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FORTITUDINEBULLETIN OF THE MARINE CORPS HISTORICAL PROGRAMHISTORICAL BULLETIN VOLUME XXVIII, NUMBER 4 2001

HISTORICAL CENTER’S FOUR-YEAR FOCUS ON MARINES IN THE KOREAN WAR . . . PUSAN, INCHON, AND SEOUL

CAMPAIGNS TOPICS OF NEW COMMEMORATIVE PAMPHLETS . . . MARINE CORPS MUSEUM’S MAJOR EXHIBIT HONORS

KOREAN VETERANS . . . CORPS’ KOREAN WAR RECORDS NOW AVAILABLE ON CDS . . . REMEMBERING VMF-311

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DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution isunlimited.

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2 Fortitudine, Vol. XXVIII, No.4, 2001

HISTORYAND MUSEUMSDIVISION

Marine Corps Historical CenterBuilding 58, Washington Navy Yard1254 Charles Morris Street, Southeast

Washington Navy Yard, D.C. 20374-5040Telephone (202) 433-3534

DIRECTOR EMERITUSBGen Edwin H. Simmons, USMC (Ret)

DIRECTORCol John W. Ripley, USMC (Ret)

Secretary to the Director: Ms. Kristen M. Reed

DEPUTY DIRECTORLtCol Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR

HISTORICAL BRANCHBranch Head/Chief Historian: Mr. Charles D. Melson.History Writing Unit: Mr. Charles R. Smith; MajRaymond J. Vanden Berghe, USMC; Dr. David B. Crist;Mrs. Wanda F. Renfrow. Oral History Unit: Mr. Fred H.Allison. Reference Section: Mr. Danny J. Crawford; Mr.Robert V. Aquilina; Mrs. Ann A. Ferrante; Miss Lena M.Kaljot; Mrs. Shelia Gramblin. Archives: Mr. Frederick J.Graboske; Miss Christine T. Laba.

MUSEUMS BRANCHBranch Head/Officer-in-Charge, Air-Ground Museum,Quantico: LtCol Robert J. Sullivan, USMC. Head, Muse-ums Section/Chief Curator: Mr. Charles A. Wood.Material History: Mr. Kenneth L. Smith-Christmas.Ordnance: Mr. Dieter Stenger. Aeronautics: Mr.Michael E. Starn. Uniforms: Mr. Neil Abelsma.Restoration: Mr. Mitch Garringer; Sgt Vibol Svy, USMC;Sgt Cedric D. Wheeler, USMC; Cpl Adrian Garcia,USMC. Exhibits: Vacant; Mr. Ronnie D. Alexander.Registrar: Mrs. Jennifer L. Castro. Programs Assistant:Mrs. Kathryn R. Trout. Operations/Security: Capt JimmyScott, USMC; Sgt E R. Brown, USMC; Sgt J. H. CheekUSMC; Sgt Yaron T. Reed, USMC; Sgt B. L. Stroman,USMC; Cpl Fidel C. Nunez, USMC; Cpl Patrick D.Symecko, USMC; Cpl J. H. Vantroostenberghe, USMC;LCpl Anthony W. Knode, USMC.MARINE CORPS MUSEUM UNIT, WASHINGTON, D.C.Exhibits: Mr. James A. Fairfax; Mr. Gordon Heim.Marine Corps Art Collection: Mr. John T. Dyer, Jr.

SUPPORT BRANCHBranch Head/Division Executive Officer: LtCol LeonCraig, Jr., USMC. Editing and Design Section: Mr. RobertE. Struder; Mr. William S. Hill; Mrs. Catherine A. Kerns.Library: Miss Evelyn A. Englander. Administration: 2dLtKatrina D. Patillo, USMC; Sgt Gordan N. Gipson, USMC;Sgt Joslyn V. Benjamin, USMC; Cpl Cassius B. Cardio,USMC; Cpl Ryan E. Ohnstad, USMC; LCpl Adrian J.Baldwin, USMC; LCpl Lukiya K. Walker, USMC, JoanbelM. Echeniquegomez, USMC. Security Chief: GySgtMichael D. Cousins, USMC.

Editor-in-ChiefLtCol Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR

FORTITUDINEMotto of the United States Marine Corps in the 1812 era.

Historical Bulletin Vol. XXVIII, No.4 2001

This quarterly bulletin of the Marine Corps historical program is published for Marines,at the rate of one copy for every nine on active duty, to provide education and train-ing in the uses of military and Marine Corps history. Other interested readers may pur-chase single copies or four-issue subscriptions from the Superintendent of Documents,U.S. Government Printing Office. The appropriate order form appears in this issue.

Fortitudine is produced in the Editing and Design Section of the History and Museums Division. Thetext for Fortitudine is set in 10-point and 8-point Garamond typeface. Headlines are in 18-point or24-point Garamond. The bulletin is printed on 70-pound, matte-coated paper by offset lithographyFor sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABOUT THE COVER

Memorandum from the Director: Korean War Not Forgotten at MCHCCol John W. Ripley, USMC (Ret) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Book Notes: Books about the Korean WarEvelyn A. Englander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

History Writing: Series Openers Look at Pusan, Inchon, and SeoulCharles R. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

In Memoriam: General Chapman,Twenty-fourth Commandant, RecalledRobert V. Aquilina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Historical Quiz: Marines During the Korean WarLena M. Kaljot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Heritage Center: Heritage Center Takes ShapeLtCol Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Answers to the Historical Quiz: Marines During the Korean WarLena M. Kaljot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Books in Review: Korean Operational Histories RevisitedCharles D. Melson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Combat Art: Combat Artists in the Korean WarJohn T. Dyer, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Remembering the Forgotten WarLtCol Robert J. Sullivan, USMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Ordnance Collection: The M3 Carbine and SniperscopeDieter Stenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Aviation Collection: VMF-311 Squadron RememberedMichael E. Starn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Exhibits: Commemorating Korea Through ExhibitsLtCol Robert J. Sullivan, USMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Archives: Korean War Records on CDsFrederick J. Graboske . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Field History: Marine Historians Document Riverine InitiativesCol Nicholas E. Reynolds, USMCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Uniform and Heraldry Collection: Cold Weather Combat ClothingNeil Abelsma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Oral History: Contribution of the 1st Provisional Historical PlatoonFred H. Allison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Marine Corps Chronology: War in Korea: July-December 1950Robert V. Aquilina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

The cover art depicts the official History & Museums Division logo for the 50th anniversary com-memoration of the Korean War. It was developed by our graphic artist, W. Stephen Hill, whoalso created the World War II commemorative logo (built around the Iwo Jima flag-raising immor-talized by Joe Rosenthal’s photograph and Felix deWeldon’s statue). Steve found Korea to be amuch more challenging assignment, since there was no similar universally recognized symbol ofthat conflict. He eventually focused on images from the Chosin Reservoir campaign and theamphibious assault at Inchon. He finally selected the image of Marines going over the seawallas representative not only of Marines in the Korean War, but also of the primary mission of theCorps itself. The official logo appears on the commemorative pamphlets, in our new web site,and throughout the various museum exhibits honoring the efforts of Marines in the Korean War.

Fortitudine, Vol. XXVIII, No. 4, 2001 3

Memorandum from the Director

Col John W. Ripley, USMC (Ret)

Perhaps the reader will not be sur-prised that this issue of Fortitudine

is dedicated to the commemoration ofthe Korean War and, especially, theMarine Corps veterans of that war.For present-day Marines, the Koreanbattles roll off the tongue with ease;Pusan, Inchon, Seoul, Chosin . . . andthe battles yet to be commemorated aswe enter the 50th anniversary dates inthe coming years. Here at the MarineCorps Historical Center we have con-verted the Special Exhibits Gallery intoa Korean War display. It has becomean instant favorite and we have beenvery pleased with the interest frombroadcast media, Korea veterans, thegeneral public as well as all Marineswho look at it and are somewhatastounded at the great accomplish-ments of our Korea veterans. We alsohave produced two other Korean Wardisplays, one in the Pentagon andanother in the Reserve OfficersAssociation building on Capitol Hill.Of course our largest display, whichhas been around for some time, is atthe Quantico museum; however, cli-matic conditions require us to closethat site in the winter.

We have also organized and par-ticipated in national obser-

vances of the Korean War events, fiveof which have taken place in 2000,and three of those with a Navy/MarineCorps focus. For the Chosin commem-oration, held at San Diego and CampPendleton, the Commandant of theMarine Corps hosted the event andseveral thousand veterans attended.Other participants included theCommandant General of the RoyalMarines and the Royal Marines Bandrepresenting splendidly the service oftheir 41 Independent Commandoattached to the 1st Marine Division inKorea. This was quickly followed by a

commemoration of Chosin and theHungnam Redeployment here inWashington at the Navy Memorial.

A recurring theme in all of theanniversary commemorations, the lit-erature, interviews with veterans, andcertainly in every discussion has beenthe abysmally unprepared state of theAmerican armed forces at the begin-ning of the war. From this unmistak-able subject the discussion transfers tohow we managed to overcome thisenormous weakness, and then go onto save Korea. Every Marine listeningto this discussion, or hearing theaccounts of veterans, picks up therock-ribbed basics of how Marinesthink, how they prepare, and mostparticularly, how they fight. It is reas-suring to realize that the lessons hand-ed down to us by Korean War Marineveterans are the same principles,lessons, and battle leadership that wepractice today. With understandablechanges in equipment, modernizationof the force, lethality in weapons—allof which makes us a different and per-haps more potent force—we are stillMarines who can be called on to per-form the extraordinary feats of armsthat our Korean War predecessorsaccomplished. The Marine of todaycontinues to be inspired to performhis mission by force of example of thepast; the images, the stories, the greatinspiration these veterans have givento us.

There have been noteworthy transi-tions here at the Center during

2000 beginning with my predecessoras Director, Col Michael F. Monigan.Mike Monigan retired in June after along and successful career of 31 yearsservice. His accomplishments shouldbe well known to readers and to visi-tors to the Center. It was Mike whorepresented the Marine Corps from

the beginning of the Air ForceMemorial incursion onto ArlingtonRidge. He was a visionary lendingmuch expertise to the original discus-sions of the Heritage Center, providingtimely and reliable guidance on whatwe could reasonably expect to dothere. He was also the author of theMemorandum of Understanding, thefirst formal document which estab-lished the relationship between theMarine Corps and the HeritageFoundation—an essential first stepbefore anything else could proceed.We also saw the retirement of RichardA. Long, who served the Divisionmany years in just about every capac-ity one can imagine. His great knowl-edge and expertise coupled with hisapproachable style made him asought-after individual by virtuallyevery veteran and researcher lookingfor the most arcane information thathad stumped others. If in this businessto be asked for by name is an indica-tion of your value, then Dick was avery valuable man. Ronald J. Perkins,our senior exhibit specialist inQuantico for the past 20 years, alsohas retired. He was a key person inthe creation of all the displays in theAir-Ground Museum—his contribu-tions and dedication will be greatlymissed. Judy L. Petsch, our able assis-tant archivist, has left the Division foremployment in the private sector.While here, she oversaw our vitaleffort to digitize paper records of theKorean War. We have also hired a neworal historian, Fred H. Allison, who weare most pleased to have on the team.He is a retired Marine Corps Reservemajor who spent most of his career asa radar intercept officer in F-4Phantoms. He is working on his dis-sertation for a doctoral degree in mili-tary history at Texas Tech University.

❑ 1775❑

Korean War Not Forgotten at MCHC

4 Fortitudine, Vol. XXVIII, No. 4, 2001

includes a useful bibliography of sug-gested reading.

Corpsmen: Letters from Korea. RichardG. Chappell and Gerald E. Chappell.Kent, Ohio: Kent State UniversityPress, 2000. 163 pp. The Chappellbrothers—twins actually—had gath-ered together their letters home writ-ten while they were corpsmen withthe 1st Marine Division in the KoreanWar. They were with the Marines forthe period of the “Outpost War” of1952-53. Their service concluded inIndochina. The book includes mapsand personal photos, and ends with achapter of reflections.

Colder than Hell: A Marine RifleCompany at the Chosin Reservoir.Joseph R. Owen. Annapolis, Maryland:Naval Institute Press, 1996, and 2000,reprint. 237 pp. This was written asthe author’s tribute to his Marine riflecompany in the early days of theKorean War, Baker Company, 1stBattalion, 7th Marines. First publishedin 1996, this book has been reprintedin the Blue Jacket Books series for the

Korean War commemoration.

Unexpected Journey: A Marine CorpsReserve Company in the Korean War.Randy K. Mills and Roxanne Mills.Annapolis, Maryland: Naval InstitutePress, 2000. 271 pp. This is an accountof Indiana’s 16th Reserve Battalionand the service of its members in theKorean War. In writing this, the Millshave combined historical researchwith interviews, correspondence, anddiaries to prepare this story of onereserve unit in the War.

Novels

Dog Company Six. Edwin H. Simmons.Annapolis, Maryland: Naval InstitutePress, 2000. 303 pp. Written by theDirector Emeritus of the Marine CorpsHistorical Center, who is himself aKorean War veteran, this novel followsReserve Capt George Bayard as heleads his company ashore at Inchonand through the battles of Seoul andthe Chosin Reservoir into the springoffensive where he is wounded. BGenSimmons received the Samuel EliotMorison Prize for Naval Writing withthis book.

The Marines of Autumn: A Novel of theKorean War. James Brady. New York:Thomas Dunne Books, St Martin’sPress, 2000. 274 pp. James Brady isalso a veteran of the Korean Warwhere he was a leader of a rifle pla-toon. Author of an earlier non-fictionbook about the war, The Coldest War,Brady may be best known for his writ-ing for Parade magazine. This is thestory of Capt Thomas Verity, USMCR,called back into action to fight in theKorean War. Verity was initiallyrecalled to active duty because of hisfamiliarity with several Chinesedialects, to monitor Chinese radiotransmissions for a short time only.He stayed on to fight in the ChosinReservoir Campaign and the with-drawal to Hungnam. ❑ 1775❑

This is a representative selection ofmemoirs and novels related to the

Korean War. Most of these books areavailable through local or onlinebookstores or through local libraries.

Memoirs and PersonalRecollections

First Hundred: A Memoir of theKorean War, 1952-53. John MinturnVerdi. Northport, Alabama: 1989. 169pp. 1stLt Verdi served two tours withVMF-311 in Korea, along with a five-month assignment as a forward aircontroller with the 1st Battalion, 5thMarines. This is his account of theland-based Marine Corps jet squadronand the pilots who flew the F9F air-craft. The author concludes with a bib-liography of suggested readings.

The Taking of Hill 610. Paul N. “Pete”McCloskey, Jr. Woodside, California:Eaglet Books, 1992. 407 pp. This isCongressman McCloskey’s memoirs ofhis service in the Korean War, duringthe winter and spring of 1950-51, withCompany C, 1st Battalion, 5th Marines,and his tribute to the many friends heserved with, particularly Capt Jack R.Jones and Lt “Spike” Schening, com-pany commander and executive offi-cer, respectively. The “Taking of Hill610” of the title occurred in June 1951.

A Marine’s Letters: World War II andthe Korean War. Sgt Fred T. Klemm,USMCR. Colorado Springs, Colorado:Colohi Productions, 1993. 187 pp.Sergeant Klemm’s letters home werewritten first from WWII where heserved with 6th Engineer Battalion,6th Marine Division, and then fromthe Korean War where he was withthe 1st Motor Transport Battalion, 1stMarine Division. His letters fromKorea cover Inchon, Seoul, the ChosinCampaign, and operations in Southand Central Korea. His letters wereedited by his daughter, Florence, whois now a reference librarian. She

Book Notes

Books about the Korean Warby Evelyn A. Englander

Historical Center Librarian


F ire Brigade: U.S. Marines in thePusan Perimeter is the first of

more than 10 Korean War 50thanniversary commemorative pam-phlets projected for publication by theHistory and Museums Division from2000 through 2003.

Written by Capt John C. Chapin,USMCR (Ret), an author and formerpublic relations executive, the con-densed history covers the formation,employment, and ultimate dissolutionof the 1st Provisional Marine Brigadeduring the fateful summer of 1950.

The violent attack of more than90,000 troops of the North KoreanPeoples’ Army south across the 38thParallel on 25 June 1950 set in motiona chain of events that would test themettle of America’s Armed Forces andthe resolve of the United Nations tostem the tide of Communist aggres-sion. Marines of the brigade andMarine Aircraft Group 33 answeredthe call and distinguished themselvesin three major engagements in the har-rowing defense of the PusanPerimeter.

While the 1st Provisional MarineBrigade and remnants of the U.S.Eighth Army fought with their backs tothe sea at Pusan, Gen Douglas

MacArthur, Commander in Chief, FarEast, envisioned a bold move to cutoff the North Koreans’ thrust to thesouth. The famous amphibious lefthook on 15 September 1950, whenthe 1st Marine Division, commandedby MajGen Oliver P. Smith, landed atInchon is at the heart of Over theSeawall: U.S. Marines at Inchon, thesecond pamphlet in the series.

BGen Edwin H. Simmons, USMC(Ret), Director Emeritus of the Historyand Museums Division and command-ing officer of Weapons Company, 3dBattalion, 1st Marines, at Inchon, laysout the events that led up to the land-ing; the taking of Wolmi-do by the 3dBattalion, 5th Marines; the subsequentlandings of the 5th, 1st, and 7thMarines; and the movement inlandtoward Seoul. From the light to medi-um resistance around Inchon to theheavy fighting as the 1st MarineDivision approached Kimpo Airfieldwest of the Han River, Simmonsdescribes the battle and the Marines’effective use of supporting arms,including close air support, as theyapproached the South Korean capital.

Often described as comparable tothe urban fighting in Stalingrad

or in the Paris of the Commune of the19th century, the campaign to regainpossession of the South Korean capi-tal of Seoul is vividly portrayed in theseries’ third pamphlet, Battle of theBarricades: U.S. Marines in theRecapture of Seoul. Written by theeminent Marine Corps historian andcommentator, Col Joseph H.Alexander, USMC (Ret), the historydescribes the slogging, street-by-street, door-to-door effort by Marinesto clear the city of North Koreanforces that began on 20 September.Although prematurely declared liber-ated by a U.S. Army corps commanderon 25 September, “three months to theday after the North Koreans launchedtheir surprise attack south of the 38thParallel,” the fight for Seoul actually

History Writing

Series Openers Look at Pusan, Inchon, and Seoulby Charles R. Smith

Head, History Writing Unit

would continue another 10 days.With the recapture of the capital,

the hostilities did not end. ColAlexander continues with the battlearound Seoul and the follow-on land-ing at Wonsan as United Nationsforces moved north, crossing the 38thParallel and widening the conflict.Finally, the author sets the stage forthe 1st Marine Division’s movementfrom Wonsan toward the ChosinReservoir.

The pamphlets in the remainder ofthe series are expected to have as

their subjects the Chosin Reservoircampaign; fighting on the east, central,and western fronts; Marine aviation,both fixed-wing and helicopter; andallied Marines, among others.

Copies of the first three and subse-quent Korean War pamphlets can berequisitioned by official Marine Corpsunits through Material ManagementBranch, Marine Corps Logistics Base,Albany, Georgia. For those interested inpurchasing copies, they may beordered from the Superintendent ofDocuments, P.O. Box 371954,Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15250-7954(http://bookstore.gpo.gov).

❑ 1775❑


Gen Leonard F. Chapman, Jr., 24thCommandant of the Marine

Corps, died 6 January 2000 in Fairfax,Virginia, at the age of 86. He wasburied on 14 January with full militaryhonors at Arlington NationalCemetery.

Born in Key West, Florida,Chapman accepted an appointment asa Marine second lieutenant in July1935, following his graduation fromthe University of Florida. During WorldWar II, he participated in combat oper-ations in the battles of Midway, theCoral Sea, Peleliu, and Okinawa. Hewas awarded the Legion of Merit withCombat “V” and the Bronze Star Medalwith Combat “V” for heroism duringthose campaigns.

Gen Chapman served as theAssistant Commandant of the MarineCorps from July 1967 until 1 January1968, when he became the 24thCommandant of the Marine Corps. AsCommandant, Gen Chapman oversawthe withdrawal of Marine ground com-bat forces from Vietnam in 1971.

His renowned organizational skillswere tested during the period of hiscommandancy by turmoil in theMarine Corps, which mirrored prob-lems of American society. While not

relaxing the Corps’ traditional stan-dards, he insisted that Marine officerstake positive steps to eliminate dis-crimination in promotions, assign-ments, and in social activities at MarineCorps bases.

Following his retirement in 1972,Gen Chapman served as Commiss-ioner of the Immigration andNaturalization Service, from 1973-76.

LtGen Donn J. Robertson, USMC(Ret), a highly decorated veteran oftwo wars, died 4 March 2000 in FallsChurch, Virginia, at the age of 83. Hewas buried on 22 March with full mil-itary honors at Arlington NationalCemetery.

Gen Robertson was a native ofWillow City, North Dakota, and a 1938graduate of the University of NorthDakota. He was a battalion comman-der on Iwo Jima, and was awarded theNavy Cross for heroism during thatcampaign. During the Korean War, hewas an advisor to the Korean MarineCorps, and later served asHeadquarters, Marine Corps in severalstaff posts.

Gen Robertson served two tours ofduty in Vietnam. He commanded the1st Marine Division during 1967-68,

and later returned to Vietnam in 1970as the Commanding General of IIIMarine Amphibious Force.

Following his retirement from theMarine Corps in 1972, Gen Robertsonserved as president of both the Navy-Marine Corps Relief Society, and theMarine Corps Historical Foundation.

MajGen Paul R. Tyler, USMC (Ret),died 6 March 2000 in Easton,Maryland, at the age of 86. A native ofRochester, New York, he was a 1936graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy.He served in the South Pacific, China,and the Philippines during World WarII, and in Korea, where he was the 1stMarine Division Supply Officer. GenTyler was the Commanding General ofthe Marine Corps Supply Center,Albany, Georgia, from 1963-65, andQuartermaster General of the MarineCorps from 1965-69, when he retiredafter 32 years of service.

BGen William A. Millington, USMC(Ret), died 14 March 2000 in Seattle,Washington, at the age of 85.

Born in Ruth, Nevada, he enlistedin the Marine Corps after graduating in1936 from the University ofWashington. He took flight training at

In Memoriam

General Chapman,Twenty-fourth Commandant,Recalledby Robert V. Aquilina

Assistant Head, Reference Section

Gen Leonard F. Chapman, Jr.

LtGen Donn J. Robertson MajGen Paul R. Tyler


history, and wrote The Battle forTarawa, an official account of the bat-tle, as well as books on the Saipan andOkinawa campaigns. He retired fromthe Marine Corps in 1969.

Maj Robert H. Dunlap, USMCR(Ret), a Medal of Honor recipient forheroism on Iwo Jima during WorldWar II, died 31 March in Monmouth,Illinois, at the age of 79.

A native of Abingdon, Illinois, heenlisted in the Marine Corps in March1942, and subsequently received hiscommission as a second lieutenant on18 July 1942.

During World War II, he took partin the Bougainville and Iwo Jima cam-paigns. It was in the latter battle thathe earned the nation’s highest militaryhonor, while serving as a companycommander. Maj Dunlap was wound-ed at Iwo Jima, and after evacuation tothe United States and subsequent hos-pitalization, retired from the MarineCorps in December 1946. ❑ 1775❑

During the Korean War, he servedas a company commander, andreceived the Medal of Honor for hero-ism during the bitter fighting at theChosin Reservoir. Col Sitter retiredfrom active duty in 1970, and workedfor the Virginia Department of SocialServices. At the time of his death, hewas attending divinity school inRichmond, Virginia.

Col James R. Stockman, USMC(Ret), died 17 February 2000 in Fairfax,Virginia, at the age of 84.

Born in Malta Bend, Indiana, hegraduated from Central Missouri StateCollege, and taught school before join-ing the Marine Corps in 1942. DuringWorld War II, he participated in com-bat operations at Saipan and Okinawa.He also saw service in Korea and inVietnam. His decorations included theSilver Star, Bronze Star, and Legion ofMerit.

Col Stockman was a well-knownand respected author of Marine Corps

Pensacola, Florida, was designated anaval aviator, and was later commis-sioned a Marine officer in 1939.

During World War II, he served withVMF-123 and took part in aerial com-bat over Guadalcanal and Munda. Helater commanded VMF-124. He alsoparticipated in carrier strikes againstJapan, including the Tokyo area. GenMillington retired from the MarineCorps in 1956.

Col Carl L. Sitter, USMC (Ret), whowas awarded the Medal of Honor forheroism in Korea during 1950, died 4April 2000 in Richmond, Virginia, atthe age of 77.

A native of Syracuse, Missouri, ColSitter attended public schools inPueblo, Colorado, and enlisted in theMarine Corps in 1940. He was given afield commission during World War II.He saw combat on Guam and in theMarshall Islands campaign during thewar, and received a Silver Star forheroism.

Identify these individuals or answer related questions:

1. Who were the two Commandants of the Marine Corpswho served during the Korean War?

2. How many Marines were awarded the Medal of Honorduring the Korean War?

3. This mascot, adopted by the 5th Marines, 1st MarineDivision, in Korea, joined the Marine Corps in October1952 to carry ammunition over the rugged, mountainousterrain to recoilless rifles on the front lines.

4. This Marine pilot and member of the Baseball Hall ofFame flew 38 combat missions during the Korean War.

5. The Marine Corps’ first African-American aviator, heflew combat missions against the enemy with VMF-212,and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and sixAir Medals for his service during the Korean War.

6. One of the most decorated Marines in the Corps’ his-

tory, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Crossand his fifth Navy Cross for heroism in action as com-mander of the 1st Marines during the bitter fight to breakout of Korea’s Chosin Reservoir area.

7. This woman served as the Director of Women Marinesduring most of the Korean War period.

8. This Marine aviator, who flew a total of 90 combat mis-sions during the Korean War, later went on to becomeone of the seven original astronauts and the firstAmerican to orbit the earth.

9. Which four Marine Corps regiments fought in theKorean War?

10. This well-known former talk-show co-host served asa Marine fighter pilot in World War II, and was latercalled back to active duty during the Korean War.

(Answers on page 9)

Historical Quiz

Marines During the Korean Warby Lena M. Kaljot

Reference Historian


In conjunction with the MarineCorps Heritage Foundation and the

Heritage Center Project Office, theHistory and Museums Division is mak-ing tangible progress toward realiza-tion of the goal of creating a brand-new, world-class museum and histori-cal center in Quantico, Virginia.Several important pieces of the initia-tive are slowly falling into placethrough the joint efforts of allinvolved.

Rigorous analysis and the generos-ity of Prince William County haveestablished a likely location for thenew complex just outside the maingate of the base. The wooded 135-acre site is bordered on the west byInterstate Highway 95 and on the eastby U.S. Route 1. The northern bound-ary is Route 619, which will provide

direct access from Exit 150 of theinterstate to the future museum. Anenvironmental impact statement isnearing completion and so far hasturned up no concerns. Congress haspassed and the President has signedlegislation authorizing Prince WilliamCounty to donate the land to theMarine Corps. The Project Office, theFoundation, and the County are final-izing the details of this planned trans-fer.

The Marine Corps will be fundingthe design of the Phase I building

and the development of a master planfor the entire site. This initial facilityof 120,000 square feet will have60,000 square feet of exhibits, officesfor the Foundation and some ele-ments of the Division, storage for the

combat art collection and a portion ofthe arms collection, and other ancil-lary spaces. A competition wasannounced in January to select anarchitect and the first step in thatprocess was completed later thatmonth. A technical panel, composedof government architects and engi-neers and representatives of theDivision and the Foundation,reviewed the submissions of numer-ous architectural firms. In Februarythe technical panel presented its rec-ommendations to the selection panel,which will announce a list for fourfinalists around the time this issuegoes to press. This summer they willpresent their visionary proposals forthe Heritage Center to the same selec-tion panel and a jury of nationally rec-ognized architects. With the advice of

Heritage Center

Heritage Center Takes Shape by LtCol Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR

Deputy Director

This drawing depicts one of the early concepts for theHeritage Center. By the end of 2001 an architectural firm

will be under contract to develop a final design for Phase Iof the future home of the History and Museums Division.


the architectural experts, the selectionpanel will recommend the best firm tothe Commandant for his approval.The winning architect will thenreceive the contract to produce a finaldesign and supporting constructiondrawings. The other three firms willreceive $50,000 each for their efforts.Based on the high quality of submis-sions reviewed by the technical panel,the Division can look forward to anattractive and functional home.

During the course of 2001 theDivision also will continue the

process of designing the exhibits thatwill fill the Heritage Center. With theassistance of a contractor in 2000, theDivision developed a plan to tell thestory of the Corps in 10 galleries, eachdepicting a distinct era in its history.LtCol Charles H. Cureton, USMCR(Ret), and Col Donna J. Neary,USMCR, have been working withKenneth L. Smith-Christmas of the

Museums Branch to flesh out that ini-tial plan with specific subjects forexhibits in each gallery. Later this yearthe Marine Corps will select a designfirm to turn these outlines into adetailed blueprint for the fabricationof displays. The Division also is iden-tifying the many artifacts that willrequire refurbishment before they cantake their place in the Heritage Center.

As part of the Memorandum ofUnderstanding completed with

the Marine Corps last year, theFoundation will pay for the construc-tion of the Heritage Center’s Phase Ibuilding, while the Corps picks upancillary costs such as the initial sitework, roads, and parking. TheFoundation continues to move fullspeed ahead with its fundraisingefforts. One element of the plan restsupon a Founders’ Group, a volunteerboard of businessmen and philan-thropists with experience in bringing

Answers to the Historical Quiz

Marines During the Korean Warby Lena M. Kaljot.

Reference Historian

(Questions on page 7)

1. Gen Clifton B. Cates, 1 January 1948 - 31 December1951 and Gen Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr., 1 January 1952 -31 December 1955.

2. 42.

3. Sergeant Reckless, a red Mongolian mare, earned thePurple Heart with one gold star, a Presidential UnitCitation with star, Korean Service Medal with three battlestars, the United Nations Service Medal, and the NationalDefense Ribbon for outstanding service.

4. Ted Williams, also a captain in the Reserves, alternat-ed his Marine Corps service as an aviator and jet pilot inWorld War II and Korea, with his civilian career, a BostonRed Sox outfielder.

5. LtGen Frank E. Petersen, Jr., designated a NavalAviator in October 1952, was also the first African-American Marine to attain flag rank in 1979.

6. LtGen Lewis B. “Chesty” Puller was a veteran of threeWorld War II campaigns and expeditionary service inChina, Nicaragua, and Haiti.

7. Col Katherine A. Towle, the second director of theMarine Corps Women’s Reserve, until its deactivation in1946, returned to the Corps in November 1948 tobecome the first Director of Women Marines after theywere constituted a regular component. Col Towle servedas Director until her retirement in April 1953.

8. Col John H. Glenn, Jr., flew 63 missions with VMF 311and, as an exchange pilot with the Fifth U.S. Air Force,flew 27 missions with the 25th Fighter Squadron, 51stFighter Interceptor Wing.

9. The 1st, 5th, 7th, and 11th Marines.

10. Ed McMahon, who retired as a colonel in the MarineCorps Reserve, flew more than 85 combat missions, earn-ing six Air Medals.

development projects of this scope tocompletion. That group now consistsof seventeen members. One of thefounders already has pledged $1 mil-lion to this project. The Foundation’sother focus of effort is raising moneyvia direct mail from Marines andfriends of the Corps. A test effort in2000 raised hundreds of thousands ofdollars and a second wave of appealsis achieving similar success. Thatprocess will continue until theFoundation has reached out to every-one with a connection to the Corps.Other Marines are taking it uponthemselves to assist in the fundraisingeffort. In September 2000 a group ofveterans from the New Orleans area,spearheaded by Major General JamesE. Livingston, USMC (Ret), pledged toraise a minimum of a million dollars tosupport the project. The goal of theFoundation’s overall campaign is toraise at least $25 million by 2005.

❑ 1775❑


Books in Review

Korean Operational Histories Revisitedby Charles D. Melson

Chief Historian

U .S. Marine Operations in Korea,1950-1953; five volumes; Wash-

ington, DC: HQMC, 1954-1972.The Marine Corps History and

Museums Division has published avariety of works since 1919. Theseinclude operational narratives indefinitive, monograph, and com-memorative forms. The most labor-intensive and long-lasting are thedefinitive histories of U.S. Marineconflicts in the 20th century. Theseworks take advantage of records andresearch that single-author mono-graphs cannot duplicate and serve asthe basis for commemorative publi-cations

With the 50th Anniversary of thewar in Korea it is a good time to lookat what provides the factual basis formuch of the renewed discussion. Thefive-volume series U.S. MarineOperations in Korea, 1950-1953 hadits origins in a series of 23 articles onvarious topics and time periods ofthe fighting, which appeared in theMarine Corps Gazette between June1951 and September 1953. LtColGordon D. Gayle, head of theHistorical Division at the time thewar started, developed the conceptof informing the Marine Corps aboutoperations in Korea on a timelybasis. The author of 16 of the articlesand head of the Korean HistorySection was Lynn Montross. Beforethis effort, the Nebraska nativeserved in World War I and was ajournalist. Two of the articles werewritten by Kenneth W. Condit, twoby Ernest H. Giusti, and three byboth authors. Mr. Giusti wrote bothas a civilian historian and as areserve captain on active duty.Historian Michael O’Quinlivan pro-vided background material for thearticles.

The actual preparation of volumesin the series and the develop-

ment of a concept of coverage began

in 1953 when LtCol Harry W.Edwards was the head of theHistorical Branch, G3 Division. AKorea veteran, Capt Nicholas A.Canzona, was assigned to collaboratewith Montross on the series. The firstvolume written by the two as co-authors was The Pusan Perimeter,published in 1954. In 1955, a secondvolume, The Inchon-Seoul Operation,appeared. Two years later, the thirdvolume of the series with the sametwo authors, The Chosin ReservoirCampaign, was published. Dr. K.Jack Bauer provided a large part ofthe research for these volumes.

Capt Canzona’s replacement as themilitary member of the Korean

writing team was Maj William T.Hickman. His work primarily in-volved research for Montross over amuch more extended period of com-bat than had been covered in any ofthe three earlier volumes. It was dur-ing this period that Montross, neverin good health because of injuriesreceived during World War I, was fre-quently sick for considerable periodsof time. The book was only partiallycompleted when Maj Hickman wasrelieved in 1959 by Maj Norman W.Hicks. At about the same time, MajHubbard D. Kuokka, a Naval Aviator,was assigned to contribute the avia-tion sections of the fourth volume.Following Montross’ death inDecember 1960, Maj Hicks complet-ed the volume, titled The EastCentral Front, which was publishedin 1962.

Work on the fifth and final volumeof the Korean War series began in1962 with Maj Hicks doing prelimi-nary research before Maj James M.Yingling replaced him. In August1963, Maj Yingling was reassignedfrom the Korean volume to beginwork on a high priority DOD-direct-ed history of Marine Corps opera-tions in Vietnam. At the same time,

Henry I. Shaw, Jr., was assigned towrite the fifth Korean War volume. InDecember 1963, Shaw was reas-signed to complete the third volumeof the World War II history series.The Korea book lay fallow untilAugust 1964 when Maj Yingling wasagain assigned as the author. JackShulimson was assigned as his coau-thor in March 1965, but was reas-signed later in the year to work onthe account of Vietnam operations.Maj Yingling retired at the end ofJune 1966, but was retained on activeduty for a year to continue his work.In January 1967, a Woman MarineReserve officer, LtCol Patricia A.Meid, on active duty for specialassignment, joined Maj Yingling ascoauthor of the volume andremained on active duty until June1970, completing the book. Opera-tions in West Korea by Meid andYingling, the largest volume in theseries, was published in December1972.

One other account, which wasprepared in the Historical Division byMontross, was Cavalry of the Sky,published by Harpers in 1954. MissKay P. Sue was the only member ofthe historical office who worked onevery volume of the Korean series asmanuscript typist, production assis-tant, and indexer. As can be seen,definitive history is a labor-intensive,time-consuming process. This effortis justified by the use made of thesevolumes by yet another generation ofMarines and scholars.

This article was based onReference Section material: “Fact

Sheet on U.S. Marine Operations inKorea, 1950-1953,” n.d. Most of thesetitles are out of print, but are avail-able on CD-ROM with the U.S. NavalInstitute’s The Sea Services in theKorean War, 1950-1953 and inreprint by R. J. Speights Publisher ofAustin, Texas. ❑ 1775❑


The Marine Corps established anextensive combat art program dur-

ing World War II that resulted in thecreation of many fine works. As didthe Services in general, that programwithered away during the lean budgetyears of the late 1940s. When theMarine Corps mobilized for theKorean War, it did not forget its com-bat art program. It formed the First

Marine Corps Combat Art Team anddeployed it to the scene of operationsin 1950. The first officer-in-charge wasMarine reservist 1stLt Joseph Cain, anartist and art teacher in civilian life.Artists MSgt John DeGrasse and SgtHubert Raczka, and photographerTSgt Frank Few, rounded out theteam. All were veterans of World WarII. The group operated out of Japan,but spent much of its time in Korea atthe front gathering primary material.During interludes in their Tokyo stu-dio, the Marine artists turned some oftheir sketches into finished paintings.This initial wave of artists returned tothe States in 1952 to complete morepaintings.

1stLt Avery Chenoweth, who hadspent the previous year as an

infantry officer in combat in Korea,inherited the officer-in-charge mantle

in 1952. The following year he passedit to 1stLt Russell Hendrickson, also aKorean War infantry veteran. The teamcontinued its efforts until the conflictwaned in 1953.

In addition to these official combatartists, a number of Marine veterans

came home and applied their naturalskills with pen and brush to capturetheir experiences. Leatherneck maga-zine also dispatched its own militaryartists to record the war for its readersand posterity. The work of severalcivilian members of the press observ-ing the Marines in action added to thebody of artwork depicting the Corpsin “The Forgotten War.”

Succeeding issues of Fortitudineduring this commemorative periodwill focus on the works of several ofthese distinguished combat artists.

❑ 1775❑

Combat Art

Combat Artists in the Korean Warby John T. Dyer, Jr.

Curator of Art

“Frozen Warrior” by Col John H.Rogers, USMCR (Ret), is a fiberglass fig-ure slightly over four feet tall. It givesthe appearance of cast bronze andevokes a chill on the hottest day. Rogerswas an officer attached to Marine AirGroup 12, which had the mission ofresupplying the 1st Marine Divisionand evacuating its wounded duringthe Chosin Reservoir campaign. Hewas inspired to memorialize thefatigued, sometimes frost-bitten,ragged, proud Marines when heobserved them boarding ships at theport of Hungnam.

“On the March” was created by Sgt Ralph Schofield, USMC. Elements of the 7thMarines Regiment are on the march near Koto-ri, Korea, in this pen-and-inkdrawing. It is one of three Schofield originals in the Marine Corps Art Collection.

The “Forgotten War” fought bythousands of Americans 50 years

ago in an inhospitable land is remem-bered by the History and MuseumsDivision through a number of exhibitsconstructed at sites in and aroundWashington, D.C. Banners, macro arti-facts, uniforms, posters, and photosgreet the visitor at the Korean Warportion of the Quantico, Virginia,Marine Corps Air-Ground Museum; ina joint services exhibit at thePentagon; and at the Reserve OfficersAssociation building in the District.(See “Exhibit News” for more detailson these displays.) However, the mostambitious effort by the Division to rec-ognize both the sacrifices and contri-butions of the Korean War veteransduring the 50th anniversary commem-oration period (June 2000 throughNovember 2003) is contained in the1,800 square feet of the SpecialExhibits Gallery of the Marine CorpsHistorical Center, Building 58,Washington Navy Yard.

Fifty years to the week after theNorth Korean People’s Army

invaded South Korea, the AssistantCommandant of the Marine Corps,


Remembering the Forgotten Warby LtCol Robert J. Sullivan, USMC

Head, Museums Branch

Gen Terrance R. Dake, and theDirector of Marine Corps History andMuseums, Col John W. Ripley, USMC(Ret), cut a ribbon at the entrance tothe Special Exhibits Gallery to official-ly open “Marines in the Korean War, aCommemorative Exhibition.” Theinvited guests—including Korean Warveterans, Young Marines, active-dutyMarines, and family members—weretreated to a sensory-provoking experi-ence. In the vestibule of the gallery,large photos of daily life in late 1940sAmerican society and the periodmusic emanating from a jukebox stir

Col John W. Ripley and Gen Terrance R. Dake cut the ribbon to open the newKorean War exhibit at the Marine Corps Museum in the Washington Navy Yard.

The Commemorative Exhibition formsa winding path through the SpecialExhibits Gallery and makes extensiveuse of David Douglas Duncan’s pow-erful images of the Marines in theKorean war.


the memories of older visitors and seta mood of the times for their youngercounterparts. As one enters the mainexhibit through a field command post,these pleasant thoughts quickly dissi-pate and are replaced by the dis-cernible (some say pungent) odor oftent canvas, dimmed lights, and aselection of black and white, emotion-filled images captured by the famedcombat photographer, David DouglasDuncan. The visitor is now “in coun-try.”

Objects and photographs from theKorean War confront the visitor

at every turn in the gallery’s twistingtrail. Three life-size mannequinsdressed in combat uniforms peer atthe visitor. Their facial expressions tella story of the bitter cold, burdens ofcombat, and confidence in their duty.Interspersed with the mannequins areadditional Duncan photographs, casesfilled with original Allied and Soviet-bloc weapons, equipment, personalitems, and panels of text with accom-panying maps. A space at the end ofthe gallery displays the flags and arti-facts of the United Nations forces thatparticipated. Here the viewer alsoreads the telegrams relating to the call-up of the Marine Reserves and sensesthe tremendous impact the conflicthad on families as well as the criticalcontribution of the Reserve to the wareffort.

In an unusual collaboration, theHistory and Museums Divisionworked with a contractor to designand build the exhibit. Over the courseof the nine-month project, Divisionpersonnel labored behind the scenesdrafting the theme, writing and editingthe text, identifying and preparing his-torical objects, modifying the gallery,coordinating with the contractor,guarding the site, paying the bills, andplanning the opening ceremony.These yeoman efforts were rewardedby the positive reactions of the guestsduring the opening of the exhibit.This gallery is one of many activitieshosted by the Marines of the presentto thank the Marines of the past. TheSpecial Exhibits Gallery is open to thepublic from 1000 until 1600, six days aweek (closed on Tuesday). ❑ 1775❑

The new exhibit contains numerous artifacts of the Korean War, to include manyof the weapons and pieces of individual equipment used by Marines and theiropponents.


to arms in Korea with the basic com-plement of weapons from the preced-ing war. The M1 and M2 carbines haddrawn severe criticism as an under-powered weapon. Among Marines,the carbine was not a favored weaponand was most often exchanged for thebasic M1 Garand. Then-GySgt HaroldE. Johnson, explained: “The carbinejust didn’t have enough stoppingpower. In Korea, the battalionsergeant major was the only Marine Isaw who carried a carbine. For themost part, no one carried the M1 car-bine in Korea, except when used inthe sniper role.

The M1 infrared sniperscope wasintroduced in 1945 during the

invasions of Luzon and Okinawa. TheM2 sniperscope was an improved ver-sion of the original M1 scope: bothoperated off a 6-volt battery. The M3sniperscope was larger and used anenhanced power booster for the 6-voltbattery. The M3 carbine was either anM1 or M2 carbine fitted with any of

Marines have often fought withunique weapons. One that is

rarely seen is the M3 carbine withinfrared sniperscope. As an effectivecomplimentary weapon used byMarines against Communist forcesduring the Korean War, it is on displayin the Special Exhibits Gallery at theMarine Corps Museum.

The semi-automatic M1 carbine wasintroduced into service in 1941, andmore than six million carbines wereproduced by the end of World War II.The M1 carbine had an overall lengthof approximately 35-1/2 inches andweighed roughly 5-1/2 pounds.Variants of the carbine included theM1A1, fitted with a folding metal stockfor use by airborne troops; the M2 car-bine, which allowed for select fire (fullautomatic) and incorporated a bayo-net lug for the M4 bayonet-knife; andthe M3 carbine, which was an M1 orM2 carbine fitted with an infraredsniperscope.

Five years after the conclusion ofWorld War II, the Marines were called

the available M1, M2, or M3 sniper-scopes.

As an instructor at the Marine CorpsOrdnance School at Quantico, Vir-ginia, Johnson had received special-ized training on the use of infraredsniper scopes. The scopes were codenamed “Bob Jones.” In late 1952,Johnson was the battalion ordnancechief for the 1st Battalion, 5th Marines,which was located just below the 38thParallel near Panmunjom. When thenew M3 scopes arrived in Korea, eachbattalion was to receive one scope.The regimental ordnance officer hadlittle faith in their capability, based onthe poor performance of the earlierM1 and M2 scopes, and gave all threeto Johnson. While maintenance on theM3 sniperscope was a nightmare andit took an entire day to recharge thebatteries, Johnson knew of theirpotential. He and his battalion soonemployed them with deadly accuracy,to ward off Chinese infiltrators

An M1 carbine and an M3 carbine(with sniperscope) can be viewed on display at both the Air-GroundMuseum at Quantico and in theSpecial Exhibits Gallery at the MarineCorps Museum, Washington NavyYard, Washington D.C. ❑ 1775❑

Ordnance Collection

The M3 Carbine and Sniperscopeby Dieter Stenger

Curator of Ordnance

Marines of the 1st Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Division, equipped with the M3infrared sniperscopes are on the firing line in Korea in 1953.

A Marine technical sergeant poseswith a personalized carbine in Korea.The cartoon picture in the back-ground suggests the inadequacy of theweapon, “Did you forget the BigThree? #1.- Helmet, #2.-Flak-jacket,and #3.- Slingshot.”


Aviation Collection

VMF-311 Squadron Rememberedby Michael E. Starn

Curator of Aeronautics

Virginia, in the Korean War building.Col Mendes’ flight equipment is cur-rently displayed on a mannequin fig-ure in the Special Exhibits Gallery atthe Washington Navy Yard. Col

Established in December 1942,VMF-311 did not deploy to the

Pacific until October 1943 because oftraining duties. However, in early1944, VMF-311 started a tradition of“firsts” by executing dive-bombingmissions using fighter aircraft. Littledid anyone know that eight shortyears later this same squadron wouldenter the Korean War and continuesetting “firsts” as it had during WorldWar II. On 10 December 1950, ColNeil R. MacIntyre, then the com-manding officer of VMF-311, flew thefirst Marine Corps jet combat missionfrom Yonpo at the controls of aGrumman F9F-2 Panther. In June1951, this squadron would go on toset a record of 2,300 combat missionsin one month. This squadron was notonly known for its record-settingevents, but also for its famous indi-vidual men such as baseball’s hall offamer Capt Ted Williams, and astro-naut and later Senator, Col John H.Glenn.

In 1984, good fortune smiled onthe Museums Branch twice. The firsttime was a trade acquisition of anF9F-2 that later turned out to be oneof two F9F aircraft to fly the firstMarine Corps jet combat missions inKorea. The second was a donation ofa helmet, flight suit, knee board, andfuel charts from Col MacIntyre. Afterhis visit, Col MacIntyre confirmedthat the aircraft that had beenacquired for the collection wasindeed the very aircraft that he hadflown on 10 December 1950. In 1999,fate smiled again on the MuseumsBranch with a donation from ColJoseph Mendes, USMCR (Ret), of hishelmet, flight scarf, flight suit, severaldress uniform items, and other per-sonal memorabilia which he usedduring his tour as the operations offi-cer of VMF-311.

In October 1990, the F9F-2 wasplaced on exhibit at the Marine CorpsAir-Ground Museum at Quantico,

MacIntyre’s donation currentlyresides in the reserve collection, butwill be placed on exhibit with theF9F in the planned Marine CorpsHeritage Center. ❑ 1775❑

An exhibit case contains Col Mendes’ leather flight jacket. The jacket is on loanfor the recently opened Korean War exhibit at the Marine Corps Museum.


people walk through the old hangarand see weapons, equipment, air-craft, photographs, and other artifactsrepresenting the activities of Marinesduring the “Forgotten War.” In prepa-ration for the ongoing 50th anniver-sary of the conflict, the MuseumBranch researched, planned, andinstalled additional temporaryexhibits and banners to update thispresentation. The new materialincludes a number of personal testi-monies of the veterans themselves.

The Pentagon hosts another sitecommemorating the Korean War.

A 65-foot exhibit, prepared by themuseum staffs of all four Services,graces one corridor of the mammothbuilding. Panels containing photos,text, and maps detail the efforts of

An earlier article in this edition ofFortitudine focuses on the

History and Museums Division’sefforts in the Special Exhibits Galleryto educate the public about theKorean War and commemorate thesacrifices of the Marines who foughtin that conflict. While many visitorshave been able to experience thatpresentation, the Museums Branchhas extended its reach throughoutthe Washington, D.C. area with anumber of other Korean War dis-plays.

A primary alternative for visitorsremains the Marine Corps Air-GroundMuseum on board the base atQuantico, Virginia. One entire build-ing has been dedicated to the KoreanWar for many years. During themuseum’s open season, thousands of

the American armed forces. A num-ber of historical objects add a per-sonal touch to the display.

A final official Marine Corps site islocated on Capitol Hill, in theReserve Officers Association build-ing. This one-panel exhibit highlightsthe vital contributions of the MarineCorps Reserves in Korea.

The U.S. Marines played an impor-tant role during the Korean War.

In the past year, the History andMuseums Division has devoted aconsiderable amount of its resourcesto ensure that those deeds andaccomplishments are fully recog-nized by modern Marines, friends ofthe Corps, and the public. A trip toview any of the resulting exhibits willbe time well spent. ❑ 1775❑

Exhibits

Commemorating Korea Through Exhibitsby LtCol Robert J. Sullivan, USMC

Head, Museums Branch

This Korean War commemorative display in the Pentagonprovides a sampling of the much larger exhibits with the

same theme at museums in the Washington Navy Yard andat Marine Corps Base, Quantico.


Archives

Korean War Records on CDsby Frederick J. GraboskeMarine Corps Archivist

In commemoration of the 50thanniversary of the Korean War the

Archives Section digitized all of theparticipating U.S. Marine Corps units’operational records, plus many oralhistory transcripts related to the war.We began planning this project sever-al years ago when we had to addressthe documents’ long-term preserva-tion. The paper used during the peri-od of the Korean War is highly acidic;after 50 years it had become yellowand brittle. The increasing demand forthese records over the next few yearswould cause irreparable damage tosome of them, so we decided to digi-tally image the records in order tosave their information and to improvedistribution.

Imaging is like photocopying; theresult is an exact image of the originaldocument. It is not possible to searchthe text for specific terms, but 95% ofour customers are veterans, whoseinterest is solely in the records of theirunits during their periods of service.We could have produced searchabletext, using optical character recogni-tion (OCR) technology, but the cost tothe government would have beenthree times what was ultimately paidto the contractor. Using OCR on olddocuments also produces errors thatalter the text from its original state.Having a limited budget, and a desireto maintain historical accuracy, weopted for the alternative, whichallowed us to digitize all the units’operational reports.

The result of our work is a set of 25CD-ROMs, each of which contains

the finding aid to the entire set. Therecords are organized by unit desig-nation, thereunder chronologically.This organization replicates the paperrecords. A researcher can search thelist of units, click on his choice, thensee the list of months for which wehave records. By clicking on a specif-ic month, the researcher will promptthe CD to display a box telling himwhich CD contains that record. Hecan access the oral history transcriptsby clicking “Transcripts,” which willprompt the computer to display thealphabetical listing of the dozens ofindividuals from whom we have oralhistories about Korea. Having loadedthe correct CD into his computer, theresearcher then can manipulate theimages, making the image fill thescreen or returning to a half-screendisplay, scrolling backward or for-ward through the document, or mov-ing immediately to the beginning orend. He can print specific pages orthe whole document.

In order to make these 211,000pages readily accessible to Marinesand veterans anywhere in the world,

we eventually hope to load them onour website. In the meantime theHistory & Museums division is notable to sell copies of the 25 CD-ROMs. However, individuals whowish to order personal copies of themmay do so through the DefenseTechnical Information Center (DTIC).The charges are as follows: 1 CD is$31; 2, $41; 3-4, $56; 5-8, $71; 9-12,$131; 13+, $161. There are obviousadvantages to purchasing entire sets,but even the cost for 1 CD is muchless than our fees for copying thatnumber of pages.

DTIC’s mission is to service gov-ernment agencies, but it has the

capability to accommodate one-time-only customers. For information onthis service the web address is http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/reprocess.html.DTIC normally provides copies oftheir CDs to the National TechnicalInformation Service (NTIS), whichdoes respond to inquiries from out-side the government. We have given aset of the Korean War CDs to NTIS,and it appears in their catalog, but wehave no information on pricing forthe set. Their web address ishttp://www.ntis.gov. We hope tohave links to both agencies availableon our web site. ❑ 1775❑

This page taken from the Korean WarCD set shows the clarity of the digi-tized records now available to veter-ans and researchers.


Field History

Marine Historians Document Riverine Initiativesby Col Nicholas E. Reynolds, USMCR

Officer-in-Charge, Field History Branch

interview the appropriate action offi-cers and to collect the documents thatthey had produced.

My point of contact at SouthComwas Dr. John Pitts, the SouthCom histo-rian, who was to be my host during atwo-week stay in Miami in August.Like many command historians, Johnhad collected a valuable set of docu-ments, and I was able to cull the mate-rial that bore on riverine warfare. Healso arranged for me to meet some ofthe action officers at SouthCom, whoconsented to taped interviews aboutriverine warfare. One contact led toanother, and soon I was talking toBGen Michael Aguilar, Commander ofMarForSouth, and retired Col PaulOttinger. Gen Aguilar told me where hesaw the program going in the future,while Col Ottinger described its originsin Panama in the mid-1990s when theMarine Corps began to show an inter-est in riverine operations. Col Ottinger,interestingly enough, was studyingriverine operations for Booz, Allen, andHamilton, on contract to SouthCom,and had collected an impressive set ofhistorical documents which he waskind enough to offer to share.

I found out that the focus ofMarForSouth’s riverine effort was the

Joint Riverine Training Center atIquitos, Peru. Iquitos is a small city inthe northeastern part of the Amazonbasin, where the Amazon is roughly amile wide. The mission is to trainPeruvian police and Coast Guard forriverine operations, which are intendedto deny the use of the river to the drugtrade. The Peruvian school was built byU.S. funds and is supported by a groupof American advisors (mostly Marineswho come from Camp Lejeune for sixmonths at a stretch). The U.S. has pro-vided the hardware, especially theriverine patrol craft which do not lookmuch different from President John F.Kennedy’s P.T. 109 in pictures.

I came away from Miami with aresearch agenda, which included the

The mission of the Field HistoryBranch of the Marine Corps History

and Museums Division is to deploy tothe field to collect the raw material that,one day, will be turned into finishedhistory. Over the last decade, theBranch’s Reserve Marines havedeployed to major contingenciesthroughout the world, including thePersian Gulf, Somalia, Haiti, and theformer Republic of Yugoslavia, placeswhere they have collected documents,conducted interviews, and pho-tographed events. The key point is thatthey have been there, on scene, whilethe operations were unfolding; theyhave captured Marine Corps history inthe making.

During quiet times, one of the chal-lenges for the Branch is to try to predictwhere the Corps will focus its resourcesin the future and then to capture theinitial stages of an initiative and itsbackground. This was the case in thesummer of 2000 when the Branchdeployed to collect material on riverineoperations.

In the beginning, there were informalconferences between Southern

Command (SouthCom) and theDirector of Marine Corps History andMuseums, retired Col John W. Ripley,about SouthCom’s riverine operationsin South America. Col Ripley thenturned to me, and I began to researchthe background of the subject. I dis-covered through contact with officersat Marine Forces, South (MarForSouth),the Marine component of SouthCom,that the Marine Corps was running aschool center in Peru and trainingColumbian Marines in riverine tech-niques, two initiatives promoted byGen Charles Wilhelm, the SouthComCommander-in-Chief, who was the firstMarine officer to hold that position. Iwas intrigued by the thought of travel-ling to South America to conductresearch on the ground, but I realizedthat the next step would have to be lessexciting: travelling to SouthCom to

Pentagon, Camp Lejeune, and Iquitos.The next step in the process was forMaj Nathan S. Lowrey, USMCR, anexperienced field historian who haddistinguished himself in Kosovo in1999, to conduct research inWashington, D.C., and at CampLejeune for two weeks in the fall of2000. Interviewing Pentagon planners,Maj Lowrey found that there were his-torical disputes about riverine doctrinedating back to the Vietnam War, whenit was the exclusive province of theNavy, and that the Marine Corps hadexperienced three successive surges ofinterest in developing a riverine capa-bility, 1990-1994, 1996-1997, and 1998-2000. Although counter-narcotics pro-vided the impetus in each case, therehas also been a mindset that hasemphasized the need for conventionalriverine capabilities around the globein a variety of settings. This means thatthe Navy and the Marine Corps havewrestled with the issue of which ser-vice should devote how manyresources to riverine warfare, withanswers ranging from “none” to “all” invarious combinations. Maj Lowrey trav-elled next to Camp Lejeune, the homeof the Riverine Training Center, to get afeel for its activities. There he talked tothe operators and walked the ter-rain—figuratively, at least. The nextstage will be for the Field HistoryBranch to deploy historians to Iquitosto document operations in SouthAmerica. This will probably happen in2001.

Has the Field History Branch pre-dicted the future? That is, are its

historians gathering data on the originsof what will be an important missionarea for the Marine Corps in the 21stcentury? Perhaps. But the least theBranch will have achieved through itswork on riverine operations is to docu-ment an interesting doctrinal disputeand the efforts of Marines who werecommitted to making a contribution tothe war on drugs. ❑ 1775❑


cold weather clothing of the KoreanWar can be viewed at the Air-GroundMuseum at Quantico, Virginia. Thisdisplay was designed and constructedby Exhibit Specialist Ron Perkins andnot only shows the clothing worn, butalso very stunning photographs ofwinter warfare. The Korean Warexhibit at the Marine Corps Museumin the Washington Navy Yard alsoshows a figure in the winter clothingworn during the Chosin breakout.

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from any contact with moisture. Anunsuspected added benefit resultedwhen the boot acquired a reputationfor protecting the wearer againstantipersonnel mines, for woundsinflicted were not as severe as hadbeen before. The new footwear quick-ly acquired the nickname, “MickeyMouse Boots,” from the oversizedshoes worn by the familiar cartooncharacter.

Late in the war, the M1951 coldweather clothing system was

issued. It was based on the same “lay-ering” principle as before, and includ-ed a loose-fitting white undershirt anddrawers, a half-wool long underwear,wool shirt and trousers, a standardwool sweater, a single pair of woolsocks, and a field jacket with liner. Aparka and overtrousers could beadded for exceptionally frigid weath-er.

The images of the Korean War willalways include the Marine wearing hiscold weather clothing in the ruggedterrain of Korea. The experiencesgained from the conflict and the inno-vations made are evident in today’sequipment and tactics. An exhibit on

The U.S. Marine Corps entered 1950with limited experience in cold

weather field operations, but in theKorean War they had to deal with tem-peratures that sank to -35

oF at night

and rarely rose above 0o F in daytime.

The cold and terrain were to be asmuch of a problem as the opposingforces, and ground action was affectedon both sides by the severe winterweather. The cold froze rations, medi-cine, and the perspiration inside com-position shoe pac boots. Canteensburst, oil on weapons froze, and frost-bite afflicted the men. In this extremecold, most of a Marine’s energy wasused up in keeping warm. Cold notonly affected the body but also themorale of troops. In addition, bulkycold weather clothing was a handicapto movement and the use of weapons.

During the Chosin Reservoir break-out in November and December 1950,of the 3,063 nonbattle casualties, nearlyall were frostbite cases. The importanceof proper clothing and equipment thuswas a vital issue. The winter uniformissued in November 1950 closely resem-bled the Army pattern and was basedon the “layering” principle, with a vari-ety of garments worn one over theother. This included the M1943 jacket,trousers, pile cap, parka, and the inad-equate leather and rubber shoe pac.

In response to the suffering of troopsduring the cold winter of 1950-51, the

first shipment of the newly developedinsulated rubber combat boots, or ther-mal boots, were shipped to the 1stMarine Division in August 1951. Theseboots, considered to be one of theimportant innovations of the war, weresuperior to the shoe pac worn duringthe previous winter. They were a hugesuccess when introduced, since theypractically eliminated frostbite andtrench foot. The thermal boot used thevapor barrier principal of air spacetrapped between inner and outer layersof wool pile insulation, both of whichwere completely sealed off by rubber

Uniform and Heraldry Collection

Cold Weather Combat Clothingby Neil Abelsma

Curator of Uniforms and Heraldry

Marines of Company D, 7th Marines, warm their rations and themselves besidea fire before advancing west of the Chosin Reservoir on 27 November 1950. Notethe high-laced shoe pacs worn by the Marines on the left.

PFC James F. Toy receives his coldweather clothing issue at the 1stMarine Division supply center fromSergeant Peter T. Malabis. The newthermal boot was to be the most signif-icant change in the clothing system.


Oral History

Contribution of the 1st Provisional Historical Platoonby Fred H. Allison

Oral Historian

“Of course we had replacementsduring this time...he was sent

as a replacement whether he waswell-trained or not because we almostdesperately needed more men in ouroutfits. He was put in a Marine uni-form, he was sent up, and he wasstuck in a rifle company, and it justseemed that he was going to behaveproperly. That’s all there was to it. Ithink he was probably more afraid ofwhat his friends would think of him ifhe acted improperly and did not juststay there and shoot...than he was ofthe effects of the enemy fire uponhim. The men weren’t afraid of theenemy; the fact of a pretty stiff attackwas just a normal thing to happen.You got a stiff attack and you repulsedit, and that’s all there was to it. Therewas never any thought or considera-tion of the fact that you might with-draw. It’s just the old Marine trainingapplied to this war, and it is certainlymost effective.”

The above quote is from a field his-tory interview done with 1st Battalion,5th Marines forward observer, 2dLtOrlo C. Paciulli on 13 February 1951by a member of the 1st ProvisionalHistorical Platoon. This revealingquote on Marine Corps esprit de corpsat the Chosin Reservoir is only a sam-ple of the rich primary source materi-al found in the approximately 150interviews done by this pioneeringhistorical unit.

The concept of professional histori-ans working in the field to docu-

ment combat operations in its timewas a new endeavor for the MarineCorps. Dissatisfied with the Corps’efforts to capture operational historyin World War II, LtCol Robert D. Heinl,Jr. (head of the Historical Section,1946-49), initiated efforts to identifyprofessional historians in the MarineCorps Reserve who could be orga-nized into a historical unit in case ofwar. He looked to the U.S. Army’s

difficulty in its mission. Because theywere on TAD orders the teams foundit difficult to obtain logistic support.Secondly, their “outsider” statuscaused them to be regarded as agentsof higher headquarters who were sentto spy on Marine units in Korea.Ultimately the Historical Platoon wasdisbanded by order of the Comman-dant on 7 July 1952. The historianswere absorbed into larger commandsand historical documentation revertedto the traditional methods.

Although they did not accomplishall that they had hoped, the 1stProvisional Historical Platoon, never-theless, made a valuable contributionto the documentation of the KoreanWar. The interviews conducted by thehistorians provide a wealth of infor-mation on the war not conveyed inofficial documents. Marines andsailors of various ranks and militaryoccupational specialties were queriedon a wide range of historically signifi-cant topics, such as close air support,morale, weather, weapons utilizationand effectiveness, and clothing andgear. As a resource for providing apersonal perspective of battles thatwould later hallow the halls of MarineCorps history, such as Pusan, Inchon,and Chosin, the collection of inter-views done by the 1st ProvisionalHistorical Platoon are without parallel.

Unfortunately these interviewswere not recorded. Rather, hand-

written notes were taken, then typed,for an official copy of the interview.These are what are retained in the filesof the Historical Division. Easily acces-sible and researcher-friendly, the inter-views are catalogued by name of theperson interviewed and cross-refer-enced by subject field. Indeed, theseinterviews have been aptly used byauthors and others, particularly thoseinvolved in the current Korean War50th Anniversary Commemoration.

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World War II experience, in whichprofessional historians served in his-torical units to document operations,as a model. He did not realize howtimely this initiative would be.

As thousands of Marines mobilizedto counter the invasion of South

Korea by the North Korean People’sArmy, the historian reservists, alreadyidentified by Heinl’s initiative, alsomobilized. Thus the 1st ProvisionalHistorical Platoon was established,coincidentally on 7 August 1950, thesame day that Marine units went intoaction at the Pusan Perimeter. Headedby Maj Edward L. Katzenbach, theHistorical Platoon was divided intotwo field teams with a headquarters atFMFPac in Hawaii. One of the field

teams was attached on a temporaryadditional duty (TAD) basis to the 1stMarine Aircraft Wing, and one to the1st Marine Division. The wing teamwas led by Capt Sanford W.Higginbotham, in civilian life a profes-sor at Rice University, while CaptKenneth A. Shutts headed the divisionteam. Shutts had been the enlisted his-torian for the 6th Marine Division inWorld War II, while his assistant, 1stLtAlvin Z. Freeman had just retired fromthe faculty of William and MaryCollege. Another Marine, who servedwith the Historical Platoon at itsHawaiian headquarters, was 2dLtBenis M. Frank, a young ClarkUniversity graduate student. Frankwould go on to become the first headof the Marine Corps’ Oral HistoryProgram and later the Corps’ ChiefHistorian.

The platoon met with considerable

As a resource for providing a personalperspective of battles that would laterhallow the halls of Marine Corps histo-ry, such as Pusan, Inchon, andChosin, the collection of interviewsdone by the 1st Provisional HistoricalPlatoon are without parallel.


bitter combat. On 12 August, Gen MacArthur announcedthat the counterattack had obtained its objective with thestorming of enemy hill positions near Chinju. The combinedArmy and Marine force, known as “Task Force Kean,” suc-ceeded in turning back the North Korean threat to Pusan.The victorious, and fatigued, American forces enjoyed but abrief respite, however. On 13 August, a North Korean divi-sion succeeded in crossing the Naktong River near Obong-ni, thus threatening the American positions. Closing theresulting “Naktong Bulge” required the concerted effort ofGen Craig’s brigade. The 5th Marines, commanded by LtColRaymond L. Murray, made several assaults on North Koreanpositions before it succeeded in scaling the 1,000-foot “No-Name Ridge” on 17 August. An attempted North Koreancounterattack failed to dislodge the Marines, and the defeat-ed enemy units retreated back across the Naktong River.

In early September, North Korean ground forces began anew drive across the Naktong, assaulting 2d U.S. Infantry

Division units. Once more, the 5th Marines counterattackedin force, and by 5 September had pushed back the enemywith heavy losses. At midnight on the same date, the 1stProvisional Marine Brigade was disengaged from active

In conjunction with commemorations marking the 50thanniversary of the Korean War, Fortitudine will again fea-

ture a Korean War Chronology which originally appeared inthe bulletin from 1985-1987. The current installment of theChronology examines the defense of the Pusan Perimeter,the landing at Inchon, and the Chosin Reservoir.

Shortly before dawn on 25 June 1950, the North KoreanPeople’s Army swept across the 38th Parallel into SouthKorea. Two days later U.S. air and naval forces wereordered into action. On 30 June, President Harry S. Trumanauthorized Gen Douglas MacArthur, Commander in Chief,Far East Command, to send supporting U.S. ground forcesto Korea. Gen MacArthur requested the immediate dispatchto Korea of a Marine Corps regimental combat team with itsown air support. The Joint Chiefs of Staff decided on 3 Julyto send Marines. The 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, underthe command of BGen Edward A. Craig, and comprisingabout 7,000 Marines, prepared to ship out by sea fromCamp Pendleton, California. Marine air units of the brigade,under the command of BGen Thomas J. Cushman, preparedto depart from El Toro, California, where they were drawnfrom elements of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing (1st MAW).

The 1st Brigade sailed from San Diego on 12 July forPusan, and the advance echelon of the 1st MAW con-

tingent departed for Tokyo by aircraft on 16 July. GensCraig and Cushman met with Gen MacArthur on 19 July,and were apprised of his intention to land Marine forces atInchon in September. While this strategy session was takingplace, President Truman called the Organized Marine CorpsReserve to active duty.

By mid-July, the North Korean Army occupied nearlyhalf of South Korea, and launched a major drive againstAmerican positions near Taejon. The severity of the situa-tion was emphasized by a Commandant of the MarineCorps directive on 25 July that the entire 1st Marine Divisionbe brought to full war strength, and prepare to embarkbetween 10 and 15 August for duty in Korea. Marine avia-tion elements in the Far East were to be increased simulta-neously from a single group to a wing.

The first elements of the 1st Brigade came ashore atPusan on 2 August. The following day, the first Marine avi-ation mission against the North Koreans was flown from theUSS Sicily by eight Corsairs of VMF-214 in a raid againstinstallations at Chinju and Saon-ni. This initial raid was fol-lowed three days later by a strike of Corsairs from VMF-323on the Badoeng Strait against North Korean positions westof Chinju.

From 7-10 August, Army and Marine units staged theirfirst strong counterattack of the war just east of Chinju,when they drove the North Koreans back over 13 miles in

Marine Corps Chronology

War in Korea: July-December 1950by Robert V. Aquilina

Assistant Head, Reference Section

Members of Anti-Tank Company, 5th Marines, passdestroyed North Korean T-34 tanks following the 17-19August Battle of Obong-ni Ridge, during the defense of thePusan Perimeter.


effectively provided by squadrons of the 1st Marine AircraftWing, flying from carriers during the amphibious assault,and subsequently based at Kimpo. By 20 September,Marines had crossed the Han River along a six-mile beach-head. Marine columns cut the road to Pyongyang, the NorthKorean capital, and approached the outskirts of Seoul. TheSouth Korean capital itself was reached on 25 September bythe 1st and 5th Marines. In two days of house-to-housefighting, the 1st Marine Division liberated Seoul from itscaptors to pave the way for South Korean PresidentSyngman Rhee’s triumphal reentry to his capital city.

The U.S. Eighth Army was conducting a combined offen-sive to the south, and on 26 September advance units madecontact just south of Seoul with X Corps. Col Homer L.Litzenberg’s 7th Marines, after landing on the 21st, pushedrapidly north of Seoul to seize Uijongbu, and the main roadto the North Korean capital of Pyongyang.

Planned in a record time of approximately 20 days, theInchon Seoul operation dealt a stunning blow to the

North Korean People’s Army. The capability and readinessof Marines in executing a major amphibious assault underthe most difficult conditions of weather and geographyearned the glowing admiration of Gen MacArthur and theAmerican public. With the North Korean Army on the run,rumors abounded that the war would soon be over, and the“boys home by Christmas.”

Following the successful conclusion of the Inchon-Seoulcampaign, the 1st Marine Division was relieved by EighthArmy elements and proceeded by sea around the Koreanpeninsula to seize Wonsan. The collapse of North Koreanresistance was so rapid, however, that resurgent Republic ofKorean forces took the port city without a fight.Subsequently, the 1st Marine Division made an unopposedlanding on 26 October. While the 1st Marines was assignedpatrolling and blocking missions in the vicinity of Wonsan,the 5th and 7th Marines were ordered by X Corps to pro-ceed north to Hamhung, in preparation for a major UnitedNations drive towards the Yalu River and Manchurian bor-der.

Although considerable intelligence placed large numbersof Chinese Communist forces across the Yalu River,

Allied Headquarters in Tokyo stalwartly minimized theenemy presence, and ordered the 1st Marine Division tocontinue its northwest drive towards the Chosin Reservoir,the site of an important hydroelectric plant. Shortly aftermidnight on 3 November, the 7th Marines had the firstlarge-scale action of American forces with invading ChineseCommunists. In four days of fierce fighting, the 7th Marinessoundly defeated the 124th Chinese Communist Division,and on 10 November entered Koto-ri. By 15 November, theregiment reached Hagaru-ri, followed in turn by the 5thMarines and 1st Marines, as MajGen Smith brought his 1stMarine Division regiments together along the main supplyroute from Hamhung to the southern tip of the ChosinReservoir.

On 24 November, Gen MacArthur launched simultaneous

combat with North Korean forces, to prepare for theupcoming amphibious landing at Inchon.

Throughout August 1950, plans were underway for amajor American amphibious operation on South Korea’s

western coast. The target city was Inchon, barely 25 milesfrom the occupied South Korean capital city of Seoul andits adjacent Kimpo airfield.

The numerous obstacles confronting the operation wereformidable. After navigating a narrow channel up from theYellow Sea, the attacking force at Inchon would confronttidal fluctuations of 31 feet, which flooded over 6,000 yardsof vast mud flats. This factor necessitated a landing date of15 September, unless the United Nations Command wishedto postpone the landing until mid-October. Undaunted bythe enormous difficulties, Gen MacArthur determined topress ahead with Operation Chromite.

The 1st Provisional Marine Brigade was disbanded on 13September, and its components absorbed into the 1stMarine Division. The commanding general of the divisionwas 57-year-old MajGen Oliver P. Smith, whose Marineswere assembled in the Inchon target area on the eve of D-Day as the landing force of X Corps, commanded byMajGen Edward M. Almond, USA.

Following preliminary air and naval bombardments,Battalion Landing Team 3/5 seized Wolmi-do Island in themorning hours of 15 September, followed by early eveninglandings of the remaining 5th Marines and 1st Marines bat-talions on the “beaches” of Inchon harbor. The NorthKoreans were caught unprepared, and barely one day afterthe landings, the 1st Marine Division was on the roadtowards Seoul.

On 17 September, LtCol Raymond L. Murray’s 5thMarines took Kimpo Airfield, crossed the Han River,

and captured enemy positions less than 10 miles north ofSeoul. The 1st Marines, under the command of Col LewisB. “Chesty” Puller, had meanwhile advanced directly towardthe Seoul suburb of Yongdungpo. Close air support was

In a much reprinted photograph, assault troops of the 1stMarine Division use scaling ladders and storm over the sea-wall at Inchon, on 15 September 1950.


which still held tenaciously to Toktong Pass. At Hagaru-ri,division elements were supplied by air-drops from the AirForce’s Combat Cargo Command and transports of the 1stMarine Aircraft Wing. More than 4,000 casualties were evac-uated by C-47s from an improvised airstrip.

On the morning of 6 December, the breakout southwardfrom Hagaru-ri to Koto-ri began in earnest with Marine

engineers blowing up supplies that could not be transport-ed. On 8 December, the 1st Marine Division with the RoyalMarines 41 Commando and elements of the U.S. Army’s 7thDivision, left Koto-ri and advanced towards Hungnam. Thecolumn reached Hungnam on 11 December, and by the15th the last elements of the 1st Marine Division sailed forPusan.

The Chosin Reservoir campaign cost the 1st MarineDivision over 4,000 battle casualties. Fourteen Marines wereawarded Medals of Honor for heroism during the advanceto the Chosin Reservoir and subsequent breakout duringNovember and December 1950. Seven of the medals wereawarded posthumously. The Chinese plan to destroy the 1stMarine Division lay shattered in the frozen landscape ofnorthwest Korea, along with an estimated 25,000 Chinesedead. “Bloodied but unbowed,” the 1st Marine Divisionunloaded at Pusan harbor for a well-earned Christmas rest.

❑ 1775❑

offensives of the Eighth Army in western Korea and XCorps in the northeast. On 25 November, Chinese forcesstruck the Eighth Army’s right wing, and effectively broughtthe Allied advance to a halt. The 5th and 7th Marines, hav-ing dutifully advanced westwards to Yudam-ni, were struckby three Chinese divisions on the night of 27 November.Additional Chinese divisions cut the supply route held bythe 1st Marines, while other elements struck at Company F,7th Marines, holding the vital Toktong Pass.

At beleaguered Hagaru-ri, MajGen Smith opened hiscommand post on 28 November. The 5th Marines was

ordered to hold its position, while the 7th Marines wasassigned the grim task of clearing the zone from Yudam-nito Hagaru-ri. At Koto-ri, Col Puller was ordered by MajGenSmith to put together a relief column to aid the hard-pressed defenders of Hagaru-ri. The resulting Task ForceDrysdale, composed of the 41 Independent Commando,Royal Marines, with elements of U.S. Marine and Armyunits, arrived on 29 November in Hagaru-ri after a day ofbitter fighting along the road from Koto-ri. The situation atHagaru-ri was by now almost desperate; heavy night attacksby bugle-blowing Chinese were repulsed on 28 and 30November. From 2 to 4 December, the 5th and 7th Marinesbattled through to Hagaru-ri over a twisting 14-mile moun-tain road in sub-zero temperatures, relieving Company F

A burst of flame and billows of smoke attest to the accuracyof close air support from Marine F4U-5 Corsairs at Hagaru-

ri, in late December 1950, during the Chosin Reservoir cam-paign.


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