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Frame storyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A frame story (also known as a frame tale or frame narrative) is a literary technique that sometimesserves as a companion piece to a story within a story, whereby an introductory or main narrative ispresented, at least in part, for the purpose of setting the stage either for a more emphasized second narrativeor for a set of shorter stories. The frame story leads readers from a first story into another, smaller one (orseveral ones) within it.

Contents

1 Origins2 A set of stories3 Single story4 Use of frame stories5 Notes

Origins

Among earliest known frame stories are those preserved on the ancient Egyptian Papyrus Westcar. Otherearly examples are from first millennium BCE ancient India, when the Sanskrit epics Mahabharata,Ramayana, Vishnu Sarma's Panchatantra, Syntipas's The Seven Wise Masters, and the fable collectionsHitopadesha and Vikram and The Vampire were written.[1] This form gradually spread west through thecenturies and became popular, giving rise to such classic frame tale collections as the One Thousand andOne Nights (Arabian Nights), The Decameron, and Canterbury Tales. This format had flexibility in thatvarious narrators could retain the stories they liked or understood, while dropping ones they didn't andadding new ones they heard from other places. This occurred particularly with One Thousand and OneNights, where different versions over the centuries have included different stories.

The use of a frame story in which a single narrative is set in the context of the telling of a story is also atechnique with a long history, dating back at least to the beginning section of the Odyssey, in which thenarrator Odysseus tells of his wandering in the court of King Alcinous.

A set of stories

This literary device acts as a convenient conceit for the organization of a set of smaller narratives which areeither of the devising of the author, or taken from a previous stock of popular tales slightly altered by theauthor for the purpose of the longer narrative. Sometimes a story within the main narrative can be used tosum up or encapsulate some aspect of the framing story, in which case it is referred to in literary criticismby the French term mise en abyme.

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The Return of Rip VanWinkle, painting by JohnQuidor, 1849

A typical example of the frame story is One Thousand and One Nights, in which the characterScheherazade narrates a set of fairy tales to the Sultan Shahriyar over many nights. Many of Scheherazade'stales are also frame stories, such as Tale of Sindbad the Seaman and Sindbad the Landsman, a collection ofadventures related by Sindbad the Seaman to Sindbad the Landsman.

An extensive use of this device is Ovid's Metamorphoses where the stories nest several deep, to allow theinclusion of many different tales in one work. Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights uses this literary device totell the story of Heathcliff and Catherine, along with the subplots. Her sister Anne also uses this device inher epistolary novel The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. The main heroine's diary is framed by the narrator's storyand letters.

Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein is another good example of a book with multiple framed narratives. Inthe book, Robert Walton writes letters to his sister describing the story told to him by Victor Frankenstein;Frankenstein's story contains the creature's story; the creature's story even briefly contains the story of afamily he had been living among.

Frame stories have also appeared in media forms, such as comic books. Neil Gaiman's comic book seriesThe Sandman featured a story arc called Worlds End which consisted of Frame Stories, and sometimes evenfeatured stories within stories within stories.

Frame stories are often organized as a gathering of people in one place for the exchange of stories. Eachcharacter tells his or her tale, and the frame tale progresses in that manner. Historically famous framestories include Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, about a group of pilgrims who tell stories on their journey toCanterbury; and Boccaccio's Decameron about a group of young aristocrats escaping the Black Death to thecountryside and spending the time telling stories.

Sometimes only one storyteller exists, and in this case there might bedifferent levels of distance between the reader and author. In this mode,the frame tale can become more fuzzy. In the case of Washington Irving'sSketch Book, which contains "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and "RipVan Winkle" among others, the conceit is that the author of the book is notIrving, but a certain gentleman named Crayon. Here the frame includesboth the world of the imagined Crayon, his stories, and the possible readerwho is assumed to play along and "know" who Crayon is.

Donald Westlake's short story "No Story" is a parody of frame stories, inwhich a series of narrators start to tell stories, each of which contains anarrator who starts to tell a story, culminating in a narrator who announcesthat there will be no story. Essentially, it is a frame story without a story tobe framed.

Single story

When there is a single story, the frame story is used for other purposes – chiefly to position the reader'sattitude toward the tale. One common one is to draw attention to the narrator's unreliability. By explicitlymaking the narrator a character within the frame story, the writer distances himself from the narrator; hemay also characterize the narrator to cast doubt on his truthfulness. In P. G. Wodehouse's stories of Mr

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Mulliner, Mulliner is made a fisherman in order to cast doubt on the outrageous stories he tells. The movieAmadeus is framed as a story an old Antonio Salieri tells to a young priest, because the movie is based moreon stories Salieri told about Mozart than on historical fact.

Another use is a form of procatalepsis, where the writer puts the readers' possible reactions to the story inthe characters listening to it. In The Princess Bride the frame of a grandfather reading the story to hisreluctant grandson puts the cynical reaction a viewer might have to the romantic fairytale into the story inthe grandson's persona, and helps defuse it. This is the use when the frame tells a story that lacks a strongnarrative hook in its opening; the narrator can engage the reader's interest by telling the story to answer thecuriosity of his listeners, or by warning them that the story began in an ordinary seeming way, but theymust follow it to understand later actions, thereby identifying the reader's wondering whether the story isworth reading to the listeners'. Such an approach was used by Edith Wharton in her novella Ethan Frome, inwhich a nameless narrator hears from many characters in the town of Starkfield about the main characterEthan's story.

A specialized form of the frame is a dream vision, where the narrator claims to have gone to sleep, dreamedthe events of the story, and then awoken to tell the tale. In medieval Europe, this was a common device,used to indicate that the events included are fictional; Geoffrey Chaucer used it in The Book of the Duchess,The House of Fame, Parlement of Foules, and The Legend of Good Women (the last also containing amulti­story frame story within the dream). In modern usage, it is sometimes used in works of fantasy as ameans toward suspension of disbelief about the marvels depicted in the story. J.R.R. Tolkien, in his essay"On Fairy­Stories" complained of such devices as unwillingness to treat the genre seriously. Lewis Carroll'sAlice stories (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking­Glass) includes such a frame, butunlike most usages, the stories themselves use dream­like logic and sequences; most dream frames framestories that appear exactly as if occurring in real life. The writer John Bunyan used a dream device in theChristian allegory Pilgrim's Progress and its sequel, explaining that they were dreams he had while he wasin prison and felt God wanted him to write down. This worked because it made what might have been seenas a fantasy something more realistic and meaningful to other who believed as he did.

Still, even when the story proceeds realistically, the dream frame casts doubt on the events. In the book, TheWonderful Wizard of Oz, the events really occur; the dream frame added for the movie detracts from thevalidity of the fantasy.[2]

Use of frame stories

As with all literary conceits, the frame tale has many variations, some clearly within the confines of theconceit, some on the border, and some pushing the boundaries of understanding. The main goal of a frametale is as a conceit which can adequately collect otherwise disparate tales. It has been mostly replaced, inmodern literature, by the short story collection or anthology absent of any authorial conceita and otherrhetorical devices.

To be a frame narrative, the story must act primarily as an occasion for the telling of other stories. If theframing narrative has primary or equal interest, then it is not usually a frame narrative. For example,Odysseus narrates much of the Odyssey to the Phaeacians, but, even though this recollection forms a greatpart of the poem, the events after and before the interpolated recollection are of greater interest than thememory.

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Another notable example that plays with frame narrative is the 1994 film Forrest Gump. Most of the film isnarrated by Forrest to various companions on the park bench. However, in the last fifth or so of the film,Forrest gets up and leaves the bench, and we follow him as he meets with Jenny and her son. This finalsegment suddenly has no narrator unlike the rest of the film that came before it, but is instead told throughForrest and Jenny's dialogues.

This approach is also demonstrated in the 2008 film Slumdog Millionaire (adapted from the 2005 novel Q& A), about a poor street kid Jamal coming close to winning Kaun Banega Crorepati (the Indian version ofWho Wants to Be a Millionaire?) and then being suspected of cheating. Most of the story is narrated at apolice station by Jamal, who narrates how he knew the answers to the questions as the show is played backon video. The show itself then serves as another framing device, as Jamal sees flashbacks of his past as eachquestion is asked. The last portion of the film then unfolds without any narrator.

Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness demonstrates a narrator telling a story, while the protagonist is quotedso as to give the framed appearance that he is telling the story. The narrator provides the transition to theone speaking the story.

A famous literary example is Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights, whereby we learn events through a visitorto the house of the title, who in turn has been told these events by the housekeeper of the Linton family.None of the main characters ever directly narrates.

Another example is David Mitchell's 2004 novel Cloud Atlas, which is a frame story inside a frame storyinside a frame story – and so on. There are six stories in all, each framed inside the other, forming a chiasticstructure to a semi­catharistic tale spanning centuries of narrative.

Frame stories are found in many role­playing video games, such as the early Dragon Quest IV, released in1990. This literary device can also be sparingly used to achieve secondary ends. For instance, the ShiningForce series of role playing games use narrators within frame stories to implement things like starting,saving and exiting the game without breaking the fourth wall entirely, or rather by constructing a secondfourth wall to shield the player from having to suspend his/her disbelief as much. A similar approach wasused in the open world video game Mafia: The City of Lost Heaven, where the game's missions arepresented as a series of flashbacks narrated by Tommy Angelo, as he confesses his involvement with anAmerican Mafia family. Another example of frame stories in video games is the game Catherine.Catherine's first scene is a frame story.

In the game Bastion, the Kid's actions are narrated by one of the other characters, Rucks, as he tells theKid's story to another character while the Kid is in the final area. Because Rucks never learns about theKid's actions explicitly, the narration is mostly anecdotal and primarily serves to fill in backgroundinformation about each level; however, it also serves to keep the fourth wall intact, as player deaths areportrayed as jokes on the narrator's part. After the player's actions catch up to the story, the narrationswitches to a more speculative tone, as Rucks no longer knows what the player is doing.

Notes1. Witzel, Michael E. J. (1987). "On the origin of the literary device of the 'Frame Story' in Old Indian literature".

In Falk, H. Hinduismus und Buddhismus, Festschrift für U. Schneider. Freiburg. pp. 380–414. ISBN 3­925270­01­9.

2. Jones, Steven Swann (1995). The Fairy Tale: The Magic Mirror of Imagination(https://books.google.com/books?id=qkfYAAAAMAAJ). New York: Twayne Publishers. p. 94. ISBN 0­8057­

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