fotrtitudine vol 28 no 3 · fortitudine,vol.xxviii,no.3,2000 3 memorandum from the chief historian...

HISTORICAL BULLETIN VOLUME XXVIII, NUMBER 3 2000

FORTITUDINEBULLETIN OF THE MARINE CORPS HISTORICAL PROGRAM

PASS THISISSUE

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ARINE

CORPS MUSEUM ACTS TO PRESERVE ITS TREASURES, THE TWO IWO JIMA FLAGS, FOR POSTERITY . . . GULF

WAR SERIES OF HISTORIES ENDS WITH RECOUNTING OF 3D MAW ACTIONS . . . FIELD HISTORIAN RECORDS

26TH MEU’S KOSOVO OPERATIONS . . . LONGTIME CHIEF HISTORIAN HENRY I. SHAW, JR., REMEMBERED

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2 Fortitudine, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, 2000

HISTORYAND MUSEUMSDIVISION

Marine Corps Historical CenterBuilding 58, Washington Navy Yard1254 Charles Morris Street, Southeast

Washington, D.C. 20374-5040Telephone (202) 433-3534

DIRECTOR EMERITUSBGen Edwin H. Simmons, USMC (Ret)

DIRECTORCol John W. Ripley, USMC (Ret)

Secretary to the Director: Ms. Kristen M. Reed

DEPUTY DIRECTORLtCol Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR

HISTORICAL BRANCHBranch Head/Chief Historian: Mr. Charles D. Melson.History Writing Unit: Mr. Charles R. Smith; Maj RaymondJ. Vanden Berghe, USMC; Dr. David B. Crist; Mrs. WandaF. Renfrow. Oral History: Mr. Fred H. Allison;. ReferenceSection: Mr. Danny J. Crawford; Mr. Robert V. Aquilina;Mrs. Ann A. Ferrante; Miss Lena M. Kaljot; Mrs. SheliaGramblin. Archives: Mr. Frederick J. Graboske; Miss JudyL. Petsch; Miss Christine T. Laba.

MUSEUMS BRANCHBranch Head/Officer-in-Charge, Air-Ground Museum,Quantico: LtCol Robert J. Sullivan, USMC. Head, Muse-ums Section/Chief Curator: Mr. Charles A. Wood.Material History: Mr. Kenneth L. Smith-Christmas.Ordnance: Mr. Dieter Stenger. Aeronautics: Mr. MichaelE. Starn. Uniforms: Mr. Neil Abelsma. Restoration: Mr.Mitch Garringer; Sgt Vibol Svy, USMC; Sgt Cedric D.Wheeler, USMC; Cpl Adrian Garcia, USMC. Exhibits: Mr.Ronald J. Perkins; Mr. Ronnie D. Alexander. Registrar:Mrs. Jennifer L. Castro. Programs Assistant: Mrs. KathrynR. Trout. Operations/Security: Capt Jimmy Scott, USMC;Sgt Yaron T. Reed, USMC; Sgt B. L. Stroman, USMC; CplFidel C. Nunez, USMC; Cpl Patrick D. Symecko, USMC;Cpl Charles T. Coffey, USMC; LCpl Anthony W. Knode,USMC.

MARINE CORPS MUSEUM UNIT, WASHINGTON, D.C.Exhibits: Mr. James A. Fairfax; Mr. Gordon Heim. MarineCorps Art Collection: Mr. John T. Dyer, Jr.

SUPPORT BRANCHBranch Head/Division Executive Officer: LtCol LeonCraig, Jr., USMC. Editing and Design Section: Mr. RobertE. Struder; Mr. William S. Hill; Mrs. Catherine A. Kerns.Library: Miss Evelyn A. Englander. Administration: 2dLtKatrina D. Patillo, USMC; Sgt Joslyn V. Benjamin, USMC;Cpl Cassius B. Cardio, USMC; Cpl Ryan O. Ohnstad,USMC; LCpl Adrian J. Baldwin, USMC; LCpl Lukiya K.Walker, USMC. Security Chief: GySgt Michael D. Cousins,USMC.

Senior Editor/Editor, FortitudineMr. Robert E. Struder

FORTITUDINEMotto of the United States Marine Corps in the 1812 era.

Historical Bulletin Vol. XXVIII, No.3 2000

This quarterly bulletin of the Marine Corps historical program is published for Marines,at the rate of one copy for every nine on active duty, to provide education and train-ing in the uses of military and Marine Corps history. Other interested readers may pur-chase single copies or four-issue subscriptions from the Superintendent of Documents,U.S. Government Printing Office. The appropriate order form appears in this issue.

Fortitudine is produced in the Editing and Design Section of the History and Museums Division. Thetext for Fortitudine is set in 10-point and 8-point Garamond typeface. Headlines are in 18-point or24-point Garamond. The bulletin is printed on 70-pound, matte-coated paper by offset lithographyFor sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABOUT THE COVER

Notice for Readers, Subscribers, and Librarians

Memorandum from the Chief Historian: After the Gulf War: OperationalHistory for the 21st Century

Charles D. Melson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Historical Quiz: Marines in the Boxer Rebellion, China, 1900

Lena M. Kaljot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7Gen Liversedge’s Sword Given to Museum

Kenneth L. Smith-Christmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83d MAW Account Closes Gulf War Series

Charles R. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8Field Historian Observes MEU in Kosovo

Maj Nathan S. Lowrey, USMCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Measures Ensure Iwo Jima Flags’ Survival

Kenneth L. Smith-Christmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12MEU’s Key Players in Kosovo Interviewed

Continued from page 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14In Memoriam: First Chief Historian,WWII Leaders Missed

Robert V. Aquilina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15U.S., Japanese Historians Exchange Views

Charles D. Melson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17Chronology of the U.S. Marine Corps, 1998

Ann A. Ferrante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18Answers to Historical Quiz: Marines in the Boxer Rebellion, China, 1900

Lena M. Kaljot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21Marine Corps Chronology: From Vandegrift to Cates, January-December 1949

Robert V. Aquilina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22New Commander for Historical Detachment

Col Nicholas E. Reynolds, USMCR, and Capt C. J. Warnke, USMCR . . . . . . . . . .23

The distinguished American artist Howard Chandler Christy (1873-1952) donated the painting used on thecover to the Marine Corps in 1945. Christy based “Iwo Jima Flag Raising” on two photographs, one taken ofthe “famous” second flag-raising by AP photographer Joe Rosenthal and the other, of the figure with carbinein the foreground, recorded by Marine Sgt Louis Lowery. It calls attention to work recently completed toensure that two of the Corps’ most treasured possessions, the first and second flags raised over Iwo Jima, arepreserved for posterity. Both have been placed in container frames which will keep them free from the dam-ages which can be inflicted by unfiltered light and contact with chemicals in paper and cloth. And both areremounted in a new display in the Museum at the Washington Navy Yard. Material History Curator KennethL. Smith-Christmas describes the conservation steps undertaken, in his article beginning on page 12. In Junethe Corps’ first and longtime Chief Historian, Henry I. Shaw, Jr., died at age 73 after a bout with cancer. Mr.Shaw’s by-line appeared in such publications as Military Affairs, Washington Post, and Naval InstituteProceedings, along with many official histories which he either composed or edited during his more than 39-year career. An article prepared by former Chief Historian Benis M. Frank provides a further appreciation,beginning on page 15.

Fortitudine has ceased to identify its issues by season. The last-such dated issue was No.4 of Vol. XXVII, Spring 1998. The bulletin will continue to appear four times annually,with each issue identified by its number within its volume, and its year of publication. Thisissue is the third of Vol. XXVIII, 2000. Paid subscribers will find the number of issues theyexpect to receive unaffected by this administrative change.

Fortitudine, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, 2000 3

Memorandum from the Chief Historian

Charles D. Melson

The United States Marine Corps haswritten operational history since

1919, with the conclusion of WorldWar I. In the subsequent 80 years alot of experience has been gained inproducing this form of historical nar-rative. For the last 25 years theMarine Corps used a tried and provensystem of documenting and usingoperational history.

First, what is “operational history.”It is defined by function, to providein narrative form an account of mili-tary operations (the who, what, when,where, and as far as possible, why,since modern records, particularlythose in electronic format, are unread-able for all intents and purposes afterthe fact or by outsiders). This is socommanders, staff officers, and stu-dents have the essential facts of previ-ous events for use in current andfuture military actions. A secondaryuse of these accounts is so the gov-ernment and people of the UnitedStates can see how the Armed Forcescarry-out their mandate by providing

the basis for the institutional story ofthe Corps. Of final, but no less,importance is to provide veterans andtheir families with the organizationaloutline of their individual service andcontributions.

A concern is that these operationalhistories are produced by a staffagency of Headquarters, MarineCorps, and conform to existing leg-islative and institutional requirements.Operational history is definitive as faras possible, but there is a fine linebetween being timely and complete,and by nature some compromise willoccur. If written too soon and to pre-vailing needs the work is overcomeby subsequent research and isreportage. If delayed too long thework can become irrelevant.Thucydides’ dictum applies in thiscase: “I am not writing for themoment, but for all time.” It shouldalso be stated that we organize andprovide a historical record that allowsthese contemporary “operators” todraw their own conclusions, lessons,

or to argue from As retired MarineLtGen Philip D. Shutler observed, “thewriters of your doctrine should not bethe writers of your history—this canlead to bad doctrine and history.”

The question before us today ishow were the demands for opera-

tional history met during the last large-scale conflict and what was learnedthat can be brought forward toenhance operational history in thefuture? Have the old ways survivedand will they be up to the demands ofa new millennium? These and otherissues will be considered as the dustsettles from this last conflict andpreparations begin for a next. Anexamination of the efforts precedingthe Gulf War series of histories indi-cate steps needed “next time.” Theprocess in preparing the Gulf Warmonographs was a departure from theexperience of documenting theVietnam War, which in turn was basedon the effort to cover Korea andWorld War II. For example, Vietnamhistories were produced by the Marine

Part One: Quo Vadis?

After the Gulf War: Operational Historyfor the 21st Century

Gunners of the 10th Marines fire their M198 howitzer against Iraqi positions inKuwait. Marine artillery proved to be highly effective during Desert Storm.

Department of Defense Photo (USMC)


Corps between 1974 and 1998; theArmy, Navy, and Air Force are stillworking on their versions. In fairnessto them, since the Marines see theirrole as making Marines and winningbattles this lends itself to operationalaccounts while the other services havebroader strategic and policy issues toconsider.

The model used followed the “30-year” rule of records management.

This allowed up to 10 years to collectand document the actions (includingdeclassification), another 10 years toproduce a definitive operational histo-ry, and a further 10 years to work withthe records before retiring them to theNational Archives and RecordsAdministration. One of my Navy col-leagues pointed out that current per-sonnel conditions prevent taking thelong-term approach that produced thehistories of World War II, Korea, andVietnam. The point being made isthat it is almost impossible to keep aperson assigned to a 10- to 20-yearproject, even if getting the story rightjustifies this expense.

The most recent experience withoperational history was during thedecade following the 1990-1991Persian Gulf War. At present, theHistory and Museums Division ofHeadquarters, Marine Corps, complet-ed its Gulf War series with the publi-cation of the account of the activitiesof the 3d Marine Aircraft Wing. Theseries began with the commencement

of hostilities and has carried on to thefinal volume. In all, some eight titleswere published between 1992 to dateunder the series title “U.S. Marines inthe Persian Gulf, 1990-1991.” Six titlesdealt with the operations of forces inthe air, ashore, and afloat. Two werefunctional rather than operationalmonographs. Two other indirectlyrelated accounts cover the forcesinvolved in humanitarian operations inNorthern Iraq and Bangladesh.

The series relied heavily on the useof Marine Corps Reserve mobiliza-

tion training unit historians to collectand present the material using a per-sonal style. Authors included twocivilian historians, two retired militarywriters, three active-duty writers, andfive Marine reservists, a mixed-groupto say the least. Their backgroundincluded aviation, ground, logistics,and communications. The militaryand civilian educational level was alsohigh, with several PhDs and a NationalWar College graduate. The profes-sional staff of the History andMuseums Division carried out produc-tion and distribution.

As an interim product, the Gulf Warvolumes were limited in numbers anddistribution through the Marine Corpsschools system. There was a lack ofdepth of study that benefits from col-legial debate, the possibility of careeror budget concerns, and what Idescribe as record turbulence (notevery document is submitted in a

timely manner, some being “shortstopped” on their way to the historicaldivision archives). As definitiveworks, previous narratives were sub-jected to extensive peer review and acomment edition to elicit responsefrom participants. These procedureswere not followed with the Gulf Warseries and should be in any futureeffort. In fact, the eight volume seriesshould provide the basis for the par-ticipants to review and comment upontheir reported actions.

Problems identified with the “instanthistory” approach used for the

Gulf War was that for smaller or moretransitory conflicts (Liberia, Somalia,Haiti, and the Balkans) it is harder tofind a satisfactory story line within theservice context of the operation. Post-Cold War narrative seems to be fol-lowed best at the joint headquartersrather than component level—but thisleads to a whole range of access, doc-umentation, and inter-service sensitivi-ties.

With the Gulf War new lessonswere learned in the collection ofrecords, oral history, and writing his-torical narratives. By way of summa-ry, for the historical division of theU.S. Marine Corps there were fourmain lessons from documenting theGulf War: one, the use of previous his-torical references; two, the collectionof oral histories; three, the productionand collection of command chronolo-

Photograph by 1st MarDiv Combat Camera UnitAn amphibious assault vehicle of 1st Battalion, 7th Marines’ Task Force Ripperadvances during the ground offensive. LtCol Charles H. Cureton, USMCR, a fieldhistorian, was assigned to the 1st Marine Division and authored With the 1stMarine Division in Desert Shield and Desert Storm.


gies; and four, the availability of fieldhistorians can enhance the process.All of the above assume adequateresearching to complete (and time is aresource).

Part Two: Elements of Style

My discussion to this point dealtwith the background to these

areas of concern, which will be dealtwith next in a prescriptive manner(The issue of field historians will bedealt with separately). A review of theManual for the Marine CorpsHistorical Program indicates threeareas that would be useful to incorpo-rate into the education of Marines atall levels in order to document opera-tions in the future (the so-calledlessons of the Gulf War). These are aprogressive concentration on:

(1) References

(2) Oral History

(3) Command Chronologies

While each of these ingredients canbe approached separately, over timethey combine to provide commandersand staff officers with an intimateknowledge and experience in the his-torical process as it specifically effectsindividual Marines and Marine Corpscommands and units.

References

While most Marine officers aretaught general historical

research methods using primary andsecondary sources, few show a knowl-edge or mastery of the extensiveMarine Corps publications that existthat document Corps activities fromthe American Revolution to the pre-sent day. Fewer still understand howoperational history can be used in aca-demic or staff work, let alone the partthat their efforts have in contributingto the future Marine Corps story.Some complain operational historiesare hard to read for pleasure, which is

like saying an encyclopedia or dictio-nary should read like Tom Clancy.Their purpose is not to entertain but toprovide basic operational facts andnarratives for a wide variety of practi-cal uses. These users have to betaught starting at the Basic School andprogress in complexity throughAmphibious Warfare School, Com-mand and Control Systems School,and the Command and Staff College-level.

Oral Histories

Interview and documenting tech-niques are required in a variety of

staff and problem-solving duties(operations, intelligence, legal, publicaffairs). What they have in common isproviding the answers to who, what,when, where, and why. Then record-ing this in a documented, useful, for-mat for current and future use. Thisinvolves open-ended interviewingtechniques, recording technology,transcription, and disposition. This isagain a basic skill that begins whenone enters the service and is devel-oped throughout a career.

Command Chronologies

Early-on in the Gulf War, the IMarine Expeditionary Force com-

mander suspended the monthlyreporting requirement in lieu of a sin-gle submission at the end of hostilities.

Photo courtesy of LtCol R. J. Brown, USMCRField historian LtCol Ronald J. Brown, USMCR, prepared to ride “shotgun” on asupply convoy from Silopi, Turkey, to the 24th MEU’s headquarters in Zakho, Iraqduring Operation Provide Comfort. LtCol Brown wrote With Marines inOperation Provide Comfort.


He also directed the quick declassifi-cation of operational records at theconclusion of the conflict and this wasimmediately taken advantage of by anumber of journalists and commenta-tors with book contracts in hand.

Commanders and staff officers havemany obligations of an immediatenature. Their responsibility to thosewho follow extends beyond currentassignments. The means for this is thedocumentation of unit and individualactions in a form that is different fromother types of staff action. Yet thecommand chronology is often aneglected report that does not move,pay, promote, or supply folks in thepresent. This lack of immediacyshould not underestimate its greaterimpact over time. Without adequatecommand chronologies, there is nohistory of what a unit or commandaccomplished.

Ameans to teach this would be tohave Marine students construct

reports using historical data from thereference books and oral histories toprovide an example of the uniqueapproach needed to be useful to oth-ers removed from the events. Itwould help improve historical andcritical analysis (and contribute to bet-ter command chronologies at present).A necessary, but by no means critical,part of this is learning to write in areadable narrative style at odds withthe jargon and acronyms of active mil-

itary service. This is a more indirectbenefit of the study of history, alongwith the general skills of the historicmethod—critical thinking.

Field Historians

The one area that is currently underreview is the organization and use

of field historians who can be dis-patched to conflict areas to enhancethe documentation of operations.During the Gulf War this was by indi-vidual reservists who contributed toboth the collection and subsequentpublication effort. A direct result wasthe forming of an individual mobiliza-tion augmentees unit to direct thiseffort, along with the existing mobi-lization training unit. Both of theseprovide a pool of trained field histori-ans who can deploy. I have somequestions as to their value for enhanc-ing the existing system, or engaging inindividual collection, or in the writingeffort itself. These questions are morealong the line of the adequate use ofscarce resources.

Part Three: Conclusion

The most immediate lessons fromthe Gulf War historical experiencewere individual in nature, as were thecontributions, making full use of anexisting historical program and struc-

ture. The existing publication, refer-ence, and archival facilities allowedthe field historians to follow-up withthe immediate exploitation of theirdeployments so that the publishedproducts in most cases were “still-warm” when delivered. There wasalso a staff of military and historicalprofessionals to process their submis-sions as they came in from the field sothat documentation was not lostbecause of indifference or lack of adestination for storage. Declassifica-tion began immediately and was com-pleted in most cases, at least by theMarine Corps and again due to exist-ing procedures and personnel.

The impact of this was measuredrecently from a surprising source,

a U.S. Army historian of the Gulf Warcommented that only about 10% ofthe Army units in the Gulf adequatelydocumented their effort, in contrast to85-95% of Marine units deployed. Aconclusion then, is that the Gulf Warexperience for operational history didnot set a new paradigm or approach,but was only successful because of anexisting program, experienced person-nel, and facilities. This in turn was alegacy of the Vietnam War (as manyother Gulf War initiatives could claim).It is this same historic infrastructurethat has suffered in the subsequentCold War draw-down.

Field historian LtCol Dennis P. Mroczkowski, USMCR, pauses at the entrance toone of the 2d Marine Division’s breach lanes. LtCol Mroczkowski is the authorof With the 2d Marine Division in Desert Shield and Desert Storm.

Department of Defense Photo (USMC) 0789 12 91


group or individual projects and canbe used in both resident and non-res-ident programs. A mastery of theseindividual disciplines can be broughttogether at the unit level to insurecontinued adequate documentation toproduce operational history. Thiseffort can be aided, but not supplant-ed, by an active and knowledgeablefield history unit at HeadquartersMarine Corps. The purposes to whichthese are put will be the challenge forthose in the present if they rememberthat history is an art to be cultivatedand not a commodity to be orderedon demand. ❑ 1775❑

element) efforts to concentrate on thedocumentation of current events. Thiswould see a focus on the process ofcollection, including the interactionwith deployed units, HeadquartersMarine Corps, and the transition fromcurrent budget and career concerns.There seems to be a natural 30-yearcycle in this process: 10 years to col-lect and declassify documentation,interviews, and comment; 10 years towrite and review operational history;and 10 years to exploit and transferthe records from the Marine Corps tothe National Archives and RecordsAdministration (including any finaldeclassification).

While budget and resources are acontinuing concern, for active

duty Marines there is a continual needto practice the basic skills required todocument and study history in a prac-tical sense. The three areas of refer-ence, oral history, and commandchronology instruction are suitable for

Some personal lessons that I wouldlike to transform into policy includethe integration of the civil servant(Historical Branch), active duty(Headquarters, Marine Corps, currentoperations), and reserve (field history

Match the operation name with the appropriate location:

1. U.S. Marines were joined by troops from what othernations in the fighting force against the Boxers.

2. Who was the Commandant of the Marine Corps at thetime of the Boxer Rebellion?

3. How many Medals of Honor were awarded for actionsduring the Boxer Rebellion?

4. This Marine earned the first of his two Medals ofHonor for single-handedly defending his position southof the American Legation until reinforcements arrived.

5. As the result of the mutual admiration developedbetween the Royal Welsh Fusiliers and the U.S. Marinesduring the Boxer Rebellion, a greeting is exchangedeach year on this day.

6. This future President of the United States was a youngmining engineer trapped in besieged Tientsin, and wasfreed by the combined force of U.S. Marines and theWelsh Fusiliers.

7. This future Commandant of the Marine Corps com-manded an artillery company in an expeditionary Marineforce, and participated in the siege and capture ofTientsin.

8. This Marine lieutenant, who received a brevet promo-tion to captain for risking his life by carrying a wound-ed Marine to safety during heavy fighting, even thoughhe was wounded himself, went on to become one of thetwo Marines who received the Medal of Honor for sep-arate acts of heroism.

9. This Marine officer was an internationally knownswordsman and distinguished master of jujitsu, bayonet,and knife fighting, who later trained Marine boxers andtaught newly commissioned officers hand-to-hand com-bat.

10. This Marine officer commanded the Marines wholanded in May 1900, with orders to get to Peking andestablish a legation guard.

(Answers on page 21)

Historical Quiz

Marines in the Boxer Rebellion, China, 1900by Lena M. Kaljot

Reference Historian

P ortions of this article werepresented at the 14th Naval

History Symposium, Annapolis,Maryland, in September 1999and appear with pemission of theU.S. Naval Institute’s NewInterpretations of Naval History


The Marine Corps officers’ swordbelonging to the late BGen Harry

Bluett “Harry the Horse” Liversedgewas donated to the Marine CorpsMuseum by William Bowman, bestfriend of Gen Liversedge’s latenephew, in a brief 1999 ceremony atLiversedge Hall, the Bachelor Officers’Quarters at MCB Quantico. After theceremony and the photographs andinterviews for the Quantico Sentrynewspaper, Mr. Bowan was invited tolunch with several members of the

Museums Branch staff at a local inn,where he recounted how he cameinto possession of the sword.

Mr. Bowman, a U.S. Army veteranof World War II, was lifelong friendswith the only son of Gen Liversedge’ssister, Mrs. Ruth Fessel. She had inher-ited the sword after the general’sdeath in 1951, and upon her death, itwent to her son, Mr. Herbert Spencer“Kenny” Fessel. Mr. Bowman hadserved throughout the Pacific Theaterwith Kenny Fessel, and after being

widowed himself, nursed his friendthroughout his terminal illness inrecent years. His best friend’s lastrequest was that the sword bereturned to the Marine Corps, and Mr.Bowman fulfilled this wish by flyingfrom California to deliver the sword inperson. Mr. Bowman had been reti-cient about the details of this gift in hisprevious contacts with the museum,and it was only after the presentationthat the staff learned of his devotedefforts to honor his best friend’s dyingwish. After the luncheon, Mr. Bowmanboarded the same government van inwhich he had arrived earlier thatmorning and was driven back to visitfriends in the area by two of theHistory and Museums Division enlist-ed Marines.

The sword is currently in theMuseum’s research collection and

is under consideration for use in sev-eral different future exhibits, sinceGen Liversedge’s most significant con-tributions to the Marine Corps lay inhis service in both the Caribbean andChina before World War II, his com-mand of both the 1st Marine RaiderRegiment and later, the 28th Marineson Iwo Jima during World War II, and,of course, his legendary prowess inthe Olympic games of the 1920s and1930s. ❑ 1775❑

Gen Liversedge’s Sword Given to Museumby Kenneth L. Smith-Christmas,

Curator of Material History

William Bowman shows Curator Smith-Christmas BGen Liversedge’s sword, whileLtCol Robert J. Sullivan and museum intern, Miss Tara Seymore, look on.

3d MAW Account Closes Gulf War Seriesby Charles R. Smith

Head, History Writing Unit

The History and Museums Divisionhas completed the nine-volume

preliminary operational series “U.S.Marines in the Persian Gulf, 1990-1991,” with the publication of The 3dMarine Aircraft Wing in Desert Shieldand Desert Storm. Written by LtColLeRoy D. Stearns, Jr., a career aviator,the monograph is an account of theactivities of the Marines and units ofthe 3d Marine Aircraft Wing in supportof the I Marine Expeditionary Force’s

efforts to liberate Kuwait.On 2 September 1990, 3d Marine

Aircraft Wing took command ofMarine aviation forces ashore from aMarine composite aircraft group,which had been moved hurriedly tothe Persian Gulf as part of OperationDesert Shield. The wing, under thecommand of MajGen Royal N. Moore,Jr., would grow to be the largestdeployed in Marine Corps history. Itwould fly more than 10 different types

of aircraft from eight airfield sites thatrequired laying more than 4.5 millionsquare feet of ramps, landing, andtaxiing areas. In addition, the wingand its support groups would con-struct six 3,000-man base camps andestablish a Marine Air Command andControl System that operated acrossfour countries in a joint and combinedarea. When Operation Desert Stormbegan, the 3d Marine Aircraft Wingwas ready and provided more than


18,000 fixed-wing and helicopter sor-ties in support of I Marine Expedi-tionary Force’s mission.

As with similar operational series,

the division encourages participants,scholars, and students of the period tocomment on this account and othermonographs in the Persian Gulfseries.

The division also has published anupdate of one its most popular publi-cations. Compiled by the division’sReference Section, the highly illustrat-ed, 75-page, The 1st Marine Divisionand Its Regiments covers the division’sand regiments’ histories, as well as theunits’ lineage and battle honors. Alsoincluded are lists of the commandingofficers for the division and the 1st,5th, 7th, and 11th Marines.

Originally prepared to support the1st Marine Division Association’s

annual reunion in 1974, the booklethas been expanded to cover the his-tory of the division from its activationin 1913 to its participation in Hunter

Warrior in the 1990s. It is of interestnot only to the scholar, but also to theveteran of the Corps’ oldest division.

❑ 1775❑

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Field Historian Observes MEU in Kosovoby Maj Nathan S. Lowrey. USMCR

Field History Branch, History & Museums Division

I’ll never forget 10 June 1999. ThereI was, standing knee-deep in an

archaeological pit in northernWisconsin. My friend’s fatherapproached from across the site andsolemnly stated, “The Marines wantyou back at the Historical Center . . .they’re sending you to Kosovo.” Farfrom surprising me, this was the mes-sage I’d been anxiously anticipating!Thus began six months of voluntaryactive duty in support of OperationJoint Guardian, to include 25 days inthe field with the 26th MarineExpeditionary Unit (MEU).

Back in January of that year, theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) had decided to halt ethnicviolence in Kosovo by threatening tobomb Yugoslavian (a.k.a. Serb) forcesunless they withdrew from the war-torn region. The History and MuseumsDivision’s Field Operations Branchwas put on alert during February, aspeace talks continued in Rambouillet,France. At that time, Headquarters,Marine Corps, informed us that the24th MEU was poised to lead a NATOpeacekeeping force into Kosovo andthat we should be prepared to docu-ment the advance. Unfortunately, theRambouillet negotiations and othersheld in Paris during March failed toresolve the crisis; I remained on anindefinite 48-hour tether as the situa-tion continued to develop.

Balking at what he perceived asthree years of NATO occupation fol-

lowed by Albanian-Kosovar indepen-dence, President Milosevic hadrefused to sign the peace accords onYugoslavia’s behalf. NATO’s bombingcampaign, Operation Allied Force,subsequently commenced on 23March and continued until Milosevicformally capitulated 73 days later. Thebombing officially ended on 10 June,as Col Kenneth J. Glueck’s 26th MEUlanded in Greece and I raced fromWisconsin to join them.

The interim between late Februaryand early June had provided ampleopportunity for the Field OperationsBranch to prepare for a possibledeployment to Kosovo. As a unit, weconducted background research,attended intelligence briefings, andreviewed our standing operating pro-cedures. Individually, I organized mygear, updated my personal records,and waited for the word to deploy.After receiving my orders, I spent aweek processing through the ReserveSupport Unit at Camp Lejeune andthen completed a three-day trip toKosovo.

I left Jacksonville, North Carolina, on20 June. Marred by feelings of iso-

lation, disorientation, and fatigue, myjourney was a dramatic departurefrom the previous unit deploymentsthat I was familiar with. Any notionsregarding the romanticism of interna-tional travel quickly waned and Ilearned the importance of personallycoordinating one’s connections.Fortunately, my field history traininghad prepared me to deal with suchconfusion. With the assistance of localauthorities and sympathetic by-standers, I eventually reached the 26thMEU’s forward operations base on 23June.

Having crossed the border on 14June, the 26th MEU had been inKosovo for more than a week by thetime I arrived. They were assigned thenorthern half of the American sector,which was located in the southeasterncorner of Kosovo. This region includ-ed a broad river valley surrounded bysteep, forested hills. Gnjilane, a city of50,000, dominated the central valley,while rural farming villages were scat-tered throughout the remaining coun-tryside. Conditions had already begunto improve by the time I arrived, tran-sitioning from a vacant, battle-scarredlandscape to one where cheeringAlbanian refugees enthusiasticallywelcomed the Marines. Reactionsfrom the Serb minority were moresubdued.

Photo courtesy of Maj Nathan S. Lowrey, USMCR

Maj Lowrey appears garbed for his roleas a field historian attached to the26th MEU during Operation JointGuardian, in Donja Budriga, Kosovo.

CH 53 medium helicopter from HMM-365 crosses the Macedonian border intoKosovo.


My mission sounded simple: collecthistorical materials documenting theMarine Corps’ role in Operation JointGuardian. Yet, the difficulty of the taskwas compounded by the fact that suc-cessful field research must meet threeinterrelated criteria. First, the datamust be relevant, evidencing key play-ers who take decisive actions at criti-cal points in time and space. Second,the data must go beyond superficialaccounts, revealing the precipitatingfactors and fluid dynamics that defineeach event. Finally, the event must besituated, reflecting its significancewithin a larger realm of ongoing oper-ations. As an outsider thrust into arapidly changing and unconventionaloperation, the reality of putting theoryinto practice for the first time wasdaunting. Again, it was fortunate thatmy field history training would helpme to deal with temporary confusion.

The first task was familiarizingmyself with the 26th MEU’s con-

cept of operations. It quickly becameapparent that the Marines viewed theirmission in terms of General Charles C.Krulak’s “Three Block War” and“Strategic Corporal,” ideas he recentlycoined to address the complexity ofmid-range urban conflict. Krulakemphasizes the critical role played bysmall-unit leaders, as commanders

work to simultaneously fulfill a widerange of civil and military require-ments, all the while responding torapidly changing threat conditions andgreater public scrutiny. Ultimately, bygradually stabilizing the current social,political, and economic unrest inKosovo, the peacekeeping forcehoped to create an environment thatwas more conducive to peaceful rela-tions.

The second task was to familiarizemyself with the 26th MEU’s tactical

disposition. By studying maps andtalking with personnel in the CombatOperations Center, I soon realized thatthe MEU had adopted a decentralizedposture in order to cover an extreme-ly large tactical area of responsibility.The three rifle companies fromBattalion Landing Team (BLT) 3/8were positioned in Gnjilane, whileWeapons Company and Battery L,3/10, occupied several agricultural vil-lages to the northeast and southwest,respectively. The MEU’s CommandElement, Marine Service SupportGroup (MSSG) 26, and Company D,2d Light Armored ReconnaissanceBattalion, were based at CampMontieth. The Forward OperationsBase was located in an abandonedpoultry factory, situated on a large hillmass two kilometers south of

Gnjilane. Marine Medium HelicopterSquadron (HMM) 365 provided avia-tion support from the Forward StagingBase in Petrovec, Macedonia.

After weighing the 26th MEU’s tac-tical disposition against its perceivedmission, a pattern began to emergethat provided a working hypothesis.Rather than a single point of maineffort, the proverbial big blue arrow,Operation Joint Guardian appeared toinvolve two mutually supportingmaneuver elements. On the militaryfront, LtCol Bruce Gandy’s BLT 3/8had established security points atmajor intersections, along principaltransportation routes, and adjacent tolocal centers of gravity (schools, clin-ics, and municipal buildings). Theirprimary concern was halting the vio-lence and precluding the massing ofhostile forces. Among their otheraccomplishments, Gandy’s Marinesdisarmed a company of resistingKosovo Liberation Army soldiers,silenced at least two Serbian snipers,and successfully concluded three fire-fights. They also apprehended a largenumber of criminals and confiscatedhundreds of weapon.

On the civil front, LtCol PaulBrygider’s MSSG-26 and Marines

from the 4th Civil Affairs Groupworked to strengthen the civil infra-structure by reengaging key publicand private institutions (the hospital,fire station, water treatment plant, tele-phone company, post office, andbread factory). Their main concernwas decreasing anxiety within theindigenous population and facilitatingcooperation between the competingethnic factions. Combining their med-ical assets with Non-GovernmentalOrganizations, they also providedhumanitarian relief to communitiesscattered throughout the countryside.LtCol Daniel Cushing’s HMM-365 con-sistently contributed to both of thesemissions. His pilots flew more than180 sorties a week, providing a widerange of tactical and logistical support.

On 27 June, following four days ofobservation and orientation, I beganto formalize my collection plan.Although originally tasked with gath-

Adapted by the author from a map prepared by the National Imagery and Mapping AgencyThe 26th MEU’s ground disposition during Operation Joint Guardian in Kosovo,in 1999

(continued on page 14)


Measures Ensure Iwo Jima Flags’ Survivalby Kenneth L. Smith-Christmas

Curator of Material History

Both of the flags which were raisedover Mount Suribachi on 23

February 1945, during the World WarII battle for Iwo Jima, underwent con-servation treatments and werereframed this past year by a highly-rated professional conservation labo-ratory. The flags have also been ana-lyzed, recorded, photographed,cleaned, and preserved during thisprocess and are now remounted in theMarine Corps Museum.

Over the past few years, the staffhad become concerned over the con-dition of the flags and the mountingtechniques which had been used inthe past. In the summer of 1998, thestaff was investigating several optionsfor having the flags removed fromtheir frames, cleaned, and thenremounted using state-of-the-art tech-niques. The opportunity to have thisdone was realized when funds sud-denly became available during the lasttwo weeks of September 1998, whenthen-Commandant Gen Charles C.Krulak authorized the funds to coverthe treatment of the two flags.

Of course, the contract had to belet in a matter of days. In this

very small window of opportunity, themuseum staff canvassed a number ofprofessional colleagues to find anappropriate conservator, since the

had been framed by the museum’sformer exhibits chief, Mr. Carl M.“Bud” DeVere, Sr., in 1977 when it wasfirst put on exhibit in the new MarineCorps Museum which had just openedthat year in the Washington NavyYard. Upon its arrival at the studio inKeedysville, it was de-framed, pho-tographed, thoroughly documented,and carefully vacuumed, and a parti-cle sample was saved for future refer-ence. It was decided that framingwould wait until all of the staff had theopportunity to provide input on thetype and style of framing.

The large “famous’’ second flag(which was featured in Joseph

Rosenthal’s famous photograph) wascarefully removed from its frame inthe museum’s Special Exhibits Galleryin May 1999 by members of the muse-um staff and the museum’s summercollege intern, Tara Seymour, underthe direction of Ms. Thomsen. Thisflag had appeared to have adhered toits plate glass covering, but upon clos-er examination, it was found that, for-tunately, this was not the case.Instead, solvent salts and particles hadleached through the flag, making itappear as if areas of internal conden-sation were forming between the glassand the flag. The flag was rolled inacid-free material around a large card-board tube and sent back to the stu-dio, where it also was photographedand documented.

During the documentation process,new information came to light on bothof the flags, when all of the markingson them could be seen. The formerdirector of the Marine Corps Museum,the late Col John H. Magruder III, hadan arrangement with the SmithsonianInstitution and the National ParkService in the 1950s to mount all ofthe Marine Corps’ most significant his-toric flags, in anticipation of the open-ing a Marine Corps Museum in what isnow Butler Hall, at the QuanticoMarine Corps Base. At least eight flagswere mounted at the time, all using

Rosenthal’s famous photo of the flagraising on Mount Suribachi, Iwo Jima,23 February 1945. The photo showsthe Marines raising the second of twoflags on the island.

Ms. Fonda Thomsen, right, confers with a colleague in her conservation studio.

conservator whom the museum hadused to conserve and mount flags andtextiles in the past had since retired.All of the recommendations pointed toMs. Fonda Thomsen and her compa-ny, Textile Conservators, Keedysville,Maryland, a village within a few milesof the Antietam battlefield.

The small boat flag (which was thefirst flag to be raised on MountSuribachi, by a patrol from the 2dBattalion, 28th Marines), was driven tothe studio by the museum staff inMarch 1999, at which time it under-went analysis and treatment. The flag


the same techniques. The largest IwoJima flag had never since been out ofits case, and all of the original mark-ings on the flag were on its reverse.The small boat flag was hurriedlymounted in the days before the open-ing of the museum in the spring of1977, before it was discovered that itscuratorial record did not contain theinformation on its markings which arenormally recorded on each artifact.

When both flags were removedfrom their frames, all of the

markings on both flags could now berecorded, since they had beenobscured when the flags were origi-nally mounted. The black stenciledmarkings on the hoist of the large“second” flag read, “US ENSIGN NO7MARE ISLAND OCT 1943,” while thehandwritten notation, “IWO JIMAFLAG–RAISED, MT. SURIBACHI 23FEB. 45,” appears in black inkbetween the tenth and eleventhstripes. The markings found when the

smaller “first” boat flag was removedare also stenciled on the hoist andread, “U.S. No. 11 ML 44,” in additionto the handwritten notation “FIRSTFLAG RAISED ON IWO JIMA.”

As part of the analysis process, thematerials were analyzed in regard tothe weave pattern, the ply and twist ofthe threads, and thread counts wereestablished for all parts of the flags.Particle samples were also taken fromdifferent parts of the flags. All of thisinformation was prepared in a com-prehensive report which also givessuggestions on the conditions forfuture display, use, and storage. Inaddition, Ms Thomsen also preparedcondition reports and suggested treat-ments for six of the other flags in thecollection.

Under agreement between thecuratorial and exhibits staffs, the flagswere mounted in a plain white alu-minum frame, which is speciallydesigned and constructed to give themaximum strength, while at the same

time being at least one-third theweight of the former frame. The back-ings are now made of welded alu-minum, instead of the plywood previ-ously used. Most importantly, thematerial on which the flags are mount-ed is completely acid-free, being madeof a thermo-bonded polyester battingand 100% cotton fabric over a card-board backing made by the HolingerCorporation. Each flag is pressuremounted under the cover of an extra-large, specially produced sheet ofplexiglass which has been treated withultraviolet light filters. This is a Swisstechnique which ensures that there isno further damage to the flag fromstitching, and it provides full supportfor all parts of the flag. Each frayedthread from the wind-whipped andtattered fly of the large “second” flagwas carefully laid out before the plex-iglass covering was secured under theframe.

Both flags were retrieved by themuseum staff in late July and

were brought back to the museum inthe Washington Navy Yard, wherethey are remounted in a new exhibitopened when the former 50thAnniversary of World War II exhibitwas replaced by the 50th Anniversaryof the Korean War exhibit. An ongoingprogram has been established to pro-vide the same treatment for all of thesignificant flags in the collection.

❑ 1775❑

The “first” Iwo Jima flag, a small boat flag, rests proudly in its new aluminumframe, shielded by plexiglass with ultraviolet light filters and backed by acid-freecotton material.

The “famous” second Iwo Jima flag nears completion of its restoration in theKeedysville, Maryland, studio of Textile Conservators.

Ronnie D. Alexander, exhibits special-ist, left, and Ronald J. Perkins, exhibitschief, deliver the newly mounted “sec-ond” Iwo Jima flag to the Marine CorpsMuseum Exhibits Unit at the Washing-ton Navy Yard.


ering data from within the MEU head-quarters, I realized that any realunderstanding of the situation wouldalso require speaking with Marines atthe battalion, company, and platoonlevels. After identifying key playerswho I wanted to interview, I began toapproach my fieldwork from twodirections. For example, one day Imight catch a ride into town to con-duct an oral history, observe an ongo-ing event, or photograph a historicallysignificant location. The following dayI would remain at headquarters toprocess my data, collect interviewsfrom folks within the command ele-ment, and download documentsstored on the MEU’s secure Internetsite. I also attended the 26th MEU’sdaily staff meeting, which presented aunique perspective not reflected in theofficial reports.

This strategy enabled me to pacemyself for the duration of my stay,

working 18 hours each day, whileproviding enough flexibility to exploitany unexpected events occurringthroughout the command. In the end,I was able to collect 15 artifacts, con-duct 33 interviews, capture 200 pho-tographs, and recover more than 200documents. The highly perishablenature of historical information cannotbe overemphasized; had I not beenafforded an opportunity to gather thedata first-hand, a vast majority of therecord would have been lost.

Not only did my research sustainthe notion of complementary and par-allel missions, it also revealed a grad-ual evolution with the peacekeepingprocess. As the operation progressedBLT 3/8 secured the area and haltedthe violence, paving the way forMSSG-26 to revitalize the civil infra-structure. This facilitated the eventualintegration of a more permanent occu-pying force, as well as a vast array ofinternational relief organizations. On10 July, following 27 days of continu-ous operations in Kosovo, the 26thMEU turned over its sector to the U.S.Army and withdrew to Macedonia. Ireturned to the Historical Center on 15

July, as the 26th MEU rejoined elementsof the 6th Fleet in Greece.

While archiving the historical mater-ial I had collected, I realized that afourth criteria of successful fieldresearch is disseminating the data in atimely fashion to several different audi-ences. But how does one actuallyshowcase the myriad of reports, pho-tographs, interviews, and artifacts thatare collected during a field historydeployment? The monograph hasproven successful in the past and con-tinues to serve as the conventionalvehicle for distribution. Yet this strategyinvolves a lengthy creative process andthe audience is limited to individualswho possess the time and inclination toread our books. Acknowledging theseconstraints, the Field History Branchhas begun to experiment with alterna-tive formats in an effort to reach awider audience.

One new idea is what might becalled a “technical report.”

Although less polished than the con-ventional monograph, it is provides amore comprehensive account than atraditional after-action report. Severaladvantages of the technical reportinclude: the timely publication of a pre-liminary analysis; a medium for the dis-semination of primary data; and ameans for advertising the HistoricalCenter’s current holdings. In our tenta-tive version, the Kosovo report con-tains five sections: a brief historicalsummary of Operation Joint Guardian;my official after-action report to theDirector; my personal field journal;notes taken during the oral historyinterviews; and appendices listing thephotographs, documents, and artifactscollected during the deployment. Thetechnical report, which does not pre-clude the publication of a more fin-ished product, is especially importantin cases where a monograph is implau-sible.

Compact disk technology has alsoproved promising and provides aquick, cost-effective means for spread-ing the Marine Corps’ story. UsingMicrosoft’s PowerPoint software to

combine a narrated text with variousforms of imagery (photos, drawings,charts, and maps), we have produceda slide show that illustrates the 26thMEU’s efforts during Operation JointGuardian. This presentation is fullyautomated and runs for 30 minutes.Not only should a more graphic pre-sentation attract the attention of non-traditional audiences, it can also beprojected in a group setting and usedfor instructional purposes.

While we have received positivecomments from our peers at the

Historical Center, the real test camewhen the CD was shown to studentsand faculty at the University ofWisconsin-Fox Valley. Besidesdescribing the realities of peacekeep-ing operations in Kosovo, the presen-tation introduced a young audienceto the organizational complexityinherent to large-scale military opera-tions. As Professor Tom Pleger stated,“My students now have a betterunderstanding of what it means whenthe President sends troops overseas.”

In an institution that relies heavilyupon teamwork, yet is deployed insmall detachments around the globe,it is crucial that the Marine Corps con-tinue to document its activities. Bymaintaining a cumulative record ofour developing heritage, the FieldHistory program addresses severalorganizational needs. First and fore-most, our record acknowledges theanonymous Marines who routinelyaccomplish their mission without anyformal recognition. Second, by main-taining a record of these deeds, anactive history program helps to ensurethat the Marine Corps’ story is includ-ed within the larger context of morecomprehensive histories. Third, bydocumenting the dynamics of ongoingoperations, our record can be used asa tool for evaluating conventionaldoctrine and planning for future mis-sions. Finally, the historical narrative,be it conveyed on compact disc or ina traditional monograph, is ideallysuited for communicating whoMarines are. ❑ 1775❑

MEU’s Key Players in Kosovo Interviewed(Continued from page 11)


In Memoriam

First Chief Historian,WWII Leaders Missed

Henry I. “Bud” Shaw, Jr., first ChiefHistorian of the History and

Museums Division, died of cancer inJune at his home in Alexandria,Virginia. He was 73 years old.

Mr. Shaw was born in Yonkers,New York, but graduated fromHaddonfield Memorial High School inHaddonfield, New Jersey. He went toThe Citadel for one year, 1942-1943,before enlisting in the Marine Corps.He served as a telephone linemanwith the 1st Marine Division in the bat-tle for Okinawa and in the occupationof North China. On his return from thewar, he attended Hope College inHolland, Michigan, where he majoredin history and graduated with honors.Mr. Shaw then was a graduate studentat Columbia University, where hereceived a master’s degree in history.A member of the Marine CorpsReserve, he was mobilized in 1950and assigned to duty at Marine CorpsBase, Quantico, Virginia, and servedas an editorial assistant on the staff ofMarine Corps Gazette.

Upon his return to civilian life in1951, he joined what was then theHistorical Branch of the G-3 Division,Headquarters, Marine Corps, and con-tinued for 39 years to serve in theMarine Corps historical programthrough its many changes since. Hisfirst official publication was Okinawa:Victory in the Pacific, which he co-authored, and which was the last of 15World War II studies published by theMarine Corps. He was co-author offour of the five hardcover official his-tories of Marine Corps operations inWorld War II, and was chief editor ofthe last four.

Mr. Shaw co-authored the Historyand Museums Division’s twice-reprint-ed Blacks in the Marine Corps, andserved as editor of all but one of theofficial operational and functional his-tories of the war in Vietnam. In addi-tion, he wrote or edited a large num-ber of brief histories of Marine Corpsunits, bases, and activities. He was the

author of two of the History andMuseums Division’s World War II 50thanniversary commemorative mono-graphs: Opening Moves: Marines GearUp For War and First Offensive: TheMarine Campaign for Guadalcanal.He also wrote Tarawa for theBallantine Books Illustrated History ofWorld War II series.

He wrote extensively in military his-tory publications and for the journalsof professional military history soci-eties, and had a large number ofsigned book reviews published inMilitary Collector & Historian, MilitaryAffairs, Marine Corps Gazette, TheWashington Post, New York HistoricalSociety Quarterly, and the U.S. NavalInstitute Proceedings. In addition, Mr.Shaw was a member of numerous pro-fessional and honorary societies. Hewas a founding member of the MarineCorps Historical Foundation, and wasits secretary from 1979 to 1985. He wasalso a Life Member of the 1st MarineDivision Association, and its longtimesecretary. Probably the organizationwith which he had the longest andclosest association is the Company ofMilitary Historians, where he was suc-cessively the editor of MilitaryCollector & Historian, editor in chief ofall publications, and consulting editor.He was a Fellow of the Company and

had been a Governor and President.In 1988 he was awarded theCompany’s Distinguished ServiceAward. His other honors include theMarine Corps Good Conduct Medal,the Marine Corps Meritorious CivilianService Award, and two awards of theMarine Corps Superior Civilian ServiceMedal.

He was also a life member of theSociety for Army Historical Researchand the Royal Marines HistoricalSociety, both of Great Britain. Locally,he was president of the Washington,D.C. chapter of the AmericanRevolution Roundtable, and a memberof the American Battle MonumentsCommission’s Historical AdvisoryCommittee of the World War IINational Memorial. After Mr. Shawretired as a Marine Corps historian, hebecame an avid volunteer in theFairfax County, Virginia Library sys-tem.

His first wife, Juanita, died in 1980.Survivors include Reita Shaw, his wifeof 19 years, his sons and their wives,Marc and Mary, Drake and Cathy, andBrooke and Lisa; son Pierce; halfbrothers Bruce Shaw of Clearwater,Florida, and John Perkins ofGreenville, South Carolina; and his sis-ter, Joan Peterson of Evanston, Illinois.In addition, he had five grandchildren,three stepsons, and eleven step-grand-children.—Benis M. Frank

MajGen Rathvon McClure Tomp-kins, USMC (Ret), a highly deco-

rated combat veteran of three wars,died 17 September in Lexington,Kentucky, at the age of 87.

Born in Boulder, Colorado, Tomp-kins graduated in 1935 from theUniversity of Colorado, and acceptedan appointment as a Marine secondlieutenant in March 1936. DuringWorld War II, he participated in com-bat operations on Guadalcanal, theSouthern Solomons, the GilbertIslands, and the Marianas. He wasawarded the Navy Cross, Silver Star,

Henry I. Shaw, Jr.


and Bronze Star Medal with Combat“V” for heroism during these cam-paigns.

Following a variety of postwarassignments, Gen Tompkins wasordered to Korea in June 1953, wherehe earned a Gold Star in lieu of a sec-ond Bronze Star with Combat “V”. Hereturned to the United States in 1954,and was promoted to brigadier gener-al in 1960. He participated during1965 in the Dominican Republic inter-vention as Deputy Commander, JointTask Force 122. Gen Tompkins sawservice in the Republic of Vietnam asCommanding General, 3d MarineDivision, and later, as DeputyCommander, III Marine AmphibiousForce. His last active duty assignmentwas as Commanding General, MarineCorps Base, Camp Lejeune. GenTompkins retired in July 1971 after 36years of active duty Marine Corps ser-vice.

BGen John W. Antonnelli, USMC(Ret), a Navy Cross recipient from

the Iwo Jima campaign, died 26 Marchin Westwood, Massachusetts at the ageof 81.

Born in Lawrence, Massachusetts,Gen Antonnelli was a 1940 graduate ofthe Naval Academy. He participated incombat as a member of the 1st RaiderBattalion during the Guadalcanal cam-paign, and later commanded the 2dBn, 27th Marines at Iwo Jima, wherehe earned the Navy Cross by conduct-ing a vital reconnaissance of enemy

positions, while suffering from severewounds.

Eventually evacuated from Iwo Jimabecause of his wounds, BGenAntonneli later took part in the occu-pation of Japan. Following the war, heserved in a variety of duties, whichincluded the command of the 4thMarines, and later, as a brigadier gen-eral, as the Commander of MarineCorps Base, Quantico, Virginia., untilhis retirement in the late 1960s.

BGen Richard A. Evans, USMCR(Ret), who took part in four World

War II campaigns, died on 30September 1999 in Lowell, Ohio, at theage of 88.

A native of Jasonville, Indiana, hewas commissioned a Marine secondlieutenant in 1936 upon graduationfrom the University of Wyoming.During World War II, he participatedin the Guadalcanal, Eastern NewGuinea, and Bismarck Archipelagooperations, and later in the PeleliuCampaign.

Following the war, he resigned hisregular commission in the MarineCorps, but later accepted appointmentas an officer in the Marine CorpsReserve. As a member of the 9thMarine Corps District he participatedin numerous periods of annual activeduty and training, including the SeniorReserve officers Course at the NavalWar College.

Promoted to brigadier general in1961, he served that summer asAssistant Base Commander at MCB

Camp Lejeune, and later served asActing Assistant Commander of the 2dMarine Division. He retired from theMarine Corps Reserve in 1971. A long-time mathematics teacher, Gen Evansand his wife Helen, were residents ofLowell, Ohio.

William P. McCahill, a formerMarine, author of several books

on Marine Corps history, and advocatefor the disabled, died 2 October atVeterans Hospital in Washington, D.C.He was 83.

An Arlington, Virginia, resident, Mr.McCahill was born in Marshalltown,Iowa, and graduated from MarquetteUniversity, where he also received amaster’s degree in journalism. Heentered the Marine Corps in 1941, andwas a veteran of the Saipan and Tiniancampaigns. He served in the MarineCorps Reserve following the war,attaining the rank of colonel.

Author or editor of several bookson Marine Corps history, includingFirst to Fight, and a History of theMarine Corps Reserve, Mr. McCahilllater headed the President’s Com-mit-tee on Employment of the Handi-capped and its predecessor agenciesfrom 1947-1973. He was a tirelesscampaigner for the rights of disabledAmericans, and worked with numer-ous advocacy groups for the uplift ofhandicapped individuals. He wasactive in numerous civic, veterans, andreligious organizations in his localarea.—Robert V. Aquilina

BGen John W. AntonnelliMajGen Rathvon McC. Tompkins

BGen Richard A. Evans


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U.S., Japanese Historians Exchange Viewsby Charles D. Melson

Chief Historian

The U.S.-Japan Military HistoryExchange 2000 (MHX-2000)

brought together professional militaryhistorians of their respective armedforces for an formal and informalexchange of ideas and concerns. Thisyear’s event, 4-10 March, was jointlyhosted by the Naval Historical Centerat the Washington, D.C. Navy Yard andthe U.S. Army Center of MilitaryHistory at nearby Fort McNair.

LtGen John M. Pickier, Director ofthe Army Staff, opened the event.Other key participants were BGenJohn S. Brown, Army Chief of MilitaryHistory; Dr. Edward Marolda, SeniorHistorian, Naval Historical Center;Colonel Hideo Kida, Chief, MilitaryHistory Branch, Japanese Ground SelfDefense Force; and Mr. Charles D.Melson, Chief Historian, Marine CorpsHistory and Museums Division.

Avariety of papers were presentedon topics ranging from World War

II and Korea to the Gulf War. Socialevents and tours ensured that the par-

ticipants took advantage of the localsurroundings. The conference endedwith a session that had a representa-tive of each American military historyoffice present the office’s current struc-ture and programs.

MajGens Yoshinaga Hayashi andHiroshi Shiraishi of the National

Institute for Defense Studies in Tokyomade a courtesy call on the MarineCorps Historical Center. They touredthe Historical Division and werebriefed on its functions. In turn, theypresented copies of their publicationsand an invitation to return the visit inJapan next year. ❑ 1775❑

The MHX-2000 delegation tours the Marine Corps Historical Center as part of theconference. The Japanese scholars are serving military officers in education posi-tions that require formal presentations be made as part of their duties.Representatives from the U.S. Army, Navy, and Marine Corps served as escorts.

Photograph courtesy of John T. Dyer, Jr.


Chronology of the U.S. Marine Corps, 1998by Ann A. FerranteReference Historian

For the past 16 years, the ReferenceSection of the History and Museums

Division has compiled a yearly MarineCorps chronology that highlights signifi-cant events and dates in Corps history.Numerous primary and secondary sourcesare reviewed each week to produce theongoing, current chronology, which servesas a source of information for researchersas well as division staff. Selected entriesfrom the 1998 chronology are:

1 Jan - The strength of the U.S. ArmedForces was 1,456,266, of whom 174,873were Marines.

18-23 Jan - The Marine Corps WarfightingLaboratory in Quantico, Virginia, launchedthe first “Urban Warrior” training experi-ment designed to examine numerousfacets of military operations in urban envi-ronments. Limited Object Experiments(LOE 1) took place at Camp Lejeune,North Carolina. Additional experimentswould be held over the next 18 monthperiod on the east and west coasts.

20 Jan - MajGen James L. Day, USMC, 72,who retired from the Marine Corps in1986, received the Medal of Honor for hisactions on Okinawa, 14-17 May 1945. Atthe time, General Day was a 19-year oldcorporal. The nation’s highest award waspresented by President Bill Clinton.

31 Jan - As of this date, all non-deployed

Marine Corps ships’ detachments stooddown while the remaining deployeddetachments would stand down followingdeployments (totaling 11 officers and 275enlisted personnel). Structure from thedisestablished detachments would be usedto create a second fleet antiterrorism secu-rity team (FAST) company.

3 Feb - A U.S. Marine EA-6B Prowler jetover Italy’s Dolomite mountains struckand severed the cable of a ski resort gon-dola, causing the cable car to fall 300 feetto the ground and killing 20 people inside.The aviation mishap occurred during alow level training mission where the jetwas flying far below its prescribed alti-tude. The Prowler from Marine TacticalElectronic Warfare Squadron 2 was flyingout of Aviano, Italy, from where Marineand Air Force units provided support tothe on-going effort in Bosnia.

10 Feb - 137 Marines and Navy Corpsmenfrom Camp Lejeune, North Carolina,passed through the Aerial Port ofEmbarkation at Marine Corps Air Station,Cherry Point, North Carolina, on their wayto Haiti in support of Operation NewHorizon. The company provided securityfor the U.S. support group in Haiti thatprovided humanitarian and civil assistancemissions. It would be replaced by anArmy unit in May.

15 Feb - On this date 100 years ago, the

battleship USS Maine (BB 2) mysteriouslyexploded and sank in the Spanish-heldharbor of Havana, Cuba. On board theMaine, 28 Marines died along with 238sailors. A few months later, the UnitedStates declared war on Spain on 21 April1898. The USS Maine was rememberedtoday during a number of ceremonies atvarious locations around the United States.

24 Feb - Iraq’s Saddam Hussein andUnited Nations Secretary-General KofiAnnan reached an agreement wherebyIraq agreed to provide immediate, unre-stricted and unconditional access for U.N.weapons inspectors to all suspected sitesin Iraq. Since January, nearly 27,000American and British troops (including2,200 Marines) had assembled in thePersian Gulf area ready for an imminentmilitary strike against Iraq if SaddamHussein continued to deny U.N. weaponsinspectors unfettered access. Iraq precip-itated the crisis on 12 January by refusingaccess to a U.N. team headed by anAmerican, Scott Ritter, a former Marinecaptain.

27 Feb - A joint task force (JTF), com-manded by BGen William A. Whitlow,USMC, was sent to Kenya to support

Marines participate in an Urban Warrior experimental training exercise, the firstof which was conducted in mid-January by the Marine Corps WarfightingLaboratory at MCB, Quantico,Virginia. Subsequent experimental trainingwould occur over the following 18 months on both east and west coasts.

MajGen James L. Day, USMC, whoretired from active duty in 1986, inJanuary received the Medal of Honorfor his actions as a 19-year-old Marinein the World War II battle forOkinawa.


idate Iraq during a showdown in thePersian Gulf in February, began with-drawing the additional forces and return-ing to pre-crisis levels of military strengthin the region. The reduction in U.S. mili-tary power in the gulf reflected an assess-ment that the crisis with President SaddamHussein’s government subsided sinceBaghdad renewed promises to cooperatewith United Nations weapons inspectors.

31 May - Gen Charles C. Krulak, 31stCommandant of the Marine Corps, deliv-ered the Memorial Day address at theAmerican Cemetery at Belleau Wood,France. It had become a tradition for theCommandant to visit the historic battle-field on Memorial Day to join Marinesfrom Europe, veterans groups, and thepeople of France to pay tribute to theMarines who sacrificed their lives in theepic World War I battle. This year markedthe 80th anniversary of the Battle forBelleau Wood.

6 Jun - A group of 30 Marines from the11th Marine Expeditionary Unit evacuated172 people from Asmara, Eritrea. TwoMarine C-130 Hercules aircraft flew theevacuees from the airport in Asmara tosafety in Amman, Jordan. The evacuationwas a precautionary measure, as recentborder conflicts intensified between theEast African countries of Eritrea andEthiopia. Of the 172 citizens evacuated,

(1991-1995) shared their experiences andvisions at the Brigadier General SelectOrientation Conference in Washington,D.C. Two other former Commandants,Generals Wallace M. Greene (1964-1967)and Alfred M. Gray, Jr. (1987-1991) wereunable to attend.

19 May - 5 - Jun Approximately 10,600U.S. and 6,250 Thailand service membersparticipated in Exercise Cobra Gold 98,the largest exercise in the Asian-Pacificregion so far in 1998. The exercise wasconducted against a real-world backdropof regional uncertainty. NeighboringIndia and Pakistan conducted 11 nuclearweapons test blasts and Indonesia’sPresident.

24 May - “The President’s Own” UnitedStates Marine Band, America’s oldest pro-fessional musical organization, was thefirst musical institution inducted into theAmerican Classical Music Hall of Fameand Museum in Cincinnati, Ohio. In addi-tion to the Marine Band, the 1998Inaugural Group included LeonardBernstein, Aaron Copland, DukeEllington, George Gershwin, ArturoToscanini, and the Marine Band’s 17thDirector, John Philip Sousa.

27 May - The Clinton administration,which sent dozens of extra bombers andthousands of soldiers and sailors to intim-

ongoing relief operations. OperationNoble Response, headquartered inMombasa, included a headquarters ele-ment from I Marine Expeditionary Force,Camp Pendleton, California, and two KC-130s from Marine Aerial RefluelerSquadron 352, El Toro, California. Morethan 2 million pounds of food was deliv-ered to Kenyans devastated by flooding inthe northeastern part of the Africannation.

25 Mar - 6 Apr - The 26th MarineExpeditionary Unit was part of NATO’sStrategic Reserve Force (SRF) in ExerciseDynamic Response 98, the largest Marineparticipation in Bosnia thus far. The exer-cise was part of NATO’s efforts to preparethe SRF for support to the StabilizationForce already in Bosnia in case ofrenewed hostilities there. The SRF was amobile, flexible unit designed to augmentin-theater forces and was comprised oflight and airborne infantry, armor,artillery, and attack aircraft.

28 Mar - World War II veterans from the2d and 5th Marine Divisions and the VAmphibious Corps Artillery were honoredat the Camp Tarawa MonumentDedication on Parker Ranch near Camp H.M. Smith, Hawaii. Camp Tarawa wasonce the largest Marine training camp inthe Pacific. The dedication ceremony alsohonored the late Richard Smart, owner ofParker Ranch during the war, and the res-idents of Kamuela, who played host tomore than 50,000 Marines from 1942 -1945. The monument consists of threemassive black granite slabs set in a smallpark behind the existing, but smaller mon-ument.

26-30 Apr - The Marine Corps WarfightingLab and the Special Purpose MAGTF(X)participated in Urban Warrior’s secondlimited objective experiment at CampLejeune’s Military Operations in UrbanTerrain (MOUT) facility. Urban Warriorwas the Marine Corps’ two-year explo-ration of new concepts, tactics, and tech-nologies for addressing combat on urban-ized terrain.

7-8 May - Five former Commandants ofthe Marine Corps joined the currentCommandant, Gen Charles C. Krulak, tomeet and exchange ideas with the Corps’newest brigadier generals and senior civilservants. Gens Leonard F. Chapman, Jr.(1968-1971), Louis H. Wilson (1975-1979),Robert H. Barrow (1979-1983), Paul X.Kelley (1983-1987), and Carl E. Mundy, Jr.

The Corps’ first World War II air ace, MajGen Marion E. Carl, was laid to rest atArlington National Cemetery in June. Gen Carl was the victim of an armedintruder in his Roseburg, Oregon home. He downed 11 enemy aircraft during thebattle for Guadalcanal and was credited with 18.5 kills by the end of the war.His decorations included two Navy Crosses.


U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya, killing atleast 247 people, including 12 U.S. citi-zens—one of whom was Sergeant Jesse N.Aliganga, USMC, a Marine security guardat the embassy. The other bomb explod-ed near the U.S. Embassy in Dar esSalaam, Tanzania, killing at least nine peo-ple, but no U.S. citizens.

18 Aug - Phase I of a military-wideAnthrax vaccination program began forthe Marine Corps. Marines and membersof the other armed services deployed orpreparing to deploy to high-threat areaswould be the first to be vaccinated. Themandatory vaccinations were ordered bySecretary of Defense William S. Cohen inDecember 1997. Phase II of the vaccina-tion program was scheduled forDecember 1999 for personnel considered“early deployers.” Phase III would beginin January 2003 for recruits, officer acces-sions, and the majority of the reserveforces.

26 Aug - The Assistant Commandant ofthe Marine Corps, General Richard I. Neal,made his farewell remarks on this dateduring a ceremony at Marine Barracks, 8thand I Streets, Washington, D.C. He wouldretire from the Marine Corps after 36 yearsof active service. Succeeding GeneralNeal as Assistant Commandant is GeneralTerrence R. Dake who assumed his posi-tion on 5 September.

1 Sep - On this date, the Marine CorpsMateriel Command was established atAlbany, Georgia.. The new commandconsisted of a headquarters element andtwo major subordinate commands -Marine Corps Logistics Bases and MarineCorps Systems Command. It would be theprincipal advisor to the Commandant ofthe Marine Corps for materiel life cyclemanagement of all Marine Corps groundequipment, information systems, andground weapons systems.

15 Sep - The MV-22 Osprey arrived atMarine Corps Air Station, New River,North Carolina, for several months of var-ious operational tests. It would be joinedby another Osprey in October. Two otherOspreys would remain at Patuxent RiverNaval Air Station, Maryland, where thesmall but growing force of four opera-tional aircraft were based. The tilt-rotorOsprey, may eventually replace the Corps’fleet of aging CH-46 Sea Knight heli-copters.

30 Sep - By this date, the Marine Corps

Captain Richard J. Asby, and navigator,Captain Joseph P. Schweitzer, would go totrial later this year.

11 Jul - The United States Marine Bandmarked its 200th birthday in the nation’scapital with a gala performance at theJohn F. Kennedy Center for thePerforming Arts Concert Hall. The historicevent highlighted the year as “ThePresident’s Own” celebrated its bicenten-nial and inaugurated its third century.

16 Jul - 1 Aug - Exercise RimPac 98brought together more than 25,000 sailors,Marines, airmen, and Coast Guardsmenfrom Australia, Chile, Japan, Canada, theRepublic of Korea, and the United States.The exercise was designed to test the abil-ities of the U.S. and its allies to react to cri-sis and defend against threats to theCentral Pacific. The 13th MarineExpeditionary Unit participated in theexercise which was held in Hawaii.

6 Aug - The James Wesley Marsh Center,a new facility at Quantico, Virginia, wasdedicated on this date. It was named inhonor of Colonel James W. Marsh, USMC(Deceased) who was instrumental indeveloping the automated informationmanagement capabilities supporting virtu-ally all Marine Corps manpower opera-tions today. The building would housethe Marine Corps Recruiting Commandand Manpower and Reserve Affairs ofHeadquarters, Marine Corps. The movewould be part of the gradual departure ofHeadquarters from at the Navy Annex,Arlington, Virginia.

7 Aug - Two bombs exploded minutesapart adjacent to two U.S. embassies ineast Africa. One bomb exploded near the

105 were from the United States.

9 Jun - Internationally-accalimed sculptorFelix de Weldon was the honored guest atthe evening’s Sunset Parade where theDrum and Bugle Corps from MarineBarracks, 8th and I Streets, Washington,D.C. performed. De Weldon, now 91years old, was inspired to create the stat-ue after seeing Associated Press photogra-pher Joe Rosenthal’s Pulitzer Prize-win-ning photo of the American flag raising onIwo Jima on 23 February 1945. The flagraising sculpture became de Weldon’smost famous work.

10 Jun - Defense Secretary William Cohenannounced that military services shouldcontinue training as usual whether genderintegrated or segregated. Cohen was con-vinced on this issue by a report submittedby the services in March. He had directedthem months before to review and torespond to the December report of theKassebaum-Baker panel on gender-inte-grated training and related issues. TheMarine Corps would continue to keep itsrecruit training gender segregated whilethe other services would continue trainingmale and female recruits together.

28 Jun - Retired MajGen Marion E. Carl,one of the Corps most highly decoratedaviators and a World War II ace, was shotand killed during an apparent robbery inhis Roseburg, Oregon home. He was 82years old. It was a tragic ending for a manwhose lifetime achievements made himfamous as a combat Marine, aviator, andtest pilot. Gen Carl became the Corps’ firstace in 1942. By the end of the war he wascredited with 18.5 kills and had earnedfive Distinguished Flying Crosses, a totalof 14 Air Medals, as well as two NavyCrosses. He was buried with military hon-ors at Arlington National Cemetery.

2 Jul - CNN retracted its story that the mil-itary used deadly nerve gas during the1970 Operation Tailwind in Laos to killAmerican defectors, apologizing for “seri-ous faults” in its reporting. CNN said itsinternal investigation concluded that its“NewsStand” report with Time magazine,disputed by “hundreds” of veterans andmilitary officials, could not be supported.

10 Jul - LtGen Peter Pace, Commander,Marine Forces Atlantic, ordered the pilotand navigator of the EA-6B Prowler thatsevered an Italian ski gondola cable inFebruary, killing 20 people, to court-mar-tial on manslaughter charges. The pilot,

A V-22 Osprey approaches a landingat Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. InSeptember a force of four MarineOspreys were based at Patuxent RiverNaval Air Station, Maryland. The tilt-rotor aircraft was being tested as a pos-sible replacement for the Corps’s CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters.


fielded 14 non-lethal weapon capabilitysets to each of its three MarineExpeditionary Forces. Each capability setprovided weapons, munitions, and equip-ment to outfit a 200-man reinforced com-pany that included riot gear (shields andbatons), pepper spray, restraining devices,and road spikes.

3-15 Oct - Marines from the II MarineExpeditionary Force participated inDynamic Mix 98, a joint-combined exer-cise near the southern coast of the TurkishRepublic. The exercise included a rare in-stream off-load of Maritime Prepositioningforce equipment and follow-on trainingwith 10 NATO nations near the Syrian bor-der some 325 miles from northern Iraq.Dynamic Mix highlighted the Corps’ capa-bilities in the area of rapid deployment,force sustainment and interoperabilitywith allied nations.

7 Oct - Joint Task Force (JTF) FullProvider, a Camp Lejeune, North Carolina-based JTF, arrived at Puerto Rico and theU.S. Virgin Islands to provide humanitari-an and disaster relief in the wake ofHurricane Georges. The JTF was in sup-port of Operation Fundamental Relief andinvolved approximately 800 Marines andsailors.

27 Oct - 9 Nov - Exercise Foil Eagle 98,one of the largest defensive exercises inthe world, provided more than one millionactive and reserve members of theRepublic of Korea and U.S. Armed Forcesan opportunity to train in a challengingand realistic environment. The annualexercise tested the combined force’s capa-bilities to defend and protect the Republicof Korea.

29 Oct - Senator John Glenn joined acrew of seven astronauts as payload spe-cialist during a seven-day mission aboardthe Space Shuttle Discovery. SenatorGlenn achieved everlasting fame as thefirst American to orbit the Earth on 20February 1962 as one of this Nation’s orig-inal astronauts. With his return to space36 years later, the 77-year old formerMarine aviator became the oldest personto go into space.

25 Nov - More than 700 Marines of the IIMarine Expeditionary Force deployed toCentral America to conduct humanitarianassistance and disaster relief operations inthe wake of Hurricane Mitch. ExerciseStrong Support involved two joint taskforces deployed to Honduras, Nicaragua,

El Salvador, and Guatemala. The officialdeath toll from Hurricane Mitch was about10,000 with more than 13,000 peoplehomeless.

6 Nov - LtGen Carol A. Mutter retired after32 years of Marine Corps service. Theformer Deputy Chief of Staff, Manpowerand Reserve Affairs Department, was thefirst woman in the Department of Defensenominated for three-star flag rank. Also,while working for the U.S. SpaceCommand in 1988, then-Colonel Mutterbecame the first woman to ever be quali-fied as the director of space operations.

13-15 Nov - The Marine Corps WarfightingLab, in conjunction with the SpecialPurpose Marine Air Ground Task Force(Experimental), both headquartered atMarine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia,held their third limited objective experi-ment at the Tappahannock, VirginiaAirport. Capable Warrior, the third andfinal phase of its five-year program, testedand evaluated Operational Maneuver formthe Sea, the Corps’ conceptual warfightingdoctrine of the future. The purpose of thisobjective was to research, evaluate, andtest a new technique called dynamic tar-geting which may help reduce the amountof time it takes for a ground unit toreceive air support in combat.

4 Dec - Two Marines, Col Robert D.Cabana and Maj Frederick W. Sturckow,and four fellow crew members launchedinto space aboard the Shuttle Endeavor onthe first of 45 missions to assemble thelargest cooperative space constructionproject in history—building theInternational Space Station. During the11-day flight, the Endeavor rendezvousedwith a Russian component of the spacestation that was launched in November.When completed in 2004, the space sta-tion will enable scientific experimentationnot possible on Earth.

16 Dec - The United States and GreatBritain conducted air attacks on Iraqi com-mand and control, air defense, andweapons facility targets. The attacks werein the wake of Iraq’s most recent obstruc-tion of U.N. personnel conductingweapons of mass destruction inspectionsin the country. Kuwait-based aircraft fromGreat Britain, the USS Enterprise (CVN 65),and more than 200 ship-borne cruise mis-siles attacked selected targets which beganOperation Desert Fox. Marine Forces inthe Persian Gulf included Okinawa-based31st Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special

Answers to theHistorical Quiz

Marines in theBoxer Rebellion,

China, 1900by Lena M. Kaljot.

Reference Historian

(Questions on page 7)

1. France, Germany, Austria,Italy, Japan, Great Britain, andRussia

2. MajGen Charles Heywood(then-BGen)

3. 33

4. SgtMaj Dan Daly (then-Pvt)

5. St. David’s Day (March 1)

6. President Herbert Hoover

7. MajGen Ben H. Fuller (then-Capt)

8. MajGen Smedley D. Butler

9. Col Anthony J. Drexel Biddle(then-Maj)

10. LtGen John T. Myers (then-Capt)

Operations Capable) as well as MarineFighter Attack Squadron 312 on board theUSS Enterprise.

18 Dec - Following the commencement ofU.S. and British air strikes against Iraq, theOkinawa-based 31st Marine ExpeditionaryUnit (Special Operations Capable) con-ducted a noncombatant evacuation opera-tion of some 90 diplomats and Americancitizens from the U.S. embassy in Kuwait.

31 Dec - Marine Fighter Attack Squadron131 deactivated. The squadron originallyactivated in 1920 and deactivated afterparticipation in World War II in 1945. Itwas reactivated as a reserve squadron in1958 and was stationed at Willow Grove,Pennsylvania, since 1970. ❑ 1775❑


Marine Corps Chronology

From Vandegrift to Cates, January-December 1949by Robert V. Aquilina

Assistant Head, Reference Section

In anticipation of commemorations marking the 50thanniversary of the outbreak of the Korean War,

Fortitudine’s Chronology presents a review of events in theMarine Corps in 1949, including a Presidential inauguration,events in China, continuing developments toward thedesegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces, and debates overthe future role of the Marine Corps in the U.S. defenseestablishment.

3 Jan - In Palestine, a Marine guard was organized for theAmerican Consulate General in Jerusalem.

10 Jan - In New York City, the Honorable Trygve Le,Secretary General of the United Nations, praised the workof BGen William E. Riley, USMC, who was assigned to theU.N. Mediation Commission in Palestine.

20 Jan - The Marine Band, a battalion landing team of the22d Marines, a band from Marine Corps Base, Quantico,Virginia, and a company of Women Marines fromHeadquarters, Marine Corps, took part in the inauguralparade for President Harry S. Truman.

31 Jan - The American Heritage Foundation commendedthe Marine detachment that served on board the “FreedomTrain.”

26 Feb - In California, some 2,000 officers and enlistedMarines rejoined the 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendletonfollowing duty in China and other areas of the Pacific.

28 Feb - The Hoover Commission on the Organization ofthe Executive Branch of the Government recommendedthat U.S. military forces be brought under the undisputedcontrol of the Secretary of Defense in order to end inter-ser-vice rivalries, and to better effect unification of the armedforces.

Mar - The 1st Provisional Marine Brigade and MarineAircraft Group 24 departed Guam and proceeded to theUnited States, where they were disbanded and their per-sonnel incorporated into the 1st Marine Division, and the1st Marine Aircraft Wing. The remaining Fleet MarineForces on Guam were placed under the newly establishedcommand, Fleet Marine Force, Guam.

2 Mar - U.S. Marines, soldiers, and three Canadian platoonsexecuted a landing on Vieques Island in the Caribbean aspart of the largest postwar amphibious exercise, up to 1949.

18 Mar - 24 Apr - A battalion landing team from the 3dMarines arrived off the coast of Shanghai, China, preparedto land if necessary to help evacuate U.S. citizens.

1 Apr - Gen Alexander A. Vandegrift, former Commandantof the Marine Corps, retired after a distinguished 30-yearMarine Corps career.

20 Apr - The Secretary of Defense, Louis A. Johnson,ordered the Armed Services to end racial discrimination, inline with President Harry S. Truman’s directive of 26 July1948. The Secretary’s directive provided that “all individu-als, regardless of race, will be accorded equal opportunityfor appointment, advancement, professional improvement,promotion.”

16 May - The 9th Marines arrived at Morehead City, NorthCarolina, following duty on Guam and in China.

3 Jun - Fifty-five graduates from a class of 790 at the U.S.Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland accepted commis-sions in the U.S. Marine Corps.

3 Jun - The Marine Corps Board, Marine Corps Schools, rec-ommended the activation of the first two 12-plane transporthelicopter squadrons to commence in 1953.

7 Jun - The Secretary of Defense accepted a Navy plan for

Gen Alexander A. Vandegrift


8-10 Sep - The first African-American Woman Marine, AnnieE. Graham, enlisted at Detroit, Michigan. The following day,Ann E. Lamb enlisted at New York City. The two womenreported to Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island on 10September, and went through boot camp together withPlatoon 5-A of the 3d Recruit Training Battalion. (The thirdAfrican-American Woman Marine to join, Annie L. Grimes ofChicago, who was destined to become a Chief WarrantOfficer later in her career, enlisted and went to boot campin February 1950).

6 Oct - In Washington, the Commandant of the MarineCorps submitted a request to the Chief of Naval Operationsfor one Kaman K-190 helicopter for evaluation as an obser-vation helicopter.

17 Oct - The 2d Marines was reorganized and enlarged tofull regimental strength. At the same time, the 6th Marineswas also reactivated on the regimental level.

17 Oct - In Washington, the Commandant of the MarineCorps, Gen Clifton B. Cates, voiced his opposition to whathe believed was an attempt by the Army General Staff todrastically reduce the size of the Marine Corps. The autho-rized strength of the Marine Corps stood at 100,000, but wasslated to be reduced to 67,000 by 30 June 1950. GeneralCates was supported in his views by retired MarineCommandant Gen Alexander A. Vandegrift.

20 Oct - In Washington, Gen J. Lawton Collins, Army Chiefof Staff and a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, assuredthe House Armed Services Committee that the Army did notintend to phase out the Marine Corps and assume itsamphibious operations, or to force the Navy to transfer itsair arm to the Air Force.

21 Oct - In Washington, Defense Secretary Louis A. Johnsonindicated he had asked former Navy Secretary John L.Sullivan to resign because he had opposed unification ofthe Armed Services. Sullivan, who quit on 26 April over acarrier dispute, denied Johnson’s statement and said he hadsupported unification, but was opposed to the abolition ofMarine and Navy aviation and the “slow death” of theMarine Corps.

25-26 Oct - In Hawaii, a 35,000-man, 90-ship Army-Navy-Marine task force “liberated” Hawaii from the theoretical“Aggressor” in Exercise Miki—the largest U.S. postwaramphibious maneuver to date.

30 Oct - The Defense Department announced the laying upof various Navy ships in line with announced plans toreduce Navy and Marine manpower by 54,891 by 1 July1950.

5 Nov - The first enlisted pilots to fly the Lockheed TO-1“Shooting Star” jet underwent training at the Marine CorpsAir Station at El Toro, California. ❑ 1775❑

securing racial equality for all Navy and Marine Corps per-sonnel.

15 Jun - At Quantico, Virginia, Marine Helicopter SquadronOne (HMX-1) gave demonstrations in techniques of wirelaying, casualty evacuation, and flying crane lifts of 75mmpack howitzers before President Harry S. Truman and theJoint Chiefs of Staff.

30 Jun - Marine Corps strength was 85,965, which included7,250 officers and 78,715 enlisted Marines.

Summer 1949 - An Officer Candidate Screening Course wasestablished in the Marine Corps. The course was designedto test the leadership potential of a small group of talentedenlisted men, and was opened to enlisted Marines with acollege education or GCT Score of 120. After four weeks,those who qualified were commissioned and ordered toBasic School for further training.

11 Aug - In Palestine, BGen William E. Riley, USMC, wasassigned to the United Nations’ Palestine Truce Mission asChief of Staff. The UN’s Palestine observance staff underGen Riley was to be cut from 500 to 40 persons.

24 Aug - At Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, abronze memorial tablet was dedicated in honor of 32Marines who died in a plane crash on the South TacomaGlacier on 10 December 1946.

6 Sep - A battalion landing team of the 21st Marines leftMorehead City, North Carolina, to become the landing forceof the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean. It was redesignat-ed 2/2 (Rein) on 20 October.

The first African-American woman to enlist in the MarineCorps were Pvt Annie E. Graham, left, and Pvt Ann E. Lamb.


MARINE CORPS HISTORICAL CENTERBUILDING 58, WASHINGTON NAVY YARD

1254 CHARLES MORRIS STREET, SOUTHEASTWASHINGTON, D.C. 20374-5040

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

New Commander for Historical Detachmentby Col Nicholas E. Reynolds, USMCR and Capt C. J. Warnke, USMCR

PCN 740 000 47000

On 22 January 2000, Col Nicholas E. Reynolds,USMCR, succeeded LtCol Charles H. Cureton,

USMCR, as the third officer-in-charge of the IMADetachment at the Marine Corps Historical Center. At theshort, informal change of command at the Center, LtColCureton reviewed the unit’s history and accomplish-ments, while Col Reynolds pledged to maintain its tradi-tions and to reach out to the Center’s customers in theFleet. Cureton then passed the unit’s “K-bar of com-mand” to Reynolds, maintaining one of its traditions.

The Detachment, whose mission is to deploy histori-ans and artists to the field, is the the Marine Corps’ forcein readiness when it comes to recording and writingrecent Marine Corps history. Shortly after the PersianGulf War, the Detachment was created to ensure thatdedicated, trained historians would be available fordeployment in support of future

Since that time, IMA members have deployed in sup-port of operations in Somalia, Kosovo, Bosnia,

Guantanamo, and Haiti. Before the IMA Detachmentcame on line, there was only a Mobilization TrainingUnit, MTU DC-7, whose members performed yeomanwork in the Gulf and at the Historical Center but werenot part of the SMCR.

Both Col Reynolds, who served as an infantry officeron active duty, and LtCol Cureton, an amtrack officer onactive duty, have published works for the Center andhold advanced degrees in history.

Col Nicholas E. Reynolds, left, accepts the “K-bar of com-mand” from departing commanding officer LtColCharles H. Cureton at the Historical Center in January.