franco- tnt research project- literature review

Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW: UTILIZING DOMESTIC OFF-CAMPUS 1

Literature Review: Utilizing Domestic Off-Campus Experiences to Improve Learning and Career

Readiness

Lillianna S. Franco

Loyola University Chicago

LITERATURE REVIEW: UTILIZING DOMESTIC OFF-CAMPUS 2

Literature Review: Utilizing Domestic Off-Campus Experiences to Improve Learning and Career

Readiness

Introduction

According to Baum, Ma, & Payea (2013) although college rates are increasing, there are

large gaps in enrollment that are associated with specific demographic groups. For example,

minority students are associated with low college enrollment because of their low socioeconomic

status, race and ethnicity, and lack of access to college information. These students are further

stratified into low performing high schools with minimal amounts of support and resources.

They tend to be underrepresented in colleges and universities, and later lack social mobility due

to an absence of higher education (Baum et al., 2013). Financial resources, academic

preparation, support from counselors and others, and information about college and financial aid

are categories that can predict college choice and enrollment (Perna & Jones, 2013). While

college enrollment is lacking in underrepresented groups a surge in college access programming

has come forth. However, college access models usually focus on the student’s deficits and do

not utilize an asset-based thinking approach. Some literature touches upon this but others focus

on utilizing increased funding to solve the college access issue. Unfortunately, funding for these

types of programs is never guaranteed. Therefore, the focus must be on innovative ideas such as

anchoring intuitions in the surrounding communities to not only serve youth in receiving college

access support but also utilize these experiences to help educate college students in civic

engagement within the community.

This literature review will examine the Target New Transitions (TNT) program, found at

Loyola University Chicago, and the variety of research articles that illustrate why this program is

a model for utilizing domestic off-campus experiences to improve college access. The purpose


of this literature review is not only to gain a better understanding of this specific program but

also how other institutions could replicate this program and increase college access in their

surrounding communities. The analysis of current information will depict why and how this

program is positively related to increased college access for high school student and also how it

increases civic engagement for college students. By comprehending how research supports this

program, it will help us gain a better understanding about how this program can grow all over the

nation. “Increasing the educational attainment of this target group has to be our number-one

priority if we are to improve the overall educational attainment level in the Unite States- and to

reduce disparities related to race/ethnicity” (Bowen, Chingos, & McPhweaon, 2009, p. 213).

About TNT

TNT is an academic support program that is open to high school freshmen that are

matched with high achieving college students to meet on Saturday mornings, for three hours, to

work on homework and develop relationships (Target New Transitions, 2015). The purpose of

the TNT program is to increase academic performance in underrepresented students attending

two of the most impoverished high schools in the Chicago Public School (CPS) system, increase

information and knowledge students receive around the college choice process, and provide

mentorship, support, and access to social networks. The college students are trained to be

academic coaches through orientations, retreats, and professional development sessions (M.

Charles, personal communication, September 24, 2015). Currently, the TNT program is located

at two at-risk high schools in Chicago. The ninth graders are helped with adjusting to the high

school experience academically and socially. The students gain help with their homework, learn

study strategies, and develop supportive relationships. See Appendix A for a detailed logic

model of the TNT program and the outcomes they expect. The college students “provide the


tools high school freshmen need to succeed in high school and to realistically envision their

future transition to college” (Target New Transitions, 2015). While the high school students gain

confidence, the Loyola students get excellent field experience, while also giving back to their

community.

Methodology

In order to locate a substantial amount of research related to domestic off-campus

experiences to improve college access, the research process included categorizing TNT program

benefits. The categories were separated into benefits for high school students, for college

students, and for the institution and community. Under each category is a theme that provides

benefits for that particular subset of individuals. Below benefits for high school students is the

following: academic improvement, college knowledge and support, and building cultural wealth.

For benefits for college students, the following it outlined: professional skill building, social

justice engagement and learning, and vocational discernment. Finally, the communities and the

universities benefit from increasing civic engagement and obtaining resources. After reviewing

sources and research, commonalities were found among various research articles regarding these

categories and their sub-categories. Moreover, sources that showed detriment to these

categories, within the program, were included in order to gain a deeper understanding of the TNT

program. Validity was proven by comparing various sources to verify benefits and challenges of

domestic off-campus experiences that improve college access.

Analysis and Discussion

Benefits for High School Students

Academic Improvement


The main mission of the TNT program is to increase the academic grades of high school

freshmen in underrepresented high schools in Chicago. According to the TNT program, in 2015

TNT students obtained higher grades in English and math during freshman year compared to

students who do not attend the program (see Appendix B). With this proof, it is obvious that

academic coaches and a three-hour a week commitment to homework does improve grades.

According to Cooper, Robinson, & Patall (2006), there is a positive correlation between

achievement and homework for seventh thru 12th graders. With there being a strong correlation

for all grades leading up to college, many would inquire why TNT doesn’t focus on all the

academic grades. While financial and human resources may be a hindrance, there is a bigger

reason for focusing on freshmen in high schools. The motive for which TNT only focuses on

freshmen year is because student success at this point of high school is connected to high school

completion rates (Willet & Singer, 1991). With this said, it is the hope of the program to give

students a fresh start as they transition to high school and teach them the skills they need, such as

study skills, in order to succeed academically during their remanding years in high school.

However, skills aren’t the only things academic coaches provide. Some may assume that

they are simply tutors however; it is highly encouraged to call the college students academic

coaches because they provide personal support and mentorships along side of homework

assistance. In a study that researched effective ninth-grade transition programs, it was

highlighted that students must feel connected to the school and that educators must play a crucial

role in engaging with students (Roybal, Thornton, & Reno, 2014). In order to feel connected,

social relationships are important and therefore, the relationships that academic coaches create

with the students are a great first step to creating a comfort level during their freshmen year.

Moreover, the academic coaches are like educators but because they are closer in age to these


students they could relate more closely and therefore increase a healthy transition to high school.

While these articles shared the importance of concentrating on freshmen in high school and

providing them with academic coaches to improve their academic grades, they did miss out on a

few themes. Research should focus on only ninth graders and how their homework can affect

their grades in the following years and their enrollment to college. Moreover, the research

should put more of an emphasis on specific demographics: such as low socioeconomic status and

race/ethnicity. These are demographic groups that are most at-risk for not succeeding

academically and progressing to college. Finally, it is highly recommended that the TNT

program perform further evaluation that follows the students who attended the TNT program

regularly throughout their high school career and collect data that shows grades and college

enrollment to prove its strength and reasoning behind focusing on freshmen only.

College Knowledge and Support

There are various levels of knowledge that students require to understand the college

enrollment process. They must understand the application process, the selection process, and

financial aid issues. Where it gets even more complex is when it involves underrepresented

minorities who have little access to this information and guidance. Most individuals receive this

information from family and/or counselors however, typically underrepresented minorities lack

these connections and support. Consequently, human capital and social capital are essential in

order to navigate the college application process. This can be directly connected to their

immediate family. According to Baum et al. (2013), those who do not attend college are highly

correlated with their parent’s lack of education. Cabrera and La Nasa (2000) created a model of

college choice for disadvantaged students that showed a connection to parental characteristics

and influences. Most students, who lack the direction of their parents, look to high school


teachers, counselors, and administrators for assistance in the pursuit of a higher education.

Unfortunately, many minority parents and students reported expecting information about college

from school personal but never did or received it too late (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010).

Furthermore, underrepresented minority serving high schools tend to have a high number ratio of

counselors to students and this impedes the availability of providing information to all students

(Perna & Jones, 2013). Finally, minorities search for support among each other. Peers play a

very influential role to students because they can associate and trust each other. Formal peer-

mentoring programs show prosperity toward improving college access (Tierney & Venegas,

2006). This theory is proven by the idea of chain enrollment and college enclaves. Person &

Rosenbaum (2006), found that Latinos, for example, were more likely to find information about

a college from social contacts who attended that institution.

With this said, the TNT program provides high school students with access to human and

social capital that are knowledgeable about college access and that can also, relate to the students

because they are close in age. Otherwise, they would not have a strong connection to a mentor

who can help them navigate the complex college process. Levine & Nidiffer (1996) describe

how mentors can be essential to helping students in their college decisions. “Working-class

minority students are especially dependent on nonfamilial institutional agents for essential

college-related information, particularly if they are the first in their family or community to

attend college” (Perna & Jones, 2013, p. 14). According to Cotterell (1996) community

organizations can help create opportunities for mentoring to occur that otherwise formal high

school settings might not. However, in this case, the TNT program is bringing this typical

outside mentorship into the school which helps give the students a sense of support at their high

school. In regards to racial demographics, Black and Latino youth that interact with those who


can help guide their vocation, prepare them to transition from high school to college (Phillips et

al., 2002). Consequently, the TNT program provides underrepresented students with networks

and mentors who can help them through the college knowledge attainment and decision process.

While the TNT program does their best to provide high school students with diverse

support, they may not always make a clear match. Constantine, Kindaichi, & Miville (2007)

interject with the aspect that Black and Latino students may be more influenced by mentors who

are their same race, ethnicity, or gender. Further research should continue to explore the value of

mentorship intersected with other identities such as age because the TNT program uniquely

provides students with a mentor near their age. The TNT program should also continue to

expand their program to diverse students on campus in order to have the deepest connection they

could possibly have with diverse high school students. However, TNT academic coaches are

prepared to share college experience and knowledge with the high school students and are

equipped to help engage the students with confidence building interactions so that they can feel

supported in believing that they can obtain a higher education (M. Charles, personal

communication, September 24, 2015). Accurate information and guidance is not only essential

for this particular population, it is necessary to help create social mobility and equity for these

students using their positive cultural characteristics.

Building Cultural Wealth

Much of the literature reviewed framed underrepresented students’ college choices with

challenges that put this population at a deficit. Articles cited even used words like disadvantaged

when describing underrepresented students on college campuses. However, there are positive

implications to the cultural wealth that minority students bring to their college search and choice

process. Yosso (2005) challenged Bourdieu’s traditional form of cultural capital by considering


community cultural wealth or assets that people of color bring to the classroom and their lives.

In particular, this model combats the idea that there should be a focus on parents level of

education but rather that the value that parents put on education is more of an indicator of their

children’s success (Bergerson, 2009). Yosso (2005) described the seven forms of capital as

aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, cultural, navigational, and resistant. These forms of

capital prove why some minorities do attend college and should be taught to those who work

with youth of color in order to promote higher education through an asset-based approach.

The TNT academic coaches receive orientation to teach students about asset-based

approaches and utilize various methods to engage students through motivation rather than self-

pity. It is clear that by approaching students through a cultural wealth lens they will feel more

confident in their abilities and networks to attend college. However, when students interact with

those who believe they are at a disadvantaged, due to their situation, the students themselves

begin to believe it and choose not to utilize the cultural wealth that already have. Instead they

are encouraged to utilize the cultural wealth that they do not have or cannot easily obtain and

therefore, become discouraged. Motivation and self-confidence are predictors of academic

performance (Travani & Losh, 2003). This article articulates the importance of confidence and

motivation. However, there needs to be an extended amount of research in how positive

motivation can help influence college going confidence. In theory, utilizing cultural wealth

paradigms seems to be beneficial for people of color but further research should be done on how

mentors who focus on these aspects give these individuals the validation and confidence they

need to succeed. It is important to make sure the community cultural wealth model becomes a

well-known model; in particular in communities in which underserved and minority populations

are served. Engberg & Wolniak (2010) emphasized the importance to encourage human, social,


and cultural capital in communities in which the sharing of capital is scarce because of the

positive influence in enrollment patterns.

Benefits for College Students

Professional Development and Vocational Discernment

The TNT program provides college students, also known as academic coaches, with the

ability to engage in high impact learning experiences. High impact learning practices include

service learning, internships, undergraduate research opportunities, learning communities,

collaborative assignments, reflective intensive courses, and diversity/global learning (Kuh,

2008). While the TNT program has a grant that helps compensate the students for their work,

many of the students still feel that it is a service learning experience. Additionally, other

institutions can replicate this program utilizing less funding as a service learning opportunity.

The reason this program is more closely related to service learning is because students get the

experience of engaging with issues within the community such as a lack of access to education

(Kuh, 2008). Benefits to the college students include professional development during

orientations, workshops, and retreats. Through this professional development students gain

many skills that they put into practice during their service learning experiences. During their

workshops they learn about asset-based thinking, active listening, motivational interviewing,

interpersonal skills, team building, and understanding the environmental context (M. Charles,

personal communication, September 24, 2015). For example, asset-based thinking is when

individuals think that someone or something can utilize positive contributions toward the success

of something (Cramer & Wasiak, 2006). Interpersonal skills are developed by role-playing and

team building interactions during the orientation and workshops. However, skills aren’t only

developed during orientation. Skills are also developed while experiencing high impact


practices. For example, for service learning experiences, students are expected to develop the

following skills: leadership, social self-confidence, critical thinking, interpersonal skills, conflict

resolution skills, cooperation, ability to engage with people of different cultures and races,

understanding of problems faced by the community and nation, and preparation for future career

(Astin & Sax, 1998). The skills learned through orientation and the experience itself is not only

positive for the students’ professional development but also for their future performance in the

career of their choice.

Service learning experiences also benefit college students because participation in service

helps with vocational discernment. For example internships, cooperative education programs,

and apprenticeships, are designed to help students develop a self-concept, gain an understanding

of various career choices and organizational environments, and allow students to check for fit

between individual characteristics and the demands of different jobs (Greenhaus, Callanan, &

Godshalk, 2000). Since service learning allows students to gain an understanding of different

environments, career choices, and passions for a career, it is clear that it gives students the

confidence to discern between career options. Astin, Vogelgesang, Ikeda, &Yee (2000) found

that service learning helps with choice of a service intensive career and plans on participating in

service after college. Therefore, it gives students the ability to differentiate between a career in

for-profit fields and one in service related careers. While the articles utilized did provide various

supports for how college student develop professional skills and career discernment through high

impact learning practices, they did not reflect on specific demographic populations such as race,

ethnicity, gender, or first-generation status. These demographics may showcase a different

outcome for each finding. For example, skill development maybe differently developed among

gender differences and vocational decrement may be diverse between race, ethnicity or first-


generation status. It is highly encouraged that further research look into diverse perspectives

regarding these topics.

Social Justice Engagement and Learning

As previously stated, students engage in high impact learning practices and gain benefits

for their professional careers. Additionally, college students also engage with social justice

issues when experiencing service learning because service is connected to the community issues

that many face. High impact learning is active learning practices, which make it possible for

students to have a cumulative learning experience. Kuh (2008) describes how service learning

gives students experience in analyzing and problem solving in the community and promotes the

idea of giving back, which in turn prepares students to be civically engaged on off-campus

experiences. Ash, Clayton, & Atkinson (2005) has even shared how service learning has

supported the development of personal and civic identities. In the TNT program, academic

coaches face the many systemic and oppressive issues that the high school students must

overcome and this allows them to engage in social justice action. Furthermore, the students tend

to develop a sense of civic responsibility and choose to continue their commitment to social

justice action (M. Charles, personal communication, September 24, 2015). However, it isn’t just

engaging in social justice work that gets students excited about community engagement, it is the

reflection that they have about their service that allows them to understand their commitment.

Service learning requires not only the action of volunteering but also the reaction of the

volunteering experience. Kuh (2005) describes the need for service learning individuals to

engage in reflection and to make meaning of the experience. Service learning is associated with

courses that offer readings related to the community issues that students face. This allows for

college students to engage in thoughts of community contexts and environments, positionality


and perspective, and privilege and oppression (Hullender, Hinck, Wood-Nartker, Burton, &

Bowlby, 2015). Course materials inflict points of discussions between professors, other students,

and within written reflections (Astin, Vogelgesang, Ikeda, &Yee, 2000). This reflection can help

student examine beliefs, assumptions and search for alternative viewpoints that can help develop

their understanding of complex issues (Brookfield, 2010). According to Preskill & Brookfield

(2009) learning to critically reflect allows individuals to not only become informed leaders but to

also take action on social injustices. Students who engage in critical reflection develop social

justice leadership skills because they gain a deeper understanding of their identity and the

identity of others. In this case, service learning can be described as helping in the development

of self-authorship. Ongoing reflection helps with the development of “the relationship between

self and other (intrapersonal); shifts in the nature of commitments made, including career plans

and aspirations (interpersonal); and increased open-mindedness about new people, experiences,

and ideas (cognitive)” (Jones & Abes, 2004, p. 153). These three outcomes are also connected to

building a global perspective, which is needed for students to develop with the complexities of

our global society. The extended understanding of others allows for diversity, equity, and justice

for all. Fay (2008) highlights the importance of understanding cultural and multiple differences

in order to recognize identities in the developing multicultural nation of today. With the

recognition of oppression and privilege in domestic off-campus service learning experiences,

multiculturalism can be accepted and utilized to create social and political change.

Although most research shows that service learning benefits students, it does not apply to

all different demographics. Some research shows that there is no gender difference (Tomkovick,

Lester, Flunker, & Wells, 2008). However, Pragman, Flannery, & Bowyer (2012) found that

females benefit from the service learning experiences more than males. Since there are two


similar studies that showed different results it is obvious that another demographic may be at

cause for seeing growth results from students who are involved in service learning. For instance,

first-generation students might find that service learning may help then develop differently than

second-generation college students. Many research articles found various diverse findings on the

idea of first-generation students and their growth in service learning. Some related their

experience with positive outcomes such as helping these first-generation students achieve their

academic goals and feel connected to the college community (McKay & Estrella, 2008). Others

saw no difference between first and second-generation students. For example, Pelco, Ball, &

Lockeman (2014) found that both first and second-generation students felt positive and believed

that they service learning classes helped academic and professional growth. In terms of race and

the building of global perspective one research article found that, “Blacks, Hispanic, and Asian

students were associated with the highest scores on the social interaction scale compared to their

White counterparts” (Engberg & Fox, 2011, p. 98). That same research article also found that

racial and ethnic minorities, females, and seniors participated more in service learning

experiences. Therefore, service learning is applicable to helping develop underrepresented

college students. However, further research should explore variables such as socioeconomic

status and feature different types of institutions, in order to understand what generates the

different outcomes associated to generational status and race.

Benefits for the University and Community

Increasing Civic Engagement

With a program like TNT, any institution and community would highly benefit from its

outcomes. Universities would obtain the learning outcomes needed for a well-rounded

curriculum and communities would gain continued community engagement. By providing


students with diverse learning opportunities, they gain a holistic understanding of how to connect

curriculum to high impact learning practices (Wawrzynski & Baldwin, 20014). In order for

students to make this connection, faculty must motivate students to ask themselves to reconsider

their belief or assumptions. When the domestic off-campus experiences offers the volunteer

experience and time for reflection, it is sure to show success in terms of producing students who

think critically and with a diverse understanding of differences. Some institutions might find

that international service learning programs are more beneficial because they provide intense

engagement in diverse cultural competency (Niehaus & Crain, 2013) but what is most beneficial

with domestic off-campus experiences is that they provide students an understanding about their

local community and therefore, provides the community with long term committed citizenship

engagement (Miller & Gonzalez, 2009). While there is research that showcases how students

from demographic differences learn differently, there is no research that proves that the learning

outcomes would be distinct. The only difference is the path they take, personally, to reflect and

discover the learning outcomes desired by the curriculum.

In terms of benefiting the community, students are more likely to increase their civic

engagement and their desire to take social justice action. Jones & Abes (2004) depict students to

develop civic engagement-related outcomes such as the increase of students’ commitments to

social responsible labor. However, students do not always commit to changing their careers to

service minded positions, rather they become more aware of the systemic issues and take on

citizenship-like practices to help affect change in the community. For example, students gain a

political awareness (Simons & Cleary, 2006) and feel more responsible for society (Engberg &

Fox, 2011). This responsibility comes from a change in a students’ attitude toward social justice

and equity (Rockquemore & Schaffer, 2000). Above all, institutions where students were


involved in civic engagement with proper course accompaniment will reap the benefits and so

will the community that helped foster their learning. The research utilized was viable because

their resources were valid and reliable. However, further analysis can be done upon how civic

engagement continues for various demographic differences.

Utilizing Resources

Both entities (institutions and communities) could find this type of program to be

financially workable and beneficial. In particular, the TNT program pays its academic coaches

because they have grants supporting the mission. But any institutions wanting to replicate this

program could easily just promote it as a non-paid internship or volunteer opportunity. Although

it is highly recommended that money should be secured for coordinators and assistants (Bringle

& Hatcher, 1996), it should be known that this article is not recent enough and that students are

the greatest resource that an institution can utilize to bring about a program such as this.

Although financial resources will be needed, students can be the main driving force if trained and

motivated effectively to do the job well.

For the surrounding communities, the financial benefit of these types of programs can be

extremely helpful. As previously stated, the communities where underrepresented students live,

are low in resources to have impactful programming for high school students. In order to create

a healthy community partnership, the community partner should receive significant benefits from

the service learning project (Kaye, 2004). Unfortunately, there is a lack of analysis of how the

community partners can benefit financially from the use of academic coaches in their high

schools and communities. However, there is a lot of research advocating for community-

university partnerships as it strengthens networks, develops social capital, and creates

opportunities. In particular, communities benefit from service learning programs by accessing


university resources, saving on budgets, saving on the labor of student volunteers, energy

provided by the student volunteers, and gaining visibility in the community (Crus & Giles,

2000). To be specific, these universities or colleges can become anchor institutions and truly

advocate and work with the communities to create direct and meaningful ties. An anchor

institution’s mission is to invest capital, financial or human, in connecting to a certain location

(Webber & Karlström, 2009). Not only do Webber & Karlström (2009) recommend becoming

an anchor institution because of the potential impact an institution can have on a neighborhood

but also because they believe the benefits to the cost ratio can be abundant if they are outweighed

and analyzed. Additionally, many outside grants, foundations, and donors, can offset costs and

increase the budget’s capacity for impact. The benefit an institution can gain from a community

partnership is the community’s investment in the co-education of their college students during

their off-campus service learning engagement (McDonald & Dominguez, 2015). There should

be more research that proves how communities can benefit from institutions’ service learning

programs, in particular in regards to communities with low socioeconomic status because these

communities could highly benefit from an anchor institution and all the resources they can offer.

Conclusion and Critique

While the benefits for high school students, college students, communities, and

institutions seem remarkable for programs that utilize domestic off-campus experiences to

improve college access, there is still more work to be done. In order to truly gage the profound

impact an experience such as the TNT program can have, it is essential that more research and

evaluation be done. In particular, research should focus more on specific demographic groups

such as: race/ethnicity, gender, economic status, and generational status. Above all, the TNT

program should evaluate the following: the outcomes their high school students obtain through


participation over a longitudinal study, the civic engagement commitment their academic

coaches gain, and the full amount of resources that the university and high school profit from the

community connection. With further research and evaluation we can prove the strengths of this

program through scholarship that provides critical and diverse lenses and bring value to the

program with evidence. For now, it is safe to say that the TNT program provides students with

academic support, college access, and confidence through mentorship. Furthermore, college

student gain many professional skills, an understanding of diverse and global perspectives, and a

continued commitment to social justice. Colleges and universities gain complex and

advantageous learning outcomes from their students’ participation in such programs and

community partners increase their resources to help combat some of the systemic issues that

exist in society. When a college campus anchor’s themself in a domestic off-campus community,

it is an equal trade-off for everyone.

franco- tnt research project- literature review

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