D and Big Data 570 14.8 Implementing Return on Investment and L&D Data Analytics 573 Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 14 573 Conclusion 574 Summary 574 Review Questions 575 Strategic L&D in Action 14 575 Case Study 14.3: How Are Organisations Using Learning Analytics? 575 Further Reading 576
SECTION 3: DEVELOPING THE L&D PROFESSIONAL AND THE FUTURE ROLES OF L&D
577
Chapter 15: Changing L&D Roles, Competence Development and Professional Ethics
579
Learning Objectives 579 Key Concepts 579 15.1 Introduction 580 15.2 Defining the L&D Professional Role in Organisations 580 15.2.1 Expectations of Organisational Stakeholders about L&D 581 15.3 The Spectrum of L&D Roles in Organisations 583 15.3.1 L&D Provider 584 Case Study 15.1: What Does Research Tell Us about L&D Roles in
Organisations? 585
15.3.2 Internal Consultant and Advisor 586 15.3.3 Boundary Spanner and Business Partner 586 15.3.4 Change Agent 588 15.3.5 Capacity and Capability-building 589 15.3.6 Facilitator of Transformational Learning 590
CONTENTS
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Critical Reflection 15.1 591 15.4 The Competencies of L&D Professionals 592 15.4.1 Business, Financial and Technical Competencies 592 15.4.2 Managerial Competencies 592 15.4.3 Cognitive Competencies 593 15.4.4 Relationship-building, Collaborative Working and
Networking Competencies 593
15.4.5 L&D Competencies and Expertise 593 15.5 Developing the L&D Professional in Organisations 597 15.5.1 Defining Continuous Professional Development 597 15.5.2 Continuous Professional Development Strategies for
L&D Practitioners 597
Critical Reflection 15.2 600 15.6 Professionalism, Ethics and the L&D Practitioner 601 15.6.1 The Nature of Professionalism 601 15.6.2 Ethics and L&D 602 Case Study 15.2: Manager of a Community Training Project to a
Senior L&D Role: A Developmental Journey 603
15.6.3 The Principles-based Approach and Codes of Professional Practice
604
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 15 605 Conclusion 606 Summary 607 Review Questions 607 Strategic L&D in Action 15 608 Case Study 13.3: Aligning the L&D Role in Service Organisations 608 Further Reading 609
Chapter 16: The Future of L&D in Organisations 611 Learning Objectives 611 Key Concepts 611 16.1 Introduction 612 16.2 The Changing Landscape of L&D 612 16.2.1 Future Worlds of Work: Implications for L&D 613 Critical Reflection 16.1 616 16.3 Delivering L&D in a Globalised World 616 16.3.1 Strategic Purposes of L&D in a Global Context 616 Case Study 16.1: What Is Invisible L&D? 618 16.3.2 National Culture and L&D 618
xx LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
16.3.3 Developing L&D for Global L&D Roles 620 16.4 Changing Perspectives on L&D in Organisations 621 16.4.1 Generational Attitudes towards L&D in Organisations 621 16.4.2 Life-long and Continuous Independent Learning 625 16.4.3 Personalisation, Individualisation and Differentiation of
L&D 627
16.4.4 Learners as Co-Creators of Learning 628 Critical Reflection 16.2 632 Case Study 16.2: Artificial Intelligence and L&D 633
16.4.5 Employees Paying for Their Own Learning in Organisations
633
16.5 Future Opportunities and Challenges for L&D 635 16.5.1 Future Proofing L&D in Organisations 635 16.5.2 Green L&D, Sustainability and Society 637 16.5.3 L&D and Human Dignity at Work 639 Conclusion 639 Summary 640 Review Questions 640 Strategic L&D in Action 16 640 Case Study 16.3: 21st Century Skills and Digital Skills: Is L&D ready? 641 Further Reading 642 Bibliography 643 Glossary 697 About the Authors 734 Index 737
xxi
FIGURES
1.1 Research Insight: Why Might Organisations Adopt Some L&D Practices and Reject Others? Possible Explanations
45
2.1 An Open Systems Model of L&D 67 2.2 Garavan’s Model: A Contextual and Dynamic Framework for Strategic
Human Resource Development 69
2.3 Future Models of L&D in Organisations 71 2.4 The Business Partner Model Applied to L&D 78 2.5 The Four Constellations of L&D in Organisations 85 2.6 The Elements of Effective L&D Governance 88
3.1 L&D Strategy and Organisation Strategy: Key Assumptions, Consequences and Implications
99
3.2 Approaches to Aligning L&D Strategy with Organisational Strategy 102 3.3 Key Dimensions of L&D Strategy and Influencing Factors 103 3.4 Developing an Adaptive, Agile and Ambidextrous Organisation
through L&D Practice 105
3.5 Guiding Questions for L&D Professionals in Developing a L&D Strategy 109 3.6 Levels of Senior Management Support for Training and Development 114 3.7 How to Engage and Ensure the Support of Line Managers for L&D 117 3.8 Key Trends in L&D Expenditure 123
4.1 The New Dimensions of Reflection 141 4.2 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model 149 4.3 Using Metaphors to Understand the Learning Process in Organisations 152 4.4 A Stage Model of Training Motivation 157 4.5 A Model of Training Engagement 162
xxii LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
5.1 The L&D Needs Analysis Process 181 5.2 Examples of L&D Triggers in Organisations 194 5.3 Mager & Pipe’s Performance Analysis Flowchart for Determining
Solutions to Performance Problems 195
5.4 Can a Performance Issue Can Be Addressed through L&D? 209 5.5 Making Sense of Job Performance Gaps 210 5.6 L&D Needs Analysis: Guidelines for Practice 212
6.1 The Make or Buy Decision and L&D 222 6.2 The ADDIE Model Updated 222 6.3 The Purposes of Learning Objectives 228 6.4 Questions to Consider When Setting Learning Objectives 230 6.5 The CRAMP Model and Learning Methods 233 6.6 Guidelines for Sequencing the Content of Training Programmes 240 6.7 Reasons for Interactivity in the Design of Digital Learning Solutions 244 6.8 Guidelines for Digital Learning Content, Graphics and Multimedia
Development 246
6.9 Blended Learning in Organisations 248 6.10 Potential Combinations of a Blended Approach 249 6.11 The Components of a Flipped Classroom 251 6.12 Factors that Influence the Selection of Blended Learning Approaches
in Organisations 252
6.13 Examples of Course Learning Objectives, with Corresponding Technology-enabled Pre-work and In-class Activities
254
7.1 The Spectrum of L&D Methods 264 7.2 The L&D Methods Matrix and Proximity to Business Strategy 265
8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Near-the-job Training Strategy 297 8.2 A Conceptual Framework of Informal Learning in the Workplace 311 8.3 Concepts and Versions of Micro Learning 316 8.4 Components of the 70:20:10 Model 321
9.1 An Instructional-style Framework 338 9.2 The Cone of Learning 346 9.3 Skills for Effective Facilitation 356 9.4 Training Room Seating Arrangements 358
FIGURES
xxiii
9.5 Types of Problem Participants in the Classroom 365
10.1 The Spectrum of Social Interaction among Learners and Trainers 379 10.2 Research Guidelines for eLearning Design 383 10.3 Designing Interactive Websites for Training 383 10.4 The Characteristics of Mobile Learning 388 10.5 The Modern Learner in Organisations 401
11.1 Individual and Collective Learning Processes 413 11.2 The Characteristics of the New Learning Organisation 421 11.3 What the New Social Learning Is Not 422 11.4 Guidelines for Effective Organisational Dialogue 432 11.5 The Advocacy / Inquiry Matrix 433 11.6 World Café Guidelines: Seven Design Principles 438
12.1 The Baldwin & Ford Training Transfer Model 454 12.2 The Kontoghiorghes Model 457 12.3 Management Support for Training Transfer 468 12.4 The Five As Model of Self-managed Training Transfer 480 12.5 A Training Transfer Audit Checklist 483
13.1 The New World Kirkpatrick Model 503 13.2 The Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness 510 13.3 The Multilevel Training Evaluation Taxonomy 512 13.4 The Omnidirectional Training Evaluation Framework 514 13.5 Process Evaluation: Prior to Delivery and During Delivery of Training 517 13.6 Open and Closed Questions 522 13.7 Examples of Subjective Tests to Assess Learning 527 13.8 Anderson’s Value of Learning Model 531 13.9 Training Evaluation Data Collection Designs 533
14.1 A Training and Development Cost Classification Matrix 549 14.2 Calculating the Rate of Return on Investment 556 14.3 Calculating Return on Investment for L&D: Questions for L&D
Specialists 557
14.4 Preparing a Cost-Benefit Analysis: Key Guidelines 561 14.5 The Training Impact Measurement Framework 566
xxiv LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
14.6 Big Data Golden Rules for L&D 571 14.7 The Bersin Learning Business Maturity Model 572
15.1 What Is Self-development? 583 15.2 The Spectrum of L&D Roles in Organisations 584 15.3 The ACADMIES Framework for L&D 590 15.4 The Challenges for L&D as Facilitator of Transformational Learning 591 15.5 A Continuing Professional Development Framework for L&D
Practitioners 598
15.6 Motivations for Pursuing Professional Certification 600 15.7 Dimensions of Professionalism and L&D Professionals 601 15.8 An Ethical Lens for L&D Practitioners 602
16.1 L&D and the Global Mindset 622 16.2 The Scope of Continuous Independent Learning 625 16.3 A Framework for Learners as Co-creators of Learning in Organisations 631 16.4 New Learning Innovations with Web 4.0 632 16.5 Can We Future-proof the Workforce Using Neuroscience? 636
xxv
TABLES
1.1 Classic Definitions of Learning 18 1.2 A Brief History of L&D in Organisations 26
2.1 Key Success Factors and Limitations of a Shared Services Approach to L&D
81
4.1 Pedagogy and Andragogy: Knowles’ Approaches Compared 139 4.2 Multiple Intelligences: Implications for Learners and Trainers 155
5.1 Questions to Ask about Problems and Opportunities 196 5.2 Stakeholder Perceptions of Organisational Problems: Analysis Levels 199 5.3 Involving Organisational Actors in the Needs Analysis Process 201
6.1 Key L&D Design Decision Areas and Questions 219 6.2 Examples of Ineffective and Effective Learning Objectives 229 6.3 Domains and Levels of Learning 235
7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Formal Classroom Off-the-job Learning Methods
274
7.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Group-oriented Experiential Learning Methods
285
8.1 Enhancing the Effectiveness of Development Discussions 302 8.2 Key Trends in Blended Learning 319
9.1 Differences between Instruction and Facilitation 334 9.2 Problems Encountered in Instruction and Facilitation Roles 336 9.3 Trainee Group Maturity and Trainer Style 339 9.4 Strategies to Enhance Trainer Presence 340
xxvi LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
9.5 Presentation Instructional Strategies 352 9.6 Materials for Effective Training 360
10.1 Definitions of Technology-based Training Methods 376 10.2 The American Psychological Association’s Learner-centred
Psychological Principles 377
10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of eLearning 382 10.4 Differences between eLearning and Mobile Learning 387 10.5 Key Dimensions of Gamification in the Context of Instructional Design 391 10.6 Differences between Gamification and Games-based Learning 392 10.7 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Learning Management Systems 397 10.8 Web-based Training: Learner, L&D Specialists and Organisational
Perspectives 401
11.1 Indicators of Community of Practice 418 11.2 Social Media Descriptions, Uses, Pros and Cons 427 11.3 Strategies to Encourage Purposeful Advocacy and Inquiry and to Deal
with an Impasse 435
12.1 What We Know about Training Transfer 455 12.2 Learning Transfer Environment Factors 463 12.3 The Characteristics of a Positive Training Transfer Environment 469 12.4 Actions to Support Training Transfer 475
13.1 Differences between Process and Outcome Evaluation 495 13.2 Evaluation and Links to Similar Terms and Processes Used in L&D 496 13.3 Stakeholder Contributions and Inducements to Evaluation of L&D 500 13.4 The Application of the Kirkpatrick Model to L&D Practice 505 13.5 Design Criteria and Structure for Reaction Questionnaire Construction 518 13.6 The Characteristics of Different Data Collection Methods 531
14.1 The Design / Time Ratio for Different Types of Learning Activities 550 14.2 Examples of Cost-effectiveness Evaluation for Different Training
Activities in Organisations 553
14.3 Different Types of Learning Analytics 564 14.4 Benchmarks, Metrics and Data Analytics Contrasted 567
15.1 The Relationship between Competencies and L&D Roles in Organisations
594
TABLES
xxvii
15.2 The Dimensions of Foundational Competencies and L&D Expertise 594 15.3 A Principles-based Approach – Advantages and Implementation 605
16.1 The Four Worlds of Work: Implications for L&D 614 16.2 Generational Differences, Learning Preferences, Motivation to Learn
and Learning Methods 623
16.3 Comparing Whole Training Room, Differentiation, Personalisation and Individualisation Approaches to Corporate Training
629
16.4 The Key Dimensions of Learning 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 630 16.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Training and Development Pay-back
Clauses 634
16.6 Capabilities, Competencies and Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes for a Sustainability Strategy
638
xxviii
ABBREVIATIONS
AC abstract conceptualisation ACT Adaptive Character of Thought model ADDIE Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and
Evaluation model AE active experimentation AHRD Academy of Human Resource Development AI artificial intelligence AMO ability-motivation-opportunity AO Advanced Operations division (Stryker) API application programming interface AR augmented reality ATI aptitude-treatment interaction BCR benefit cost ratio BMT behaviour modelling training BPO business process outsourcing BRIC Brazil, Russia, India, and China CAD computer aided design CAM computer aided manufacturing CE concrete experience CEO chief executive officer CIPD Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development CITI Citigroup Inc. CLO chief learning officer CMS course management system
ABBREVIATIONS
xxix
COMA Cognitive, Organisational Environment, Motivation, Attitudes model
COOC corporate open online course CoP community of practice CPD continuous professional development CSR corporate social responsibility CSS cascading style sheet DOT Development Opportunity Tool (Intel) EESS economic, environmental and social sustainability EPSS eLearning performance support system ERPG ethnocentric, polycentric, regiocentric and geocentric G2G Googler-to-Googler (Google) GDM Global Delivery Model (Infosys) HCN home country national HPWP high performance work practice HQ headquarters HR human resource HRD human resource development HRD human resources department HRM human resources management HTMLS hypertext mark-up language server-side ICT information and communication technology IDP individual development plan IITD Irish Institute of Training and Development IMTEE Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness INGO international nongovernmental organisation IP intellectual property ISD instructional system design IT information technology J&J Johnson & Johnson JIT job instruction training JIT Just-in-time KBI key business indicator KPI key performance indicator
xxx LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
KSA knowledge, skills and abilities L&D learning and development LCMS learning content management system LMS learning management system LTE learning transfer environment LTSI Learning Transfer System Inventory M&A mergers and acquisitions M&S Marks & Spencer MNC multinational corporation MOOC massive open online course OHP overhead projector (slides) OWL Web ontology language PCN parent country national PDF portable document format Q&A question and answer RBV resource-based view RO reflective observation ROE return on expectation ROI return on investment SDL self-directed learning SEED School Earth Education SHRD strategic human resource development SME subject matter expert SOP standard operating procedure(s) SPARQL Semantic protocol and RDF query language SPOC small private online course SSW social semantic web STOP Safety Training Observation Program (DuPont) TCN third country national TOOT Time out of Time TWI Training within Industry UN United Nations US United States (of America) USA United States of America
ABBREVIATIONS
xxxi
VARK Visual-Auditory-Read-Kinaesthetic model VLE virtual learning environment VLS virtual learning system VR virtual reality XML extensive mark-up language
xxxii
FOREWORD
Business leaders know that today’s fast-accelerating changes in technology, longevity, work practices, and business models offer both challenges and opportunities. While some jobs are disappearing due to advances in technology, many more are being transformed and thus creating the need for continuous, lifelong development. In response to this evolving landscape, Learning and Development (L&D) professionals are prioritising strategic imperatives such as transitioning to the future of work, the redesign of work and jobs, and reskilling the workforce to support the ongoing evolution of organisations.
It is imperative that L&D professionals shift their focus from the dominant paradigms that the profession has relied on for the past 50 years and examine more contemporary ways in which to improve their practice as professionals. The reality is that the future has started. We need to invest in breakthrough thinking and innovation to sustain success and face up to the challenges of the new business, customer and market paradigms. Encouraging an organisation’s workforce to learn and to change and adapt to the needs of the organisation is now more important than ever in order to respond to the requirements of the workplace of the future. L&D professionals have a major role to play in helping organisations to ensure that they have a workforce that is capable of adapting to those changing requirements.
Accordingly, as the leading professional body for L&D professionals in Ireland, the Irish Institute of Training and Development (IITD) commissioned LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE to reflect the changing landscape of L&D. Our intent in commissioning this book was to support L&D professionals by sharing the most up-to-date thinking to assist them in the development of capability throughout their organisations. The book aims to develop L&D professionals so that they deliver impactful learning interventions that develop staff by thinking innovatively about how work is organised and ensuring the best alignment of people and technology with the right opportunities within their
FOREWORD xxxiii
organisations. It considers both formal and informal learning and looks at the contribution of the L&D function to organisational and financial performance. Reflecting the latest thinking in the field of L&D, it provides a theoretically-sound text written with the user in mind, whether that user is a practitioner or a student. Included in each chapter, to help the reader to relate the text to practical application, are case studies that show the theory in action. Critically, the book looks at the future of L&D and the competencies that are required into the future as well as examining ethical considerations in the field of L&D.
We at IITD are very pleased to be associated with this book and would like to extend our sincere thanks to all who have been involved in producing such an up-to-date, reader-friendly book which is aimed at all those who work in, or indeed have an interest, in the area of L&D. In particular, we applaud the work of Professor Thomas Garavan in conducting the research that underpins the book and also would like to thank all the member companies of IITD and other L&D professionals who participated in the research.
We believe that LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE will set the agenda for L&D professionals in the future. We hope that you will find it an invaluable resource.
Sinead Heneghan CEO, IITD
1
PREFACE
L&D is an important organisational human resource (HR) practice that many organisations, regardless of size, sector or country, offer to employees to help them to learn (Bell et al., 2017). It has emerged as one of the highest HR practice areas in terms of financial resource investment by organisations (Garavan et al., 2019a) and there is an expectation from senior management and business owners that L&D will make a strategic contribution to organisational performance (Kraiger, Passmore & Rebelo, 2015), including the financial bottom line. The landscape or context of L&D in organisations is changing at a fast pace. These changes are driven by technological innovations and by changing learner expectations, which together create both the requirement to customise content and the opportunity to deliver L&D using multiple delivery modalities (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014). L&D professionals therefore are under pressure to focus on strategic L&D issues that go beyond the traditional operational role that they typically perform in organisations (Garavan et al., 2019a). L&D professionals also are expected by professional bodies and international organisations to manage L&D in an ethical and sustainable way and to consider employees, organisational and environmental perspectives.
The aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive and thematic overview of the thinking, research evidence and practice of strategic L&D in organisations. We cover both strategic and operational practice dimensions, targeting students and practitioners. The book will help students of L&D and HRM to acquire a deep understanding of the field; it also will inform the practice of L&D professionals by identifying the best available evidence on L&D practices and by providing them with guidelines for action. While the book is titled LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE, we build on the core operational building blocks of L&D and go beyond these to take a strategic perspective, emphasising the contribution of L&D to organisational and financial performance. In preparing this book, we have accessed the latest research and thinking within the field,
2 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
supplementing this research with real-life case examples drawn from organisations across the world. We cover the full spectrum of L&D activities but emphasise throughout the need to align formal and informal L&D with business objectives. We use the term ‘Learning and Development’ as our title; however, in some chapters, we use the term ‘Training’ to refer to the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) required to perform a role or job task. Since many L&D activities in organisations focus on training rather than development, we consider training to be a subset of L&D. The term ‘Learning and Development’ therefore captures formal training and development activities, collective learning and informal learning (Whelan & Duvernet, 2015).
Pedagogical Features We have sought throughout this book to present key concepts in an accessible, student-friendly and practitioner-friendly manner. Throughout each chapter, we have incorporated a number of pedagogical features to enable the student or practitioner to apply the concepts to organisational life, link theory to practice and signpost readers to the best available evidence on L&D practices. Specifically:
• Throughout each chapter, we provide succinct and concise explanations of Key Concepts found within the field of L&D;
• We include Critical Reflection exercises that help the reader to engage with key concepts and debates within the field;
• We provide a Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice feature to summarise the results of meta-analysis and systematic / integrative reviews in a manner that is accessible to practitioners;
• In each chapter, we provide two Case Studies as examples of application to practice relevant to the chapter’s content – and, the end of each chapter, we provide a longer case study with questions that provide an opportunity for classroom-based and practitioner discussion;
• Each chapter contains recommended Further Reading that allows the reader to enhance their understanding of the chapter content;
• We provide a Glossary at the end of the book that enables students and practitioners to have easy access to definitions of the key concepts used throughout the book, as well as other important L&D terms.
PREFACE 3
Structure We have divided the book into three key sections, which cover different aspects of L&D:
• Section One: Concepts and Context of L&D in Organisations: Chapter 1 discusses the concepts of L&D, the external and internal context of L&D and the key dimensions of strategic L&D in organisations. Chapters 2 and 3 introduce readers to the key theoretical and conceptual foundations of strategic L&D, and its key components, including strategy processes, roles and resources;
• Section Two: Theory and Practice of L&D: Chapters 4 to 14 explain the main theories, concepts, models and practices that underpin strategic L&D in organisations. This section covers a wide range of issues that L&D practitioners need to better understand the design, delivery and evaluation of L&D in organisations;
• Section Three: Developing the L&D Professional and the Future Role of L&D: Chapters 15 and 16 cover the changing roles of L&D practitioners in organisations, their competence development, professional ethics and the future of strategic L&D, including potential new roles and forms of L&D.
An overview of the contents of each chapter follows: • Chapter 1 outlines and discusses the core concepts of learning,
training and development and related concepts, such as human resource development (HRD) and workplace learning. The chapter provides a brief outline of the historical development of L&D in organisations and discusses key external and internal changes that shape the way that organisations manage strategic L&D. These external trends include global competition and the global labour market, changing technology and the changing workforce, as well as trends such as corporate social responsibility (CSR), ethics and sustainability. Key internal context elements include business strategy, organisational structure and culture. The chapter also documents key changes in managing people, including changing careers, the changing nature of jobs, work design, employee contracting, talent management and the role of personal initiative. It then explains the scope, nature and boundaries of strategic L&D. The chapter concludes with a discussion of strategic L&D and evaluates the case for investment in L&D in organisations;
• Chapter 2 focuses on strategic L&D, its contribution, structures and roles. The chapter begins with a discussion of theoretical approaches to understanding the contribution of L&D in organisations, including the universalistic, contingency and configurational approaches. It also
4 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
considers important theories that provide justification for strategic L&D, including human capital theory, the resource-based view (RBV), the behavioural approach, ability-motivation-opportunity (AMO) theory and attribution theory. The chapter provides a discussion of commonly used frameworks available to conceptualise L&D in organisations, such as the systematic model, open systems model and a number of more contemporary models. The chapter concludes with a consideration of alternative ways to structure L&D and the governance dimensions of L&D in organisations;
• Chapter 3 continues the theme of strategic L&D. The chapter gives particular emphasis to the role of L&D in shaping and influencing business strategy. It provides a detailed discussion of content, process and implementation issues when formulating and implementing L&D strategy in organisations. Reference is made to the key resource issues, including financial, physical and human resources, and the chapter concludes with a discussion of learning culture and climate;
• Chapter 4 addresses the topic of adult learning, which is critical to understanding the design of formal L&D activities. The chapter begins with a discussion of the concept of learning outcomes and then reviews different categorisations of learning outcomes, going on to provide a short overview of the evolution of adult learning theory. Reference is made to different categories of learning theory and their implications for the design of formal L&D activities. We also introduce the concepts of learning styles and multiple intelligences and explain different theories related to learning style. The chapter discusses the concepts of training motivation and engagement and highlights misconceptions about adult learning. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of adult learning theory for the design of L&D;
• Chapter 5 provides a detailed discussion of the initial stage of the L&D process, which is concerned with identifying key learning gaps or opportunities. We discuss the key components of the needs identification / assessment process and the different approaches that organisations and L&D practitioners use. The different levels of needs analysis are described, as well as the full spectrum of analysis that needs to be carried out, including who should be involved, the types of methods that are appropriate at different levels of analysis and the challenges involved in conducting needs assessment;
• Chapter 6 introduces the concept of learning design, specifically in the context of classroom, digital, blended and flipped learning solutions, and the key stages of the learning design process. The chapter considers the purchase or design decision as a key outcome of the learning needs analysis process, followed by a discussion of four learning design models and their key components. We provide a
PREFACE 5
detailed discussion and evaluation of the development of learning objectives and how these help the development of learning content. The initial components of the chapter focus on the design of classroom learning; however, we then address the design of digital, blended and flipped learning solutions. The chapter explains the learning design decision associated with each type of design content;
• Chapter 7 focuses on the use of off-the-job methods to achieve learning objectives. The chapter first discusses the spectrum of learning methods, ranging from taught to blended, and how they are linked to organisational performance. It provides a discussion of learning methods and highlights the advantages, disadvantages and applications of off-the-job methods;
• Chapter 8 focuses on structured and informal on-the-job learning methods and the different methods that can be used in organisations. The chapter provides a detailed evaluation of structured on-the-job training methods, such as job construction training, development discussion and planning, job performance aids, job shadowing, internships and apprenticeships. It then focuses on informal on-the-job L&D methods, such as learning through observation, learning from mistakes and learning through day-to-day experiences. This chapter gives more detailed consideration to blended learning and the 70:20:10 model and concludes with a discussion of when on-the-job methods are appropriate;
• Chapter 9 describes, discusses and evaluates the issues around the implementation and delivery of L&D in organisations. The chapter initially discusses the differences between instruction and facilitation and the skills that are required of L&D professionals in each context. We then provide a detailed discussion of the role of learning theory in the context of the delivery of training, looking at pre-training, during training and post-training. We also discuss the decisions that need to be made to develop lesson plans and the skills involved in delivering training through both facilitation and instruction approaches. The latter parts of the chapter consider the creation of a positive training environment and the challenges encountered in both facilitation and instruction;
• Chapter 10 provides an introduction to the use of technology to deliver L&D in organisations. The chapter begins with definitions and explanations of different technology-based training methods and the reasons for the shift to technology-based training. We then provide a detailed discussion of the characteristics of eLearning, massive open online courses (MOOCs), mobile learning (mLearning), gamification, computer-based simulations, virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR). The chapter discusses the characteristics and application
6 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
of learning management systems (LMSs) and concludes with a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of technology-based training;
• Chapter 11 focuses on social, collaborative and collective learning in organisations. We first define a number of concepts and discuss learning theory issues associated with this type of learning. Then we discuss different types of social and collective learning, including learning in teams, communities of practice (CoPs) and the learning organisation. The chapter provides a detailed discussion of evaluation of the role of social media in social and collective learning and the different types of social media that can be used by L&D professionals. It concludes with a discussion of collective learning processes, including learning circles, organisational dialogue, open space technology, World Café and the conditions facilitating social, collaborative and collective learning;
• Chapter 12 provides an introduction to the transfer of learning in organisations. The chapter defines and describes different types of training transfer and describes different models that depict the training transfer process. We then discuss the types of strategies that L&D professionals can use to facilitate learning transfer, focusing on the roles of managers, learners and L&D professionals. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the factors that L&D professionals should consider when auditing the L&D environment;
• Chapter 13 examines the evaluation of L&D. The chapter begins with an explanation of different evaluation concepts and how they differ from related concepts and processes. We then discuss the case for the evaluation of learning and describe different models of evaluation, including the Kirkpatrick, COMA and Integrated models. The chapter considers the complex issues that are required to measure and evaluate job behaviour and organisational results, as well as the types of data collection designs that can be used;
• Chapter 14 introduces the concepts of return on investment (ROI) and learning analytics. We describe and evaluate different models or approaches to ROI and the complexities of this type of evaluation. The chapter looks at the concept of learning analytics and the different analytics that can be used by L&D professionals. It concludes with a discussion of Big Data and its application to L&D, as well as the issues that organisations should consider when implementing both ROI and L&D data analytics;
• Chapter 15 focuses on changing L&D roles in organisations, competence development and professional ethics. The chapter begins with a discussion of changing role expectations and the spectrum of L&D roles found in organisations. We then discuss the
PREFACE 7
competencies of L&D professionals and how these can be developed. We give particular focus to the concept of continuous professional development (CPD) and then focus on the nature of professionalism, ethics and the L&D practitioner. We conclude the chapter by outlining different approaches to making decisions about ethical dilemmas in L&D.;
• Chapter 16, the final chapter of the book, considers future challenges and possible directions for L&D in organisations. We review scenarios related to the future world of work and their implications for L&D. The chapter then focuses on the challenges of delivering L&D in a global context, the impact of national culture on L&D and changing perspectives on L&D in organisations, and highlights a number of future opportunities and challenges facing L&D.
In addition, we have incorporated a range of features to make this book as useful and accessible as possible:
• Learning Objectives: Introducing every chapter, learning objectives outline the main themes that will be covered, clearly identifying what you can expect to learn. These bulleted lists also can be used to review your learning and to effectively plan your revision;
• Key Concepts: Make sure you understand the language of strategic L&D by reading the key concepts. These useful terms are listed at the start of chapters and revisited within the chapter for a full explanation;
• Case Studies: Contemporary and varied case studies from the global business world, with accompanying questions, illustrate the concepts discussed in the chapter and prompt you to analyse the L&D practices of a range of organisations;
• Critical Reflection: Pause and reflect on the material being discussed with these provocative critical reflection boxes, designed to develop your essential critical thinking skills and to deepen your understanding of the theory and practices of L&D;
• Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice: Here, we report the best available scientific research evidence on the topic(s) discussed in the chapter. These panels are designed to provide you with the best available scientific evidence on which to strategise and design interventions based on evidence rather than hope, guesswork or opinion. They provide a synthesis of, and accessibility to, the evidence to enable evidence-based action by L&D professionals;
• Review Questions: Reinforce your learning, check your understanding, and aid your revision with these end-of-chapter review questions, covering the main themes and issues raised in the chapter;
• Strategic L&D in Action: Research, evaluate and make your own strategic decisions based on fictional scenarios and real businesses’
8 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
approaches to L&D with these applied exercises at the end of every chapter;
• End-of-chapter Case Studies: Longer, more integrative case studies at the end of chapters provide further opportunity to apply what you have learnt from the chapter to a real business example. The accompanying case study questions facilitate reflection and discussion;
• Further Reading: Seminal books and journal articles that have contributed to the field of strategic L&D are listed at the end of chapters. These offer the opportunity to read around a topic and to broaden your understanding or provide useful leads for coursework and assignments;
• Glossary: A comprehensive glossary is provided at the end of the book for easy accessibility to definitions of all of the key concepts outlined in the book.
Acknowledgements Many people have helped us both directly and indirectly in writing this book. We all would like to thank the IITD and Oak Tree Press. We also would like to thank all the reviewers who provided detailed and useful feedback on each of the chapters. We are most grateful to Kim O’Mahony, who typed and formatted the book. There are several additional people that each author would like to thank.
Thomas Garavan Thomas Garavan would like to thank a number of people who helped to sustain the efforts required to produce this book. First, I wish to thank my co-authors Carole, Amanda and Claire for your support and insightful contributions. Second, I wish to record my personal thanks to five individuals who were instrumental to getting this book completed:
• Kim O’Mahony, University of Limerick, who typed each chapter of this book;
• Dr Clodagh Butler, University of Limerick, who prepared the Bibliography – a very significant job of work;
• Michael Gaffney, Talent and Career Assessment, who helped with the preparation of the Glossary;
• Sinead Heneghan, CEO, Irish Institute of Training and Development, for her unstinting support during the preparation of the book;
• Brian O’Kane, Oak Tree Press, both for his support for the book and the excellent production of the final text.
PREFACE 9
I would like to personally thank a number of academic peers who have been a continual support of inspiration and support to me over the years:
• Dr Colette Darcy, National College of Ireland; • Dr David McGuire, Glasgow Caledonian University; • Dr Hussain Alhejji, Australian College of Kuwait; • Dr Martin McCracken, University of Ulster. • Dr Valerie Anderson, University of Portsmouth Business School; • Professor Alma McCarthy, National University of Ireland Galway; • Professor Ann Munro, Professor Paul Lynch, Professor Maura Sheehan,
Professor Sally Smyth, Professor Sandra Watson, Dr Britta Heidl, Dr Holly Patrick, Dr Kristeen Grant, Dr Janice McMillan, Dr Jennifer O’Neill, Dr Laura Gerard, Dr Leslie McLean, Dr Michael Palowski, Dr Rowan Steele and Norma Dannunzio-Green, Edinburgh Napier Business School;
• Professor Anthony McDonnell, Dr Joan Buckley, Dr Ronan Carbery and Dr Ultan Sherman, University College Cork;
• Professor David Collings, Dublin City University; • Professor Gary McLean, McLean Global; • Professor Jim Stewart, Liverpool John Moores University; • Professor Jonathan Winterton, University of Huddersfield; • Professor Mark Saunders, University of Birmingham; • Professor Nicholas Clarke, EADE, Barcelona and University of
Loughborough; • Professor Patrick Gunnigle, Professor Michael Morley, Professor
Eamonn Murphy, Dr Christine Cross, Dr Noreen Heraty, Dr Fergal O’Brien and Bridie Barnicle, University of Limerick;
• Professor Roziah Mohd Rasdi, Universiti Putra Malaysia;
I would like to thank a number of L&D and HR practitioners who have greatly influenced my ways of thinking about learning in organisations:
• Aidan Lawrence, Hewlett Packard; • Ann Marie Gill, Chill Insurance; • Darina Gallagher, Emma O’Connor, Orla Maher, Tom McMahon, Pat
Naughton, Patricia Nolan and Maria Travers, ESB; • Judi Kinnane, L&D Consultant; • Julie O’Mahony, Geraldine Garvey and Henning Carstens, Stryker; • Mary Carroll; CARITAS College; • Noreen Clifford, Nova Partners; • Paula O’Sullivan, Fexco; • Sean Kane, KaneHR.
10 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
Finally, I would like to thank my family: in particular, my mother Margaret, my siblings James, PJ, Gerard, Rita and Mary B and the wider Garavan and Daly families too numerous to mention.
Carole Hogan I would like to thank my husband Martin, my sons, Hugh and Brian, and my daughter-in-law Madeline Regan O’Donoghue for their support and encouragement.
Amanda Cahir-O’Donnell There are so many people in my life who have influenced me profoundly as leaders, coaches, mentors, trainers, facilitators and authors. I would like to acknowledge those that have shared my learning journey.
First and foremost, thanks to my husband, Keelan O’Donnell, who always inspires me and encourages me “to reach for the stars”. Thank you to Conor, my son, who demonstrates remarkable bravery and resilience every day. Thanks to my parents, Carmel and TJ, for motivating my natural curiosity and love of learning. And thanks to all my extended family and valued friends for your unwavering support.
I would like to extend a special acknowledgement to Sarah Mac Tigue, TIO Consulting, for her ongoing assistance, professionalism and commitment to excellence. I have learned so much over the past 14 years from all of my colleagues and associates at TIO Consulting Ltd (www.tioconsulting.ie) – especially Kevin Mac Court and Patrick Sutton.
There are many clients, coaches and consultants who I have partnered with, and learned from, along the way, including:
• Alison Hodge, Alison Hodge Associates; • Annette Kent, Clinical Director, Fire1 Foundry; • Catherine Moroney, Head of Business Banking Market, AIB; • Dave Kirwan, Managing Director, UK Home, Centrica; • Dawn O’Driscoll, Group HR Director, Ervia; • Eamonn Sinnott, Vice President and General Manager, and Anne
Kelleher, HR Director, Intel Ireland; • Edna Murdoch, Director, Coaching Supervision Academy; • Elaine McGleenan, Director, Learning and Organisational
Development, KPMG; • Fiona Burke, former Country Manager, Abbott Ireland; • Gay White, Gay White Consulting; • Geraldine Ruane, COO, and Antoinette Quinn, HR Director, TCD; • Helena Downey, consultant and facilitator;
PREFACE 11
• Isolde Norris, KOI Business Coaching and Consulting Ltd.; • Jennifer Feighan, CEO, INDI; • John Conway, Senior Partner, Game Change; • Julie Dowsett, Postgraduate and Executive Education, School of
Agriculture and Food Science, UCD; • Julie Johnson, CEO, Julie Johnson Consulting (Netherlands); • Julie Jones, marketing, communication and development consultant; • Lorna Cross, CFO, BAM Ireland; • Lorraine McCullen, Head of HR, Bord Gáis Energy; • Lynne Cooper, Director, Change Perspectives; • Margaret Swords, CEO, Auteven Hospital, Kilkenny; • Mark Downey, Speech and Presence Ltd.; • Mike Quinn, Chief Operating Officer, WElink Energy; • Ms. Liz Shouldice, Head of People Strategy & Transformation, daa;
• Pamela Fay, Business Performance Perspectives; • Paul Neeson, Director Retail Ireland, Aer Rianta International; • Pauline Louth, Knowledge Partner, Beauchamps Solicitors; • Sarah Coughlan, Mariam Dadabhay, Sheelagh Daly and Karen
Hernandez, Enterprise Ireland; • Sarah Downing, Director of Human Resources, Goodbody
Stockbrokers; • Sean Fitzpatrick, Group HR Director, and Steve Bowcott, CEO, John
Sisk & Son Ltd; • Sinead Heneghan, Director, IITD; • Suzanne Eade, CFO, HRI; • Tom Finlay, Tom Finlay Consultancy; • Yvonne Harris, Head of Customer Operations / Director, Irish Water;
Claire Gubbins My energetic determined baby boy, Donnacha, born mid-book project, who gave me space to complete it. I dedicate my contribution to him and his part in it getting finished.
My incredible little girl, Anabel, who epitomises learning in all its definitions. She astounds me with what she learns and how she develops.
My husband, Eamon Collins, for his patience, support and belief in all I do. My parents, Mary and John, brother Paul and sister Una for their constant
belief in me. Professor Denise Rousseau of Carnegie Mellon University, who introduced
me to, and educated me about, evidence-based decision-making and best
12 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
available evidence. Eric Barends, Barbara Janssen, Rob Briner and the Centre for Evidence-based Management, who enhanced my knowledge.
My DCU Business School colleagues, who have supported my endeavours around learning, knowledge and evidence-based management and embraced it across the school; in particular, Anne, Barbara and the MBA teaching team. Special mention to my colleagues and friends in the HR and Psychology group, who don’t just support such endeavours, but who also work so hard and yet make time to make DCU Business School a great place to work: Yseult, Lisa, Margaret, Aurora, Patrick, Brian, Dave, Edel, Finian, Melrona, John, Janine, Eugene and also the coffee gang and Maura.
To Coco for the serenity!
13
Section 1
CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS OF L&D IN ORGANISATIONS
15
CHAPTER 1
L&D: CONCEPTS, CONTEXT AND PROCESSES
Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the meaning of the terms ‘learning’ and ‘development’ and how they differ from related terms;
• Describe the historical evolution of L&D in organisations; • Critically evaluate the external and internal context of L&D in
organisations; • Understand the meaning of strategic L&D and its key components; • Understand and evaluate changing perspectives on managing people
in organisations; • Understand why organisations adopt some L&D practices and not others.
Key Concepts • Learning. • Training. • Development. • Education. • Instruction. • Teaching. • Human resource development. • Workplace learning. • Globalisation. • Corporate social responsibility. • Sustainability. • Business ethics.
16 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
• Offshoring. • Outposting. • Onshoring. • Strategic alignment. • Organisation culture. • Organisation climate. • Organisation mindset • High performance work practices. • Strategic L&D.
1.1 Introduction
L&D has emerged as an important practice in organisations worldwide. It consists of a set of practices concerned with ensuring that organisations have knowledgeable, skilled and engaged employees who can contribute to the achievement of organisational objectives. It is one of the most commonly-used HR practices in organisations and each year organisations spend significant amounts of money on formal training and development activities (Association for Talent Development, 2018). Through investment in L&D, organisations enhance their employee and organisational human capital which, in turn, contributes to organisational performance. This chapter:
• Provides an overview of L&D as a subject area; • Highlights how it differs from related areas such as HRD and
workplace learning; • Maps out the changing external and internal context of L&D; • Highlights the key components and characteristics of a strategic
approach to L&D.
The chapter begins with key definitions and terms and how they relate to each other, followed by a discussion of the historical evaluation of L&D in organisations. The chapter then considers the changing context of L&D globally and explains the different contexts that influence L&D practices. Next, it describes and evaluates the core components of a strategic approach to L&D and outlines the case for investment in these practices.
1.2 Defining L&D There is debate about whether researchers and practitioners should use the term ‘learning’ rather than ‘training’. The debate is discipline-related, with researchers from industrial psychology showing a preference for the term
1: L&D: CONCEPTS, CONTEXT AND PROCESSES 17
‘training’ (Whelan & Duvernet, 2017) and researchers and practitioners from HRM showing a preference for the term ‘learning’. The difference in emphasis can be explained as follows: training as a concept is associated with formal classroom-based training activities (Bell et al., 2017); in contrast, both research and practice in HRM acknowledge that employees and workers acquire KSAs through both formal training activities and informal learning processes. In this book, we use the term ‘learning’ because it covers both formal and informal learning in organisations. We distinguish learning from training as follows: learning is a process through which employees acquire KSAs, whereas training is one formal approach to develop KSAs (Noe, Clarke & Klein, 2014).
The term ‘learning and development’ for the purposes of this book is sufficiently broad to incorporate:
• Formal training activities conducted in classroom settings, on-the-job or online;
• Development and education activities that prepare employees for future career goals and roles;
• Social, collective and organisational learning.
We conceptualise training as an organisational activity within the broader domain of L&D and so L&D is both an individual and an organisational process.
1.2.1 Learning
Ñ Learning: A process through which employees acquire KSAs that involve conscious and unconscious learning processes, including awareness, reflection and experience.
Although the concept of learning is understood in different ways, Honey & Mumford (1992) observed that ‘learning has happened when people can demonstrate that they know something that they did not know before … and when they can do something that they could not do before’.
The different definitions of learning highlight different dimensions; however, common features emerge:
• Learning involves a longer-term change in KSAs that enhances the potential of individuals to grow, develop and perform effectively in tasks and job roles;
• Learning is an active process that requires active participation or involvement by the learners;
• Effective learning requires both ongoing evaluation of progress and feedback;
• The emotions of learners are a particularly important component of the learning process.
18 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
Table 1.1: Classic Definitions of Learning
Discipline Definition / Source Andragogy The process of gaining knowledge and / or expertise (Knowles, 1990).
It has been suggested that the term learning defies precise definition because it is put to multiple uses. Learning is used to refer to: the acquisition and management of what is already known about something; the extension and clarification of meaning of one’s experience; or an organised, intentional process of testing ideas relevant to problems. In other words, it is used to describe a product, process or function (Smith, 1982).
Psychology A persisting change in human performance or performance potential … which must come about as a result of the learner’s experience and interaction with the world (Driscoll, 2000). Acquiring knowledge and skills and having them available from memory so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities (Brown, Roediger & McDaniel, 2014). A process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases the potential of improved performance and future learning (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Instructional design
Learning involves strengthening correct responses and weakening incorrect responses. Learning involves adding new information to your memory. Learning involves making sense of the presented material by attending to relevant information, mentally reorganising it and connecting it with what you already know (Clark & Mayer, 2008). Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of shifting elements – not entirely under the control of the individual. Learning (defined as actionable knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves (within an organisation database), is focused on connecting specialised information sets, and the connections that enable us to learn more are more important than our current state of knowing (Siemens, 2004).
Knowledge management
The creation of new knowledge, dissemination of it throughout the whole organisation and embodiment of it in new technologies, products and services (Nonaka, 1991).
Organisational science
A process of detecting and correcting error (Argyris, 1977).
Organisational behaviour
A relatively permanent change in behaviour, or potential behaviour, that results from experience (Rollinson & Broadfield, 2002: 172).
Situated learning
For individuals, it is an issue of engaging in and contributing to the practice of their communities; for communities, it is an issue of refining their practice and ensuring new generations of members; for organisations, it is an issue of sustaining the interconnectedness of communities of practice (Wenger, 1998: 7-8).
Training The systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts or attitudes that result in improved performance in another environment (Goldstein, 1993: 3).
Education Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behaviour due to experience. This definition has three components: the duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term; the locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or the behaviour of the learner; and the cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic intervention (Mayer, 2008).
1: L&D: CONCEPTS, CONTEXT AND PROCESSES 19
1.2.2 Training
Ñ Training: Formal and planned efforts to ensure that employees acquire KSAs to enhance performance in their current role.
Training is a much narrower concept than learning and is often viewed as a tactical approach to the acquisition of KSAs rather than the more strategic concept of HRD, which we discuss later. Boxall & Purcell (2003: 143) suggested that training is often based either on a deficit assumption, focusing on a performance gap that needs to be addressed, or on an improvement assumption, whereby a satisfactory level of performance can be enhanced or built upon through training.
Important characteristics of training include: • Being for a shorter term and for a more practical purpose, often
vocationally-oriented; • Focusing on the KSAs required to carry out a job to the optimum level
of performance; • Applicability to all employees – senior management, as well as junior
employees. (While training traditionally was associated with non-managerial employees, managerial employees also require training in organisational processes);
• Taking place on-the-job, off-the-job in a classroom or online; • Being related to a specific current job or role within an organisation; • Its importance for imparting technical and mechanical knowledge; • Being designed to achieve experienced worker standard in the
shortest time period; • Often being a collective process where learners attend a training
programme, although it also may be one-to-one.
1.2.3 Development and Education
Ñ Development: Formal and planned interventions focused on the development of attitudes, personality and self-confidence to enhance the KSAs and all-round growth of employees, to enable them to perform future organisational roles or prepare for future career goals and opportunities.
Ñ
Education: A focus on developing a broad set of knowledge and skills and an outlook or perspective on life and work. It may focus on learning that will help an employee take on a new role, do a different job or pursue a different professional area.
Both development and education are conceptualised as longer-term learning processes.
131
Section 2
THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF L&D
133
CHAPTER 4
ADULT LEARNING, LEARNER MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT
Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define the concepts of learning and learning outcomes; • Explain and differentiate the different categories of adult learning
theory; • Describe the historical evolution of adult learning theories; • Explain the concept of learning styles and describe different
typologies of learning styles; • Distinguish between training motivation and training engagement; • Identify the key lessons from adult learning theory for the design of
L&D activities.
Key Concepts • Learning outcomes. • Behavioural theories. • Cognitive theories. • Constructivism. • Experientialism. • Social and contingent learning. • Humanism. • Pragmatism. • Reflection in action. • Reflection on action. • Positive reinforcement.
134 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
• Negative reinforcement. • Learning style. • Training motivation. • Training engagement. • Goal choice. • Trainee characteristics . • Contextual factors. • Goal orientation. • Metacognition. • Self-efficacy. • Organisational climate. • Situational factors.
4.1 Introduction
An understanding of adult learning theories is an essential underpinning to all types of formal and informal L&D in organisations. Everything that L&D professionals do starts with assumptions as to how adults learn. Our focus in this chapter is on individual theories of learning, because we consider organisational learning in Chapter 5. We first describe and evaluate the concept of learning outcomes. We then review the historical development of theories about how adults learn, and explain the different categories of adult learning theory. We next explain and evaluate the different adult learning principles that have emerged and consider some of the myths associated with adult learning. In later sections, we discuss and evaluate the concepts of learning style, learner motivation and learner engagement. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of the implications of adult learning theory for the design of L&D activities.
4.2 What Are Learning and Learning Outcomes? The concept of learning outcomes has its origins in the ‘objectives movement’ at the beginning of the last century and, in particular, in the work of Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Both Gagné (1974) and Eisner (1979), amongst others, have made important contributions to the discussion of learning outcomes. Gagné conceptualised a learning outcome as a concept that makes it possible for L&D and learning specialists to achieve a more refined understanding of the learning process and to design effective L&D activities. Eisner (1979) proposed that learning outcomes specify what L&D professionals expect from a learning
4: ADULT LEARNING, LEARNER MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT 135
activity. Gagné was strongly influenced by behaviourist ideas and placed a particularly strong emphasis on the types of learning required to achieve particular tasks. Eisner (1979), in contrast, was a pragmatist when it came to learning outcomes, identified a trichotomy of outcomes that have application to a variety of L&D activities in organisations:
• Student outcomes; • Subject-specific outcomes; • Teacher-specific outcomes.
Ñ Learning outcomes: KSAs that are developed through different forms of L&D activity.
Gagné (1984) proposed a highly influential categorisation of learning outcomes, consisting of five components:
• Verbal information: Facts, basic knowledge and principles, described as declarative knowledge;
• Intellectual skills: Rules and processes, described as procedural knowledge;
• Cognitive strategies: The application of information to understand how and when a learner uses knowledge and information;
• Motor skills: The coordination and execution of physical movements involving the use of mindsets to perform a task;
• Activities: A learner’s internal feelings and beliefs, considered the most difficult component to change through training.
In contrast, Kraiger, Ford & Salas (1993) categorised the outcomes of L&D into three groups:
• Cognitive outcomes: These consist of verbal knowledge, knowledge organisation and knowledge strategies;
• Skills-based outcomes: These include the development of technical, interpersonal skills and elements such as compilation, consisting of the fast and fluid performance of a task, and automaticity, involving the ability to perform a task without conscious monitoring;
• Affective outcomes: These are broad in scope and include attitudinal outcomes, such as thinking and values, and motivational outcomes, including goals, goal orientation and self-efficacy.
L&D activities typically focus on one or more of these learning outcomes. For example, an orientation or induction training programme focuses on cognitive and affective outcomes, whereas job skill training places a strong emphasis on skills-based outcomes.
136 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
A third and interesting approach to learning outcomes was proposed by Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986), whose model proposes a trajectory of learning outcomes, ranging from novice to expert:
• The novice learner has an incomplete understanding of a task, approaches the task mechanistically and requires supervision to complete it effectively;
• The advanced beginner has a working understanding of the task, views task actions as a series of steps and can complete simpler components without supervision;
• The competent learner has a good working and background knowledge of the task, understands task actions in context and is able to complete work independently to an acceptable standard;
• The proficient learner has deep task understanding, understands task actions in a holistic manner and achieves a high standard of performance in a consistent basis;
• The expert has an authoritative and deep holistic understanding, is able to deal with routine matters, including going beyond existing interpretations, and achieves consistent excellence.
Finally, the Adaptive Character of Thought (ACT) model proposed by Kanfer & Ackerman (1989) similarly adapts a staged approach and proposes three stages and corresponding learning outcomes. The three stages are:
• During the declarative knowledge stage, there is an intense engagement and investment of resources by the learner to master the task;
• The knowledge compilation stage involves the learner integrating tasks into sequences with the purpose of simplifying and streamlining the task. This results in more accurate and faster performance of the task; however, it still will be somewhat fragmented and piecemeal;
• The procedural knowledge stage involves learner in mastery of the task and its performance in a habitual and automatic way. The transition from knowledge acquisition to application is linked to experience. Performance in the third stage is fast, accurate and requires less investment of cognitive resources.
ACT theory proposes that the process of learning is sequential and stage-like. Therefore, an effective training process must be conscious of the need to make different task and motivational interventions to help learners through the three stages.
4: ADULT LEARNING, LEARNER MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT 137
4.3 The Historical Evolution of Adult Learning Theory
Ñ Behavioural theories: These theories emphasise that learning is a change in observable behaviour, resulting from external stimuli in the environment. Key behaviourist thinkers include Thorndike, Pavlov & Skinner.
Ñ Cognitive theories: These theories propose that learning comes about due to mental activity, such as memory, motivation, thinking and reflection. They emphasise the transmission of knowledge from an expert to novices.
Ñ Constructivism: Learning is not a stimulus / response process, but involves self-regulation and the development of conceptual structures through reflection and abstraction.
Ñ Experientialism: Associated with experiential learning and David Kolb, who recognised that people learn from experience.
Ñ Social and contingent learning: Learning does not occur solely within the learner, but occurs in a social or community context through observation and working together as part of a larger group.
Ñ Humanism: Learning is a personal act to fulfil potential and so learning must be understood in the context of the total person. Rogers (1983) proposed that individuals have a natural eagerness to learn.
Ñ Pragmatism: Associated with Dewey, who proposed that the learner should be the focus of learning, not the trainer.
We now consider the historical evolution of adult learning theory. Its origins can be traced back to the late 17th century and the philosophical writings of John Locke (Locke, 1990). Locke argued that the mind was a tabula rasa or ‘blank state’ when born and that all acquired knowledge was derived from sensory experience. However, within the realms of psychology, the initial foundations of adult learning theory can be linked to Thorndike’s (1911) law of effect, which proposed that learning occurs where it has a positive effect on the learner, and the law of exercise, which proposed that repetition by the learner will enhance the learning achieved. Skinner (1954) further developed these ideas and proposed that three factors helped to strengthen learning:
• The frequency or number of times a stimulus was presented; • Contingency or the time delay between the response and the reward; • Reinforcement or the continued link between the stimulus and
reward.
138 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
In contrast to these behaviourist perspectives, Piaget (1951), a cognitive constructivist, investigated the different types of knowledge that are acquired at different stages of adolescence. Vygotsky (1978) focused on how a learning community can support learning. He proposed the ‘zone of proximal development’, which suggested that a learner will ably acquire new knowledge where it is possible to link it to existing knowledge. Therefore, where trainees and learners articulate what is already known, they extend the zone of proximal development by introducing new ideas in the context of a learner’s current understanding. Bandura (1977) and Wenger (1998) extended Vygotsky’s ideas and proposed social learning theories. Bandura (1977) proposed the importance of role models and imitation, whereas Wenger (1999) proposed the notion of CoPs, which emphasise informal learning and learning through participation and capture and share existing knowledge to help people to improve their practice.
Critical Reflection 4.1 What do you see as the key challenges in specifying learning outcomes for soft skills-type L&D?
To what extent is it realistic to consider the achievement of learning outcomes as a sequential process?
4.3.1 Pedagogy and Andragogy One of the most influential contributors to adult learning is Knowles (1980). He made a by-now classic distinction between pedagogy and andragogy. Knowles’ ideas on andragogy are applicable to different learning situations, including classroom, on-the-job and eLearning. In 1980, Knowles proposed four assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners and, in 1984, he added a fifth assumption. His assumptions can be summarised as:
• Self-concept: As a person matures, the self-concept evolves from being a dependent individual to becoming a self-directed learner;
• Adult learning experiences: As a result of the process of maturity, adult learners accumulate a reservoir of experience that becomes a vital resource for learning;
• Readiness to learn: As learners mature, their readiness to learn becomes oriented towards the development of social roles;
• Orientation to learning: With maturity, a learner’s perspective changes towards knowledge application and problem-solving;
• Motivation to learn: With maturity, a learner’s motivation to learn becomes more internally driven.
577
Section 3
DEVELOPING THE L&D PROFESSIONAL AND THE FUTURE ROLES OF L&D
579
CHAPTER 15
CHANGING L&D ROLES, COMPETENCE DEVELOPMENT AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: • Define L&D roles in organisations and the expectations of different
stakeholders; • Explain the spectrum of L&D roles in organisations, their
characteristics and contribution to the organisation; • Understand and explain the competency requirements of different
L&D roles; • Understand and evaluate the concept of CPD and its benefits; • Describe and evaluate different strategies to develop L&D
competencies; • Understand the nature of professionalism, professional ethics and L&D
practitioners; • Describe and evaluate potential ethical dilemmas faced by L&D
practitioners in organisations.
Key Concepts • L&D role. • Boundary spanners. • Business partnering. • L&D change agent. • Competence. • Capacity.
580 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
• Capability. • Continuous professional development. • Reflection. • Professionalism.
15.1 Introduction The L&D professional role is an important one in organisations. Over the past 30 years, this role has evolved from a focus on organising L&D activities to a focus on building individual and organisational capability. The L&D profession was criticised in the 1980s and 1990s for its focus on delivering direct training and on administrative tasks. During the 21st century, the profession increasingly has sought to play a more strategic role and make a more valuable and measurable contribution to organisational performance.
The focus of this chapter is the L&D role, the spectrum of roles that L&D professionals play, the competencies and CPD of L&D professionals and the professional and ethical challenges that face the profession. The chapter is structured as follows: we first define, explain and evaluate the different roles performed by L&D professionals. Second, we describe and evaluate the competencies of L&D professionals and the role of CPD in enhancing the competence and credibility of the L&D profession. The final section of the chapter describes the nature of professionalism and the ethical issues that arise in the context of L&D.
15.2 Defining the L&D Professional Role in Organisations
Ñ L&D role: A set of behavioural expectations of a L&D position within an organisation. A L&D role is attached also to a structural position within an organisation.
The L&D professional role in organisations covers a very broad spectrum of both role dimensions and job titles. The role can be labelled ‘L&D adviser’, ‘L&D facilitator’, ‘trainer’, ‘learning consultant’, ‘training and development manager’, ‘learning curator’, ‘L&D strategic partner’ or ‘organisational change champion’ among others (Garavan et al., 2019a).
The role scope likewise includes a broad range of activities, including: • Performing the traditional activities of a L&D practitioner, including
identifying L&D needs and designing, delivering and evaluating L&D activities;
15: CHANGING L&D ROLES, COMPETENCE AND ETHICS 581
• Performing L&D partner activities, such as supporting managers to develop their teams, advising on L&D opportunities and requirements, developing customised L&D solutions to meet the requirements of business units and providing one-to-one coaching;
• Managing the L&D function, including monitoring training expenditure and budgets, managing a team of L&D practitioners and advocating for the role of L&D at senior levels in the organisation;
• Performing technology-based L&D activities, including maintaining LMSs, curating digital information for learners to access and designing instructional materials for eLearning delivery.
The L&D role in organisations is therefore very varied, differing in: • Its position within an organisation’s structure; • Whether it is part of a L&D function or located within the HR function
or elsewhere in the business; • The behavioural expectations of employees, line managers or the
organisation (Overton & Dixon, 2015).
We now discuss the expectations of different organisational stakeholders or actors including L&D practitioners.
15.2.1 Expectations of Organisational Stakeholders about L&D We discuss different roles that LD practitioners undertake in the next section; however, here we consider four stakeholders: L&D practitioners, employees, line managers and the organisation.
L&D Practitioners L&D practitioners as role-holders attach importance to particular dimensions of their role in organisations. At a professional level, they place value on their expertise and the importance of L&D in an organisational practice (Harrison, 2009). A traditional criticism of L&D practitioners is that they overly focus on the learning and pedagogic features of training programmes without giving sufficient consideration to their fit with the needs of individuals, teams and organisations and that, as a consequence, frequently the programmes were not practical or feasible to implement (Garavan et al., 2019a).
Research by Overton & Dixon (2015) and Garavan et al. (2019a) highlights that L&D practitioners are increasingly expected to be more strategic in terms of what they can contribute to different stakeholders. These reports highlight that they are focused on reducing costs, while increasing the quantity of L&D solutions. They also are concerned with improving organisational agility, providing further responses to changing business conditions, improving productivity and employee engagement and speeding up the process of
582 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS
change. These priorities and role expectations suggest that L&D practitioners are increasingly more aligned with the business agenda.
Individual Learners L&D professionals have focused primarily on individual, rather than organisational, learning processes (Garavan, Carbery & Rock, 2012). Many of the activities that L&D undertakes in organisations involve interventions, programmes or practices focused on enhancing individual KSAs (Salas et al., 2012). However, in addition to enhanced KSAs to achieve high levels of performance, employees have additional expectations of L&D in organisations. Garavan et al. (2019a) found that employees expect L&D that will lead to formal qualifications and experiences, access to L&D resources any time, any place and development activities that enhance employee employability and career progression. Increasingly employees are more self-directed when it comes to L&D (Overton & Dixon, 2015). Therefore, they want opportunities to have access to learning via mobile devices, at the point of need and to manage their own development.
Noe, Tews & Michel (2016) highlights basic requirements for L&D that focus on employee self-development and personal development:
• Self-management: Employees should have scope to proactively shape their careers to avail of L&D opportunities in organisations;
• Continuous development: The L&D process should cater for all stages of career development and promote continuous learning;
• Adaptability: L&D provision should be flexible to adapt to the changing business environment;
• Employability: The requirements for employability change with career stage and L&D should enhance an employee’s employment and career opportunities;
• Support: L&D should be skilled at providing support, including coaches, mentors and peers.
Line Managers and Teams Line managers and their teams also have important and different expectations of L&D compared to other stakeholders. Garavan et al. (2019a) found that they frequently have negative perceptions of L&D, including perceptions that it does not respond quickly enough to employee performance issues and resentment that L&D makes too many demands on their time. Additionally, line managers frequently do not understand that the impacts of training may take some time to accrue to the team. Line managers also make requests for L&D activities to develop team-focused L&D activities and to establish strong networks of relationships with line managers (Overton & Dixon, 2015).
15: CHANGING L&D ROLES, COMPETENCE AND ETHICS 583
Organisational Leaders L&D is expected to make a business-focused contribution to enhancing organisational effectiveness and the bottom line (Tharenou et al., 2007). Organisational leaders also have expectations that L&D activities will enhance the reputation of the organisation in the eyes of prospective employees, customers, competitors and regulators (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). Both Garavan et al. (2009) and Overton & Dixon (2015) highlight that senior decision-makers in organisations expect L&D to contribute to bottom-line business benefits, including improvements in productivity, enhanced customer service and satisfaction and significant reductions in the time it takes employees to be competent. There is also an increased expectation that L&D, the HR function and management teams within an organisation will work together to ensure that employee capability is maximised. The provision of courses increasingly is taken as a given and L&D is expected to enhance an organisation’s learning culture and embed learning as a part of day-to-day practice.
Figure 15.1: What Is Self-development?
Self-development is an important concept and is defined as a process by which individuals:
o Identify their personal development goals;
o Take proactive responsibility for planning development to achieve these goals;
o Implement development activities and monitor progress;
o Monitor or reassess their goals in the context of life experiences.
Boydell & Pedlar (1981) were among the first researchers to acknowledge the importance of self-development for managers; however, it has now emerged as important for employees generally. Garafano & Salas (2005) highlighted the importance of continuous employee development. The types of self-development activities that organisations undertake vary according to the type of role but include coaching, giving presentations, attending conferences, stretch assignments, networking and career development workshops (Orvis & Ratwani, 2010).
15.3 The Spectrum of L&D Roles in Organisations While L&D is a part of an organisation’s human resource architecture (Carbery & Cross, 2019), its particular remit within organisations differs depending on contextual factors, including:
• Organisational sector; • Size; • Level of technology intensity;
734
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Thomas Garavan THOMAS N. GARAVAN is currently Research and Visiting Professor, National College of Ireland, Dublin and is a leading researcher worldwide in in L&D, HRD, leadership development and workplace learning. He graduated from University of Limerick, with a Bachelor of Business Studies and completed a Doctorate of Education at the University of Bristol.
He is Editor of the European Journal of Training and Development and Associate Editor of Personnel Review. He is a member of the Editorial Board of Human Resource Management Journal, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Human Resource Development Review, Advances in Developing Human Resources and Human Resource Development International. He is the recipient of the Outstanding HRD Scholar Award 2013 from the Academy of Human Resource Development.
His research interests include: CSR and transformational leadership, cross-cultural dimensions of diversity training, tacit knowledge in manufacturing, international human resource management standards and human resource management.
Carole Hogan
CAROLE HOGAN, D.Soc.Sc., M.Ed., H.Dip.Ed., B.A., is a highly-experienced management consultant and Managing Director of her own international human resource consultancy company.
Her career in education and business psychology has resulted in an in-depth experience and understanding of advanced learning and development initiatives. Carole uses applied psychologies and organisational development methodologies to facilitate behavioural change and impact.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 735
Carole is an experienced senior executive coach and facilitator. She consults with major multinationals, public sector organisations and inter-governmental agencies.
Carole lectures at University College Cork on its M.Sc. in Human Resource Management programme. She is co-author of two highly successful books on learning and development and leadership development.
Her research interests include how leaders learn in the workplace and the development and implementation of talent development strategies.
Amanda Cahir-O’Donnell
AMANDA CAHIR-O’DONNELL, B.Ed., M.Ed.Mgmt. (TCD), Chartered Fellow of CIPD, FIITD, PCC (ICF), CPCC, CSA Accredited Coach Supervisor, set up TIO Consulting Ltd. in March 2006, with a passion for developing leaders at all levels in organisations. Amanda and her team have been immensely successful and TIO Consulting now works with many blue-chip organisations, senior leaders and their teams globally.
Amanda specialises in executive coaching, leadership and team development. She has been awarded “Executive Coach of the Year” twice, in Ireland, by the International Coaching Federation.
Amanda brings a unique perspective to this book. She became the first Head of Learning and Development in AIB Capital Markets in 2000. In this senior leadership role, Amanda had a unique opportunity to design, implement and evaluate best practice L&D.
Amanda’s life-long interest in L&D started with a career in Primary Education. She brings energy, enthusiasm, curiosity and an uncanny ability to “get to the heart of the matter” in all aspects of her work. Website: www.tioconsulting.ie.
Claire Gubbins CLAIRE GUBBINS is an Associate Professor of Organisational Behaviour & HRM at Dublin City University Business School, Director of DCU Executive MBA Programme, an adjunct Professor at PNU University, Riyadh and a facilitator at DCU’s Centre for Executive Education.
She was Associate Editor for Human Resource Development Quarterly, Senior Research Fellow on the ICMR project on Tacit Knowledge and Learning, Deputy Director (Learning & Knowledge) of the LINK Research Centre and a Fulbright Scholar at Carnegie Mellon University. She received the DCU President’s award for Excellence in Teaching in 2013 and is regularly a finalist.
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She is published in Human Resource Management (US), Organization Studies, Journal of Management Inquiry, Advances in Developing Human Resources, Human Resource Development Review and Journal of Knowledge Management. She consults and speaks internationally (Ireland, UK, Slovenia, Malta, Russia, Ukraine, Netherlands and USA) on social networks, knowledge management, evidence-based decision-making, leadership development, training design and careers.
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