ALSOBYGREGGRANDIN

Empire’sWorkshop:

LatinAmerica,theUnitedStates,

andtheRiseoftheNewImperialism

TheLastColonialMassacre:

LatinAmericaintheColdWar

TheBloodofGuatemala:

AHistoryofRaceandNation

FORDLANDIA

FORDLANDIA

TheRiseandfallofHenryFord'sForgottenJungleCity

GregGrandin

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“DEEPNIGHT”

RUDYVALLEE,CHARLIEHENDERSON

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“Santarém”fromTheCompletePoems1927–1979,byElizabethBishop.Copyright©1979,1983

byAliceHelenMethfessel.ReprintedbypermissionofFarrar,StrausandGiroux,LLC.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Grandin,Greg,1962–

Fordlandia:theriseandfallofHenryFord’sforgottenjunglecity/GregGrandin.—1sted.

p.cm.

Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.

ISBN-13:978-0-8050-8236-4

ISBN-10:0-8050-8236-0

1.Fordlândia(Brazil)—History.2.Plannedcommunities—Brazil—History—20thcentury.3.Rubberplantations—Brazil—Fordlándia—History—20thcentury.4.FordMotorCompany—Influence—History—20thcentury.5.Ford,Henry,1863–1947—Politicalandsocialviews.

6.Brazil—Civilization—Americaninfluences—History—20thcentury.I.Title.

F2651.F55G722009

307.76'8098115—dc22

200804964

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DesignedbyMerylSussmanLevavi

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13579108642

ToEmiliaViottidaCosta

Why,though,didweneedaMahagonny?

Becausethisworldisafoulone.

—BERTOLTBRECHT

TheRiseandFalloftheCityofMahagonny

CONTENTSINTRODUCTION:NothingIsWrongwithAnything

PARTI:MANYTHINGSOTHERWISEINEXPLICABLE

1:UnderanAmericanFlag

2:TheCowMustGo

3:AbsoluteAmericanisms

4:That’sWhereWeSureCanGetGold

5:Fordville

6:TheyWillAllDie

7:EverythingJake

8:WhenFordComes

PARTII:LORDFORD

9:TwoRivers

10:SmokeandAsh

11:ProphesiedSubjection

12:TheFordWayofThinking

13:WhatWouldYouGiveforaGoodJob?

14:Let’sWanderOutYonder

15:KillAlltheAmericans

PARTIII:RUBBERROUGE

16:AmericanPastoral

17:GoodLines,StraightandTrue

18:MountainsoftheMoon

19:OnlyGodCanGrowaTree

20:StandardPractices

21:BonfireoftheCaterpillars

22:FallenEmpireofRubber

23:TomorrowLand

EPILOGUE:StillWaitingforHenryFord

Notes

IllustrationCredits

Acknowledgments

FORDLANDIA

INTRODUCTION

NOTHINGISWRONGWITHANYTHINGJANUARY9,1928:HENRYFORDWASINASPIRITEDMOODASHEtouredtheFordIndustrialExhibitwithhisson,Edsel,andhisagingfriendThomasEdison,feigningfrightattheflashofnewscamerasasacircleofpoliceofficersheldbackadmirersandreporters.TheeventwasheldinNewYork,toshowcasethenewModelA.Untilrecently,nearlyhalfofallthecarsproducedintheworldwereModelTs,whichFordhadbeenbuildingsince1908.Butby1927theT’smarketsharehaddroppedconsiderably.Ahalfdecadeofprosperityandcheapcredithadincreaseddemandforstylized,moreluxuriouscars.GeneralMotorsgavecustomersdozensoflacquercolorsandarangeofupholsteryoptionstochoosefromwhiletheFordcarcameingreen,red,blue,andblack—whichatleastwasmorevarietythanafewyearsearlierwhenFordreportedlytoldhiscustomerstheycouldhavetheircarinanycolortheywanted,“solongasit’sblack.”1

FromMay1927,whentheFordMotorCompanystoppedproductionontheT,toOctober,whenthefirstModelAwasassembled,manydoubtedthatFordcouldpulloffthechangeover.Itwascostingafortune,estimatedbyonehistorianat$250million,becausetheinternalworkingsofthejust-openedRiverRougefactory,whichhadbeendesignedtorolloutTsintotheindefinitefuture,hadtoberefittedtomaketheA.Yetonthefirsttwodaysofitsdebut,overtenmillionAmericansvisitedtheirlocalForddealerstoinspectthenewcar,availableinarangeofbodytypesandcolorsincludingArabianSand,RoseBeige,andAndalusiteBlue.Withinafewmonths,thecompanyhadreceivedover700,000ordersfortheA,andevenFord’sdetractorshadtoadmitthathehadstagedaremarkablecomeback.2

TheNewYorkexhibitwasheldintheoldFiftiethStreetMadisonSquareGarden,drawingoveramillionpeopleandeclipsingthenearbyNationalCarShow.AllthemanystylesofthenewmodelwereondisplayattheGarden,aswastheLincolnTouringCar,sinceFordhadboughtLincolnMotorssixyearsearlier,givinghimafootintheluxurycarmarketwithouthavingtoreconfigurehisownfactories.ButtheFordexhibitwasn’treallyanautomobileshow.Itwasrather“builtaroundthisoneidea,”saidEdsel:“avisualdemonstrationoftheoperationoftheFordindustries,fromtherawmaterialstothefinishedproduct.”VisitorspassedbydisplaysofthemanicallysynchronizedworkstationsthatFordwasfamousfor,demonstrationsofhowglass,upholstery,andleathertrimmingsweremade,anddioramasofFord’sironandcoalmines,hisblastfurnaces,gasplants,northernMichigantimberlands,andfleetsofplanesandships.AfewevengottoseeHenryhimselfdirectoperations.“Speedthatmachineupabit,”hesaidashepasseda“mobilemodeloftwomenleisurelysawingatree,againstabackgroundofdenseforestgrowth.”3

Thoughhewasknowntohaveopinionsonmanymatters,asHenryFordmadehiswaythroughtheconventionhallreportersaskedhimmostlyabouthiscarsandhismoney.“Howmuchareyouworth?”oneshoutedout.“Idon’tknowandIdon’tgiveadamn,”Fordanswered.Stoppingtogiveanimpromptupressconferenceinfrontofanoldlathehehadusedtomakehisfirstcar,Fordsaidhewasoptimisticaboutthecomingyear,surethathisnewRiverRougeplant—locatedinFord’shometownofDearborn,justoutsideofDetroit—wouldbeabletomeetdemand.Nooneraisedhisrecenthumiliatingrepudiationofanti-Semitism,thoughwhileinNewYorkFordmetwithmembersoftheAmericanJewishCommitteetostagethe“finalsceneinthereconciliationbetweenHenryFordandAmericanJewry,”astheJewishTelegraphicAgencydescribedtheconference.Mostreporterstossedfeel-goodquestions.Onewantedto

knowabouthiskeytosuccess.“Concentrationondetails,”Fordsaid.“WhenIworkedatthatlathein1894”—thecarmakernoddedtothemachinebehindhim—“Ineverthoughtaboutanythingelse.”AjournalistdidaskhimaboutreportsofapricewarandwhetheritwouldforcehimtolowerhisaskingpricefortheA.

“Iknownothingaboutit,”repliedFord,whofordecadeshadsethisownpricesandwagesfreeofseriouscompetition.“Nothingiswrongwithanything,”hesaid,“andIdon’tseeanyreasontobelievethatthepresentprosperitywillnotcontinue.”4

FORDWANTEDTOtalkaboutsomethingotherthanautomobiles.ThepreviousAugusthehadtakenhisfirstairplaneride,aten-minutecircleoverDetroitinhisfriendCharlesLindbergh’sSpiritofSt.Louis,justafewmonthsafterLindberghhadmadehishistoricnonstoptransatlantictrip.Fordbraggedthathe“handledthestick”foralittlewhile.Hewas“strongforairtravel,”hesaid,andwasworkingonalightweightdieselairplaneengine.FordthenannouncedthathewouldsoonflytotheAmazontoinspecthisnewrubberplantation.“IfIgotoBrazil,”hesaid,“itwillbebyairplane.Iwouldneverspend20daysmakingthetripbyboat.”5

Forddidn’telaborate,andreportersseemedabitpuzzled.SoEdselsteppedforwardtoexplain.TheplantationwasontheTapajósRiver,abranchoftheAmazon,hesaid.

AmidalltheexcitementovertheModelA,mostbarelynotedthattheFordMotorCompanyhadrecentlyacquiredanenormouslandconcessionintheAmazon.InevitablycomparedinsizetoamidrangedUSstate,usuallyConnecticutbutsometimesTennessee,thepropertywastobeusedtogrowrubber.DespiteThomasEdison’sbesteffortstoproducedomesticorsyntheticrubber,latexwastheoneimportantnaturalresourcethatForddidn’tcontrol,eventhoughhisNewYorkexhibitincludedamodelofarubberplantation.“Thedetailshavebeenclosed,”Edselhadannouncedintheofficialpressreleaseabouttheacquisition,“andtheworkwillbeginatonce.”Itwouldincludebuildingatownandlaunchinga“widespreadsanitarycampaignagainstthedangersofthejungle,”hesaid.“BoatsoftheFordfleetwillbeincommunicationwiththepropertyanditispossiblethatairplanecommunicationmayalsobeattempted.”6

Inthemonthsthatfollowed,astheexcitementoftheModelAdieddown,journalistsandopinionmakersbegantopayattentiontoFordlandia,asFord’sBrazilianprojectsooncametobecalled.Andtheyreportedtheenterpriseasacontestbetweentwoirrepressibleforces.Ononesidestoodtheindustrialistwhohadperfectedtheassemblylineandbrokendownthemanufacturingprocessintoeversimplercomponentsgearedtowardmakingonesingleinfinitelyreproducibleproduct,thefirstindistinguishablefromthemillionth.“Myeffortisinthedirectionofsimplicity,”Fordoncesaid.OntheotherwasthestoriedAmazonbasin,spillingoverintoninecountriesandcomprisingafullthirdofSouthAmerica,aplacesowildanddiversethatthewatersjustaroundwhereFordplannedtoestablishhisplantationcontainedmorespeciesoffishthanalltheriversofEuropecombined.7

Itwasbilledasaproxyfight:Fordrepresentedvigor,dynamism,andtherushingenergythatdefinedAmericancapitalismintheearlytwentiethcentury;theAmazonembodiedprimalstillness,anancientworldthathadsofarprovedunconquerable.“Ifthemachine,thetractor,canopenabreachinthegreatgreenwalloftheAmazonjungle,ifFordplantsmillionsofrubbertreeswherethereusedtobenothingbutjunglesolitude,”wroteaGermandaily,“thentheromantichistoryofrubberwillhaveanewchapter.Anewandtitanicfightbetweennatureandmodernmanisbeginning.”OneBrazilianwriterpredictedthat

FordwouldfinallyfulfilltheprophecyofAlexandervonHumboldt,thePrussiannaturalistwhooveracenturyearliersaidthattheAmazonwasdestinedtobecomethe“world’sgranary.”Andasiftounderscorethedangerofthechallenge,justatthemomentFordwasdecidingtogetintotherubberbusiness,thepublic’sattentionwascaptivatedbyreportsofthedisappearanceoftheBritishexplorerColonelPercyFawcett.Havingconvincedhimself,basedonacombinationofarchivalresearch,deduction,andclairvoyance,oftheexistenceofalostcity(whichhedecidedtoname“Z”)justsouthofwhereFordwouldestablishhisplantation,Fawcettenteredthejungletofindit.Hewasneverheardfromagain.8

InthecaseofFord,whohadalltheresourcesoftheindustrialworldathisdisposal,journalistshadnodoubtabouttheoutcome,andtheyreportedonhiscivilizingmissioninexpectantprose.TimereportedthatFordintendedtoincreaseitsrubberplantingeveryyear“untilthewholejungleisindustrialized,”cheeredonbytheforest’sinhabitants:“soonboaconstrictorswillslipdownintothejunglecenters;monkeyswillsetupagreatchattering.BlackIndiansarmedwithheavybladeswillslashdowntheirone-timehauntstomakewayforfuturewindshieldwipers,floormats,balloontires.”Fordwasbringing“whiteman’smagic”tothewilderness,theWashingtonPostwrote,intendingtocultivatenotonly“rubberbuttherubbergatherersaswell.”9

Sincethesixteenthcentury,storiesofElDorado,anIndiankingsorichthathepowderedhimselfwithgold,luredcountlessfortunehuntersonfutilequests.ThewordquixotichasitsoriginsinastorysetontheSpanishplains,inthesamecenturywhenEuropeanswerefirstenteringtheAmazon.It’softenappliedtothoseentrancedbythepromiseofjungleriches,ascertainoftheexistenceoftheobjectoftheirpursuitastheManfromLaManchawasthatthewindmillshetiltedatweregiants.“IcallitZ,”saidColonelFawcettofhisfabledcity,“forthesakeofconvenience.”10

Ford,though,turnedtheElDoradomythinsideout.Therichestmanintheworld,hewasthegildedone—the“JesusChristofindustry,”oneBrazilianwritercalledhim,whileanothercalledhimaNewWorld“Moses”—andsalvationofBrazil’slong-moribundrubberindustryandtheAmazonitselfwastocomefromhistouch.The“KingdomofFordlandia,”however,wasdecidedlysecular,anditsmagictechnological.Ford’smoveintonorthernBraziltookplaceonthecuspoftwoeras,astheageofadventuregavewaytotheageofcommerce.11

Theirtimepassing,explorersactedasFord’sJohntheBaptists,walkingthroughafallenlandandheraldingitsdeliveranceevenastheyfadedfromthescene.TheodoreRoosevelt’sThroughtheBrazilianWilderness—anaccountoftheformerpresident’slastjungleexpedition,takenin1914,justafewyearsbeforehisdeath,tosurveyaheretoforeunchartedAmazonriver—predictedthatthetreacherousrapidsthatnearlycosthimhislifewouldeventuallyprovideenoughhydropowertosupporta“numberofbigmanufacturingcommunities,knitbyrailroadstooneanother.”FrancisGowSmith,amemberofNewYork’sExplorersClub,wasinBrazilsearchingforColonelFawcettwhennewsgotoutthatFordhadsecuredhisBrazilianconcession.Inalengthydispatchfromthefield,Smithdescribedhisnearlethalencounterwiththe“KingoftheXingu”—arichandruthlessrubberbaronontheXinguRiverwho“typifiesthefeudaltyrannyofplantationmethodsinBraziljustashisnewcompetitor”HenryFord“typifiesNorthAmerica’sindustrialenterprise.”The“junglemillionaire”terrorizedhis“peons,”keepingtheminastateofperpetualdebt,lockingthosewhodaredtochallengehisauthorityinstockades,beatingthemunmercifully,andleavingthemtolieforhoursonthegroundasvampirebats“feastupontheirbloodandhordesofantsgnawattheirbareskins.”HenryFord“hasnevermethisjunglerival,”Smithwrote,

buthis“BrazilianprojectwillbethewipingoutoftheKingofXingu’srubbermonopoly,theliberationofhispeonsandthedawnofanewdayforBrazilianprosperity.”12

THEAMAZONISatemptress:itschroniclerscan’tseemtoresistinvokingthejunglenotasanecologicalsystembutasametaphysicaltestingground,aplacethatseducesmantoimposehiswillonlytoexposethatwillasimpotent.Nineteenth-andearly-twentieth-centuryexplorersandmissionariesoftenportrayedthejungleeitherasevilinherentorasrevealingtheevilmencarryinside.Travelingthroughtheregionin1930,theAnglicanlayleaderKennethGrubbwrotethattheforestbringsoutthe“worstinstinctsofman,brutalizestheaffections,hardenstheemotions,anddrawsoutwithmalignandterribleintentioneveryevilandsordidlust.”TheodoreRoosevelt’saccountofhisexpedition,whichfirstranasaserialinScribner’s,likewisepaintedtheAmazonasamalevolentplace,wherethings“sinisterandevil”lurkedinthe“darkstillness”ofitsgroves.Ancienttreesdidn’tjustfallanddecomposebutwere“murdered,”garrotedbytheevertightertwistsofvines.Rooseveltdescribedthejungleasbeinglargely“uninhabitedbyhumanbeings,”portrayingitschallengesasnearlywhollynatural,evenpreternatural,capturedingothicdepictionsof“blood-crazy”fishand“bloodsucking”vampirebats.Thejunglewas“entirelyindifferenttogoodorevil,”hewrote,working“outherendsornoendswithutterdisregardofpainandwoe.”ForthosereadersnotfamiliarwiththetheologythathellistheabsenceofGod,theRoughRiderleftlittledoubtastotheanalogyhewasimplicitlydrawing:hebeganhistalewithadetailedseventeen-pagedescriptionoftreacherousserpents.13

Evenmorerecently,thosewhosurviveencounterswiththejungleprimevalareoftencompelledtosearchforsomelargermeaninginitsseverity,holdingitupasatouchstonetoexposethecharadeofhumanprogress.“Wearechallengingnatureitselfandithitsback,itjusthitsback,that’sall,”saidtheGermanfilmdirectorWernerHerzogofthehardshipsheencounteredinmakinghis1982filmFitzcarraldo.Herzog’snotoriousattempttoreplicatethecompulsionofhistitlecharacter,playedbyKlausKinski,andpulla340-tonsteamshipoveranAmazonmountain(themovieisbasedonthelifeofCarlosFermínFitzcarraldLópez,whohadthegoodsensetodismantletheboatbeforeproceeding)leadshimtopondertheethicalvacuityofthenaturalworld:“Kinskialwayssays[nature]isfulloferoticelements.Idon’tseeitsomuchaserotic.Iseeitmoreasfullofobscenity....Naturehereisviolent,base.Iwouldn’tseeanythingeroticalhere.Iwouldseefornication,andasphyxiation,andchoking,andfightingforsurvival,...justrottingaway.Ofcoursethereislotsofmiserybutitistosaymiserythatisallaroundus.Thetreeshereareinmisery,thebirdshereareinmisery.Theydon’tsing,theyjustscreechinpain.”14

ButHenryFord,alongwiththemenandwomenhesentdowntobuildhissettlement,provedtone-deaftothesekindsofmusings,tothemetaphorsandclichésthatentanglemuchofthewritingontheAmazon.Therewasastubbornliteralnessaboutthemidwesterners,engineersmostlybutalsolumberjacksandsawyers,manyofthemfromFord’stimberoperationsinMichigan’sUpperPeninsula.Confrontedbythejungle,theydidn’tturnphilosophical.Whentheylookedupintheskyandsawvultures,thoserank,jowledcarrioneatersthatinducedinotherAmazonwanderersasenseoftheirtransience,theythoughtofDetroit’spigeons.LifeinthedenseriverforestwashardonmanyoftheFordstaff.Boredomcouldbeoverpowering,andafewsuccumbedtodiseaseanddeath.Yetratherthanprovokingthoughtsofmoralityormortality,theAmazontendedtoinstillmelancholyinFord’spioneers,adesiretore-createabygoneAmerica,anAmericathattheFordMotorCompanyplayednosmallpartindispatching.

WhileheavoidedthemorefeverishadjectivesoftenattachedtotheAmazon,Fordnonethelesssawthe

jungleasachallenge,butithadlesstodowithovercominganddominatingnaturethanitdidwithsalvagingavisionofAmericanathatwasslippingoutofhisgraspathome.ThatvisionwasrootedinhisexperiencegrowinguponafarminDearbornandentailedusinghiswealthandindustrialmethodtosafeguardruralvirtuesandremedyurbanills.HewasinhissixtieswhenhefoundedFordlandia—orFordlândiainBrazilianPortuguese,thecircumflexindicatingaclosed,pinchedvowel,thefinalthreeletterspronounced“jee-ah”—andthesettlementbecametheterminusforalifetimeofventuresomenotionsaboutthebestwaytoorganizesociety.

Ford’sideaofaworthylifewaschivalrous,especiallyinitspromotionofballroomdancing.Butitwasdistinctlynotadventurous,incontrasttotheprivationsofwar,frontierliving,andjungleexplorationthatsomeonelikeTheodoreRooseveltcelebratedfortheirabilitytostrengthencharacter.“Themanwhoworkshard,”Fordoncesaid,“shouldhavehiseasy-chair,hiscomfortablefireside,hispleasantsurroundings.”AndsointheAmazon,FordbuiltCapeCod–styleshingledhousesforhisBrazilianworkersandurgedthemtotendflowerandvegetablegardensandeatwholewheatbreadandunpolishedrice.CominguponFordlandiaafteratripofhundredsofmilesthroughthejungle,theUSmilitaryattachétoBrazil,MajorLesterBaker,calledFordlandiaanoasis,amidwestern“dream,”completewith“electriclights,telephones,washingmachines,victrolas,andelectricrefrigerators.”ManagersenforcedProhibition,oratleasttriedto,thoughitwasn’taBrazilianlaw,andnurseriesexperimentedwithgivingsoymilktobabies,becauseHenryFordhatedcows.Onweekends,theplantationsponsoredsquaredancesandrecitationsofpoetrybyWilliamWordsworthandHenryLongfellow.Theworkers,mostofthembornandraisedintheAmazon,wereshowndocumentariesonAfricanandAntarcticexpeditions,includingAdmiralRichardByrd’s1929journeytotheSouthPole,aswellasshortspromotingtourisminYellowstoneParkandcelebratingthenew,streamlinedLincolnZephyr.“HenryFordhastransplantedalargesliceoftwentiethcenturycivilization”totheAmazon,reportedMichigan’sIronMountainDailyNews,bringing“aprosperitytothenativesthattheyneverbeforeexperienced.”15

Overthecourseofnearlytwodecades,Fordwouldspendtensofmillionsofdollarsfoundingnotonebut,afterthefirstplantationwasdevastatedbyleafblight,twoAmericantowns,completewithcentralsquares,sidewalks,indoorplumbing,hospitals,manicuredlawns,movietheaters,swimmingpools,golfcourses,and,ofcourse,ModelTsandAsrollingdowntheirpavedstreets.

BackinAmerica,newspaperskeptuptheirdrumbeatcelebration,onlyobliquelyreferencingreportsthatthingswerenotprogressingasthecompanyhadhoped.Buttherewasonenoteofskepticism.Inlate1928,theWashingtonPostrananeditorialthatreadinitsentirety:“FordwillgovernarubberplantationinBrazillargerthanNorthCarolina.Thisisthefirsttimehehasappliedquantityproductionmethodstotrouble.”16

ITSTILLTAKESabouteighteenhoursonaslowriverboattogettoFordlandiafromthenearestprovincialcity,aslongasitdideightyyearsagowhenFordfirstsentacrewofMichiganengineersandlumberjackstobeginconstructiononhistown.I’vemadethetriptwice,andthesecondtimeitwasnolessjoltingafterhoursofpassinglittlebutgreentoroundariverbendandcomeupona150-foottowerburstingfromtheforestcanopyholdingalofta150,000-gallonwatertank.DecadesofrainhavesincescrubbedoffitscursivewhiteFordlogo,yetatthetimeofitsconstructionthetowerwasthetallestman-madestructureintheAmazon,saveforapairofnowdismantledsmokestacksthathadbeenattachedtothepowerhouse.Itwasthecrownjewelofanelaboratewatersystemthatdailypumpedhalfamilliongallonsoffilteredandchlorinatedwaterdrawnfromtherivertothetown,plantation,andiceplant.Milesofburiedpipesfedintoindoorsinksandtoilets,sewerscarriedawayhouseholdwaste,andfirehydrants

—stillanoveltyineventhelargestLatinAmericancities—dottedthetown’ssidewalks.Thewatersystemwasrunbyanelectricplantmadeupofsteamboilers,generators,turbines,andenginessalvagedfromdecommissionednavyshipsstrippeddowntoscrapattheRiverRougeplantafewyearsearlier,Fordbeingapioneerinindustrialrecycling.

FordlandiastandsontheeasternsideoftheTapajósRiver,theAmazon’sfifthlargesttributary.FlowingsouthtonorthandintersectingwiththeAmazonaboutsixhundredmilesfromtheAtlantic,theTapajósisabroadriver,withslopingsandybanksthatgivewaytoagradualrise,andatnopointonthetripdoesonefeelthatthejungleisclosingin.Itishometoastaggeringnumberoffish,insects,plants,andanimals.Yetthevalley’sbig-skyopennessofteninstillsintravelersasensationoftedium.“TheprevailingnoteintheAmazonisoneofmonotony,”thoughtKennethGrubb,“thesamegreenlinestheriver-bank,thesamegloomfillstheforest....Eachsuccessivebendintheriverisroundedinexpectancy,onlytorevealanotheridenticalstretchahead.”ButthenonebeholdsFord’smiragelikeindustrialplant.“Whentheviewishadfromthedeckofariversteamer,”wroteOgdenPierrot,aU.S.diplomatstationedinRio,“theimposingstructuresoftheindustrialsectionofthetown,withthetremendouswatertankandthesmokestackofthepowerhouse,catchtheviewandcreateasensationofrealwonderment.”17

AsmyboatmadeitswaytoFordlandia’sdock,thewindcutthejunglehumidity,which,inanycase,reallywasn’tthatbad.Upahillfromtheriver’sedgestoodthetown’sCatholicchurch,builtaftertheFordMotorCompanyabandonedtheplace.Ford’smanagersallowedprieststovisitandministertothepopulationbutrefusedtherequestofthelocalbishoptoestablishapermanentmissionandrunthetown’sschools.Fartherbackloomedthefamouswatertower,alongwiththeemptylumbermillandpowerplant.Everythingwaspeacefulandcalm,andindeedmuchmoresuggestiveofFord’seasy-chairarcadiathannatureredintoothandclaw.Itwasdifficulttopicturethechaosthatbefellthisshoreeightdecadesago.

Thefirstyearsofthesettlementwereplaguedbywaste,violence,andvice,makingFordlandiamoreDeadwoodthanOurTown.Thedeathratefrommalariaandyellowfeverwashigh.Bendingtohackawayattheunderbrushwithmachetes,scoresoffrontlinecuttersdiedfromviperbites.Thosewhofledtheplantationbroughtwiththemtalesofknifefights,riots,andstrikes.Theycomplainedofrancidfoodandcorruptandincompetentoverseerswhodefraudedthemofpayandturnedtheforestintoamudhole,burninglargeswathsofthejunglewithouttheslightestideaofhowtoplantrubber.Inwhatwasperhapsthebiggestman-madefireinthatpartoftheAmazontodate,burningleavesfloatedtothefarsideoftheriverasashwaftedacrossthesky,turningcloudsoftherainyseasonskyintoabloodorangehaze.BuildingmaterialsentfromDearbornrustedandrottedontheriverbank.Bagsofcementturnedtostoneintherain.Migrantsdesperateforjobs,manyofthemfromBrazil’sdrought-andfamine-strickennortheast,pouredintotheworkcamponrumorsthatFordwouldbehiringtensofthousandsofemployeesandpayingfivedollarsaday.Theytrailedbehindthemwives,children,parents,cousins,aunts,anduncles,buildingmakeshifthousesfrompackingcratesandcanvastarps.RatherthanamidwesterncityofvirtuespringingfromtheAmazongreen,localmerchantssetupthatchedbordellos,bars,andgamblinghouses,turningFordlandiaintoarainforestboomtown.Managerseventuallyestablishedsovereigntyoverthesettlementandachievedsomethingapproximatingtheirboss’svision.Butthennaturerebelled.

“Landmarksareabsent,”wrotethelayAnglicanleaderKennethGrubbabouthistravelsaroundtheAmazoninthelate1920s,“andthereisnothingbywhichprogresscanbemarked.”Fordlandia’swatertowerwasarareexception.

HUBRISSEEMSTHEobviousmoralattachedtoFordlandia,especiallyconsideringnotjustthedisasterofitsearlyyearsbutalso,evenonceorderwasestablishedandthecitywasmoreorlessfunctional,rubber’srefusaltosubmittoFord-styleregimentation.Yetsurveyingwhatremainsofitleftmewithanalmostelegiacfeeling.Despitethepromiscuoususeoffirebyitsfirstmanagers,alongwiththerunningofwhatwasbilledasthemostmodernsawmillinallofLatinAmerica,thetowndoesn’tsomuchinvoketheplagueofdeforestation.Thatwouldbeeasytorebuke.Itratherbringstomindadifferentkindofloss:deindustrialization.ThereisinfactanuncannyresemblancebetweenFordlandia’srustingwatertower,broken-glassedsawmill,andemptypowerplantandthehusksofthesamestructuresinIronMountain,adepressedindustrialcityinMichigan’sUpperPeninsulathatalsousedtobeaFordtown.

Aboutamileandahalffromthedock,onahillhookedbyariverbend,sitstheabandoned“Americanneighborhood.”Thewood-framedbuildingsareproperlyProtestantandnottooostentatious,completewithshingledroofs,plankfloors,plasterwalls,decorativemoldings,tilebathrooms,electricrefrigerators,andwallsconces.Decrepitandoverrunbyweeds,ascouldbeexpected,thehousesarenowhometocoloniesofbats,whichhaveleftapatinaofguanoonthewallsandfloors.Theresidencesflank“PalmAvenue,”whichisactuallyshadedbymangotrees,ahintthatthecompanymadesomeconcessiontothejungleecology.Elmsormapleswouldhavewiltedinthewetheat.Yetconcretesidewalks,electricstreet-lamps,andthoseredfirehydrantsconfirmthatitmadesuchcompromisesreluctantly.

Closertotheriver,Brazilians,includingsomesurvivingFordemployees,continuetoliveinsmallermilltownbungalows,alongthreelongavenuesthatfollowthecontoursoftheland.Thoughtheyhavesincebeenrenamed,thestreetclosesttotheTapajóswascalled“RiversideAvenue,”thefarthest,huggingthebeginningofanincline,“Hillside.”InthemiddlewasMainStreet.Thepowerhouseandsawmill,bothwithwallsoffloor-to-ceilingwindows,separatethetworesidentialareas.Theturbinesandgeneratorshavebeenremovedfromtheengineroom,butindustrialephemeraarestillscatteredaroundthemill.NutsandboltsfillwoodenboxescarryingthenameStandardOilofBrazil,whichdidsomeexploratoryworkontheestate.AboutadozenLandisMachineCompanypresses,dies,andstampsbearthemark“Madein

theUSA.”Outside,buriedinthejunglegrass,aretwistedrails,what’sleftofathree-miletrainlinethatcarriedlogstothemill,thoughit’sbewilderingtothinkwhatforceofnatureorhowthepassingoftimecouldhaveproducedtheircurrentmangledstate.

Fordlandia’smoststrikingbuildingissetbackfromtheriver,onaknollabouthalfamilein.It’sawreckofahundred-bedhospitalbuiltfromasketchbyAlbertKahn,thearchitectofFord’sHighlandParkandRiverRougeplants.Gracefullyproportioned,wellventilated,withgenerouseavesanddormerwindowsjuttingoutofapitchedroof,thelongandnarrowjunglesanatoriumseemslowertothegroundthanitreallyis,muchlikeKahn’scelebratedenormousHighlandParkfactory.Inside,twodormitorywingsareunitedbyaseriesofroomsmarkedbysignsindicatingtheirformerfunction.Mostofthebedsaregone,butsomeequipment,madeofmetalandglassthattodaylooksmenacingbutinthe1930swasstateoftheart,remains.Inthesterilizationroomthere’salargeapparatusthatsuggestsafront-loadwashingmachine,andthegynecologyroomstillhasitsexaminationtable.ThesurgeryandX-rayroomsarebare,butthelaboratoryhassomebottlesandtesttubeslyingaroundandtherecordsofthehospital’slastpatientsstrewnonthefloor.

Unlikenineteenth-centuryBritishwriterswholamentedthecomingofindustrialization,HenryFordsawthemachinenotasdefilingthegardenbutratherasharmonizingwithit.AndFord’sAmazontowndoesseemtocomplementitssetting,perhapsbecausetheconceitthatunderwroteFordlandiahasbeenmutedbyitsweed-entwinedbuildings,rottenfloorplanks,andguano-glazedwalls.Thisimpressionisreinforcedbythememoriesofresidents,mosttooyoungtohaveexperiencedthecompanyfirsthand,whospeakapprovinglyaboutthegoodwagesFordofferedandthefreehealthcareprovidedbythetown’shospital.Thingswerebomdemais,almosttoogood,saysamanwhomovedtothetownfromdownriverasaboy,whenhisfathertookajobontheplantation.Undoubtedlypaternalistic,Ford’ssocialprogramcompareswellwithwhatisavailabletomuchoftheworldtoday.OnedoctorwhoaccompaniedateamofSãoPaulomedicalstudentsonavisittothetownin2006saidcontemporaryFordlandiaresidentswhoaresickhavetwooptions:thosewithmoneytravelbyrivertoadoctor;thosewhodon’thavemoneylearntosuffertheirillness.AméricaLobato,eighty-oneyearsoldonmyfirsttriptoFordlandia,in2005,wasintheluckygroup,butbarely.ShebeganworkingattheageofsixteenasababysitterforaFordadministratorandthereforeenjoyedasmallpensionfromtheBraziliangovernment.Américaremembersthatthehospitaldidn’tjusttreatcompanyemployeesbuttookinpatientsfromalloverBrazil.“Theycouldn’tdocomplicatedoperationslikeheartsurgery,”shesaid,butthingslike“theappendixorlivertheytookcareof.”Américahassincepassedaway,butduringthelastyearsofherlifeshehadtotravelnearlyafulldaybyriverboattoaspecialisttoattendtoherfailingeyesandbadlegs.18

THEFONDMEMORIESwithwhichAméricaandothersrecalledtheheydayofFordlandiaareunderstandable,consideringthelackofopportunities,decentjobs,andbasicservicesavailabletomostresidentsoftheregion.Butthere’ssomethingparticulartoHenryFordthatsummonsadeeperpoignancythanonewouldhearfromresidentsinsimilarlyderelictcompanytownselsewhereinLatinAmerica,ruinsfromatimewhenUScorporationsrapidlyexpandedtheiroperationsthroughoutthehemisphere,builtaroundmines,mills,andplantations.In1917,MiltonHersheybeganworkonasugarmilltownoutsidethecityofSantaCruz,Cuba,whichhenamedHersheyandwhich,whenfinished,includedAmerican-stylebungalows,luxurioushousesforstaff,schools,ahospital,abaseballdiamond,andanumberofmovietheaters.Attheheightofthebananaboomofthe1920s,onecouldtourGuatemala,CostaRica,Panama,Honduras,Cuba,andColombiaandnotforamomentleaveUnitedFruitCompanyproperty,travelingonitstrainsandships,passingthroughitsports,stayinginitsmanytowns,withtheir

tree-linedstreetsandmodernamenities,inacompanyhotelorguesthouse,playinggolfonitslinks,takinginaHollywoodmovieinoneofitstheaters,andbeingtendedtoinitshospitalifsick.

AlloftheseenterprisesofcoursesaysomethingaboutthewaytheUnitedStatesspreadoutintheworld,capturinginclapboardsimplicitytheassurednesswithwhichbusinessmenandpoliticiansbelievedthattheAmericanwayoflifecouldbeeasilytransplantedandeagerlywelcomedelsewhere.IntheUnitedStates,companytownswerehailednotjustfortheearningstheygeneratedfortheircompaniesbutforthebenefitstheybroughtLatinAmericans,andmanyobserversexplicitlythoughtthemaNewWorldalternativetoEuropeanimperialism—thatis,runbyprivateinterestsratherthangovernmentministries.Justasthe“conquestbyEuropeofthetropicsofAfrica,Asia,andtheislandsofthePacificwillberecountedbyfuturehistoriansasthemonumentalachievementofthisage”forbringing“highcivilization”tobenightedlands,thoughtthebusinesswriterFrederickUphamAdams,so,too,wouldtheUnitedFruitCompanybecelebratedforcarvingan“empire”inthe“wilderness”thatincludednotjustmodernindustrialtechnologyandup-to-datesanitarypracticesbut“picturesquesettlements,”completewith“placesofamusement,well-keptstreets,electriclights,andmostoftheaccessoriesofcivilization.”19

ButthestoryofFordlandiacutsdeeperintothemarrowoftheAmericanexperience.NotbecauseitstrappingsmorefaithfullyrepresentthelifeandcultureoftheUnitedStatesthanthosefoundinHershey,Cuba,orinUnitedFruitCompanytowns:manyofthefeaturesofFord’sAmazontownmostcommentedonfortheirincongruityinajunglesettinginfactreflectedeccentricitiesparticulartothecarmaker.Rather,whatmakesFordlandiamorequintessentiallyAmericanwasthewayfrustratedidealismwasbuiltintoitsconception.

Overfiftyyearsago,theHarvardhistorianPerryMillergavehisfamous“ErrandintotheWilderness”lectureinwhichhetriedtoexplainwhyEnglishPuritanslitoutfortheNewWorldtobeginwith,asopposedto,say,goingtoHolland.Theywent,Millerofferedbywayofananswer,notjusttopreservetheir“posterityfromthecorruptionofthisevilworld”asitwasmanifestintheChurchofEnglandbuttocompletetheProtestantreformationofChristendomthathadstalledinEurope.Ina“bareland,devoidofalreadyestablished(andcorrupt)institutions,emptyofbishopsandcourtiers,”theywould“startdenovo.”ThePuritansdidnotfleetoAmerica,Millersaid,butrathersoughttogivethefaithfulbackinEnglanda“workingmodel”ofapurercommunity.Thus,centralfromthestarttoAmericanexpansionwas“deepdisquietude,”afeelingthat“somethinghadgonewrong”—notonlywiththeinabilityoftheReformationtoredeemEuropebutsubsequentlywiththefailuretoachieveperfection,tofoundandmaintaina“purebiblicalpolity”inNewEngland.WiththeMassachusettsBayColonyjustafewdecadesold,adissatisfiedCottonMatherbegantolearnSpanish,thinkingthatabetter“NewJerusalem”couldberaisedinMexico.20

ThefoundingofFordlandiawasdrivenbyasimilarrestlessness,achafingsensethat“somethinghadgonewrong”inAmerica.Othercompanytowns,despitetheirmuchpublicizedaltruism,livedanddiedbytheeconomiclogicthatledtotheirestablishment.Hershey,Cuba,suppliedsugartoHershey,Pennsylvania’schocolatefactoriesfordecades,until1945,whenitmademoresensetopurchasethecropfromindependentmills.Fordlandia,however,movedtorhythmssetnotbysupplyanddemandbutratherbytheupsanddownsofAmericanlife,whichHenryFordpledgedtoreform.Ford’sfrustrationswithdomesticpoliticsandculturewerelegion:war,unions,WallStreet,energymonopolies,Jews,moderndance,cow’smilk,theRoosevelts,cigarettes,alcohol,andcreepinggovernmentintervention.Yetchurningbeneathalltheseannoyanceswasthefactthattheforceofindustrialcapitalismhehelped

unleashwasunderminingtheworldhehopedtorestore.

FORDLANDIA’SLESSONWOULDseemtobeparticularlyresonanttoday.Withasuretyofpurposeandincuriosityabouttheworldthatseemsalltoofamiliar,ForddeliberatelyrejectedexpertadviceandsetouttoturntheAmazonintotheMidwestofhisimagination.“WhatthepeopleoftheinteriorofBrazilneed,”hedeclaredattheoutsetoftheproject,“istohavetheireconomiclifestabilizedbyfairreturnsfortheirlaborpaidincashandtheirmodeoflivingbroughtuptomodernstandardsinsanitationandinpreventionandcureofdisease.”ThisformulaworkedinMichiganandFordsawnoreasonitcouldn’tbeexportedtoBrazil.“Therewillnotbe,”Fordsaid,“anygreatdifficultyinaccomplishingthesethings.”Fordismwasatermthatwouldgoontohavemanymeanings,butitsfirstusagecapturedtheessenceofcocksureness,definedbytheWashingtonPostas“FordeffortsconceivedindisregardorignoranceofFordlimitations.”21

Ifanything,failureonlymadeFordandhisemissariesmorecertain.ThemoreFord’serrandtogrowrubber,asoriginallystated,provedimpossibletofulfill,themoreheandhiscompanyrevisedtheirwarrant,justifyingtheirBrazilianmissioninevermoreidealisticterms,especiallyaftertheonsetoftheGreatDepression,whenthesettlementwasheldupasaFord-builtsolutionforsurvivinghardtimes.

TwoyearsintotheconstructionofFordlandia,aftervisitingtheplantationsiteandwitnessingfirsthandthechaosthatreignedthere,oneUSdiplomatstationedinBrazilwrotehissuperiorsintheStateDepartmenttotrytoexplainFord’songoingcommitmenttoa“venturewhichapparentlywillneverbecommerciallyprofitable”:

Inthelastfewmonths,thewriterhasarrivedatanopinion,basedonanumberofdifferentfacts,whichseemstobetheonlytheorywhichwillfitallofthesefacts.ThisbeliefisthatMr.Fordconsiderstheprojectasa“workofcivilization.”ThisveryphrasehasbeenusedincorrespondenceofoneofthehigherofficialsoftheDetroitoffice.Nothingelsewillexplainthelavishexpenditureofmoney,atleastthreemilliondollarsinthelastsixteenmonths,inlayingthefoundationofwhatisevidentlyplannedtobecomeacityoftwoorthreehundredthousandinhabitants.

Onthebasisofthistheory,discardinganyinterpretationascribingtotheworkthecharacterofapurelycommercialventure,itispossibletounderstandmanythingswhichareotherwiseinexplicable.22

ThejournalistWalterLippmannidentifiedinHenryFord,forallhispeculiarity,acommonstrainof“primitiveAmericanism.”Theindustrialist’sconvictionthathecouldmaketheworldconformtohiswillwasfoundedonafaiththatsuccessineconomicmattersshould,byextension,allowcapitaliststotrytheirhands“withequalsuccess”at“everyotheroccupation.”“Mr.Fordisneitheracranknorafreak,”Lippmanninsisted,but“merelythelogicalexponentofAmericanprejudicesaboutwealthandsuccess.”23

ForLippmann,FordrepresentedtheessenceofAmericanismnotjustbecauseheembodiedaconfidencebornofmoneybutalsobecausehereflected“ourtouchingbeliefthattheworldislikeourselves.”“Whyshouldn’tsuccessinDetroit,”Lippmannasked,“assuresuccessinfrontofBaghdad?”

AndifBaghdad,thencertainlyBrazil.

PARTI

MANYTHINGSOTHERWISEINEXPLICABLE

CHAPTER1

UNDERANAMERICANFLAGOVERALONGLUNCHATHENRYFORD’SDEARBORNHOME,FORDlistenedtoHarveyFirestonecomplainabouttheBritish.

ItwasJuly1925,andFirestonehadthrownhimselfintoacampaigntothwartWinstonChurchill’sproposedBritishrubbercartel.Fordecades,USindustryhadimportedrubberfromEuropean,predominatelyBritish,coloniesinSoutheastAsiawithlittleproblem.Butwhenpricesstartedtotumblein1919,Churchill,theBritishsecretaryofstateforthecolonies,endorsedaplantoregulatetheproductionofcruderubbertoensuresupplydidn’toutstripdemand.ThefutureToryprimeministerwouldgoontogainareputationasasteadfastfriendofAmerica.Butatthetime,politiciansandindustrialistsdenouncedhimasanarchimperialistandprotectionist.SpeakeroftheHouseNicholasLongworthcalledChurchill’splanan“internationalswindle.”Tennessee’sRepresentativeCordellHull,whowouldlaterserveasFDR’ssecretaryofstate,likenedtheproposedcarteltoa“hold-up.”1

SecretaryofCommerceHerbertHooverstokedtheanger.ThemanwhowouldsoonbepresidentbelievedAmerica’srubbersupplytobeindustry’schokepoint,morecriticalinmanywaysthanoil.PetroleumwasfoundindomesticfieldsinPennsylvania,Louisiana,Oklahoma,Texas,andCalifornia,aswellasinneighboringMexicoandVenezuela,withineasyreachofUSgunboats.Butrubbercamefromaworldaway,fromBritish,Dutch,andFrenchplantationsinSoutheastAsia.JustasanincreaseinthedemandforcottoninthenineteenthcenturyreinvigoratedAmerica’sslaveplantationsystem,thegrowingUSautoindustry’sthirstforrubberbreathednewlifeintoEuropeancolonialism,whichhadbeenweakenedbyWorldWarI.Revenuefromrubber—tappedandprocessedbycheapcoolielabor—helpedAmsterdam,London,andParisbindtheircoloniesinIndonesia,SriLanka,Malaysia,andIndochinatighterintotheirimperialsystem,withtheprofitsfromthesaleoflatexhelpingEnglandandFrancepayofftheirwardebt.HooverwarnedAmericanmanufacturers—notjustofcarsbutofanymachinethatusedlatex—thattheirsupplyofrubberwastoodependentonold,imperialistEuropeandthattheycouldbesubjecttoa“supercharge”ofmorethanahalfbilliondollarsifHollandandFranceweretojointheproposedBritishcartel.HepointedoutthatiftheUnitedStatesadoptedthesameproductionrestrictionsandpricecontrolsthatLondonwasimposingonitsrubber,thepriceofwheatwouldgofrom$1.50to$8.00abushelinforeignmarkets.ThesecretaryofcommerceurgedUSmanufacturerstoinvestinrubbercultivationinLatinAmericaandfundedscientificexpeditionsintotheAmazontooffsettheirresearchcosts.Businessleaders,though,largelyrespondedwithindifferencetoHoover’salarm.ExceptforHarveyFirestoneandHenryFord.2

“Iamgoingtofightthislawwithallthestrengthandvigorthatisinme,”Firestonepledged,andheaskedFordtojoinwithhiminorganizingarubberassociation.Hehadtriedthisbefore.InFebruary1923,heconveneda“nationalconferenceofrubber,automotive,andaccessorymanufacturers.”Overtwohundredindustrialists,includingFord,gatheredinWashingtonattheWillardHoteltohearFirestonemakehisdeclarationof“economicindependence”fromLondon.“RubberunderanAmericanflag,”heproclaimed,ashisaudiencelistenedpolitelytoaplantocreateanAmericanCooperativeAssociation.Capitalizedat$50million,thecooperativewouldestablishplantationsinLatinAmericaandthePhilippinestobustthe“smallcoterieofBritishshareholdersinplantationinterests.”“Wemust,”Firestoneurgedhisfellowindustrialists,“actimmediately.”3

Buttheydidn’t.NeitherHoovernorFirestonecouldraisemuchworryamongAmerica’scorporateleaders.Firestone’scolleaguesatB.F.Goodrich,Goodyear,andU.S.RubberworkedcloselywiththeBritishanddidn’twanttocontributetoAmericanAnglophobia,whichseemedtobefuelingmuchoftherubberfeud.Besides,despitealltheirtalkinsupportoffreeenterpriseandopenmarkets,theyweregenerallyinfavoroftherighttomonopoly.StuartHotchkiss,presidentofU.S.Rubber,actuallyadmittedtofavoringChurchill’scartel.HethoughtitrepresentedamaturerejectionofajuvenilefaithinthelawsoffreesupplyanddemandandlaughedatFirestone’swarningsofwarwithGreatBritain.Itwasso“unthinkablethatifitshouldoccur,therewouldnotbemuchuseinanything.”4

HenryFord,dependentashewasonrubber,sharedFirestone’sconcern.Theautoindustryreliedasmuchonvulcanizedrubberasonoil,usingprocessedlatexnotjustfortiresbutforthehoses,valves,gaskets,andelectricalwiresneededtoruntheincreasinglycomplexinternalcombustionengines,steeringassemblages,andshockabsorptionsystems,aswellasforthemachinesthatmadethecars.ThemileageofpavedroadsintheUnitedStatesincreasedrapidlyafterWorldWarI,reducingtirewearandtear.Andduringthefirsttwodecadesofthetwentiethcentury,designimprovementsextendedtheaveragelifeofatiremorethansixfold.Yetby1925,thetotalnumberoftiressoldintheUnitedStateshitanall-timehigh,andbytheendofthedecadethevalueofallrubbersoldinthecountrysurpassedabilliondollars,withmorethan70percentofitusedtomanufacturetires,aboutfiftymillionofthemayear.5

Alreadyby1924,Fordhadconsideredgrowinghisownrubberinthe“mucklands”oftheFloridaEverglades.RumorsofhisinterestinFloridapromptedDetroitspeculatorstoorganizetheFloridaandCapeCodRealtyCompanytoscoopupandsubdividelargetractsoflandinthetownofLabelle,offeringlotsforsaleatseventy-fivedollarsapiece.“Nodoubt,”wroteaninvestigatorfromtheMichiganSecuritiesCommission,“agoodmanyFordemployeeswillbebuncoed,astheywillundoubtedlybuylotsonthestrengthofMr.Ford’ssupposedrubberexperiment.”Buttheprojectdidn’tadvancemuchbeyondafewplantingsofrubberfigsandrubbervinestoseeifindustrialamountsofsapcouldbetappedfromtheirtrunks.6

Rubber-trustbusters:HerbertHoover,HenryFord,ThomasEdison,HarveyFirestone.

SothroughthecourseoflunchFordlistenedtoFirestone’sharangue.Hehadhearditbefore,includingFirestone’sprophecythattheBritishwouldincreasethepriceofrubbertoanastonishing$1.20apound,eventhoughatthatmomentithadfloateddowntoabouttwentycents.“Well,youknowwhattodoaboutthat,”hefinallyshouted.“Growyourownrubber!”7

FordlikedFirestoneandconsideredhimnotjustanindustrycolleaguebutafriend.TheyhadmetinDetroitin1895,whenFordwalkedintotheColumbusBuggyWorks,whereFirestoneworkedasasalesagent,andorderedasetofsturdycarriagetiresthatwouldn’tburstunderhisjustbuilt500-poundgas-propelledautomobile.Fiveyearslater,HarveyfoundedtheFirestoneTireandRubberCompanyinAkron,Ohio,andoverthenexttwodecadesheworkedinclosepartnershipwithFordtodeveloptiretechnology—adetachablerim,diagonalnonskidthreadpatternsthatallowedincreasedspeeds,andalow-pressureballoontirethatdramaticallyincreasedmileagepergallon,thusloweringthecostofowningacar—thatcomplementedFord’sgoalofdeliveringacheap,well-builtcartothemasses.8

ButFordwasnotanassociationman.UnlikenortheasterncorporateelitesonthemodelofHotchkiss,Ford,whogrewuponaDearbornfarm,dislikedcollectiveaction.InJune1926,despiteapersonalpleafromGeneralMotors’chairman,JohnRaskob,herefusedtoattendameetingofDetroit’smajorcarcompanyexecutivescalledtofigureouthowtobypassantitrustlegislationprohibitingtheautoindustryfromimportingrubbercollectively.RaskobwasanallyofPierreduPont,anotherGMdirector,andFordhadlongfeltpersecutedbythepatricianduPonts.HedidshowupatFirestone’sWashingtonconclaveandfundedafewjointprojectswiththetiremakertoexplorethepossibilityofgrowingrubberinNicaragua.AndthetwomenunderwroteThomasEdison’sslow-goingeffortstodevelopwhatEdisonhadtakentocalling“warrubber”—thatis,syntheticororganicalternativestorubber,madefrommilkweedmaybeorgoldenrod.Buthedidnothingtohelphisfriendrealizehisrubberassociation.“Mr.Ford,”remarkedhislongtimepersonalsecretary,ErnestLiebold,“wouldn’tconsiderathinglikejoiningan

organizationofrubberproducers....Heneverwantedtoallyhimselfwithanybodyelseinconnectionwithanyspecificactivities.”9

Whenthelunchwasover,FordheldLieboldbackoutofearshot.“Findout,”hewhisperedtohisbespectacledaide,“whereisthebestplacetogrowrubber.”10

Lieboldthrewhimselfintothetask.Hereadeverythinghecouldonrubber,includingreportssuppliedbytheDepartmentofAgricultureandHoover’scommercialattachésstationedinBrazil.HealsotookacrashcourseinAfricanhistoryandfairlyquicklyconcludedthatLiberia,whereFirestone,unabletorouseinterestinhisrubbercollective,wouldsoonestablishaplantation,wastoounstabletosuitFord’sinterest.Latex,thoughtLiebold,theAmerican-bornsonofGermanLutheranparents,shouldbecultivated“wherethepeoplethemselveshavereachedahigherstateofcivilization.”Ford’ssecretarydecidedthatthisruledoutLiberia,acountry“composedentirelyofNegroeswhosementalityandintellectualpossibilitiesarequitelow.”

“Rubbershouldbegrownwhereitoriginated,”Lieboldconcluded.AndthatmeanttheAmazon.

THESOUTHERNHALFoftheAmazonbasin,runningfromtheAtlanticmouthoftheriverthroughBrazilandintoEcuador,Bolivia,andPeru,ishometoHeveabrasiliensis,thespeciesofrubbertreethatprovidesthemostelasticandpurestlatex.Fromtheearlyeighteenthcenturytotheendofthenineteenth,theBrazilianAmazonsuppliednearlyalloftheworld’srubber,demandforwhichsteadilyincreasedastheIndustrialRevolutionintheUnitedStatesandEuropetookoff.Attheheightoftherubberboom,inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,Amazonianlatexmadeup40percentofBrazil’stotalexportsandsuppliedmostoftherubberusedforgaskets,valves,belts,wireinsulation,carriage,bicycle,andautomobiletires,boots,shoes,raincoats,condoms,andelasticgarters.Latexlordsgrewmagnificentlywealthy,buildingopulentpalatialhomesandgildedjunglecities.WiththeirBeauxArtspalaces,neoclassicalmunicipalbuildings,electrictrams,wideParisianboulevards,andFrenchrestaurants,thecitiesofManaus,locatedaboutninehundredmilesuptheAmazonRiver,andBelém,theregion’sprincipalAtlanticport,competedforthetitleof“tropicalParis.”11

ManausisfamousforitshulkingAmazonasTheater,anoperahousebuiltofItalianmarbleandsurroundedbyroadsmadeofrubbersothecarriageclatteroflatearrivalswouldn’tinterruptthevoicesofEurope’sbesttenorsandsopranos.Finishedin1896,itreportedlycostmorethantwomilliondollarstoconstruct.Moneyflowedfreelyduringtheboom,andManaus’sbetterclassesimportedwhatevertheycouldatwhateverprice.Americanexplorersfoundthattheycouldselltheirusedkhakisforfivetimeswhattheypaidforthemathome,oncetheygrewtiredofparadingaroundthecityintheirjunglegear.*WithmoremovietheatersthanRioandmoreplayhousesthanLisbon,ManauswasthesecondcityinallofBraziltobelightedbyelectricity,andvisitorswhocameuponitfromtheriveratnightduringthelastyearsofthenineteenthcenturymarveledatitsbrillianceinthemidstofdarkness,“pulsatingwiththefeverishthroboftheworld.”ButnotjustlightmadeManausandBelém,alsoelectrifiedearly,modern.Theirmanydarkspacesprovidedvenuesforquintessentiallyurbanpleasures.RogerCasement,Britain’sconsulinRio,wholaterwouldbecomefamousforhisanti-imperialistandantislaveryactivities,wroteinhisdiaryin1911aboutcruisingManaus’sdocks,pickingupyoungmenforanonymoussex.Belém,foritspart,wroteaLosAngelesTimescorrespondentin1899,hadan“amountofvice”thatwouldshockthe“reformersofNewYork,”mostofwhichcouldbefoundinitsmanycafesandcabarets,aswellasitsbestbrothel,theHighLifeHotel,whichis“devotedtothelifeofthelowestorder”andwhichBrazilianspronounced,accordingtothejournalist,as“HiggyLiffey.”12

AcontemporaryviewoftheoperahouseinManaus,thetropicalParis.

Fromstarttofinish,theproductionofrubberthatmadesuchaffluencepossiblerepresentedanextremecontrasttotheindustrialmethodpioneeredbyHenryFordinMichigan.Heveabrasiliensiscangrowashighasahundredfeet,standingstraightwithanaveragegirth,atbreastheight,ofaboutonemeterindiameter.It’sanoldspecies,andduringitsmillennia-longhistorytherelikewiseevolvedanarmyofinsectsandfungithatfeedoffitsleaves,aswellasmammalsthateatitsseeds.InitsnativehabitatsofBrazil,Bolivia,Peru,andEcuador,itbestgrowswild,justafewtreesperacre,farenoughaparttokeepbugsandblightatbay;would-beplanterssoonlearnedthatthecultivationoflargenumbersofrubbertreesincloseproximitygreatlyincreasedthepopulationofrubber’spredators.Theextractionandprocessingoflatex,therefore,wasbasednotondevelopinglargeplantationsorinvestingininfrastructurebutratheronacumbersomeandoftenviolentsystemofpeonage,inwhichtapperswerecompelledtospreadoutthroughthejungleandcollectsap.

Tappers,knownasseringueiros,livedscatteredalongtheriver,sometimeswiththeirfamiliesbutoftenalone,withtheirhutslocatedattheheadofoneortwoloopedrubbertrailsthatranafewmiles,connectingbetweenahundredandtwohundredtrees.Inthemorning,startingbeforesunrise,whenthelatexflowedfreestthroughthethinvesselsthatrunupthetree’sbark,thetapperwouldmakehisfirstround,slashingeachHeveawithdiagonalcutsandthenplacingtincansorcupstocatchthefallingsap.Afterlunch,andanaptoescapetheworstoftheheat,theseringueiromadeasecondroundtocollectthelatex.Backathishut,hesmokeditonaspitoveranearthenwareovenfiredbydampenedpalmnuts,whichproducedatoxicsmokethattookitstollontapperlungs,untilitformedablackballofrubber,weighingbetweenseventyandninetypounds.Hethenbroughttheballtoatradingpost,handingitovertoamerchanteitherasrentforthetrailsortopayoffgoodspurchasedoncredit.TherubberthenmadeitswaydownrivertoBelém’sreceiversandexporthouses.Theexcruciatinglyunhurrieddrip,drip,dripofthesapintoabatteredcup,latchedontothetreewithapieceofropeorleather,wasaboutasfarremovedfromthesynchronizedspeedofHenryFord’sassemblylineasonecouldimagine.BackinMichigan,Fordwasobsessedwithrootingout“slack”fromnotjusttheworkdaybuttheworkyear—tryingtofindwaystocombineagriculturalandindustrialseasonallaborthatmaximizedtheefficiencyofboth.ButalongtheAmazon,seringueirosoftenspentthe“greyandsad”monthsoftherainyseason,whenlatexrantooslowtotap,“inhishammockwithoutanyprofitableoccupation,”accumulatingmoredebtthattheywouldneverworkoff.Theirthatchedhutswereoftenperchedonpoles,andasthewaterrosearoundthemtheypassedtherainydaysinisolation,asonetravelerdescribed,alonewith“dogs,fowls,andahostofinsects,all

unabletomovefarowingtothewaterthatsurroundsthem.”13

Twotapperssmokinglatexunderathatchedlean-to.

ItwasasystemthatproducedenormousricheswhenBrazilhadamonopolyontheworld’srubbertradeandthereforelargelysettheglobalmarketprice.Butthewealthitcreatedwasfleetingandunsustainable.Thetappingsystemitselfcouldquicklydepletemanandtree.Astheseasonspassed,cutsonthebarkwouldscabovertobebledagain,successivelyyieldinglessandlesslatex.Withcare,Heveacanproduceforuptothreedecades,startinginitsfifthorsixthyearofgrowth,butunderpressuretodelivermorelatex,seringueiroscuttoooften,toodeep,causingstuntedgrowthandearlyexhaustion.Andprofitwasgeneratedbywhatwasessentiallyanelaboratepyramidscheme:attheapexwereforeigncommercialandfinancialhouses;inthemiddlestoodBrazilianmerchants,traders,andafewexporters;andthewholethingrestedonthebacksofindebtedtappers,who,asonecriticputit,receivedgoodsoncreditchargedatfiftybutinrealityworthten,inexchangeforlatexthatthelocalmerchantassessedattenbutthatwasactuallyworthfifty.Asanotherwriternoted,the“potentatesoftheforesthavenocreditbeyondthatontheirbooks—againstpeonswhoneverpay(unlesswiththeirlives).”EuclidesdaCunha,oneoftheAmazon’sgreatchroniclers,describedthetradeasthe“mostcriminalemploymentorganizationeverspawnedbyunbridledselfishness.”14

Thefirstgenerationofearly-nineteenth-century-boomrubbertapperscamefromtheAmazon’snativepopulation.Thingswerebadformanyindigenouscommunitiespriortotherubbertrade;slaveraidinghadalreadydevastatedmanygroups.“Everymannerofpersuasion,”oneanthropologistobserved,“fromtorturetodegenerationbycachaça”—acheaprumdistilledfromsugarcanejuice—wasusedtomakenativescollectwildjungleproducts.Priortotheexpansionofthelatexeconomy,theseincludednuts,feathers,snakeskins,dyes,fibers,pelts,timber,spices,fruit,andmedicinalherbsandbarks,mostnotablyfromthecinchonatree,foundinthehigherreachesoftheupperAmazon,whichproducedtheantimalarialalkaloidquinine,indispensableinhasteningthespreadofEuropeancolonialisminAsiaandAfrica.15

Buttherubbertradewasbyfarmoreextensive,andthusmoredisruptive,thananythingthathadcomebeforeit,organizingunderitsregimethewholeoftheAmazonwhereverHeveawasfound.TheApiaca,forinstance,werejustoneofmanygroupspracticallywipedoutasadistincttribalsociety,theirmenpressedintoserviceeitherastappersortopaddleorpoletradingboats,andtheirwomenasservantsor

concubines.Afternativesourcesoflaborwereexhausted,migrants,mostlyfromBrazil’sdrought-pronenortheast,madeupsubsequentgenerationsoftappers.TheyarrivedatManausandBelémbytheboatful,withered,sunken-faced,andalreadybondedtopayfortheirtransport.Between1800and1900,thelowerAmazon’spopulationincreasedtenfold,withdesperatelypoor,eternallyindebtedfamilieslivinginsmall,isolatedclustersofhutsalongtheriver’smanywaterwaysorinthesprawlingshantytownsthatspreadoutbehindManausandBelém’sBelleÉpoquefaçade.16

Butby1925,whenFordandFirestonewerethinkingofgettingintotherubberbusiness,thisboomhadlongturnedtobust,largelybecauseoftheactionsofanotherHenry,whoarrivedintheAmazonoverhalfacenturyearliertocommitwhatobserverstodaycall“bio-piracy,”whichwouldeventuallyunravelBrazil’slatexmonopoly.

HenryWickhamwasaprimeexampleofthekindofimperialroguechronicledbyRudyardKipling.OnlyWickhamdidn’ttraveleasttomakeanameforhimselfinBritain’sformalcolonies;insteadhewentwesttoLatinAmerica,whereLondoninthelatenineteenthcenturywasextendingitscommercialandfinancialreach.HelandedfirstinNicaragua,wherehetriedtoturnaprofitexportingcolorfulbirdplumagebacktohismother’sLondonmillineryshop,locatedonasmallstreetjustoffwhatisnowPiccadillyCircus.Hewasabadshot,though,andsoondecidedtobetterhisluckinBrazil.17

In1871,WickhamandhiswifesettledinSantarém,wheretheTapajósRiverflowsintotheAmazon.Attemptingtoestablishhimselfasarubberexpert,hequicklyfellintodestitution,survivingonlythankstothekindnessofacommunityofU.S.Confederateexileswho,movedby,asoneoftheSouthernexpatriatesputit,Wickham’s“aristocraticappearance”and“lonesome,melancholyaspect,”tookthecouplein.Afailureatmosteverythinginlife,Wickhamenjoyedonereportedsuccess,theillegalspiritingofseventythousandAmazonianseeds,gatheredfromasitenotfarfromwhereFordlandiawouldbefounded,outofBrazilin1876.TheseheturnedovertoLondon’sRoyalBotanicGardens,wheretheywerenurturedintotheseedlingsusedtodevelopAsia’slatexcompetition.Actually,Wickham’srealsuccesswasingainingfameforstealingtheseeds,forhistoriansofrubberhavesubsequentlyquestionedkeyaspectsofhisderring-dostory.Whateverthecase,QueenVictoriaknightedWickham,securinghisplaceinhistoryasaBritishimperialheroandaBrazilianimperialistvillain,andtheAmazonbeganitslongdescentintoeconomicstupor.18

TheseedsWickhamcollectedandshippedtoLondonprovidedthegeneticstockofallsubsequentrubberplantationsintheBritish,French,andDutchcolonies.HeveawasabletogrowclosertogetherinAsia,andlaterAfrica,becausetheinsectsandfungithatfeedoffrubberdidn’texistinthatpartoftheworld.Andwhenthetreesbegantorunsufficientamountsofcheaplatextomeettheworld’sdemand,Brazil’srubberpyramidcametopplingdown.NomatterhowexploitedtheAmazoniantapper,thepriceofproducingrubberinlargeestateswasconsiderablylowerthanwhatitcosttoextractitfromwildgroves.Asianplantationswereclosetomajorports,whichcutdownontransportationexpense.Theyusedlow-wagelabor,oftenimportedfromChina,andbytheearlytwentiethcenturyhadselectedandcrossbredtrees,leadingtomuchgreatersapyields.In1912,estatesinMalayaandSumatrawereproducing8,500tonsoflatex,comparedwiththeAmazon’s38,000tons.Twoyearslater,Asiawasexportingover71,000tons.Lessthannineyearslater,thatnumberroseto370,000tons.Manausfellintofastdecline,itsoperahouseridiculedasanemblemoffolly,oftheexcesswealthandEuropeanstrivingsofrubberbaronswhospenttheirmoneyongoldleaf,redvelvet,andmuralsofGreekandRomangodscavortinginthejungle,ratherthanondevelopingasustainableeconomy.BelémgavewaytoSingaporeastheworld’spremier

rubberexportingport,andtheAmazonlanguished,subjectofanynumberofplanstorestoretheregiontoglory—untilFordtriedtomakeonehappen.19

*UnlikeBrazilians,whouponreturningfromthejungleusuallyimmediatelybathed,shaved,andbroughtanewsuitofclothes,Americans,oneobservernoted,hadthe“irritatinghabitofstalkingthroughthestreets,andcallingonthehighestofficials”intheir“ten-gallonhats,campaignboots,andcartridge-belts”(EarlParkerHanson,JourneytoManaos,NewYork:ReynalandHitchcock,1938,p.292).

CHAPTER2

THECOWMUSTGOONEOFTHEBOOKSERNESTLIEBOLDREADINHISDELIBERATIONSonwherebesttogrowrubberwasThroughtheBrazilianWilderness,TheodoreRoosevelt’saccountofhistriumphantAmazonexpedition,inwhichheandhissonKermitalmostlosttheirliveschartingtheunexploredthousand-mile-longRiverofDoubt.Rooseveltmadeonlypassingreferencetothecontractingrubbereconomy,mostlytorelatethehard-lucklifeoftappers.ButtherewasonepassagethatmusthavecaughtLiebold’sattention.

IndescribinghisjourneytotheheadwatersoftheTapajósRiver,Rooseveltobservedthatthearea’smanyfastriverscouldprovidenearly“unlimitedmotiveforcetopopulousmanufacturingcommunities.”Telegraphlineshadtoberun,followedbyrailroads,buttherewereno“seriousnaturalobstacles”toeithertask.Oncecommunicationandtransportationhadbeenestablished,the“rightkind”ofsettlerswouldarrive,followedby“enterprisingbusinessmenofforesight,coolnessandsagacity”willingtoputthemigrantstoworkfor“anadvantagethatwouldbemutual.”Andthuswouldrisea“greatindustrialcivilization.”1

Ifanyonecouldmakeithappen—oratleastifanyonewassureofhisabilitytomakesuchavisionhappen—itwouldbeHenryFord.WhenRooseveltleftforBrazilinlate1913,Fordwasalreadywellknownasthecreatoroftheworld’sfirstaffordable,mass-producedautomobile.Butwhenhereturnedinearly1914,theindustrialisthadbeencatapultedtotheheightsofworldfame,laudedasa“sociologistmanufacturer”whodidn’tjustattractthe“rightkind”ofworkerbutassembledthemfromwholecloth.“Theimpressionhassomehowgotaround,”saidtheReverendSamuelMarquis,whoforatimeheadedFord’semployeerelationsoffice,“thatHenryFordisintheautomobilebusiness.Itisn’ttrue.Mr.Fordshootsaboutfifteenhundredcarsoutofthebackdoorofhisfactoryeverydayjusttogetridofthem.Theyaretheby-productsofhisrealbusiness,whichisthemakingofmen.”2

SUCCESSCAMELATEtoFord.BornonaMichiganfarmin1863,hewasfortyyearsoldwhenhefoundedtheFordMotorCompanyinDetroit,forty-fivewhenheintroducedtheModelT,andfiftywhenheputassemblylineproductionintoplaceandbegantopayworkersawagehighenoughtoletthembuytheproducttheythemselvesmade.SowhilehecameofageduringtheearlystagesoftheIndustrialRevolution,theAmericahelivedinforthefirsthalfofhislifewasstillmostlyrural,andthechangeshehelpedsetinmotioncamestunninglyfast.

Forddidn’tinventtheassemblyline.Heclaimedhegottheideaofhavingworkersremainatonelocationandperformasingletaskfromthe“disassemblylines”foundinChicago’sandCincinnati’sslaughterhouses,wherebutchershackedoffpartsaspigandcowcarcassespassedinfrontofthemonconveyorhooks.Nordidheconceivetheothercentralideaofmodernmassproduction,thatis,makingpartsasidenticalaspossibletooneanothersothattheywouldbeinterchangeable.ButForddidfusethesetwoideastogetherasneverbefore,perfectingtheideaofafactoryasacomplexsystemofevermoreintegratedsubassemblyprocesses.

MostofthisinnovationtookplaceinFord’snewHighlandParkplant,openedin1910anddesignedbythearchitectAlbertKahn,whopriortohisworkwithFordhadbeenassociatedwiththeanti–massproductionartsandcraftsmovement.LocatedafewmilesnorthofdowntownDetroitalongWoodwardAvenue,thefactorywasenormous.Itwasfourstorieshigh,865feetlong,700,000squarefeetintotal,

holdingeightthousandmachines,andwasdubbedtheCrystalPalaceforthetensofthousandsofwindowpanesthatbatheditsshopfloorinradiantsunlight.HighlandParkwaspowerednotsomuchbysteamordieselbut,ashistorianDouglasBrinkleyputsit,management’srestlesssearchto“savetime,money,andmanpowerthroughfurthermechanization.”WithineighteenmonthsoftheintroductioninApril1913ofthefirstassemblylinetomakeflywheels,everymajorcomponentofFord’scarwasbeingproducedonmovinglines,includingthefinalconfectionofthefinishedproduct.HighlandParkhadbecomeamachineitself,whichbythemidteenswasdedicatedtomakingonecheapyetsturdything:theModelT.3

TheeconomicsofFord-stylemassproductionweredemonstrablysimple.In1911–12,ittookjustunderseventhousandFordworkerstomake78,440ModelTs.Thefollowingyear,bothproductionandtheworkforcemorethandoubled.Thenin1913–14,withtheintroductionoftheassemblylineandotherinnovations,thenumberofcarsthefactoryproduceddoubledyetagain,whilethelaborforcedecreasedfrom14,336to12,880men.Atthesametime,thecostofmanufacturingaModelTcontinuedtodecline,whichallowedforareductioninprice,whichincreaseddemand,whichgeneratedmoreprofit,whichcouldbepouredbackintothefactorytosynchronizeandmechanizeproductionevenfurther,tostartthewholeprocessoveragain.By1921,Fordhadcapturedmorethan50percentoftheAmericancarmarket,producingmorethantwomillionModelTsayearataproductioncost60percentcheaperthanadecadeearlier.4

In1914,theBritishjournalistJulianStreetvisitedDetroitanddescribedtherawenergyofFord’sHighlandParkplant:

Thewholeroom,withitsinterminableaisles,itswhirlingshaftsandwheels,itsforestofroof-supportingpostsandflapping,flying,leatherbelting,itsendlessrowsofwrithingmachinery,itsshrieking,hammering,andclatter,itssmellofoil,itsautumnhazeofsmoke,itssavage-lookingforeignpopulation—tomyminditexpressedbutonethingandthatwasdelirium....Fancyajungleofwheelsandbeltsandweirdironforms—ofmen,machineryandmovement—addtoiteverykindofsoundyoucanimagine:thesoundofamillionsquirrelschirking,amillionmonkeysquarreling,amillionlionsroaring,amillionpigsdying,amillionelephantssmashingthroughaforestofsheetiron,amillionboyswhistlingontheirfingers,amillionotherscoughingwiththewhoopingcough,amillionsinnersgroaningastheyaredraggedtohell—imagineallofthishappeningattheveryedgeofNiagaraFalls,withtheeverlastingroarofthecataractasaperpetualbackground,andyoumayacquireavagueconceptionofthatplace.5

HighlandPark’scrankshaftassemblyroom,1915.

ForStreet,thejungletropewasnottosuggest,asitdidforUptonSinclairinhisnovelabouttheChicagomeatpackingindustry,theanarchicbrutalityofcapitalism,whichdrainsthelifeoutofworkersandthencaststhemofftowitherawaylikesomanydeadleaves.Onthecontrary,theBritishjournalistsawtheassemblylinemethodasthetamingoftheindustrialjungle,a“relentlesssystem”yielding“terribleefficiency.”“Likeariveranditstributaries,”Ford’sintegratedassemblylinesflowedinexorablytotheirfinaldestination:afinishedModelT.6

“PEOPLEDON’TSTAYput,”FordoncesaidtoexplainwhycommunismwouldneverworkintheSovietUnion.Butneitherdidtheyremainstillduringthefirstdecadesofindustrialcapitalism.AttheFordfactory,workerabsenteeismaveraged10percentadaybetween1912and1913,andtheyearlyturnoverrateof380percentwascripplingthefactory’sproductioncapacity.Ford’semphasisonsynchronizationandmechanizationonlyaggravatedthealreadyhighlaborturnover.ForthemajorityofFord’severgrowingworkforce,theslightlybetter-than-averagepaythecompanyofferedwasnotsufficientincentivetobeturnedintorepeatingmachines.7

ThesecondstageofFord’srevolution,then,hadtodowithhumanrelations,withmakingpeoplestayput.Fordcametobelievethatthekeytocreatingloyal,moreefficientworkerswastohelpthemfindfulfillment,asheunderstoodit,outsidethefactory.

Inearly1914,Fordmadeanannouncementthatsentseismicshocksacrosstheglobe.Henceforth,heproclaimed,theFordMotorCompanywouldpayanincentivewageoffivedollarsforaneight-hourday,nearlydoubletheaverageindustrialstandard.TheWallStreetJournalchargedHenryFordwithclasstreason,with“economicblundersifnotcrimes.”YethisabsenteeandturnoverrateplummetedandFordwasjoltedintotheranksoftheworld’smostadmiredmen,“aninternationalsymbolofthenewindustrialization.”8

Buthighwagesalonewerenotenoughtoensureeitherfactory-floorefficiencyorindividualresponsibility.Abettersalarycouldjustleadtoquickerdissipationthroughgambling,drinking,andwhoring.TherewasnoshortageoftemptationsininiquitousDetroit.Thereweremorebrothelsinthecity

thanchurches,andworkersoftenlivedcrowdedinfetidslums,inflophousesthatfrontedforgamblinghalls,bars,andopiumdens.SoFordconditionedhisFiveDollarDayplanwiththeobligationthatworkersliveawholesomelife.9

Andtomakesuretheydid,thecarmakerdispatchedinspectorsfromhisSociologicalDepartmenttoprobeintothemostintimatecornersofFordworkers’lives,includingtheirsexlives.Denouncedasasystemofpaternalsurveillanceasoftenasitwaslaudedasaprogramofcivicreform,by1919theSociologicalDepartmentemployedhundredsofagentswhospreadoutoverDearbornandDetroitaskingquestions,takingnotes,andwritinguppersonnelreports.Theywantedtoknowifworkershadinsuranceandhowtheyspenttheirmoneyandfreetime.Didtheyhaveabankaccount?Howmuchdebtdidtheycarry?Howmanytimesweretheymarried?Didtheysendmoneyhometotheoldcountry?Sociologicalmencamearoundnotjustoncebuttwo,three,orfourtimesinterviewingfamilymembers,friends,andlandlordstomakesurepreviousreportsofprobitywereaccurate.Theyofcoursediscourageddrinking,smoking,andgamblingandencouragedsaving,cleanlivinghabits,keepingfliesofffood,maintaininganorderlyhouse,backyard,andfrontporch,andsleepinginbeds.Theyalsofrownedonthetakinginofboarderssince,“nexttoliquor,dissensioninthehomeisduetopeopleotherthanthefamilybeingthere.”10

ThemajorityoftheFordMotorCompany’sworkforcewereimmigrants,fromPoland,Russia,Italy,thedisintegratingAustro-HungarianandOttomanempires,theMiddleEast,Japan,andMexico.Inadditiontoattractingforeign-bornworkers,Ford’sFiveDollarDaywagesparkedamarchofAfricanAmericansfromtheSouthwhoheard,correctly,thatFordpaidequalwagestoallmaleemployees,regardlessofskincolor.Thecarindustry’sabsoluteneedforlaborwasinsatiableinthe1920sandmitigatedracism,thoughAfricanAmericansweregenerallyassignedthehardestjobsandtheoneswiththeleastpotentialforadvancement.Andthoughecumenicalinhishiringpractices,FordstillchargedhisSociologicalDepartmentwithAmericanizingimmigrants,conditioningongoingemploymentontheirattendingEnglishandcivicclasses.Thesecourseswereintentionallymixedbyraceandcountrysoasto“impressuponthesementhattheyare,orshouldbe,Americans,andthatformerracial,national,andlinguisticdifferencesaretobeforgotten.”CommencementfromtheFordschoolhadthegraduatingworkers,regaledintheirnativedress,singingtheirnationalsongsanddancingtheirfolkdancesandclimbingupaladdertoenteralargepapier-mâché“meltingpot.”Onthestage’sbackdropwaspaintedanimmigrantsteamship,andasFordteachersstirredthepotwithlongladlesthenewamalgamatedAmericansemergedin“derbyhats,coats,pants,vests,stiffcollars,polka-dotties,”singing“TheStar-SpangledBanner.”11

ConsiderthecaseofMustafa,animmigrantwhobeforetakingajobwiththeFordMotorCompanyhadplowedthefieldswithhisfatherinTurkey.WhenhefirstcametoDetroit,helivedinasqualiddowntownboardinghouse.Liketherestofhis“countrymen,”hewashedhis“handsandfeetfivetimesaday,aspartoftheirreligionbeforepraying”—thehygieneofwhichimpressedthesociologicalinspectorlessthanthetimeitwastedtroubledhim(in1914,FordhadfiredninehundredOrthodoxChristiansformissingaworkdaytocelebrateChristmasinJanuary).ButafterpassingthroughFord’sAmericanizationprogramsandmovingto“abetterlocality,”Mustafa“putasidehisnationalredfezandpraying,nobaggytrousersanymore.HedresseslikeanAmericangentleman,attendstheFordEnglishschoolandhasbankedinthepastyearover$1,000.00.”“Letmyonlysonbesacrificedformyboss,”theinspectorclaimedMustafasaidingratitudeforhavinghadhislifeturnedaround.“MayAllahsendmybossKismet.”12

AsFordbiographerRobertLaceyputit,the“FiveDollarDayraisedthepainthresholdofcapitalism.”

Butbeyondanincentivetomakeworkersstayput,italsobecameamodelforhowtorespondtoanothercrisisthatplaguedindustrialism.ThemechanizedfactoryproductionthattookflightduringAmerica’sGildedAgehadpromisedequalityandhumanprogressbutinrealitydelivereddeepeningpolarizationandmisery,particularlyinsprawlingindustrialcitieslikeDetroit.Ford,advisedbyfarsightedcompanyexecutivessuchasJamesCouzensandJohnLee,understoodthathighwagesanddecentbenefitswoulddomorethancreateadependableandthusmoreproductiveworkforce;theywouldalsostabilizeandstimulatedemandforindustrialproductsbyturningworkersintoconsumers.

Tothisend,theSociologicalDepartmentpromotedspending.Yetnotjustanykindofspending.EmployeeswerenottowastetheirmoneyonwhatForddismissedas“trumperyandtrinkets,”goodsmade“onlytobesold,andboughtonlytobeowned,”whichperformed“norealservicetotheworldandareatlastmererubbishastheywereatfirstmerewaste.”Ford’sinspectorsratherencouragedworkerstopurchasevacuumcleaners,washingmachines,houses,and,ofcourse,ModelTs.13

Atleastforsomeandatleastforatime,theFordMotorCompany,then,managedtoredeemcapitalism’searlierpromiseofabundance.Itcreatedwhatwasunderstoodtobeaclosed,self-regulatingcircuitthatbothincreasedproductionandexpandedconsumption,wherebyworkerswereabletopurchasetheproductsthattheythemselvesmade.“Highwages,”saidFord,“tocreatelargemarkets.”14

THEPUBLICITYGAINEDfrombothhisFiveDollarDayandSociologicalDepartmentcombinedwiththepopularityoftheModelTallowedFordtocultivatehisimageasaphilosopher.Ford’salmostpreternaturalmechanicaltalenthadbeenevidentsincehewasaboy.Yetnowinthemiddleofhislifehediscoveredanewskill.Thecarmakerturnedout,asonereporterputit,tobean“unrelenting,unremitting”masterself-publicistwho,withthehelpofaloyal,close-knitgroupofhandlersandhiredwriters,succeededinspinninghissocialawkwardnessintowiseenigma.Throughthe1920s,heenjoyedmorepresscoveragethananyotherAmericanexceptPresidentCalvinCoolidge.15

TwocontradictorythreadsranthroughthefabricofFord’shomespun.Onewasa“Transcendentalists’beliefinman’sperfectibility.”Fordwasapacifist,suffragist,anddeathpenaltyopponentwhobelievedthathehad“inventedthemodernage.”“Wedon’twanttradition,”hesaid,“wewanttoliveinthepresent,andtheonlyhistoryworthatinker’sdamnisthehistorywemaketoday.”Notonlydidhetakecreditforendingsociety’srelianceonthehorsebut,repelledbyhisownboyhoodmemoriesoffarmwork,hewantedtodoawaywithallbarnyardanimals.“Thecowmustgo,”hedeclared.Inplaceofmilk,Fordpushedsoymilk.Insteadofsheep’swool,hesuggestedlinenmadefromflax.16

Intheotherdirectionrannostalgiafortheworldhehelpedend,onerootedinhisruralbackground.Aphorismsthatstressed“self-relianceandruggedindividualism”assolutionstosocialillseventuallyevolvedintoadarkercritiqueofaworldthatheplayedalargeroleincreating,oneinwhichsocialrelationsweregrowingevermorecomplex,evermoreinflux,andevermoreshapedbyforcesbeyondface-to-facecontact.The“city”becameacommonobjectofhiscriticism,asdid“WallStreetfinancers”and,increasinglystartinginthe1920s,“theJew.”17

“Idon’tlikethecity,itpinsmein,”hesaid,“Iwanttobreathe.Iwanttogetout.”18

Fortherestofhislife,Ford—whoasaboywalkedforadayfromhisDearbornfamilyfarmtolosehimselfintheanonymouspleasuresofurbanDetroityetasamancametodespisethecityasdegenerate—bouncedbackandforthbetweenthesepoles.Hewasasuffragistwhodidn’tofferwomenthesamefive-

dollar-a-daywagehedidmen.HepassionatelyadvocatedplacingUSsovereigntyundertheauthorityoftheLeagueofNationsandtalkedabouttheneedtoestablisha“worldgovernment”wellintothe1940s,butthencondemnedJewsfortheir“internationalism.”Hecalledforthenationalizationoftherailroadsandtelegraphandtelephoneservice,yethehatedFranklinDelanoRooseveltandrefusedtoabidebyNewDealregulation.Heexaltedthedignityoftheworkerandfashionedhimselfascourgeofthe“capitalist”butwasviolentlyopposedtounionism.Andhewasaradicalpacifistwhoonceconcededthatonelastgreatwarmightbeneededtofinallybringaboutworlddisarmament.Atthevanguardoftheindustrialandconsumerrevolutionresponsibleformanyoftheviceshecondemned,Fordtriedtotranscendthisdissonancewithaself-regardborderingonthePromethean.Hereveledinpublicitythatpresentedhimashumanity’ssavior,oncesayingthatifsentintoanalleyblindfoldedhewouldlayhis“handsbychanceonthemostshiftlessandworthlessfellowinthecrowd”and“makeamanoutofhim.”19

Itwas,afterall,anageofcompetitiveredemptions.Socialist:theradicaljournalistJohnReedinhisTenDaysThatShooktheWorlddescribedthe1917RussianRevolutionasbuildinganearthly“kingdommorebrightthananyheavenhadtooffer.”Russians,hesaid,wouldnolongerneedprieststo“praythemintoheaven.”Nationalist:T.E.Lawrence,betterknownasLawrenceofArabia,inanaccountofhisroleinhelpingtosparkthe1922ArabrevoltagainsttheOttomanempire,wrotethattherebellionwasfoughtinthenameofa“newheavenandanewearth.”Fundamentalist:theReverendBillySundayheld40,000-strongrevivalmeetingsintheheartofDetroitintheyearsaftertheinaugurationoftheFiveDollarDay,vyingwithFordforthepress’sattention.Andcapitalist:Fordtoopromisedtodelivernotjustacheapcartothe“multitude”buta“newworld,anewheaven,andanewearth.”20

CHAPTER3

ABSOLUTEAMERICANISMSTHEGOLDENAGEOFFORDARRIVEDINEARLY1914,WITHTHEthunderclappromiseoftheFiveDollarDay,heraldingindustrialpeaceandprosperity.Therestofthe1910sandmostofthe1920swereaperiodofdizzyingeconomictriumphforFord.HavingboughtallminoritysharesinFordMotorCompany,withnodividendstopay,partnerstoconsult,orbankstoreportto,Fordmovedforwardwiththeconstructionofanewfactorycomplex,whichhebuiltalongtheRougeRiver,inthecountyofDearborn,nearwherehewasborn.Whenitwasfinished,theRiverRougewouldbethelargest,mostsynchronizedindustrialplantintheworld:sixteenmillionsquarefeetoffloorspace,ninety-threebuildings,closetoahundredthousandworkers,adredgeddeepwaterport,andtheworld’slargeststeelfoundry.Fordbarges,trucks,andfreighttrainsbroughtsilicaandlimestone,coalandironore,woodandcoal,brass,bronze,copper,andaluminumfromFordforestsandminesinMichigan,Kentucky,andWestVirginiatotheRouge’sgatesandpiers,andeverythingwasorganizedtoachievemaximumefficiencyinreceivingthematerialandgettingittothecomplex’spowerplants,blastovens,furnaces,mills,rollers,forges,saws,andpresses,tobetransformedintoelectricity,steel,glass,cement,andlumber.Whereotherfactoriesprocessedrawmaterialsonce,FordhadtheRougedesignedtoallowfortheirintensivereuse.Ratherthanjustburncoalforelectricityandheat,cokeovensfirstbrokedowntherockintoahigh-burningcompoundthatcouldbeusedinfoundriestomeltmineralstomakecastings.Onlythenwascokegaspipedtothepowerhousetogenerateelectricity.Woodchipswereputtomakingcardboard,coaldustwassweptoffthefloorandusedtoproducecement,metalscrapsweretossedintheblastfurnaces,andammoniumsulfate,anotherbyproductofthecokingprocess,wassoldasfertilizer.Refinedrawmaterialsthenmovedthroughaseriesofcranes,railcars,andcrisscrossedcoveredconveyorbeltstotheirfinaldestination,theassemblyplant—laidoutononefloortoreduceunnecessaryclimbing.TheRougewasconsecrateda“cathedralofindustry,”andFord,oneoftherichestandmostcelebratedmeninhistory,ordainedthehighpriestofthemodernage.1

ButFord’soptimisticcreedwastestedbytheoutbreakofWorldWarI,whichhadtakenoveramillionlivesbytheendof1914andwouldeventuallyclaimsixteentimesasmany.HistorianshavetracedFord’sdistasteformilitarismtohismother,MaryLitogotFord,who,havinggivenbirthtoHenryinthemiddleoftheCivilWar,nurturedinhersonahatredofallthingsmartial.Butit’snothardtoimagineFordreadingaboutEuropeanfactoriesbeingusedtomassmanufactureeverbiggerguns,larger-caliberammunition,morelethalbombs,airplanes,submarines,mustardgas,andcarsoutfittedforbattleandthinkingthatthehopeoftheIndustrialRevolutionhadbeenturnedinsideout,thatratherthandeliver,ashekeptsayingitwould,aneasier,moresatisfiedlife,itnowmadedeathpossibleonascaleheretoforeunimaginable.ThebattleofVerdunaloneconsumedclosetofortymillionartilleryshellsandover300,000lives.AhalfmilliondiedattheSomme,morethantwiceasmanybattledeathsastheentireCivilWar.

Ford’sfailuretokeeptheUnitedStatesoutofWorldWarI—ataskhepledgedtodevotehisentirefortuneto—initiatedaseriesofpoliticaldefeatsandcompromisesthat,bythetimeheconsideredmovingintotheAmazon,lefthimwithoutanymajorsuccessapartfromtheconsiderableonesthatborehisname:hiscars,tractors,planes,factories,andmethodofproduction.TheGreatWarforcedFordtorevisehisinternationalutopianism,undermininghisfaiththattherationalorderingofindustrialcapitalismandhumanrelationscouldbringaboutabetter,harmoniousworld,freeofbattlesandborders.Fordflailed,blamingonegroupafteranotherforsociety’sills.Hecontinuedtoexpressanunboundedfaithinthe

abilityoftechnologytocreatehumanhappiness,yethisproscriptionsforreformbecameidiosyncraticandincreasinglynativist.ItisatthisintersectionofeconomicintoxicationandpoliticalexhaustionthattheideaofFordlandiabeingsomethingmorethanjustarubberplantationfirsttookroot.

FORDWENTPUBLICwithhisoppositionnotjusttoWorldWarI,ortowaringeneralbuttoallpreparationforwar,whichhesaidcouldonlyleadtowar,inApril1915.“Iamopposedtowarineverysenseoftheword,”hesaid;soldiersshouldhavethewordmurdererembroideredontheiruniforms.InthefollowingmonthsFordwouldissueastreamofequallyemphaticstatements,thrustinghimselfintothepositionoftheworld’smostfamouspacifist,dedicatedtobothendingtheEuropeanconflictandkeepingtheUnitedStatesoutofit.“Idon’tbelieveinboundaries,”FordtoldJohnReed.“Ithinknationsaresillyandflagsaresillytoo.”HesaidheplannedtopulldowntheUSflagfromhisfactoryand“hoistinitsplacetheFlagofAllNationswhichisbeingdesignedinmyofficerightnow.”2

JaneAddams,anotherprominentpeaceactivist,thoughtsuchpronouncementsflamboyant.Yettheyweren’tatoddswithmuchofmainstreamthoughtofthetime.Manythought,ontheeveofWorldWarI,thatpacifismwasonthevergeoftriumph.Astrongantiwarsentimenthademergedinalltheworld’smajorreligions,includinginthegrowingChristianevangelicalmovementintheUnitedStates,makingcommoncausewithpoliticiansinEurope,theUnitedStates,andLatinAmericatoreorientthepurposeofdiplomacyawayfrommilitarismanddominancetowardtheresolutionofconflictandthemaintenanceofpeace.Arespectablenumberoftheworld’smostprominentintellectuals,businessmen,politicians,andclergycouldseriouslyarguethataworldofperpetualpeace,governedbythedispassionateruleoflaw,waswithinreach.

Fordreflectedthisdébut-de-siècleoptimismbutpartedcompanywiththosewhosawprogressasbeingdrivenbypoliticiansandgovernments.“Historyismoreorlessbunk,”Fordoncefamouslysaid,bywhichhemeantthekindofgreat-manorgreat-nationhistorythatmadeitintotextbooks.Itwasnotjustthe“bankers,munitionsmakers,Kingsandtheirhenchmen”whopushedpeopleintowar,Fordthought,but“schoolbooks”thatglorifiedbattlesasenginesofhistoricalmovement.FordwasnotaversetoAmericanexpansion.HeinfacthadapronouncedbeliefinhisandtheUnitedStates’abilitytorejuvenatetheworld.Justnotatthepointofbayonets.“IfwecouldputtheMexicanpeontowork,”FordsaidinreferencetotheturmoiloftheMexicanRevolution,whichbrokeoutin1910,“treatinghimfairlyandshowinghimtheadvantageoftreatinghisemployersfairly,theMexicanproblemwoulddisappear.Therewouldbenomoretalkofarevolution.Villawouldbecomeaforeman,ifhehadbrains.Carranza[anotherMexicanrevolutionary]mightbetrainedtobeagoodtime-keeper.”3

Ford’svisionofaworldmadewholeandhappybytradeandindustryiscapturedinhisfavoritepoem,LordAlfredTennyson’s“LocksleyHall”:

ForIdiptintothefuture,farashumaneyecouldsee,

SawtheVisionoftheworld,andallthewonderthatwouldbe;

Sawtheheavensfillwithcommerce,argosiesofmagicsails,

Pilotsofthepurpletwilight,droppingdownwithcostlybales;

Heardtheheavensfillwithshouting,andthererain’daghastlydew

Fromthenations’airynaviesgrapplinginthecentralblue;

Faralongtheworld-widewhisperofthesouth-windrushingwarm,

Withthestandardsofthepeoplesplungingthro’thethunder-storm;

Tillthewar-drumthrobb’dnolonger,andthebattle-flagswerefurl’d

IntheParliamentofman,theFederationoftheworld.

Therethecommonsenseofmostshallholdafretfulrealminawe,

Andthekindlyearthshallslumber,laptinuniversallaw.*

Itwastechnology,production,andcommercethatmadehistory,anditwouldbenotgunboatsormarinesthatwouldtametheworldbuthiscar.“InMexicovillagesfightoneanother,”Fordsaid,but“ifwecouldgiveeverymaninthosevillagesanautomobile,lethimtravelfromhishometowntotheothertown,andpermithimtofindoutthathisneighborsatheartwerehisfriends,ratherthanhisenemies,Mexicowouldbepacifiedforalltime.”Andtobackuphispoint,heannouncedthatanyemployeewholefthisjobtojoinGeneralJohnPershing’sexpeditiontocapturetheMexicanrevolutionaryPanchoVillawouldnotfindworkwaitingforhimonhisreturn.4

THEOUTBREAKOFwarinEuropeinAugust1914shatteredtheillusionthatthebattleflagsoftheworldwouldsoonbefurled.Ratherthandousingthedream,however,theEuropeanconflictprovokedevermoredesperateeffortstorealizeit,likeHenryFord’s“peaceship.”

Fordhadseizedonthenotionofcharteringanoceanlinertofloata“people’sdelegation”toEuropetonegotiateanendtotheconflictinNovember1915,afteranassociateraisedtheideainpassing,andhethrewhimselfintotheendeavorwiththesameimpetuousenergyhebroughttohisother,moremechanicalpassions.“Iwilldoeverythinginmypowertopreventmurderous,wastefulwarinAmericaandinthewholeworld,”hesaid,committingtostayinEuropeaslongasittooktobringpeacetothecontinent.“Iwilldevotemylifetofightthisspiritofmilitarism.”Workingcloselywithmembersoftheworldpeacemovement,FordarrangedtorenttheScandinavian-AmericanLine’sOscarIIandsetupacommandcenterinNewYork’sBiltmoreHotel,sendingoutabarrageofinvitationstothebestnamesinAmericanpolitics,society,andindustrytojoinhis“internationalpeacepilgrimage.”“We’regoingtotrytogettheboysoutofthetrenchesbeforeChristmas,”wasthesloganFordadoptedforthecampaign,havingcometoappreciatethepublicityvalueofasuccinct,well-turnedphrase.5

Ford’sflairforbombastwasmorethanmatchedbythetheatricalityofthefifteenthousandpeoplewhocrammedaHobokenpiertosendoffhis“peaceark.”Abandplayed“BattleHymnoftheRepublic”and“Onward,ChristianSoldiers,”asthecrewoftheOscartriedtosortoutwhowaslegitimatelypartoftheFordentourageandwhowastryingtostowaway.Mostofthecountry’sprominentliberalinternationalists,intellectuals,andreligiousleaders,likeWilliamJenningsBryan,WilliamHowardTaft,andLouisBrandeisrespectfullydeclinedtheindustrialist’sinvitationtojoinhisodyssey.“Myheartiswithyou,”apologizedHelenKellerfornotbeingabletomakethetrip.JaneAddamsdidacceptbutfellillandcouldn’tsail.ThatleftFordwithanoddandvolatileassortmentoflesser-knowndissenters,vegetarians,socialists,pacifists,andsuffragistsascompanions.Thatthevoyagersseemedmoreathomeunderacarnivaltentthaninthehallsofdiplomacywasunderscoredbythearrivalofagiftoftwocagedsquirrels—“togowiththenuts,”somewagsaid.Fordhimself,swaddledinafull-lengthovercoat,stoodontheship’sdeckinthewinterwindwithbeatificpinkcheeksandafrozensmile,bowingoverandoveragaintowell-wishers.Onereporteraskedhimwhathissupportersshoulddowhilehewasaway.“Tellthepeopletocrypeace,”hesaid,and“fightpreparedness.”AmongthosegatheredonthedockwasMr.Zero,thestreet-performancenameofantihungeractivistUrbainLedoux,whowouldlaterbeknownfor

staging“slaveauctions”ofunemployedworkersintheBostonCommon.WhenhetriedtodothesameinNewYork’sBryantPark,copsriotedandbeattheassembledcrowdwithbillyclubs,provokinganightlongmeleeinwhichthousandsofthejoblessmarchedthroughBroadway’stheaterdistrictchanting“Hurrahforthearmyoftheunemployed!”anddemandingtoknow“Whendoweeat?”AstheOscarpulledawayfromthedockandthebandstruckup“IDidn’tRaiseMySontoBeaSoldier,”Mr.ZeroleaptintothecoldHudsonwaters.Fishedoutofthebay,hetoldreportersthathewas“swimmingtoreachpublicopinion.”6

Themissionprovedabust.Inthemiddleofthevoyage,PresidentWoodrowWilsonannouncedthathewouldcallonCongresstoincreasethesizeofthestandingarmy,apolicyshiftthatsplitthedelegatesintocompetingfactions,betweenthosewhofelttheyneededtocalloffthemissionindeferencetoWilsonandthosewhoinsistedonpressingforward.Fordjoinedthemilitantsbut,laidlowbyafluandrealizingthathewasinoverhishead,sequesteredhimselfinhiscabinuntiltheOscararrivedin–12°OsloonDecember18.HereturnedtotheUnitedStatesnearlyimmediately,leavinghisfellowdelegatestomaketheirfutile“people’sintervention”ontheirown.“GuessIhadbettergohometomother,”hetoldthem,meaninghiswife,Clara.“You’vegotthisthingstartednowandcangetalongwithoutme.”

ThevoyageoftheOscarrevealedtheunwillingnessofmanyofAmerica’smostinfluentialintellectualsandpoliticians,despitetheirnominalcommitmenttopeace,tochallengeapresidentwhomtheysawasafellowinternationalist,firstwhenWoodrowWilsonpromisedtousehisofficetopressforarbitrationinEuropeandthenwhenhebeganhismilitarybuildup.ButitalsoexposedFord’svisionofAmericanismtoapowerfulbacklash,ledbyTheodoreRoosevelt.

WHENTHEODOREROOSEVELTreturnedfromtheAmazoninMay1914,hewasthinnedbyparasitesandfever.Duringthetrip,aninfectionhadeatenathisfleshanddespairhadbroughthimtotheedgeofsuicide.HehadlostthreementomurderandtheriverandhadalmostlosthissonKermit.YetRoosevelt,whoservedaspresidentfrom1901to1909,recoveredenoughtolectureonhisadventures,andonceheconvincedskepticsthathehaddiscoveredanewriver—nowflowingunderthename“Roosevelt”—hebeganagaintoconcernhimselfwithsocialissues,includingthenewFiveDollarDayplanFordhadputinplacewhilehewasaway.HewrotetoFordtosuggesttheyhavelunchordinnerthenexttimeFordwasinNewYork.Rooseveltwantedtoknowa“greatmanythings”abouthisfactorysystem—notjusthowFordwashandlinghis“workmenfromthepurelyindustrialandsocialside”butalsohis“methodofdealingwiththeimmigrantworkingmen.”7

Bothmencontributed,intheirownway,tothetriumphofthe“ProgressiveEra”overtheabusesofthebaronsandtruststhatemergedfromAmerica’sfirstperiodofindustrialexpansion.Theysharedanumberoffriends,includingThomasEdisonandthenaturalistJohnBurroughs,andRoosevelt,thefirstpresidenttorideinacar,felt“notmerelyfriendliness”towardFord“butinmanyrespectsaverygenuineadmiration.”Butthemeetingdidnottakeplace,forasFordbecamethevoiceofafrustratedpacifism,Roosevelt’sadmirationsouredintoscornand“cuttingsarcasm.”“Mr.Ford’svisitabroad,”hesaidofthepeaceship,“willnotbemischievousonlybecauseitisridiculous.”8

RooseveltandFordrepresenteddistincttraditionsofAmericanism,especiallywithrespecttoexpansionbeyondAmerica’sborders.WhereFordbelievedthecountryshouldmoveforwardtothesteadyhumofawell-organizedfactory,Rooseveltthoughtthatthenationshouldmarchoutwardtothebeatofamilitarybassdrum.TheRoughRiderurgedmentoliveattheextremes,andhehailedthehard,besiegedlifeofthefrontier—whetherintheDakotabadlandsorinatropicaljungle—asessentialinboth

buildingcharacteranddefiningmorality.“Themostultimatelyrighteousofallwarsisawarwithsavages,”hewroteinTheWinningoftheWest,eventhoughheadmittedthatsuchawarwas“apttobealsothemostterribleandinhumane.”HisdistastefortheflaccidcommercialismofAmericansocietyiswellknown.In1899hewarnedcitizensagainstbeinglulledintoa“swollen,slothfuleaseandignoblepeace”andseducedbythe“over-civilizedman,”bywhichheandothermilitaristsmeantfeminized,excessivelycerebralintellectualswhobelievedthatman’sbaserinstinctshadbeenforeversubduedbythetriumphofbourgeoispoliticsandeconomics.Tocounterthesethreats,Rooseveltprescribedwarasaregenerativeremedy.“Hegushesoverwar,”wrotethepsychologistWilliamJames,oneofRoosevelt’sHarvardteachers,“astheidealconditionofhumansociety,forthemanlystrenuousnesswhichitinvolves.”TheburdensofthepresidencycontainedRoosevelt’senthusiasmforbattleandempireasanexpressionofnationalglory,andheevenlenthissupportforaninternationalarbitrationcourttobeestablishedinTheHague.Yethenonethelesspresidedoveranextraordinaryexpansionofthegovernmentandthearmedforcesintherealmofforeignpolicy.9

Ford,bornonafarm,resentfultothepointofparanoiaofAmerica’seasternelite,andscornfuloftheirbourgeoisconceits,couldhardlybeconsidered“overcivilized.”Yetthat’sexactlywhyhis“pussyfooting”pacifism,asRooseveltputit,representedsuchathreattotheex-president’smartialnationalism.Neitheranold-lineisolationistnoranintellectualpacifist,FordpromotedanexpansiveheartlandAmericanismthatsoughttobreaktheequation,oftenmadebyradicals,betweenindustrialcapitalismandmilitarism.Heinsistedthatyoucouldhavetheformerwithoutthelatter.AlthoughhewasridiculedinthepressafterhisreturnfromNorwayinJanuary,Ford’spacifismcontinuedtoresonatewithmanyAmericans,notjustdissentersbutmainstreamChristiansand,beforeFordwentpublicwithhisanti-Semitism,Jews.“HenryFordandhispartyarebutswellingtheranksof‘fools’and‘madmen,’”saidPhiladelphiarabbiJosephKrauskopfinhisSabbathsermontomarkthesailingoftheOscar,“buttheyareingoodcompany....WouldtoGod,wehadmoreoftheirsortoffoolishness.”FordevenbeatbothRooseveltandWilsoninaSt.Louisstrawvoteforpresident.10

Forddidn’twinthatnomination,buthedidn’trun.Hiscandidacywasenteredwithouthisapprovalandhedidn’tmakespeeches,engageindebate,orattendthenominatingconventionheldinChicagoinJune.Still,inthemonthsleadingtotheconvention,hereceivedanoutpouringofencouragementfromfarmersandindustrialworkersurginghimto“fightthemunitionmanufacturers.”“Iamjustahumblefarmer,”onelettersaid,“butmythreegreatestdesiresaretovoteforFord,ownaFord,andseeFordelectedpresidentbythegreatestmajoritygivenanyman.”ResidentsofParker,SouthDakota,distributedhandbillsproclaimingthat“nonamesaregreaterinthewholeuniversethanGeorgeWashington,AbrahamLincoln,andHenryFord.”11

ThislastencomiummusthaveirkedRoosevelt,forheofteninvokedLincolntoscoldpacifists.HesentFordaletterinFebruary1916,tellinghimthatbyputting“peaceaboverighteousness”hehadmadepacifismthe“enemyofmorality.”“Righteousnessiftriumphantbringspeace,”hewrote,“butpeacedoesnotnecessarilybringrighteousness.”12

THREEMONTHSLATER,RoosevelttookhiscausetothehomeofFordism.HearrivedinDetroitearlyonaMaymorningtothecheersofoverathousandwell-wishers.TheMichiganRepublicanswhoorganizedthevisiturgedhimtoignoreFord.ButRooseveltcouldn’tcontainhimself,sayingthathehadcome“girdedtofightthepacifismofFord.”Nearlyallofhiscommentswereaimed,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,attheindustrialist.Atthecity’sOperaHouse,anoverflowcrowdfoughtwithpoliceand

firemenforanopportunitytoheartheBullMoose,whoreceivedastandingovationwhenhecalledFordanenemyofthe“welfareofthecountryanditspeople.”“I’vegottwosonstogo,”yelledawomanfromthebalconyinresponsetoRoosevelt’scallforuniversalmilitaryservice.“Madam,”heresponded,“ifeverymotherinthecountrywouldmakethesameoffer,therewouldbenoneedforanymothertosendhersonstowar”—areferencenotlostonthecrowdsinceFord’sson,Edsel,hadnotenlisted.13

Rooseveltenjoyedareputationasaprogressive,abusteroftrustsandpromoterofgovernmentregulationoverindustry.ButbythetimehereachedDetroithehadlargelyabandonedhisearlieradvocacyof“socialjustice.”Hehadlearnedalessontaughttomanyawould-bereformer:thedrivetoachieveamoreequitabledomesticsocietyistoodivisiveacrusade—itismucheasiertofocusoutward,onexternalthreats,toachieveunitythantofightforfairnessathome.Roosevelt’spreparednesscampaignthereforemeantmorethannationaldefense.Itmeantnationalidentity.

ThusRoosevelt,evenasheurgedvigilanceagainstGermany,couldadmitthatheadmiredhisPrussianadversariesfortheirdiscipline.“Thehighestcivilizationcanonlyexistinthenationthatcontrolsitself,”hetoldhisOperaHouseaudience.“Aboveall,wemustinsistuponabsoluteAmericanism.”Roosevelt’svisionofpraetoriannationalismwasdirectedsquarelyatFordandhiskitschcivicpageantry,andthepraisehehadearlierheapedonFord’sSociologicalDepartmentforbreakingdown“hyphenatedAmericanism”hadgivenwaytocontempt.InhiscallforuniversalconscriptionthatMayday,Rooseveltrailedagainstthenotionthat“Americanism”couldbeforgedonthefactoryfloor,intheindustrialcity,orinthetheatricsofpapier-mâchémeltingpotsandderbyhats.WhatRooseveltcalledthe“greatfactoriesofAmericanism”weretobefoundnotinHighlandParkbutinthecollectiveeffortofwar,oratleastinthecollectiveeffortneededtoprepareforwar.“Ibelievethedog-tentwouldbeamosteffectivewayfordemocratizingandnationalizingourlife,”hesaid,“quiteasmuchsoasthepublicschoolandfarmoresothantheAmericanfactory.”14

FordrespondedbycastingRooseveltasananachronismfromthepastmartialcentury,awanderingoldsoldierlookingforonelastbattletofight.“Ordinarilyoneconsidersanex-presidentalittledifferentfromtheeverydaycitizen,”remarkedFord.“IthasbeensevenyearssincehewasPresident,andinthattimehehasentirelyfailedtounderstandthetrendofeventsandthesentimentsofthepeople.IconsiderRooseveltsoantiquatedthatthe‘ex’businessdoesnotmeananything.Iconsiderhimjustanordinarycitizenbecausehedoesnotkeepupwiththetimes.”15

HethenleftDetroittogofishing,abruptlyendingspeculationastowhetherthetwoAmericanistswouldmeet.

TheUnitedStatesenteredWorldWarIinApril1917,butthatdidn’tstopthefeud.In1918,FordannouncedhewasmakingabidforMichigan’sseatintheUSSenateinordertosupportWilson’sproposedLeagueofNations.Helostthatelectiontoo,thoughhedidcomewithinafewthousandvotesofwinning,againwithouthavingcampaignedorspentanymoneyelectioneering.16

RooseveltworkedforFord’sRepublicanrival,condemningFord’spacifismastreasonous,makinganissueofFord’searliercommentthathethoughttheAmericanflag“silly.”17PoliticiansandjournalistsjoinedindenouncingFordas“criminal”and“insane,”unfitforpublicoffice.“UponsomeofthebiggestquestionsofAmericanism,”wrotetheChicagoTribune,“HenryFordis,toourwayofthinking,wrong.Heisdangerouslywrong.WeagreewithTheodoreRoosevelt.”RooseveltevencalledonFordtosacrificeEdseltoatoneforhavingopposedAmerica’sentranceintothewar,sincethefightingwould

havebeenoverinninetydaysandmanylivesspared“ifwehadprepared.”FordbelongednotintheSenate,hesaid,but“onthemourners’bench.”18

Rooseveltdiedinearly1919,havinglivedtowitnessFord’spacifism,seeminglytriumphantin1915,wiltinthefaceofthefervorinwhichAmericansmarchedintowar.RooseveltalsosawFordturnhisfactoryovertowarproduction,leadingmanywhohadsimplyconsideredthecarmakerafooltonowthinkhimahypocrite.AndheevenbestedFordwithhisdeath:Fordhadplannedtoruna“scathing”indictmentofhimintheinauguralissueoftheDearbornIndependent,alocalnewspaperFordpurchasedin1918,buthewasforcedtoscrapitonnewsthattheex-presidenthadpassed.19

FORDWASIMMUNEtotheemotionsofnationalismanddeaftothegrievancesofhistory.Themotorforceofhisinternationalism,theonetruethingthatmovedhim,wasconstructive,rationallyorderedactivity,whichhebelievedcouldbetransplantedtoanycountrytohelpmutepoliticalpassions.WhatdiditmatterthatIndiawascolonizedbyGreatBritainifitspeoplewereatworkmakingthings?WouldSerbianscarethattheywereoppressediftheyhadfactoryjobstogoto?Whatdidmatterwaswar,foritwasanabsolutemockeryofeverythingFordstoodfor.Hewasappalledbythedestruction,bytheinsanityofusingfactories,machines,andmentokillratherthantomake.“Everytimeabiggunwasfired,itcostalmostasmuchasaFordcar,”wroteacontemporarytoexplainFord’sdisgust.“Ariflecartridgecostalmosthalfasmuchasaspark-plug.Thenitratesburnedupinexplosiveswouldfertilizealltheworn-outfarmsintheworld.”Onedayduringthewar,Ford,havinglearnedthattwentythousandmenhadbeenkilledwithintheprevioustwenty-fourhours,quicklyfiguredthatifthosewastedmenhadworkedforhimforayeartheywouldhaveearned$30million.Capitalizedatastandardrateof5percent,Fordcalculated,thatmeantthat$600millionwaslostinasingleday.20

WorldWarI,alongwithFord’sfailuretosticktohisownconvictionswhentheUSenteredit,promptedagradualrevisionofhisinternationalism.Hestillcontinuedtoinsistthathisbalmofhardwork,highwages,andmorallivingcouldbeuniversallyapplied,regardlessofcountryorcreed.Yetthroughthe1920s,Fordwouldbackawayfromhishighmodernistdisdainfor“tradition,”comingtobelievethatiftheworldwastobesaveditneededtolookforsolutionsrootedinthesmall-townvaluesofAmerica’spast.

*FordalsoappreciatedVictorHugo,jottingdowninhisnotebookatranslatedparaphraseofafairlyobscurequotefromhisfellowworld-governmentadvocate:“Irepresentathingthatdoesnotyetexistthepartyoftherevolutionarycivilizationwillcomeinthe20thcentury,”givingrisefirstto“theUnitedStatesofEuropeandthentheUnitedStatesoftheworld”(BFRC,accession1,box14,folder8).

CHAPTER4

THAT’SWHEREWESURECANGETGOLDHENRYFORDDIDN’TMUCHLIKETOREAD.READINGWASLIKEA“dope-habit,”hesaid.“Book-sicknessisamodernailment.”Hedelegatedmostofthereadingandwritingrequiredtorunhiscompanyandkeepuphispublicpersonatohissubordinates,asFordhimselfadmittedwhenoneoranotherofhispronouncementsgothimintotrouble.“Mr.Delavignewrotethat,”wasFord’sfallbackdefensewhencriticizedforunderminingAmericanmilitarypreparedness;TheodoreDelavigne,his“peacesecretary,”ghostwrotemanyofFord’spacifistmanifestos.“WhyshouldIcluttermymindwithgeneralinformation,”heonceasked,“whenIhavemenaroundmewhocansupplyanyknowledgeIneed?”1

Fordwasn’tilliterate,ashisdetractorsclaimed,thoughhedidpassonseveralopportunitiestoproveotherwise.In1919,FordsuedtheChicagoTribuneforlibelforhavingcalledhiman“anarchist”yetinhistestimonyrefusedtoreadpassagesfromdocumentsenteredasevidence.Heforgothisspectacles,hesaid,orhiseyesweretoowateryfrom“thehayfever.”Heclaimedhedidn’tcarethathegavetheimpressionthathecouldn’tread.“Ireadslowly,butIcanreadalright.”

Fordwasinfactanimpressionisticreader,andhewasanimatedbybigideas.Heinsistedthathisdog-earedcopyofOrlandoSmith’sAShortViewofGreatQuestions,whichpopularizedforanAmericanaudiencehighbrowGermananti-SemitismandOrientalmetaphysics,“changedhisoutlookonlife.”Andhecontinuedtoquote“LocksleyHall”untiltheendofhislife.2

Ford’scultivationofhimselfasaheartlandsagedispensingfolksywisdomowesmuchtotheinfluenceofWilliamHolmesMcGuffey’sEclecticReader,hischildhoodcivicstextbook.Theearlytwentiethcenturywasswollenwithbooks—manyofthemstillfound,underlinedandannotated,ontheshelvesofhisestate,FairLane—thatdefinedwhatitmeanttobemodern,ideasconcerningdiet,exercise,reincarnation,andpoliticsthatFordoftenpassedontofriendsandemployees.“Mr.Fordwouldn’tdiscussthebookshereadoranythinglikethat,”saidAlbertM.Wibel,headofthecompany’spurchasingdivision.“Hejustdiditenoughtomakemethink,‘Whattheheckishetalkingabout?I’mgoingtofindout.’”Thoughnotalwayswithenthusiasm:“IhatedthoseGoddamnsoybeansanddidn’twantanypartofthem,”hesaidaboutoneofFord’smoreenduringobsessions.3

Fordlikedtokeephisadviceshortandsimpleyethisinterestinmattersphilosophicalledhimtoexpandhisvocabulary.TheFordArchivesholddozensofhis“jot-it-down”pocketnotebooks,whichFordkeptatthereadytosavehisthoughtsandoccasionallylistvariationsofwords:

Metaphysic

Metaphysical

Metaphysician

Metafizishan

Metaphysics

CominguponhisbossinhisFairLanesittingroomreadingRalphWaldoEmerson,ReverendMarquis,theministerwhoheadedtheSociologicalDepartment,askedFordwhathethoughtofthe“Concord

philosopher.”“Emerson’sapup,”Fordreplied.“Whya‘pup’?”Marquisasked.“Well,”Fordsaid,“Ijustgetcomfortablysettledtothereadingofhim,whenheusesawordIdon’tunderstand,andthatmakesmegetupandlookforadictionary.”4

OfallofHenryFord’smanyintellectualinfluences,Emersonwashismostenduringmuse.FordappreciatedtheConcordphilosopher’soptimismandcelebrationofindividualismandself-reliance.ButhealsofoundinEmersonausefulcorrectivetothewritingsofothernineteenth-centurypastoralists,whosawindustryasaviolationofnature.WilliamWordsworth,forinstance,protestedthecomingoftherailroadtoEngland’slakecountryin1844,warningagainstthespreadofthemechanical“feveroftheworld.”“Isthen,”heasked,“nonookofEnglishgroundsecurefromrashassault?”Emerson,incontrast,celebratedsteampower,railroads,andfactoriesasrejuvenatingforcesthatwouldhelpmanfullyrealizethewondersofthenaturalworld.MechanizationopeneduptheWest,dissolvedOldWorldhierarchiesandstiflingcustoms,turneddesertsintogardens,andfreedthemindfrommeaninglesslabortoallowmorecontemplativethought.Inanswertothepoetwhofearedthattherailwayandthe“factory-village”wouldbreakthe“poetryofthelandscape,”Emersoninsistedthatboth“fallwithinthegreatOrdernotlessthanthebeehiveorthespider’sgeometricalweb.Natureadoptsthemveryfastintohervitalcircles,andtheglidingtrainofcarssheloveslikeherown.”IntheyearsafterWorldWarIendedtheoptimismoftheProgressiveEra,FordwouldprescribeasimilarholismasasolutionforAmerica’sproblems,settingoutonanincreasinglymanicquesttorestoreordertoaworldoff-kilter.5

THEIMMEDIATECATALYSTforFord’sinitiativewasAmerica’s1920recession.Thedownturnlastedlessthantwoyears,shortcomparedtoeitherthesix-yearcontractionthatbeganin1873orthegreatdesolationthatwouldcomein1929.Yetthedropineconomicoutputwasacute,revealingthevulnerabilityofbothurbanandruralsocietyunderthenewregimeofmassconsumercapitalism.Banksfailedandbusinessesclosed.Unemploymentskyrocketedincitiesandfamilieswenthungry.TherecessionanditsaftermathwereablowtooneofFord’smostlyloyalconstituencies,farmers,whostillmadeupaboutathirdoftheUSlaborforce.Thepriceofagriculturalproductsplummetedbyasmuchas40percent,nevertofullyrecover,evenaftertheeconomybegantogrowagainin1922.ItwasthefirstseriousdownswingsinceFordhadputhisindustrialandsocialsystemintoplaceinDetroitthedecadeprevious,anditgalvanizedhimintoaction.Fortherestofhislifehewouldcommitagoodpartofhisgreatwealthtoaddressingtheproblemofindustryandagriculturebytryingtoharmonizethetwo.“Wecannoteatorwearourmachines,”saidFord.“Iftheworldwereonevastmachineshopitwoulddie.Whenitcomestosustaininglifewegotothefields.Withonefootinagricultureandtheotherinindustry,Americaissafe.”

Fordincreasinglybegantopreach,andthentriedtoimplement,whathecalledhis“villageindustry”program.Moreandmoreafter1920,hisconversationswithreportersweredominatedbydifferentiterationsononetopic:awaytoreconcilefarmandfactorywork.Areturntothefields,hesaid,wouldsolveurbanpoverty,theapplicationofindustrialtechnologytofarmlifecouldrelieveruraldrudgery,anddecentralizedhydroelectricplantscouldliberatemanufacturingandfarmingcommunitiesfromthehighpriceschargedbytheparasitical“energytrusts.”Havinghelpeddoawaywiththehorseasasourceoftransportation,hebelievedthatinthe“futurefarmanimalsofallkindswillbeout.Wedon’tneedthem.Wewillbebetteroffwithoutthem.”Andtoprovehispoint,hesetupasmall,fullymechanizedfarmjustoutsideDearborn.Butmechanizationwaspartoftheproblem,fortheformulathatprovidedFordsomuchsuccessinDetroitandDearborn—machinerytolowerprices,lowerpricestoincreasedemand,increaseddemandtomakeupforslimmerprofitmargins—didn’tworkforagriculture.Newmechanizedfarm

equipment,includingFord’sModelTsandFordsontractors,mighthaverelievedtheslogoffarmwork,butitcontinuedtodrivedownpricesbyincreasingyield.Corn,wheat,andothercommoditiespouredintoAmerica’sgreatindustrialcenters,sellingatpriceswellbelowwhatmanysmalltomidsizefarmerscouldliveon.6

Fordhopedtosolvethisproblembyfindingindustrialusesforagriculturalproducts,andhedirectedhischemiststosynthesizebeans,corn,flax,andwoodchipsintogrease,fuel,paint,artificialleather,organicplastics,andassortedchemicalcompounds.“Ibelieve,”Fordsaid,“thatindustryandagriculturearenaturalpartners.Agriculturesuffersfromlackofamarketforitsproduct.Industrysuffersfromalackofemploymentforitssurplusmen.”Thetimewouldcome,hethought,when“afarmernotonlywillraiserawmaterialsforindustry,butwilldotheinitialprocessingonhisfarm.Hewillstandonbothhisfeet—onefootonsoilforhislivelihood;theotherinindustryforthecashheneeds.Thushewillhaveadoublesecurity.ThatiswhatI’mworkingfor.”Nocropbetterpromisedtoachievethisbalancethansoybeans,andoverthenexttwodecadesFordwouldspendfourmilliondollarsonsoyresearchandmorethantwicethatamountonsoyprocessingequipmentandphysicalplantfacilities.Hislaboratoriesturneditsoilintocarenamelandhousepaint,varnish,linoleum,printer’sink,glycerin,fattyacids,soap,anddiesel,anditsmealandstalksintohornbuttons,gearshiftknobs,distributorparts,lightswitches,timinggears,gluesandadhesives,andpressedcardboard.Fordevenbegantotalkaboutthepossibilityof“growingcars”andhadthebodyofonemadeentirelyofplastic.Dubbedthe“soybeancar,”itwasditchedsoonafteritbecameclearthatthestrongmortuarysmellfromtheformaldehydeusedtoprocesstheplasticwasnotgoingtosubside.7

Fordalsopromotedsoyasawonderfood.HehiredEdselRuddiman,achildhoodfriendandscientistafterwhomhenamedhisonlychild,todevelopnovelfoodstuffsfromsoy.Heforcedhisassociatestoeatsoy“biscuits,”describedbyoneemployeeasthe“mostvile-tastingthingsyoueverputinyourmouth,”andservedhisdinnerguestssoybanquets,courseaftercourseofdishesmadefromsoybeans,includingpureeofsoybean,soybeancrackers,soybeancroquetteswithtomatosauce,butteredgreensoybeans,pineappleringswithsoybeancheese,soybeanbreadwithsoybeanbutter,applepiewithsoycrust,roastedsoybeancoffee,andsoymilkicecream.Fordthoughtsoy’smostpromisingfoodusewouldbeasvegetableshortening,oleomargarine,and,ofcourse,milk,whichwouldallowhimonceandforalltoeliminatecows.“Itisasimplemattertotakethesamecerealsthatthecowseatandmakethemintoamilkthatissuperiortothenaturalarticleandmuchcleaner,”Fordsaidin1921.“Thecowisthecrudestmachineintheworld.Ourlaboratorieshavealreadydemonstratedthatcow’smilkcanbedoneawaywithandtheconcentrationoftheelementsofmilkcanbemanufacturedintoscientificfoodbymachinesfarcleanerthancows.”8

HenryFord,sittinginawheatfield,dressedinasuitmadeofsoyfiber.

FORD’SFIRSTSUSTAINEDattempttoputhis“onefootinagriculture,onefootinindustry”programintoeffecttookplaceinMichigan’sremoteandsparselypopulatedUpperPeninsula,aregionconnectedtoWisconsininthewestandboundedbyLakeSuperiortothenorth,theSt.Mary’sRivertotheeast,andLakeHurontothesouth.TheUpperPeninsula’seconomywasbasedlargelyoncopperandtimber,bothofwhichhadbeenexploitedtothepointofexhaustionbythetimeFord,in1919,dispatchedanagenttobuylargetractsofland,sightunseen,intheregion—justashewoulddolaterinthedecadeinBrazil.Bythemid-1920s,hehadpurchasedpropertyintheUpperPeninsularoughlythesizeofwhathewouldafewyearslaterownintheAmazon,sprawlingacrossfourcountiesandencompassinganumberofsmallmilltowns,includingPequaming,Munising,L’Anse,andIronMountain.TheeconomicmotivewastoacquiretheforeststoprovidethelumberneededforhisModelT.Eachcarrequired250boardfeetofhardwood,thepriceofwhichwasrisingsteadilyasindustrialdemandincreasedandtimberstocksdecreased.9

“Iwasforcedtogetaholdoftheforests,”Fordsaid.

YetaswouldbethecaseintheAmazon,Ford’sobjectivewasmuchmoreambitiousthanmerelygainingdirectaccesstoasinglerawmaterial.WhileeverycomponentofhisexpandingempirewastofeedintotheRouge,heimaginedeachtobeamodelofintegrationonitsown,generatinghydropowerifpossibleandfindingnewusesforitsbyproducts—updatingEmerson’sidealofself-sufficiencyfortheindustrialage.

AtIronMountain,aneconomicallydepressedcityofeightthousandresidents—mostofitsmineshadbeenshutdownandthesurroundingforestshadbeenstrippedoftheirvaluablehardwoods—Fordbuiltastate-of-the-artindustrialsawmill,themostefficientandmoderntheUnitedStateshadyetseen.DubbedtheRiverRougeoftheNorth,thecomplexincludedfifty-twodrykilns,threefactoriesmakingpartsfortheModelT,anditsownelectricityplantpoweredbyaFord-builtdam.Fordhadbecomeobsessedwiththepotentialofhydroelectricityasawayoffreeingindustrialcommunitiesfromthegripof“energytrusts.”OnhiscampingtripswithhisfriendsThomasEdisonandJohnBurroughs,Fordwouldwalkupanddowneverystreamtheycameacross,speculatinghowmuchhorsepowercouldbeharnessedfromitscurrents,andbytheendofthe1920shehadbuiltoracquiredatleasttenhydroelectricplantsthroughouttheUS.10

Unlikethelumberbaronsofthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturieswhoravagednorthern

Michigan’syellowpinegroves,leavingbehindcutoversofhighstumpsandwaste,Fordsawhimselfasaconservationist.Heinsistedthat,whereverpossible,hislumbermenuse“selectivelogging”practicestopreventdeforestation,cuttingonlymaturetreesortargetedspecies.Inareaswhereaclearcutwasrequired,heorderedhislumberjackstosawtreesaslowtothegroundaspossible,nomorethansixincheshigh,asopposedtothetwo-footorhighertrunkstheloggingcompaniesleft.Thesecleanforestcutsallowedforquickerandfullersecondgrowth,limitedforestfires,andmadeitpossibleforFord’smanagerstoconductreforestationexperiments,somethingthatthe“commercialmills”—asFord’smenlabeledotherloggingcompaniesoperatingintheUpperPeninsula—rarelypracticed.MuchofFord’sconservationinstinctcamefromhischildhoodgrowinguponhisfather’sDearbornfarm,whichmaintainedlargeforestreservesfromwhichtimberforconstructionwasculled.“Wedon’twanttodestroyallthegrowththereistherejustbecausewearegoingtooperatethismilltoday,”FordtoldtheheadofhisIronMountainoperations.“Lookoutfortomorrow,nextmonth,nextyear.”11

IronMountainalsoincludedafive-storychemicallaboratory.AsattheRouge,IronMountainmanagersandchemistspursuedarestlessquesttorecycleallwasteproducts.Theyused“everypartofthetreeexcepttheshade,”ashistorianTomMcCarthyputsit,producing$11,000worthofvalueeverydayfrommillwaste,including125poundsofacetateoflime,sixty-onegallonsofmethylalcohol(one-fifthofAmerica’stotalproduction),antifreeze,artificialleather,andfifteengallonsoftar,oil,andcreosote.Sawdust,underbrush,branches,woodchips,andculllumber—thatis,defectivelogspulledfrompilesofotherwiseserviceabletimber—wereturnedintocharcoal“briquettes”(whichtodaycontinuetobesoldunderthebrandnameKingsford)orburnedtopowersteamenginesandheatworkerbunkhouses.12

THELANDFORDpurchasedintheUpperPeninsulacamewithpeople.IronMountainwasarelativelylargecityfortheregion,fullofminingandtimberingold-timersandnewarrivalshopingtomakegoodonthecomingofFord.Fordcouldreactonlypiecemealtoitsboom-bust-boomproblems—itsshortageofadequatehousing,itsspeculatorsdrivinguplandprices,itslackofhealthcare,schools,andsanitation,anditsmanybrothels,speakeasies,andmorphinedens.ButelsewhereintheUpperPeninsulaFordacquiredlargetractsofvirgintimberland,dottedwithsmall,remotelumbercampsandminingtowns.Heimaginedthemtobeblankcanvasesonwhichtopainthisvisionofindustrial-ruralwholeness.

“Yourvacationisover,boys,”announcedFord’smanagertothethirteenworkerswhoranaverysmallmillinthevillageofPequaming,purchasedbyFordin1923.Nearlyovernightthehundredorsofamiliessawtheirbackwatervillagetransformed,astheFordMotorCompanybecamethedefactomunicipalauthority,responsibleforitssanitation,schools,power,andevenchurches.FordpaidPequaminglumberjacksandsawyersmorethandoubletheprevailingwage,buthewouldalsoimposeFord-styleregimentation.“Onewasnotevenpermittedtoleanagainstalumberpileorsitdownforfiveminutestofigureupalumbertally,”rememberedonesawyer.“Itwascompulsorytostandupperfectlystraightontwofeet.”Smokingwasprohibitedwhileontheclock,andtowncommissarieswereforbiddentoselltobaccoproductsandalcohol.Allworkerswererequiredtoundergoamedicalexamination,thecostofwhichwasdeductedfromtheirnewlyincreasedsalaries.

Therewereotherdeductionsaswell,forlaundering,forinstance,eveniftheworkerdidn’tavailhimselfoftheservice.Theideawasthatifhepaidforithewoulduseitandthereforewearcleanclothes.Fordraisedrents,morethancompensatedforbybetterwages,andheusedthemoneytocompletelymakeoverthevillages.InPequamingandothertownsandvillages,constructioncrewsrepavedstreets,builtnewschools,andrepairedandreroofedbuildings.Andtheypainted.“Paint,paint,paint.Hehadsixoreightmenpaintingtheyear’round,”saidoneworkerinFord’sUpperPeninsularoperation.“Theypainted

everyhouseandeveryoneofthecompanyshops.Thenthey’dgobackandstartalloveragain.”Ingrimyminingtowns,“lawnswerecutandflowerswereplanted.”13

LocatedontheshoresofLakeSuperior,rusticPequamingbecameaFordfavorite.Hebuiltasummerbungalowthere,travelingtothetownatleastafewtimesayear,reviewingthemodernizationofitssawmillanditsexperimentalplantingsofsoybeans,potatoes,andothercrops.Heandhiswife,Clara,tookapersonalinterestinPequaming’sschoolhouse.Bythispointintheirlives,theFordswerepatronizinganumberofexperimentalschoolsthroughouttheMidwest,rejectingmasspubliceducationinfavorofsmall,personalizedclassroomsandexperientiallearning,whichweretocultivatenotjustjobskillsbutmannersandcharacter.Ford’scurriculumemphasized“learningbydoing”—inadditiontoreading,writing,andmath,girlswereinstructedinhomemakingskills,andboysinvocationaltraining,andallchildrenweretaughthowtogarden.Pequaming’sschoolbecameamodelofFordpedagogy,andFordhimselfwouldparticipateinteachingthechildrenold-styledanceslikethequadrille,thefive-stepschottische,and,Ford’sfavorite,thevarsovienne,aPolishrounddancewithapolkabeat.“UnlessMr.Fordaskedforsomethingspecial,”rememberedOscarOlsen,afiddlerhiredbyFordasPequaming’smusicinstructor,“wewouldjustdancealonglikewealwayshad,”teachingthechildrenhowtoroundandsquaredance.14

AttimesoneFordideawouldcontradictanother.InPequaming,forinstance,hehopedtorestoretheimportanceofcommunityinindustriallife,yetchildrenwerenolongerallowedtoenterthemilltobringlunchtotheirfathers.Hewantedtonurtureself-reliant“farmer-mechanics,”givinghislumberjacks,sawyers,andminersgardenplotstogrowtheirownvegetables.Buthealsowascommittedtotheideaofcreatingintegratedconsumermarkets.Soheorderedfamiliestoteardowntheirpicketfences,whichwereusedtocorralcows,chickens,andpigsintheirfrontyards.Withtheirincreasedsalaries,Pequaming’sresidentswerenowexpectedtobuytheirownmeat,eggs,andmilk.

ThentherewerethevillagesandcampsFordhadbuiltfromwholecloth,deepinthewoods,the“likesofwhichnosoberlumberjackhadeverdreamed,”wroteonecompanyhistorian.FordhadtheideaoffoundingonesuchtownwhenhewasdrivingthroughadenselywoodedandisolatedareaoftheUpperPeninsulabetweenPequamingandIronMountain.Cominguponasitehethoughtespeciallypretty,Fordorderedhismentodiganartificiallakeandbuildalumbermill.Deepinaremotehardwoodforest,Alberta,asthesettlementwasnamed,becameanotherofFord’sUpperPeninsulashowcases,itsdozenorsoworkersallexpectedtodividetheirtimelumbering,milling,andfarming.Unlikethefilthy,cold,andvermin-infestedroughcabinswoodsmenwereusedto,AlbertawasanelectrifiedoasisofmodernAmerica.Itsportedindoorlighting,streetlamps,cementsidewalks,showers,clean,screenedprivatebunks,recreationrooms,andmovies.Thecompanyputintoplaceaninnovativesteamheatsystemtokeepthebunkhouseswarmduringtheextremelycoldwintersandservedwholesomefood“inalarge,cleandininghall.”“Itisspick-and-spanallover,”saidoneobserverofAlberta.“Youdon’tseesawdustandbarkanddirt.Itisalwaysclean.Itisalovelylittlesettingthereinthewoodsbytheman-maderiverpond.Therearesomebeautifulhomes.Fromthatstandpointitismarvelous.”15

Butfromanotherstandpoint,itwasmorePotemkinvillagethanpracticalmodelforhowtoorganizesociety.InAlberta,thereweretoofewfamiliestobuildtherelationsandinstitutionsthatintegratedandtiedacommunitytogether,andresidentsfeltisolated,havingtotravelmilestobuyanythingbeyondthemostbasicnecessities,toseeadoctor,ortoattendchurch.AndAlberta,alongwithPequamingandothersmallFord-subsidizedcommunities,madelittleeconomicsense,aswhatevermilledwooditprovided

couldbecutmoreeconomicallyatFord’sindustrialplantsinL’AnseorIronMountain.Itwas,ashistoriansAllanNevinsandFrankErnestHillputit,allthe“stuffofabackwoodsfairytale.”Yetthroughthe1920s,FordpurchasedorcreatedscoresofsimilarsmalltownsinMichiganandelsewhere,includingnineteenonriverswithinthevicinityofhisRiverRougecomplex.TheselowerMichiganvillagesweremoredirectlyintegratedintotheproductionofFordcarsthanUpperPeninsulalumbertowns.“Farmermechanics”tookthesummermonthsofftogofarm,cuthay,pickberries,tendgardens,andraisesquabandspenttherestoftheyearmanufacturingsmallpartsthatFordoutsourcedfromHighlandParkandtheRiverRouge,suchasvalves,ignitionlocks,keys,carburetors,starterswitches,andlamps.16

SHORTLYAFTERLAUNCHINGhisvillageindustryprograminMichigan,Fordmadeabidtorealizehisindustrialpastoralismonalargescaleinadepressedrivervalley—notintheAmazonbutinMuscleShoals,alongastretchoftheTennesseeRiverinnorthwesternAlabama.ThevalleyconnectedwiththelowerMississippiandservedasthedrainagebasinofthesouthernAppalachianmountains,hometooverfourmillionpeople,mostofthemfarmerswholivedlivesofisolation,disease,andpoverty.

Duringthewar,theUSgovernmenthadstartedbutnevercompletedbuildingaseriesofnitratefactoriesandhydroelectricdams.FordpromisedtofinishthefactoriesandbuildadamasmajesticastheNile’sAswandaminEgypt,completedtwodecadesearlier.TamingtheunrulyTennesseeRiverwouldstopitsfearsomefloods,makeitnavigable,andprovidecheapelectricitytothesurroundingregion.Healsosaidheplannedtoestablishaseventy-five-mile-longcity,asthinasManhattanbutfiveandahalftimesitslength.Otherchaotic,unplannedcitiesgrewinsprawls,ina“greatcircle”thattrappedresidents,nevergivingthemachanceto“getasmellofthecountryairorseeagreenleaf.”ThosewholivedinFord’srivermetropolis,incontrast,wouldneverbemorethanamilefromrollinghillsandfarmlands.Thecity—whichsomewerecallinga“DetroitoftheSouth”—wouldexistsymbioticallywiththesurroundingagriculturalvillages,drawingseasonallabor.Inexchange,theFordMotorCompanywouldsupplylow-interestmortgagessoworkerscouldbuylandtobuildahome(prefabricatedtoreducecost)andfarm.Fordfactorieswouldpayhighwages,serveasamarketforcrops,provideaffordablefertilizer,andorganizethecooperativeuseofmachineryliketractors,binders,threshers,andmills.Fordschoolswouldteachwiveshomeeconomicsandchildrenausefultrade.Shops,churches,andrecreationalcenterswouldlineameanderingroadthattetheredoneendoftheimaginedcommunitytoanother—an“AllMainStreet”citywashowonemagazinedescribedFord’svision.17

Thebenefitsoftheprojectwouldrippleoutinconcentriccircles,supportersoftheplansaid,fromsouthernAppalachiatothewiderSouth,thentotheMidwestandallofAmerica.Andsureenough,by1922vegetableandfruitproductionhadincreasedthroughoutthevalley,inexpectationofthegovernment’sgrantingFordtheconcession.TheNewYorkTimesreportedthatformerslaveholdingfamilieswhohadkepttheirstagnant,undevelopedplantations“asamatterofsentimenteversincetheCivilWar”weresellingthemtoentrepreneurfarmers.Asaresult,avibrant,dynamicpopulationwas“alreadybeingassembledforthecityofFord’sdreams.”TheAtlantaConstitution,aNewSouthtribunethathadlongadvocatedindustrializationasawayofovercomingtheConfederacy’smanoriallegacy,praisedtheproject,writingthatitwouldrevivesteamboatcommerceontheTennessee,Ohio,andMississippirivers.“Within500milesofMuscleShoalstherearefiftylargeprogressivecitiesandtownsthatwouldbevitallyaffectedbythedevelopmentoftheTennesseevalley,”includingIndianapolis,Columbus,Cincinnati,Louisville,St.Louis,KansasCity,Chattanooga,Birmingham,Montgomery,andJacksonville.18

ForHenryFord,MuscleShoalswoulddothisandmore,pullingtogetherthemanythreadsofhissocialphilosophyintooneaudaciousbid.*Heofferednotthe“cityonahill”thatloomssolargeinAmericanmythologybutrathera“cityinavalley,”poweredbyhydroelectricity,whichwouldliberateresidentsfromtheenergytrusts—inthiscase,fromtheBirmingham-basedAlabamaPowerCompany,whichmonopolizedtheregion’spowersupply.Cheapfertilizercouldhelpendpovertyandrevitalizetheagriculturalsector:“Therearetoomanypeopleinthiscountry—toomanymouthstofeed,toomanybodiestoclothe—topermitanysoiltobecomeexhausted.”Hisribboncitywouldrefutetheideathatthere“existsanessentialconflictbetweenindustryandthefarm.”“Thefarmerisidlethroughpartoftheyear,andconsequentlyhastoliveonhishump,”Fordsaid.“Theworkerinanindustrialcenterisidlethroughpartoftheyear,andhe,toohastoliveonhishump.”Thewaytoovercomethiswastewas,hebelieved,“tofitagricultureandindustrytogethersothatthefarmermayalsobeanindustrialistandtheindustrialistmayalsobeafarmer.”AndthedevelopmentofhydroelectricitywouldtrulymakeWorldWarIthewartohaveendedallwars.“IftheAmericanpeopleoncecancatchtheideaofwhatwaterpowermeans,”hesaid,“theyneveragainwillsubmittothepropositionthattogetpowertheymustpaytributetoWallStreet.”Fordevenraisedtheideaofprintinghisown“energydollar”—aregionalcurrencybasednotonthegoldstandardbutonthekilowattoutputofthearea’sdams—asawaytobreakthepowerofbanks.Sincethemoneymenwouldhaveno“parteitherinfinancingoroperatingMuscleShoals,”theywouldn’tbeabletomanipulateAmericansintowar.“TheonebigthingwhichIseeinMuscleShoals,”hesaid,“isanopportunitytoeliminatewarfromtheworld.”Dirt-poorfarmerswhountilthenknewtheriveronlyasasourceofdangerandfloodingandworkershopingforawage-payingjobagreed,andtheyralliedtosupportFord’sproposal.OnegrassrootspetitiondemandingthegovernmenthandoverMuscleShoalstoFordcalledthecarmakerthe“Mosesfor80%ofus.”19

FrankLloydWrightremarkedthatFord’svalleycity,imaginedaboveinanillustrationpublishedinScientificAmericanin1922,was“oneofthebestthings”hehadeverheardof.Fordwas“goingtosplitupthebigfactory,”Wrightsaid.“Hewasgoingtogiveeverymanafewacresofgroundforhisown.”

“IfMuscleShoalsisdevelopedalongunselfishlines,”Fordpredicted,“itwillworksosplendidlyandsosimplythatinnotimehundredsofotherwaterpowerdevelopmentswillspringupalloverthecountryandthedaysofAmericanindustrypayingtributeforpowerwouldbegoneforever.Everyhumanbeinginthecountrywouldreapthebenefit.IamconsecratedtotheprincipleoffreeingAmericanindustry.”“Wecould,”hesaid,“makeanewEdenofourMississippiValley,turningitintothegreatgardenandpowerhouseofthecountry.”20

NEVERFARFROMFord’ssunnyvisionofanindustrialarcadiaasasolutiontoAmerica’sproblems,andindeedinseparablefromit,wasadarkeningopinionastowhowascausingthoseproblems.Inthe

earlydaysofhispublicfame,Ford’sexhortationstoachievethekindofself-reliantindividualismcelebratedbyRalphWaldoEmersonseemedfolksy.Asheagedandmanyofhisreformseitherfailedtosolveoractuallyaggravatedsocialproblems,theysoundeddownrightNietzschean:“Prayersareadiseaseofthewill,”FordquotedEmerson’s“Self-Reliance”essayinhispocketnotebook.

MostAmericansinthemid-1920sstillthoughtofFordastheFordof1914,thereformerwhowithhisFiveDollarDayandSociologicalDepartmentpromisedtoputintoplaceanewindustrialhumanism,tocultivatevirtuous,productiveworkersthroughciviceducationandtheinducementsofhighwagesconditionedonproperliving.YetFordhadprettymuchabandonedhisliberalpaternalism.Hiscompany,particularlyhisnewRiverRougeplant,hadgrowntoobigforsuchhands-onnurturing.Fordstillpaidbetterthanmostindustrialcompanies,buthecametorelyontwoquitedifferenttacticstoincreaseproductivityandenforcelabordisciplineinhisfar-flungMichiganempire.Thefirsttacticwasthespeedup,whichpushedtheideaofsynchronizedassemblylinestothelimitsofhumanenduranceandmadeworkingforFord,asoneemployeewhoquitthelineputit,a“formofhellonearththatturnedhumanbeingsintodrivenrobots.”“Thechainsystemyouhaveisaslavedriver,”wrotethewifeofoneworkertoFord.“That$5adayisablessing,”shesaid,“abiggeronethanyouknowbutohtheyearnit.”Everydayitseemedlikethebeltmovedalittlefaster,asperformancetechnicians,armedwithstopwatches,shadowedworkers,figuringoutwaystoshaveoffsecondshereandtherefromtheirmotions.Intellectualsandsocialcriticsbegantodrawattentiontothedehumanizationoftheline.“Neverbefore,”wroteacontemporaryobserver,“hadhumanbeingsbeenfittedsocloselyintothemachines,likeminorparts,withnoindependenceorchancetoretaintheirindividualself-respect.”Ford’sfactoryturnedworkersinto“merecontainersoflabor,likegondolacarsofcoal.Theyarrivedfull;theyleftintheeveningasemptyofhumanvitalityasthecarswereemptyofcoal.ThetrolleyswhichcrawledawayfromHighlandParkatclosingtimewerehearsesforthelivingdead.”“It’ssickeningtowatchtheworkersbentovertheirmachines,”wroteLouis-FerdinandCéline,basedonhisfirsthandstudyofthephysicalandmentalhealthofFordworkers.“Yougiveintothenoiseasyougiveintowar.Atthemachinesyouletyourselfgowithtwo,threeideasthatarewobblingaboutatthetopofyourhead.Andthat’stheend.Fromthenoneverythingyoulookat,everythingyoutouch,ishard.Andeverythingyoustillmanagetoremembermoreorlessbecomesasrigidasiron.”21

Fearwasthesecondtactic,neededtoforestallthediscontentthatsuchasysteminevitablygenerated.ItwasinstilledlargelybyHarryBennett,aformerpugilistbutinveteratebrawlerwhopresidedoverthecompany’sso-calledServiceDepartment,nominallytheemploymentofficebutinrealityathree-thousand-membergoonsquad—describedbytheNewYorkTimesasthe“largestprivatequasi-militaryorganizationinexistence”—madeupofspiesandthugsarmedwithguns,whips,pipes,blackjacks,andrubberhosesotherwiseknownas“persuaders.”Hiredin1916toworksecurity,BennettquicklycaughtFord’sattentionwithhisgamecockconfidence,andhesoonbecamenotonlyFord’senforcerbuthisnearconstantcompanion,oneofthemostpowerfulmeninthecompany,whoseauthoritywasbasednotonanyengineeringormarketingknowledgebutonhisabilitytoterrorizeworkers,tomakethemconformtotheRouge’sperpetualspeedup.TheformernavyboxerusedhisconnectionswithDetroit’sMafiatoweave“theFordMotorCompanyintoanetworkofunderworldconnectionswithhoodlumsoflargelyItalianorigin,andtheunholyalliancecameintoitsowninthebattlewhichFordfoughtagainsttheunionswithincreasingferocityasthedecadewentby,”wroteRobertLacey.WhereFordinthepresswastoutinghisvillageindustriesasnurturinghealthycommunities,intheRougeBennett,accordingtohistorianDouglasBrinkley,usedfearandintimidationtokeepits“workforceof70,000asagroupofisolatedindividuals,andnotletthemcreateacommunity.”TheterrorspreadoutfromDearborntoencompassFord’s

dispersedassemblyplants,asBennettcobbledtogetheraninterstateconsortiumofantiuniontoughs.InDallas,Texas,forinstance,BennettconvertedtheFordplant’schampiontug-of-warteamintoasecurityunit,headedbyone“Fats”Perry,whobyhisownestimationhandedoutscoresofsavagebeatings.“Ifittakesbloodshed,”theplantmanagementtolditsworkersduringaforcedmassmeeting,“we’llshedbloodrightdowntothelastdrop”tokeeptheplantunionfree.22

Itwasnotjustphysicalviolence,whichBrinkleysaysBennettdispensedwith“brutishzeal,”butthedistrustgeneratedbyconstantsurveillancethatkeptworkersinline.Bennettclaimedthatoneinthreelineworkerswasaninformer.“Thewholecity,”recalledoneunionorganizer,“wasanetworkofspiesthatreportedeverywhisperbacktoBennett,”allowinghimtostalkworkersnotjustwithintheRouge’sgatesbutintheir“privatelifeaswell.”HecarriedoutFord’sedictthatworkersstopdrinking,evenintheirownhomes,andforcedworkers,atthepainoflosingtheirjobs,tobuyaFordcar.23ForFordemployees,then,Fordismwentfrombeingasysteminwhichtheywerepaidenoughofawagetobeabletobuytheproductstheymadetobeingonewheretheyhadlittlechoiceinthematter.24

Throughoutthe1920s,mostAmericans,asidefromthosewhoworkedinsideaFordfactoryorwhohadfamilywhodid,wereunawareofBennett’sbrutality.Buttheycouldn’thelpknowofFord’santi-Semitism,whichfirsteruptedinpublicin1920.Overthecourseofthenextsevenyears,theDearbornIndependent,alocalnewspaperFordpurchasedayearearlier,blamedtheJewsfornearlyallthatwaswrongwithAmerica,thedegradationofitsculture,thecorruptionofitspolitics,andthedistortionofitseconomythroughmonopolies,trusts,andthe“moneysystem.”ItwasFord,andnothisadmirerHitler,whopopularizedtheProtocolsoftheEldersofZion,adocumentconcoctedbyRussia’stsaristgovernmenttofuelbeliefintheexistenceofaworldwideJewishconspiracy.MostobservershavelocatedtherootsofFord’santi-Semitisminmidwesternpopulism’scritiqueofbankersandthegoldstandard,aggravatedbyFord’stendencytoreducethecomplexitiesoftheworldtotheirmostsimple,mechanicalterms.ThehistorianRichardHofstadtercalledhishatredofJewsandWallStreet“thefoiblesoftheMichiganfarmboywhohadbeenliberallyexposedtoPopulistnotions.”Ford’santi-Semitism,however,wasnotjustaholdoversentimentfromAmerica’srecedingagrarianpastbutalsooneelementofalargersinisterappraisaloftheworldhehelpedcreate.25

Inanotherofhisnotebooks,FordscribbledareferencetoGustaveLeBon,aFrenchsociologistwhodiedin1931,andhis1895book,PsychologyofCrowds.It’satellingnotation,formanyhavenotedthatbothMussoliniandHitlerwereinfluencedbyLeBon’sargumentthatthe“irrationalcrowd”wasthedefiningfeatureofmodernlife,somethingthatneededtobecontrolledlestitleadtodegeneration.FordwassympathetictoNazism,andheseemstosimilarlyhavetakentoheartLeBon’swarningthatthe“claimsofthemasses”were“nothinglessthanadeterminationtoutterlydestroysocietyasitnowexists.”YetwhatstoppedFordfromturningintoafull-fledgedfascistwasthathetooktheoppositelessonfromLeBonthandidMussoliniandHitler.WherethetwofascistsdrewfromLeBontomobilizethemasses—throughpoliticalpageantry,masscommunication,and,inthecaseofHitler,aneliminationistracism—Fordputmostofhisenergiesintodispersingthethreat,throughhismanyproposalsto“decentralize”industrialproduction.26

Bythemid-1920s,themanwhohadassembledtogetherinonefactorythelargestconcentrationofindustrialworkersinhistoryhadpronouncedthecrowdedmetropolis“doomed,”crumblingundertheweightoftraffic,pollution,vice,andthecostof“policinggreatmassesofpeople.”27Previewingthe

kindofantiurbansentimentthatwouldbecomecommonplaceamongtherightintheUnitedStatesintheyearsafterWorldWarII,Fordstartedcondemningthecityas“untamedandthreatening,”an“artificial,”parasitical“mass”that“somedaywillceasetobe.”Throughoutthe1920s,asthe“claimsofthemasses”becameimpossibletoignore,particularlyinFord’sownfactories,whereworkerswerebeginningtocontestthespeedupandBennett’sterror,Fordfusedhisthreegreathatreds—ofJews,war,andunions—intoasingleconspiracy:“UnionsareorganizedbyJewishfinanciers,notlabor,”hesaid.“Theirobjectistokillcompetitionsoastoreducetheincomeoftheworkersandeventuallybringonwar.”“Peoplecanbemanipulatedonlywhentheyareorganized,”Fordinsisted.28

ThemanwhooncerepudiatedtraditionanddeclaredhimselftheexecutorofthemodernworldwashavingpublishedunderhisbylineintheDearbornIndependentarticlesthatdenounced“change,”whichhewarnedwas“notalwaysprogress.”“ThetroublewithustodayisthatwehavebeenunfaithfultotheWhiteMan’straditionsandprivileges,”onearticlesaid.Havingthrownopenhisfactorygatestoworkersfromacrosstheworldanddeclaredthathedidn’tlikebordersofanykind,henowlookedwarilyatEllisIsland,withits“hordeofpeoplewhohavebeensystematicallybeforehandtaughtthattheUnitedStatesisa‘capitalisticcountry,’nottobeenjoyedbuttobedestroyed.”Fordwouldcontinuetocondemnwarandthosewhoprofitedfromit,yetthemanwhooncescoldedTheodoreRooseveltforhisantiquatedmilitarismnowcautionedhis“race”thatitneededtomaintain“unrelentingvigilance”againsttwothreats:onewasa“corruptorientalism”thatwas“breakingdowntheruggeddirectnessoftheWhiteMan’sCode,”theothera“falsecryof‘Peace,Peace’whenthereisnopeace.”29

BEYONDTHEPROBLEMSandabusesthatFordhimselfcouldn’tsolve,created,aggravated,orcompromisedon—depressedagriculturalprices,laborviolence,anti-Semitism,thedehumanizationofmachinework,andwar—itbecameapparentthroughoutthe1920sthatbothhiscarandhisfactorysystemworkedagainsttheworldhehopedtobringintobeing.

Fordimaginedhismethodasapowerfulintegrator:therationalapplicationoftechnologywouldallowfortheholisticdevelopmentofindustryandagriculture;thetractorandotheradvancesinmechanizationwouldrelievethedrudgeryoffieldandbarn,thecarandtruckwouldknitregionalmarketsclosertogether,providingnewsourcesofincomeforhard-strappedfarmers;radiosandtelephoneswouldovercomeruralisolation(startinginthe1930s,FordbroadcastfromacompanystudioinDearbornhisSundayEveningHour,whichfeatured“familiarmusic,majesticallyrendered,”aswellaseditorialsreflectingthe“philosophicviewsoftheFounder”);andgroundingitallwasafaithinthealchemicpowerofhighwagestocreateprosperous,healthyworking-classcommunities,withprivateprofitdependentonthecontinualexpansionofconsumermarkets.“Ourbuyingclassisourworkingclass,”Fordsaidclearlyandsimply,and“ourworkingclassmustbecomeour‘leisureclass’ifourimmenseproductionistobebalancedbyconsumption.”Athismosteccentric,Fordinsistedthatthefulfillmentofthisvisionwouldresultinarestorationofsmall-townAmerica.30

ButFordism,andtheproductitwasfirstassociatedwith,wasalsoapotentdissolvingagent.*Thecartransmutedsexualmoresandloosenedthebondsbetweenmenandwomen,childrenandparents.Italleviatedtheburdenoffarmworkandbroughtpointsonthemapclosertogether,yettheautomobilealsobeganthetransformationofhumansettlementsandmigrationpatterns,broadeningthesocialhorizonofpeople’slives.Dailycommutesgrewlonger,andfamiliesspreadout.Theextensionofpavedhighways,thewideningofexistingthoroughfares,andthesprawlofindustrializedmetropoliseswerevisiblethreatstotheruralcommunitiessotreasuredbyFordastherepositoryofAmericanvirtue.By1920,thecounty

Ford’swifegrewupin,GreenfieldTownship,wasabsorbedbyDetroit,andlaterinthedecadehehadtomovehischildhoodhometosaveitfromdestructionduetotheplannedexpansionofacountyroad.HerelocatedittoamodelAmericantownhehadbegunbuildingnearhisRiverRougeplant,whichhenamedGreenfieldVillage.Asanindustrialmethod,too,Fordismhadembeddedwithinittheseedsofitsownundoing.Thebreakingdownoftheassemblyprocessintosmallerandsmallertasks,combinedwithrapidadvancesintransportationandcommunication,madeiteasierformanufacturerstobreakoutofthedependentrelationshipestablishedbyFordbetweenhighwagesandlargemarkets.Goodscouldbemadeinoneplaceandsoldsomewhereelse,removingtheincentiveemployershadtopayworkersenoughtobuytheproductstheymade.Whileitwouldbedecadesbeforetheimplicationsofthischangewouldbecomefullyapparent,alreadybythe1920sthecomponentelementsoftheeconomythatinFord’smindoperatedasasymbioticwhole—land,labor,resources,manufacturing,finance,andconsumption—weredriftingapart.

Fordrespondedbycommittingevenmoretohisvillageindustries,whichhehopedwouldslowtheflowofmigrantstothecities,savefarmsbybringingwage-payingindustrytoruralareas,andkeepfamiliesintact—withwomeninthekitchenandmenontheshopfloorsandinthefields.TheyalsoallowedFordtocontinuetoplayhumanity’sredeemer,evenashewasfendingoffcriticismthathisanti-Semitismwasperilouslyinflammatoryandhisfactorysystemhadbecomeasoul-crushingthing.“Isometimesthinkthattheprejudiceandnarrownessofthepresentday,”hesaid,“isduetoourintensespecialization.”Getworkersoutintothecountry.Havethemworkunderanopensky.“Ifwesawmoresidesoflife...weshouldbebetterbalanced,”heobserved.“Ithinkfarmersaregoingtodisappearinthecourseoftime.Yes,andfactoryworkerstoo.Everymanwillbeafarmersomeday,andeverymanwillworkinafactoryoroffice.We’veproventhatalready.I’vebuiltlittlefactoriesalongthelittlerivers.”31

YethislittlefactoriesalongthelittleriverswerenomatchfortherawpowerofthechangestakingplaceinAmericansociety,politics,andcultureinthe1920s,andinanycase,Congress,afteryearsofdebate,haddefinitivelyrejectedhisMuscleShoalsproposal.AnallianceofeconomicandregionalpoliticalinterestsmadethecasethattheUSgovernmentwasabouttohandtoFordtoogood,toovagueaconcession.Wouldheownthemineralrightstotheland?Whatabouttimber?WhatwouldhappentotheprojectwhenForddied?

Buildingonthecriticism,Nebraska’sRepublicansenatorGeorgeNorrisledthechargeagainstthedeal.AcommittedProgressive—and,particularlyirksometoFord,acloseallyofthelateTheodoreRoosevelt—NorrisbelievedthataprojectofthescopeFordwasproposingshouldbecarriedoutundertheauspicesofthefederalgovernmentandnotprivateinterests.ThesenatorwasdisturbedbythewildlandspeculationsthathadgrippedtheTennesseeValleyuponrumorsofFord’sinterest.TheMuscleShoalsLandCorporation,foundedinDetroit,stakedoutatractoflandonthebanksoftheTennesseeRiver,laidoutboulevardswithnamessuchasDearbornAvenueandMichiganStreet,andincorporatedthesiteasacity,dubbed“HighlandPark.”AgroupofnewspapermeninDetroitpooledtheirmoneyandboughtupasquaremileofthe“dreamland,”hopingtoflipitforaprofit.InNewYork,anotherstart-upcashedinbysellingtwenty-footlotsofland.“Wouldyou,ifyoucould,”promotionalmaterialaskedpotentialcustomers,“associateyourselfwiththeworld’sgreatestmanufacturerandindustrialgenius—HENRYFORD?ThousandsofpeoplehavebecomeindependentlywealthythroughthedevelopmentofFord’sgiganticindustrialplantsinDetroit,Michigan.Mr.Fordhasrecentlystatedthathewouldemployonemillionmenandbuildacityseventy-fivemileslongatMUSCLESHOALS.”AfterreadingofFord’s

plansfortheTennesseeValleyintheAfricanAmericanChicagoDefender,EastTexasbluesmanGeorgeThomascapturedtheget-rich-quickspiritofthetimesinasongrecordedbyBourbonStreet–bornLizzieMiles:“Hurryup,Papa,wemustleavethistown,gotthebluesforMuscleShoals,that’swherewesurecangetgold.”

NorriswasespeciallyrepelledtohearpoorSouthernfarmerschanting,“‘WhenFordcomes,...whenFordcomes,’asiftheywereexpectingthesecondcomingofJesusChrist.”MuscleShoals,hesaid,wasthe“mostwonderfulrealestatespeculationsinceAdamandEvelosttitletotheGardenofEden.”Ford’soffertobuyMuscleShoalspassedtheHouse,butNorrisandotherProgressivesopposedtotheprivatizationofnationalresources,suchasWisconsin’sRobertLaFollette,killeditinSenatecommitteeinmid-1924.ThestreetsofHighlandPark,withnotonehousebuilt,soon“disappearedintocottonfields,”wroteanobserver,“thesidewalks,underbrambles.”32

SoFordbegantolookabroadtoimplementaplanofreformthatwasfailingathome.HavingbeendeniedtheopportunitytoredeemapoorruralrivervalleyinAppalachia,hewouldfindanotherintheAmazon.

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*DespitethepeculiarityofmanyofFord’sideas,contemporarysocialreformersofferedsimilarschemestocommingleurbanlifeandnatureandreconcileifnotEmersonianthenJeffersoniandemocracywiththeindustrialworld.FrankLloydWright,forinstance,sharedFord’scriticismsofthemoderncity,particularlythewayitsimmensescaleanddensitythreatenedtowipeoutcommunityandindividualism.WrightwasdirectlyinfluencedbyFord’sproposedvalleycity.HeoftenciteditasinspirationforhisownBroadacreCity,aplannedcommunitymeanttoshowcaseanarchitecturalstylethatwouldblendorganicallywiththelandscapeandallow“allthatwashumaninthecitytogotothecountryandgrowupwithit”(FrankLloydWright,FrankLloydWrightonArchitecture:SelectedWritings,1894–1940,ed.FrederickGutheim,NewYork:Duell,Sloan,andPearce,1941,p.144;FrankLloydWright,ModernArchitecture:BeingtheKahnLecturesfor1930,Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,pp.108–9).

*ThetermFordismevolvedaftertheWashingtonPost,condemningFordin1922forbrieflyshuttingdownhisfactoryratherthanpayhighcoalprices,defineditas“FordeffortsconceivedindisregardorignoranceofFordlimitations,”acategoryinwhichthepaperincludedthepeaceship.Aroundthistime,thetermwasofteninterchangeablewithTaylorism,afterFredrickTaylor,thepioneerofmotionanalysiswhoaimedtoextractevergreaterproductivityoutofworkersthroughtheisolationoftheindividualtasksneededtomakeaproduct.Italsodenotedstandardization,efficiency,andmassproduction.Bythelate1920s,Fordismbegantotakeonitsmorecomprehensivemeaning,usedtosuggestamodernizationofeconomicthoughtthatappreciatedthevalueofhighwagesasamotorofindustrialgrowth.Andsociologistsandintellectuals,particularlythoseinindustrializedEuropeancountries,startedusingitintandemwithAmericanism.In1927,forinstance,anarticleinLondon’sNewStatesmanidentifiedAmericanism/Fordismasanindustrialsysteminwhichthepaceofthefactorydeterminedproductivity(asopposedtopacebeingsetbyawagesystemthatrewardedoutput):“TheworkerunderFordismisspeededup,whetherhelikesitornot,bythepaceatwhichthefactoryruns,bytheendlessstreamofarticlesceaselesslypropelledtowardhimbytheremorselesschainofmachines.Hemustworkatthefactory’space,orgo;andgohewill,unlessheisofferedaspecialinducementtoremain.”Butthearticlealsoacknowledgedthathighwages,inadditiontoservingasaninducementtoremainontheline,actuallycreatedlargemarkets,whichallowedindustrialiststoincreasetheirtakingsevenasprofitmarginswere

reduced:“Itwasfound,notmerelythathighwageswerefullycompatiblewithlowcostsofproduction,butthattheofferofhigherwagesstillmightbesousedtostimulateafurtherfallincost.Highwagesthereforebecame,withsomeemployers,notmerelyanecessitythathadtobefaced,butapositivepolicy”(reprintedintheLivingAge,May15,1927).Bythe1950s,thetermFordismhadworkeditswayintosocialscienceterminology,asscholarsbegantoconsiderthefoundationsandimplicationsoftheUnitedStates’unprecedentedpostwareconomicexpansion.

CHAPTER5

FORDVILLESHORTLYAFTERHISSUMMERLUNCHWITHHARVEYFIRESTONEwheretheydiscussedtheproposedBritishcartel,HenryFordgrantedalong-soughtaudiencetoBrazil’sNewYork–basedconsularinspector,JoséCustódioAlvesdeLima.TheBraziliandiplomathadbeencourtingFordfortwoyears,sincereadingabouthisinterestingrowingrubberintheFloridaEverglades,andhadsenthimsamplesofAmazonrubberandmineralsalongwithanelegantlycarvedcabinetmadeoutofassortedrarerainforesthardwoods,allwiththepurposeofturninghisattentiontoBrazil.DeLimahadreceivedpermissionfromthegovernorofPará—oneofthelargestoftheAmazonianstates—toofferFord“specialinducements,”taxandlandconcessions,inthehopethattheindustrialistwouldhelprevivetheregionaleconomy,depressedsince1910,whenBrazillostitsrubbermonopolytoAsia.1

AshetraveledfromNewYorktoDearbornbytrain,deLimareflectedonFordandwhathisinvestmentintheAmazonwouldmeanforBrazil.Bythatpoint,theModelTwasmorethanacar:itsspeed,simplicity,anddurabilitychantedfreedom,itsaffordabilityspokedemocracy.AndFordMotorshadbecomemorethanacompany.Notwithstandingthecriticismitsassemblyandspeeduphadprovoked,itsmethodofindustrialrelations,formanytheworldover,ithadbecomesynonymouswithmodernlife,offeringthepromiseofnotonlyefficientproductionbuttheincreasedleisuretimeneededtoenjoythefruitsofefficiency.Fordism,fordismo,fordismus,orfordizatsia—inwhateverlanguage,countrieshopingtoshakeoffthescentoffarmanimalsandcatchupwiththeUnitedStatesadoptedsomeaspectofthesystempioneeredinDetroitandDearborn.IncountrieswithstrongartisanalandmechanictraditionslikeFrance,England,Germany,andeventheUnitedStates,intellectualsandcraftunionistscondemnedFordismforreplacingthecraftsmanandskilledworkerwithmindless“jerks,twists,andturns.”Yetbytheearlytwentiethcentury,theworldwasincreasinglydividedbetweentheindustrialandthehoped-to-be-industrial.Andinthelargerlatterhalf,fewharpedonthedownsideofsteadywagesandmass,standardizedproductionoflow-costgoods.2

Fordhimself,lanky,“incessantlymoving,”“swiftasashadow,”asthejournalistsJohnReedandJohnGuntherrespectivelydescribedhim,embodiedformanythevitalityandquicknessofthemodernage.CarlSandburgsaidthat“onefeelsintalkingwithFordthatheisamanofpowerratherthanofmaterialriches.”Hishalf-cultivated,half-innateDelphicopaqueness—“I’mgoingtoseethatnomancomestoknowme,”hewroteinoneofhisnotebooks—allowedhisfollowerstopickandchoosewhattheylikedfromhisphilosophizing,unitingadmirersasdiverseasLeninandHitler,TrotskyandMussolini.3

BythetimeofdeLima’sDearbornvisit,theFordMotorCompanywaswellestablishedthroughoutLatinAmerica.In1914,italreadyoperatedsalesofficesinArgentina,Uruguay,Brazil,Chile,andVenezuela,andwhenWorldWarIclosedEuropeofftobusiness,theregionservedasthesiteofFord’sfirstextensiveoverseasexpansion.ProductionbeganinBuenosAiresin1917andinSãoPauloin1920andquicklyspreadtomostmajorLatinAmericancities.By1925FordhadanearmonopolyonthecarandtrucktradeinBrazil—60percentto17percentforGeneralMotors—withoverfourmillioninsalesanddealersthroughoutthecountry,includinginBelém,theAmazon’smajorAtlanticport.Threeyearslater,FordwouldhavesevenhundredagenciesandmorethantwothousandservicegaragesinBrazil.Thesturdy,high-off-the-groundModelTwasparticularlypopularinthecountry’sruggedbacklands,serving,asitdidintheruralUnitedStates,asanall-terrainvehicleforunpavedandruttedroads.Ford

dealerssentcaravansofcars,tractors,andtrucksonpublicitytours,paradingthembeforeaudiencesofuptoahundredthousandpeopleindozensofcitiesandtownsduringthedayandscreeningfilmsdepictingFordassemblylinesandfactoriesatnight.Insomeregions,FordtruckswereconvertedintopublicbusesandModelTengineswereusedtoruncottonginsandsugarmills.4

ConsuldeLimawasfromsouthernSãoPaulo,theprosperousheartofhiscountry’sindustrializingsouth,whoseelitesviewedtheequatorialAmazonmuchthewaynorthernUSindustrialistslookedatsouthernstates,astorpidlyrural,economicallybackward,andbesetbyracialconflicts.Ford’sfirstautobiography,MyLifeandWork,hadrecentlybeentranslatedintoPortugueseandwaswidelyreadamongmembersofSãoPaulo’sbusinessandpoliticalclass.Throughoutthe1920s,paulistas,asresidentsofSãoPauloarecalled,tooktheleadinbuildingBrazil’smodernhighwaysystemandpracticallyerectedacultofHenryFord,understandingFordismtobetheantithesisofwhattherestofBrazilwasandthemodelofwhatitneededtobecomeifitwastoprogress:industrial,rational,wage-based,andprosperous.AgraduateofSyracuseUniversityandalongtimeresidentofNewYork,deLimahadtohaveknownFord’sopinionofJews.Henonethelesspronouncedthecarmakerthe“Mosesofthetwentiethcentury,”whowouldturntheAmazonintothePromisedLand.Ford’stranslator,JoséBentoMonteiroLobato,alsofromSãoPaulo,calledhimthe“JesusChristofindustry”anddescribedhislifestoryasthe“MessianicGospeloftheFuture.”*“ForBrazil,”hesaid,“thereisnoliteratureorstudymorefruitfulthanHenryFord’sbook.”FarthernorthofSãoPaulo,intheprovincialtownofUberabinha,aroundthetimeofdeLima’scampaigntowooFord’sattention,alocalnewspaperworkedwithbusinessleaderstoraisemoneytoerectastatuetoHenryFord,inhonoroftherolehiscarplayedinopeninguptheback-landstatesofGoiásandMatoGrosso.5

FORHISPART,FordmusthavewelcomeddeLima’sattentionsandtheunreservedadmirationofmenlikeLobatoandotherpaulistas.Hewassixty-oneyearsoldin1925and,thoughunparalleledinwealthandprominence,had,startingwithhisoppositiontoWorldWarI,sufferedastringofpoliticalrebukes.AndhavingbeendeniedMuscleShoalsby,inhisopinion,shortsightedandself-interestedpoliticians,hemusthaveviewedthecooperationofferedbydeLimaandotherBrazilianstatesmenasevidencethattheAmazonvalleyprovidedabetteropportunitytorealizehisindustrialpastoralismthandidthelowerTennesseeRiver.

FordgreetedConsuldeLimainhisofficeatthenewRiverRougecomplexand,thoughstilluncommitted,tooktheopportunityofthemeetingtorecapturealostinnocence.OndisplayfortheBraziliandiplomatinDearbornthatdaywasnottheHenryFordwhosworebytheveracityoftheProtocolsoftheEldersofZionandincreasinglydefendeda“whiteman’scode.”NorwasitthemanwholoosedHarryBennett’s“servicemen”onhisfactoryfloor,withtheir“guns,sticks,andotherweapons,...enforcingobscurerulesattheirwhim”andrefusingtoletworkerssit,ever.ItwasnottheFordwhopresidedoverafactorywhereworkers,notallowedtotalk,learnedhowtospeakwithoutmovingtheirlips,askilltheycalled“fordizationoftheface.”ItwasnottheFordofthespeedup,themanwhobythelate1920sembodiedtheinhumanityofassemblylineproduction,whichturnedtheworkersthemselvesintomachines.NottheFordwhobythattimewascondemnedincountlessexposésandnovelsasthesponsoroftheworstdehumanizingeffectsofmassindustrialproduction.

Rather,deLimametaHenryFordthrustbacktothemid-1910s,amanconfidentthathecouldwedindustrialefficiencytohumanfulfillment.TheBrazilianrecountedthe“simplespeechandmodestmanner”withwhichFordreceivedhim.Throughouttheirmeeting,Fordremainedstanding,whichamore

observantguestwithfirsthandknowledgeoftheRougewouldhavetakenasanexampleofFord’sabilitytoturnhisownmaniasintoindustrialpolicy,asubtlecautionagainstthepromisestocome.ButdeLimawasanenthusiast,andhesawFord’srestlessnessasvitality.Afterthetwomendiscussedthenutsandboltsofthematter,howmuchlandBrazilwaswillingtoconcedetothemotorcompany,alongwithtaxandtariffissues,Fordbecameexpansive.

HeaskedtheBrazilianaboutthewagesrubbertappersreceived.Thirty-sixtofiftycentsaday,deLimaanswered;Fordrepliedthathehad“nodoubtthathewouldpayuptofivedollarsadayforagoodworker.”Brazilians,hesaid,hadtherighttoworkas“freemen,”notas“slaves.”Hisprincipalconcernwasnotthenumberofhourshegotforhiswagesbuttheproductivityofthelaborforce.True,hetolddeLima,hestroveforefficiencyandtooknostockincharity.Yetheaskedthateachworkeronlygivetothejobwhathecould.Hisfactories,hesaid,employedthe“blind,crippledanddumb,”who“workonlythreehoursperday,withoutfeelinghumiliatedaboutit.”

AlsomakinganappearanceatthatmeetingwastheFordwhoabsolutelybelievedthathissystemofindustrialfairnesswasallthatwasneededtopreventwarsandrevolutions.When“PetertriestorobPaulofthatwhichheprizesmost,makinghimdoextraworkwithoutduecompensation,thennaturallyreactionensues,”hesaid.FordevenrehearsedhisoldTennysonianinternationalismforhisBrazilianguest,tellingthediplomatthatwhenhedidbusinessheforgotthathewasanAmerican,“becauseabusinessmanknowsnocountry.Heisbornbychanceinthisorthatcountry.”ForFord,theAmazonofferedafreshstartinaplaceheimaginedtobeuncorruptedbyunions,politicians,Jews,lawyers,militarists,andNewYorkbankers,achancetojoinnotjustfactoryandfieldbutindustryandcommunityinaunionthatwouldyield,inadditiontogreaterefficiency,fullyrealizedmen.

“Therewillbeschools,”FordsaidofhisplansfortheAmazon,“experimentstations,canteens,stores,amusementparks,cinemas,athleticsports,hospitals,etc.forthecomfortandhappinessofthosewhoworkontheplantation.”

IFDELIMA,quotedwidelyintheBrazilianpressonthesuccessofhisDearbornmeeting,wasthepublicfaceofthecampaigntodrawFordtotheAmazon,JorgeDumontVillaresplayedastealthierrole.FromawealthyandpoliticallyconnectedSãoPaulocoffee-growingfamily,VillareshadarrivedinBelém,thecapitalcityoftheAmazonianstateofPará,intheearly1920s.Despitethecollapseoftherubbereconomy,therewasstillmoneytobemadeinthemanyschemesfloatedtorevivethetrade.AsthenephewofthefamedaviatorAlbertoSantos-Dumont,themanBraziliansinsistinventedtheairplaneonlytohavethecreditstolenbytheWrightbrothers,Villares,partialtolinensuitsandPanamahats,wasrelativelywellknowninelitecircles.Hewastall,thin,andabitfussy,andhehadaflairforthecovert.Shortlyafterhisarrival,hebegantocobbletogetheralooseconfederacyofpoliticians,diplomats,andFordofficials,allwiththeirowninterestsinluringHenryFordtoBrazil.6

Villares’sfirstandmostimportantallyingettingthingsmovingwasWilliamSchurz,whoservedasWashington’scommercialattachéinRio,thoughtotheannoyanceoftheUSambassadorhespentmostofhistimeintheAmazon.“Generationsoflittlemenhavenibbled,likemice,attheedgesoftheAmazonia,”SchurzlaterwroteinabookheauthoredonBrazil—aremarkthatcouldbetakenasautobiographical.SchurzhadjoinedtheDepartmentofCommerceintheearly1920s,justatthemomentthatitssecretary,HerbertHoover,wasgreatlyexpandingitsreach.HoovertripledCommerce’sbudgetandaddedthreethousandemployees,manyofthemattachéslikeSchurz,travelingsalesmenofAmerica’sgrowingeconomicambition.These“hounds”forAmericanbusiness,asHoovercalledthem,tendedtoignorethe

big-picturegeopoliticsthatsooccupiedStateDepartmentdiplomats.Insteadtheylobbied,oftenwithaGlengarryGlenRoss–likeaggressiveness,onbehalfofanarrowerrangeofinterestsspecifictoUScorporations—aswellastothemselves.7

Schurzhadbeenamemberofthe1923commissionorganizedbyHoover’sDepartmentofCommercetostudythepossibilityofrevivingrubberproductionintheAmazon,partofHoover’scampaigntocounterChurchill’sproposedcartel.ItwasmostlikelyfromhisexperienceonthiscommissionthatSchurzfirstrealizedthepossibilitiesforprofit,especiallyafterthe1925announcementbyPará’snewgovernor,DionysioBentes,thathewouldmakejunglepropertyavailableatnocosttoanyonewillingtocultivaterubber.AsaUSdiplomat,Schurzcouldn’tpetitionforlanddirectly,sohealliedwithVillares,withtheideathattheywoulduseHoover’srubbercrusadetoselltheirconcessiontoanAmericancorporation.JoiningSchurzandVillareswasMauriceGreite,anEnglishmanwholivedinBelémandcalledhimself“captain,”thoughnooneknewofwhat.AlongtimeresidentoftheAmazonalwaysonthelookoutforthemainchance,beitaleadmineoralandscheme,GreitequicklybecamemoreofaburdenthananassettoVillares.Buthedidperformoneusefulservice.HeintroducedVillarestoBelém’smayor,AntónioCastro,andtoGovernorBentes,twomenwhoseallegianceswouldneedtobesecurediftheplanwastohaveanychanceofsuccess.Inexchangeforacutofthemoney,bothofficialspledgedtheirsupport.Themayorpromisednottoopposethetransactionandthegovernor,inSeptember1926,grantedVillares,Schurz,andGreiteanoptionon2.5millionacresinthelowerTapajósvalley—oneofthemanyplacesexpertsconsideredsuitableforlarge-scalerubbercultivation.Thethreemenhadtwoyearstoeitherdeveloporselltheproperty.Iftheyfailedtodooneortheother,theywouldlosetheiroptionandthelandwouldrevertbacktothestate.8

Atfirst,Schurz,fromhisembassyofficeinRio,triedtointerestHarveyFirestone.ButwhenFirestonesettledonLiberia,heturnedhisattentiontotheFordMotorCompany,writingletterstobothFordandhissecretary,ErnestLiebold,hypingthepossibilitiesofAmazonianrubber.Ascommercialattaché,SchurzhadaccesstoUSgovernment-fundedresearchbeingcarriedoutonrubber,whichhepassedontoLieboldbeforetheCommerceDepartmentcouldprocessitandmakeitavailabletootherpotentialinvestors.Atthesametime,bothheandVillaresestablishedcontactwithtwomen,W.L.ReevesBlakeleyandWilliamMcCullough,whomFordhadsenttoBelémafterhismeetingwithdeLimatoscoutoutpotentiallocationsforarubberplantation.ThereisnoevidencethatBlakeleytookmoney,yetdocumentsindicatethatMcCulloughdid.Villarespromisedtopayhim$18,000forwhateverhelphecouldprovideinmakingthedealmoveforward.9

IntheAmazon,VillaresalsobegantoenlisttheservicesoftheBelém-basedUSconsul,JohnMinter.Inthiscase,nomoneywasproffered.ButVillares’sconspiratorialairhadawayofpullinginconfidants.HewhisperedtoMinterthatplanswereafoottoinfectSoutheastAsianrubberplantationswithSouthAmericanleafblight,afungusnativetotheAmazonthatwasoftenlethaltorubbertrees.Itwouldtakeonlyoneepidemicofblight,inCeylonorMalaysia,VillarestoldtheUSdiplomat,torestoreBrazil’sdominationoftheglobalmarket.“Awordtothewiseissufficient,”Villaressaidtotheconsul.HefedMinterbitsandpiecesofinformationregardinghisnegotiationswithUScorporations,includingthecontactshehadmadewiththeFordMotorCompany,drawingtheAmericanofficialintohisintrigues.Hesaidthathehad“secretlyplantedanurseryof500,000seedlingsonhiddenunclaimedpropertyadjacenttothatwhichFordislikelytotakeup,”sothatFordwouldhaveareadystockofHeveatobeginplantingoncehecommittedtotheproject.Thereasonthenurseryhadtoremainasecret,Villaressaid,wasthatpowerfullocalinterestswereconspiringtostopthedealfromgoingforward.Beforelong,Minterwas

cablinghissuperiorsbackintheStateDepartmenttellingthemthathewasputtinghisofficeandstaffattheserviceofVillaresinhisdealingswithFord.Villares’snextstep,inlatesummer1926,wastotraveltoDearborntopitchhisproposaldirectlytoHenryandEdselFord,havingsecuredanaudienceprobablythrougheitherMcCulloughorBlakeley,withwhomVillareshadestablishedafriendship.

Villareswasaskilledsycophant,andinhismeetingwithfatherandsonFord,hetackedbackandforthbetweenfearandflatterytomakehiscase.TheBrazilianpresentedthemwitharough-drawnmapoftheproperty,whichincludedtwotownsnamed“Fordville”and“Edselville.”10BuildingonSchurz’sspadework,hepaintedafantasticalpictureofwhatcouldbeaccomplishedintheAmazon,“themostfertileandhealthyregioninthetropicalworld.”TheBraziliandrewupawish-listcontract,naminghimselfexecutoroftheprojectandgrantingthecompanytheunfetteredrighttoextractgold,oil,timber,andevendiamonds.VillaresalsopromisedFordthathecouldharnesshydroelectricity,importandexportanymaterialfreeoftaxesandtariffs,andbuildroads,includingtwothatwouldrunthreehundredmilesupbothbanksoftheTapajós“intothevastwildrubberforests”ofitsheadwaters,whichwouldgiveFordacompletemonopolyoverthevalley’slatexproduction.HetoldHenryandEdselthathewouldgreatlyprefertomakethelandavailabletoanAmerican,butifnoonecameforwardhemightbeforcedtotransferittootherinterestsbeforehisoptionexpired.Itwaspainful,VillarestoldtheFords,to“eventhinkthatsomeofmyhomelandwillgointothehandsofJaps,Britishers,andGermans.”“Thecallhasbeenheard,”Villaresconcludedhispresentation,“andthesurestguaranteethattheenterprisewillbeagreatsuccessisthatthefirsttoanswerthecallwasFord.Heneverretreats.Heneverfails.”11

ThemeetingleftVillareshopeful.FromDetroit’sCadillacHotel,hewrotehisfellowconspiratorGreiteandurgedhimtobepatient:“Saynothing,”forthingswithDearbornweregoingwell.“Tearthisletterup,”heinstructedthecaptain.12

Fordseemedtobehooked.Still,Villareswasanxious.HeleftDetroitforNewYork,wherehecomposedanotherletter,thisonetoBlakeley.IfForddidn’tactquickly,hewrotehisclosestallyinthecompany,“Someonewillrealizeitsoon.”“Whenyouweredownthere,”heasked,“didyounoticeacuriousthing:‘ThefaitheveryonehasinFord?’Themagicinthatnamehaspenetratedintotheheartsofthemosthumble;ithasgotintomine.TheyhavefaithinFord,sohaveI.Thousandsawaithiscoming;hewillcome.”13

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*TheworkoffictionmostassociatedwithHenryFordisAldousHuxley’s1932BraveNewWorld,whichdescribesafutureinwhichadystopicFordismreignssupreme:babiesaremanufacturedonassemblylines,theThasreplacedtheChristianCross,and“Historyisbunk”standsastheofficialmottoofanindolent,purposelesssocietyovercomebyanarcissismspawnedbytechnologicalabundance.ButsixyearsearlierLobatowroteanovelsetin2228,inanAmericatransformedbyFord’s“pragmaticidealism”intoanexemplarofmechanicalefficiencyandwealth,onethathasallowedforthetranscendenceofclassconflict.“Fordproved,”Lobatowrites,“thattherewasnoantagonismbetweencapitalandlabor.”Yet“TheClashofRaces,”asthenovelwasoriginallycalledinPortuguese,isasbleakasHuxley’s.Despitepredictingthesuppressionofclassstruggle,thebookimaginesaworldinwhichracialconflicthasyettoberesolved.Itsnarrativefocusesonapresidentialcontestwhere,asaresultofasplitinthewhitevotebetweenawhitemanandwoman,JimRoy,aneloquent,intelligentblackcandidate,becomespresident.ThebacklashagainstRoy’svictoryleadstothesterilizationofallAfrican

Americansand,inunclearcircumstances,thepresident-elect’sdeath,whichresultsinarestorationofwhitepoliticalpower.DespiteLobato’sfaithinFord’sredemptivepowers,hisbook,writtenin1925,beforeFordcommittedtotheAmazon,envisionedatroubledfuturefortheregion:whatwasBrazilwouldbesplitinhalf,dividedintoaprogressiveandprosperoussouth,joinedbyArgentinaandUruguay,andanorthern,stagnant“tropicalrepublic”(JoséBentoMonteiroLobato,AondaverdeeOpresidenteNegro,SãoPaulo:EditoraBrasiliense,1956,pp.202–6,214).

CHAPTER6

THEYWILLALLDIEFORDREMAINEDUNDECIDED,BUTHISMEETINGWITHJORGEVillaresdidprompthimtosendCarlD.LaRue,abotanistattheUniversityofMichigan’sAnnArborcampus,toBrazilto“findagoodareasomewhere”toplantrubber.LaRuehadbeentotheAmazononcebefore,in1923astheheadofHerbertHoover’sDepartmentofCommerce–sponsoredexpeditionaimedatsurveyinglocationsforrubberproduction,thesameoneUScommercialattachéWilliamSchurzwason.Onthattrip,thebotanistcoveredawideradiusofover25,000miles,andhisfindings,alongwiththoseofotherexpeditions,identifiedseveralsuitablelocationsscatteredupanddowntheTapajósRiver.Theseweremostlyonpublicproperty,whichFordcouldhaveobtaineddirectlythroughagovernmentconcessionatlittleornocost.Thistime,though,LaRuedidn’trevisitanyofthesiteshehadscoutedearlierbutrathermadeabeelineforafifty-milestripalongtheeastbankoftheTapajós,partofthelandoptionedtoVillares,Schurz,andGreite.Later,oncethedetailsofthedealsurfaced—adealinwhichFordessentiallypurchasedpropertyheprobablycouldhavegottenforfree—rumorsstartedtocirculatethattheMichiganprofessorwaspartofthecon.LaRuedeniedtheallegations,yetFordnevertrustedhimagain.“Donotthinkwewouldbenefitanybyusinghim,”wasFord’shandwrittencommentinthemarginsofLaRue’ssubsequentoffertohelpgettherubberplantationupandrunning.1

WhetherornotLaRuewasinvolvedinVillares’sswindle,hisreport—themainsourceofmosteverythingFordwouldknowoftheAmazonbeforecommittingtohisrubberproject—waslikecatniptotheindustrialist-philosopher.ItsfirsthalfmadethebotanicalcasefortheTapajósvalley.“Thevegetationisveryluxuriant,”withplentyofrainfallandgooddrainage,LaRuewrote.Itssoilwasrich,apaletteofdarkhues,redandyellow.“Wesawveryfineoldtrees,”and“thereisnoquestion”thatmanyofthemwouldyielduptoagallonoflatexaday.Thesitesathighenoughtobeoutofthereachofmosquitoes,composedmostlyofplateauscutwithafewstreamsandnoswamps,makingitaperfectplaceforasettlement.TheforestscouldbetimberedforprofitableexporttotheUnitedStates,andthepotentialforhydropowerwas“considerable.”TheTapajósvalley,LaRueconcluded,wassuperior,oftenvastlyso,tootherestablishedrubber-producingregions,suchasSumatrainSoutheastAsia.2

Butitwasthesecondsectionofthereport,layingoutthelivingconditionsofthevalley,thatmusthaveentrancedFord.Itwashisvisionofhell.

TRAVELINGALONGTHETapajósduringtheseconddecadeofBrazilianrubber’slongtwilight,LaRuepaintedapictureDickensianinitsattentiontomisery,onethatineverywaywastheoppositeoftheworldFordbelievedhehadcreatedbackinMichigan.“Thepeopleareeverywherepoorandforlorn,”thebotanistwroteFord,“mostofthemarepennilessandwithouthopeforthefuture.Manyofthemhavenotevenhadapieceofmoneyintheirhandsforyears.”Childrenenjoy“noschool,noplay,noadvancementandnohopeevenoflifeitself,fortheyaredoomedtoanearlydeathfromhardwork,poorfoodanddisease,”herecounted.“Thin,yellowandweak,”with“drawnsetfaces,”theyhave“nothing”butdespair“untildeathovertakesthem.Theyhaveceasedtohopeforanyameliorationoftheirlot.”

Duringthepreviousdecade,Ford,aspartofhisbroaderrestructuringofindustrialandhumanrelations,hadbecomeinterestedinhealthcareandworkersafety.Howevermuchhisconcernmayhavebeendrivenbyadesiretocreateamoreefficientworkforce,Ford’sunrivaledwealthallowedhimtomovebeyondself-interesttoprovidedecentmedicalservicestomanyinthelargerDetroitcommunity.In1915,he

establishedhisflagshipnamesakehospital,filledwithstate-of-the-artequipmentandrenownedforitsexpertise,where“everyone,richorpoor,paidthesamenominalfeesforthebestcarepossible.”3

SoLaRuewascarefultorecordthehealthconditionofthejungle’srubbertappersandnutgathererswhowouldmakeupFord’slaborforce.“Someofthesemenaremagnificentspecimens,”thebotanistsaid,“butoneseesagreatmanyfever-strickenbodiesamongthem.Manyalsohavehorriblewoundsandsoresontheirlegsandfeet.Theyarealwaysnearlynaked,coveredmerelybyragswhichhavebeenmendeduponmendeduntilthewholecostumeisfairlyquiltedwithpatches;thepatchesthemselvesbeingfullofholes.”LaRuewould“neverforget”the“sightofalittlenursingbabyquitenakedandcompletelysmearedoverwithclayfromthewetdirtfloor,”reportingthateachhouseholdatanymomenthadatleastonepersonlaidlowwithmalaria,groaningandtossinginbed.

Themajorityofchildrensufferedfromhookworm,adiseasethathadreceivedmuchattentionfrompublichealthreformersintheUnitedStates,whereitwasprevalentamongpoordirtfarmersinGeorgia,Mississippi,andAlabama.Leftuntreated,itresultedinextremeanemia,distendedstomachs,and,asonestudyputit,a“cravingforeatingearthandallsortsofunnaturalthings.”LaRuetoldFordthathesawmany,manychildreninthe“clayeatingstage”oftheinfectionwhohadonlya“fewweekstolive.”Mattersweremadeworsebythepoordiet—when“thereisanyfoodatalltobehad”—consistingnearlyentirelyofdriedpirarucu,anAmazoniancatfish,andmanioc.Milkandbutterwere“unknown,”breadwasfound“onlyinlargertowns,”therewasnofruit,notevenbananas,andgreenvegetableswere“veryscarce.”Medicine,includingquinineformalaria,wassoldatprohibitiveprices,outofthereachofmost.Theafflictedsoughtreliefin“barkandleaves,”localremediesthatLaRueallowedmighthaveminorremedialbenefitsbutweremorelikely“totallyworthless,ifnoteveninjurious.”4

LaRueexplicitlylinkedthemiseryhewitnessedtotheregion’ssystemofdebtpeonage,whichheknewwouldbeofparticularinteresttoFord.BorntheyeartheEmancipationProclamationwentintoeffect,Fordlikedtocontrasthisindustrialwagesystemwithslavery(therewasalwaysaporousborderbetweenhowheviewedtheUSSouthandtheAmazon).AndsodidLaRue,whoechoedagenreofreformwritingcommontothetime,whichopposedAmerica’srural,impoverishedsouthernstatestotheindustrializedandprosperousnorth.Rubbertappers,hetoldFord,were“worseoffthanslaveswereinanydecentslave-keepingcountry,”since“slaves,likehorses,hadtobetreateddecentlytomakethemprofitable.”Cash,heexplained,waspracticallyneverusedtopayforrubber,astappershandedovertheirlatexto“someSyrianontheriver”topayoffapreviouslyadvanced“grub-stake”—food,clothing,arifleandammunition,knivestotapthetrees,orsomeothernecessityoflife.BySyrian,LaRuewasreferringbroadlytotheArabandJewishimmigrantsfromNorthAfricaandtheLevantwhosteppedintotakeoveragoodpartoftherubbertradeaftertheeconomiccollapsewipedoutthelargerBrazilianmerchants.Thesetradersadvanced“lowestinqualitymerchandiseatthreetotwentytimesitsretailvalue,whilebuyingnutsandlatexatwellbelowmarketprice.Thustherubbertapperwas“enslavedthroughdebt,”constantly“workingtopayforproducehehasalreadybought.”5

LaRueillustratedhispointwiththisstory:“AmanbroughtaboutahundredpoundsofBrazilnutsintoashop.Thedealerthrewthemintoastoreroomwithoutevenweighingthemandaskedthemanwhathewanted.Hewantedsomeropeandtookaboutthirtyfeetofsmallerrope.Thenhewantedsomefood.Thebuyeraskedifhehadanymorenutsandsaidthosehehadbroughtonlypaidfortherope.”Andthis:“Amanbroughtrubberonboardalaunch...onwhichweweretraveling.Therubberwasinsmallballsstrungonlightsticks.Thestickweighednotoverfivepounds,butthebuyerdockedthemanaboutthree

dollarsforthewoodandtooktwohideshehadbroughtalso,withoutallowinganythingforthem.Themanprotestedandaskedwherehispayforthehidescamein,buttheywereintheholdthen,andthebuyermerelyshruggedhisshoulders.”

“Instancessuchasthese,”LaRuetoldFord,“couldbefoundeveryday.”

Fordcertainlyrecognizedthissystem,notjustbecausewhenhesaw“Syrian”heprobablyread“Jew,”butbecausehehadconfrontedonelikeitbackinDetroit,where“pettyempires”runbyethnicbossestookadvantageofthehighwagesFordpaidtoimmigrantworkers,chargingexorbitantamountsforapartmentsandretailgoods.Tofreehisemployeesfromthesemini-fiefdoms,Fordestablishedacreditunion,bothtoencouragesavingsandtomakelow-interestloansavailablesoworkersdidn’thavetogotoan“outsideShylockforassistance.”Healsoopenedupfactorypharmaciesandcommissaries,which,unliketheinfamous“companystore”thatkeptworkersperpetuallyindebted,providedemployeesawidearrayofhigh-qualityproductsatlowprices,oftenbelowcost.6

Debtslavery,LaRuewrote,leftfrontlineAmazonworkersuncaredforanddisposable.Mostwereuneducatedandilliterate,livingin“merehuts”thatchedwithpalmleaves.“Dirtfloorsareuniversalandwhendryarenotsobad,butwhenwetwiththeleakagefromtheroof,areterrible.”Theworkerswentmonthswithoutseeingotherhumanbeings,hesaid.“Thelonelinessisappalling.”Bedsoranykindoffurniturewereuncommon,anda“familyisluckyiftherearehammocksenoughtogoaround”;mostslept“twoorthreetoahammock.”Childrensoldthemselvestoriverboats,“gladtowork,likedogsfornothingbuttheirfood.”

LaRuetoldFordthathisteamtriedtogivequininetoamanwithmalaria“almostindyingcondition”onlytohaveitsnatchedawaybyhiscreditor,who“laughedatthepoordevilashedrovehimbacktowork.Itmadeourbloodboil,butwewerehelpless.”

AbovethetradersstoodBrazil’saristocraticelite,“youngmenofwealth”wholivedintheAmazon’sprovincialcities,unconcernedwith“betteringtheconditionoftheforestpeople.”Indeed,theverywordupriverfilledthemwith“dread.”HereagainLaRue’saccountseemsfinelytunedtoFord’sfixations,forthecarmakermusthaveimaginedBelémtobetheAmazon’sversionofDetroit’sGrossePointe,hometothepamperedscionsofinheritedwealth—Fordcalledthem“parasites”—untroubledintheirmanorsandmansionsbytheproblemsoftheworldfromwhichtheyprofited.IftheAmazon’surbanrichweretobravethejungle’s“terrorsanddiscomforts,”LaRuewrote,itwouldbetoexecuteaprogramnotofreformbutofexploitation.Mostofthelocaleliteoccupiedthemselveswith“dressanddissipation,”aBrazilianvariationofthetrumpery-and-trinketconsumerismFordpreachedagainstathome,orwith“politics,”whichforFordwasindistinguishablefromcorruption.7

Nativerubber-tapperfamilyontheTapajós,aroundthetimeofCalLaRue’strip.

Thereallordsoftherubbertrade,LaRuetoldhisboss,weretheforeign-ownedexporthousesandfinancialfirms,whichwere“utterlyheartlesstowardtheirvictims.”Becauseoftheirmonopoly,theypaidnexttonothingtothetraderswhofloatedthelatexdownrivertoBelém.Oftheseforeigninterests,LaRuesingledouttheBritishasbeingparticularlyindifferenttothevalueofhumanlife.Whetherornotthiswastrue,hischargeofBritishcallownesstappedintoFord’sAnglophobia.LaRue’saccountwasparticularlyresonantinthewakeofthetwo-decade-oldPutumayoscandal,whichin1907exposedtheprofitingofaBritishrubbercorporationfromtheenslavement,torture,starvation,murder,andrapeofthousandsofAmazonianIndians.Theseatrocitiesoccurredmuchfarthertothewest,intheborderlandsthatseparatedEcuador,Peru,andColombia,butLaRuesuggestedthatLondon’smercantileruthlessnesscontinuedunabatedontheTapajós.Britishcompaniesweresending“familiesuptheTapajóstocollectrubberwithoutanyprovisionfortheircareandshelterwhatever.”WhenFord’semissaryinquiredastohowthesepeople,especiallythechildren,wouldfare,acompanyrepresentativecavalierlysaid,“Oh,noneofthesechildrenwillevercomebackanyway.”8

LaRueendedhisreportwithapredictionsuretoarouseFord’sself-imageasamanwiththepowertopullhumanityfromthebrink:“Theywillalldie.”

ADECADEHADpassedsinceFord’sfeudwithTheodoreRooseveltovertheircompetingvisionsofAmericanism,andFordseemedtobeatthetopofnotonlyhisindustrybutAmerican,andthereforeworld,capitalism.Yetasisoftenthecaseinthecourseofgreatempires,periodsexperiencedastriumphscanbeunderstoodwiththebenefitofhindsightasquietlymarkingachangeinfortune;1927wassuchamomentforFord’smotorcompany.

Attheendofthatyear,thecompanyrolledoutitsModelA.Thenewcarwasacriticalandcommercialtriumph,puttingthecompanyagainintheforefrontofitsindustry,takingover45percentofthemarketbytheeveoftheGreatDepression.Butinretrospect,theswitchoverforcedFordtoreviseanumberofhismostcherishedbeliefs.

Foryears,FordhadignoredtheadvanceofrivalslikeGeneralMotors,ledbyAlfredSloan,whocutintoModelTsalesbyofferingcarswithshockabsorbers,gasgauges,gearshifts,andspeedometers.Ford

believedhiscompetitors’useofcheapcreditandtheiryearlystylisticchangeswereperversionsoftheconsumersocietyhehadhelpedcreate.“Wehavelostourbuyingsenseandfallenentirelyunderthespellofsalesmanship,”Fordsaid.“TheAmericanofagenerationagowasashrewdbuyer.Heknewvaluesintermsofutilityanddollars.ButnowadaystheAmericanpeopleseemtolistenandbesold;thatis,theydonotbuy.Theyaresoldthings;thingsarepushedonthem.”Cheapcreditwasdistortingthemarket,hethought.“Wehavedottedlinesforthis,thatandtheotherthing—allofthemtakingupincomebeforeitisearned.”Heremainedcommitted—attimesviolentlyso—tohisidealofmanufacturingoneinfinitelyinterchangeableproductyearafteryear.Once,whilehewasawayonatriptoEurope,Ford’sengineersmadeanumberofstylechangestotheModelT,stretchingitoutafewinchesandgivingitasmootherride.Onhisreturn,Fordcircledthenewmodelafewtimesandthenproceededtodestroyit,rippingoffitsdoorsandshatteringitswindowsbeforewalkingaway.Herepeatedthroughoutthefirstmonthsof1927that“theFordcar,”salesofwhichbythatpointhadplummetedtoanall-timelow,“willcontinuetobemadethesameway.”9

Untilitwasn’t.InreluctantlyagreeingtoabandonthecarhehadmadefortwodecadesandhadbuilttheRiverRougetomakefortwodecadesmore,Fordaccommodatedhimselftothenewconsumerism.Henceforth,hewouldhavetolearnhowtosatisfythediversetastesofconsumersratherthanlecturethemaboutwhattheirtastesshouldbe.Hebeganspendingheavilyonadvertising,pitchingyearlysuperficialstylechangesaspartofhiscompany’ssalesstrategy.Fordalsogrudginglyacceptedthefactthatfuturesalesgrowthwasnolongerbasedondrivingthesalespriceofanewcaraslowasitwouldgo—whichonlyledtocompetitionwithAmerica’sgrowingstockofusedcars—butonexpandingthecustomerbasefornewautomobilesthrougheasyloans.SoFordestablishedtheUniversalCreditCorporation,whichallowedAmericanstosignonthedottedlineandpurchaseanew$550ModelAroadsterfor$150downand$12.50amonth.Yearlystylechangesalsomeanthehadtoabandonacherishedcomponentofhisvillageindustryprogram:thepolicythatallowedfactoryworkerstotakeoffpartoftheyear(usuallyMaytoAugust)togofarm.WhenFordwasmakingthesamecaryearinandyearout,itwaspossibletooverproducepartsandthenstockpilethemforuseduringthemonthstheworkerwouldbeinthefield.Butafter1927,workershadtostayatthefactoryyear-round,assuchstockpilingwasnolongerpossible(theproductionofpartshadtobecloselycalibratedtotherhythmofactualsales)andtheassemblylinehadtobeannuallyretooledtomakethenextyear’smodelpart.10

Theyear1927alsomarkedthecompletionoftheRiverRougeplant,hailedtheworldoverasamonumenttoindustrialmodernism.ButitalsomeanttheascensionofHarryBennettandthecompletedefeatofthehumaneindustrialismthatformany,particularlythoseoutsideDetroit,FordcametorepresentwithhisFiveDollarDay.WorkersatHighlandParkhadalreadyexperiencedboththespeedupandincreasedcoercionandsurveillance.Yetthosewerenothingcomparedwiththemonstrouspaceofthenewfactory.

“HighlandParkwascivilized,”saidWalterReuther,whoasheadoftheUnitedAutoWorkersunionwasthemanmostresponsible,yearslater,forendingBennett’sreignofterror,“buttheRougewasajungle.”WiththetransitiontotheRougealsocamethepurgingofanumberofthecompany’sbestengineersandofficials,oftenfornoreasonotherthanthattheyrepresentedathreattoBennett’spowerorbecausetheirintelligenceandindependencechallengedFord’sautocracy.Thefiringswereviciousandcruel,andmostoftencarriedoutbyBennetthimself.Inanotableinstance,BennettaskedFrankKulick,arespectedengineerwhogotonFord’sbadsideforhavingsuggested,afewyearsearlier,thattheTbeupgradedformorepower,totakealookatacarthatwassupposedlymakinganoddnoise.WhenKulick

climbedonthefenderandbenthisheadunderthehood,Bennettsteppedonthegasandspedthecaroutthefactorygates,swervingsothatKulickwasthrowntotheground.Bennettthenturnedthecarbackintothefactoryyardandlockedthegates,andtheengineerwasneverallowedinagain.Anothertwenty-yearFordman,drivingwithhisfamilyonvacationinMichigan’sUpperPeninsula,waspulledoverbyastatetrooperwhorelayedamessagethathisjobwasterminated.FordrepeatedlyhumiliatedWilliamKnudsen,theengineercreditedwithcreatinganetworkofModelTassemblyplantsaroundtheworld,pushinghimtoquitandtakeajobwithGM,wherehewouldturnitsChevroletdivisionintooneofFord’schiefcompetitors.FordfeltKnudsenwastooindependentandtooalliedwithhissonEdsel,whowastryingtomodernizethecompany.“Ilethimgo,”Fordlateradmittedinamomentofcandor,“notbecausehewasn’tgood,butbecausehewastoogood—forme.”11

Themigrationofthelion’sshareofproductiontotheRouge,Ford’spurgingofmanyofthemenwhomadetheTaworldphenomenon,hisgrowingdependenceonBennettandotherthugs,hisincreasingresorttoshop-floorintimidation,andhisgrowingnativismcoincidedwithapsychicturninward.By1927,Fordwasintothesixthdecadeofhislife,andwhatwasinthepasttakenasshyawkwardnesshadrigidifiedintofortresslikesolitude,garrisonedbyblastsofintenseparanoiaandcruelty,increasinglydirectedathisonlyson,whomhetauntedandtormentedmercilessly.Fordconstantlyembarrassedhiminpublic,countermandinghisinitiativesandmakingitclearthatwhileEdselwasnominallythecompany’spresidenthehadnorealauthoritysavethatgrantedbyhisfather.WhenEdsel,forinstance,aspartofhisefforttorationalizethecompany’snotoriouslyanarchicbookkeepingsystem,hadanewofficebuildingconstructedattheRougetohouseaccountants,HenryvindictivelyabolishedtheAccountingDepartment.Increasingly,thekindofexpansivegoodwillondisplayforConsuldeLimawasreservedexclusivelyforpublicrelationsspectacles.“TheisolationofHenryFord’smindisaboutasnearperfectasitispossibletomakeit,”washowSamuelMarquis,theministerwhoheadedtheSociologicalDepartmentinitsearly,benevolentyears,describedhisagingformeremployer.12

Itwasalsoin1927thatFord’santi-Semitismfinallycaughtupwithhim.Since1924,theDearbornIndependenthadfocusedmuchofitsanti-JewishvenomagainstAaronSapiro,alawyerandactivistwhohadorganizedfarmcooperativesthroughouttheUnitedStatesandCanada.InSapiro,Fordundoubtedlysawacompetitorfortheaffectionsoffarmers,someonewhoproducedmoretangibleresultsinhelpingthemobtainbetterpricesforcropsthananyofFord’smanyschemescould.“JewishExploitationofFarmers’Organization,”rantheheadlineoftheinauguralattackonSapiro.“MonopolyTrapsOperateunderGuiseof‘MarketingAssociations.’”Theorganization,thearticleexplained,was“borninthefertile,fortune-seekingbrainofayoungJew”—Sapiro.Aftersufferingmonthsofsimilarattacks,linkinghimtoabroaderconspiracyintentonsubordinatingAmericanfarmstoJewishmoneyinterests,SapirofiledsuitagainstFord,claimingdefamationanddemandingamilliondollarsindamages.ThepresssalivatedattheideaofseeingFordonthewitnessstand,hopingforarepeatofthekindofspectaclethatoccurredin1919whenFordsuedtheChicagoTribuneforlibelandgavetheimpressionthathewasilliterate.Fordhadavoidedtheprocessserverforweeks,untiloneday,whilehewassittinginhiscarwatchingplanestakeofffromFordFieldwithhiswindowrolleddown,asummonsdroppedinhislap.ThecarmakersaidthathewouldrefusetoappearbutfinallysettledonaMarch31courtdateafterbeingthreatenedwithlegalaction.Intheweekleadinguptohisscheduledtestimony,thousandsofpeoplecrowdedthesmallMichigancourtroominanticipation,whiletheNewYorkTimesissuedachallenge:“IfMr.Fordisconvinced,ashemustbeifheisanhonestman,thatthematterprintedintheDearbornIndependenttruthfullystatesanabhorrentandappallingmenacetothepeopleoftheUnitedStates,itis

hardtoseehowhecanrefrain”fromusingthepublicitygeneratedbythetrialtopaint“thedangerinsuchcolorsbeforetheeyesofthisentirecountry,andinfactofthewholeworld,thatthefactswillbeestablishedbeyondchallenge.”Butifhedidn’ttrulybelievethethreatwasreal,theTimescontinued,heneededtodenouncethe“racecalumny”thathadbrought“painandsuffering”to“millionsofAmericancitizens.”ThetrialofferedFordanunparalleledopportunitytoclearlystatehisbelief.“Willheseizeit?”thepaperasked.“Willherisetoit?”13

Hedidn’t.Ontheeveofhisscheduledappearance,whiledrivinghomeonMichiganAvenue,Fordclaimed,hewassideswipedbyaStudebakerandpushedoffthesideoftheroad.Manyatthetime,andanumberofhistorianssince,believetheaccident,whichsenthimtothehospitalbutsparedhimhiscourtdate,tohavebeenstaged.Hislawyerrescheduledhisappearance,butintheendFordsettledoutofcourt.14

Fordalsoagreedtoissueastatementapologizingforhisanti-Semitism,writtenbyLouisMarshall,headoftheAmericanJewishCommitteeandoneofFord’schiefcritics.Itwas“prettybad,”saidHarryBennett,whotriedtoreadMarshall’spreparedtextoverthephonetohisboss.“Idon’tcarehowbaditis,youjustsettleitup,”Fordcuthimoff.TheretractionwaspublishedworldwideonJuly8,1927,carriedbyHearstnewspapers,theInternationalNews,theUniversalService,theAssociatedPress,andtheUnitedPressnewsservices:“IdeemittobemydutyasanhonorablemantomakeamendsforthewrongdonetotheJewsasfellow-menandbrothers,byaskingtheirforgivenessfortheharmthatIhaveunintentionallycommitted,byretractingsofaraslieswithinmypowertheoffensivechargeslaidattheirdoor.”Laterthatyear,FordshutteredtheIndependentandsoldoffitspresses.15

Itisinthiscontextofdomesticconstraint,contraction,andcompromisethatFordsoughtoutanewspaceoffreedom.

CHAPTER7

EVERYTHINGJAKEASIFTOCONFIRMTHATTHELOGICPUSHINGFORDTOTHEAMAZONhadmovedbeyondthelawsofsupplyanddemand,bythetimeCarlLaRueissuedhisreportontheTapajósvalley,theeconomicrationalebehindFord’sinterestinrubbernolongerheld.Twoyearsearlier,justafterhislunchwithFirestone,Fordwastoldbyoneofhismenthathighpriceshadstimulatedrubberplantingonsuchalargescalethatthecostoflatexwasboundtofall.AlsotheDutchwereclearlynotgoingtojointheBritishcartelafterall,whichrenderedChurchill’sproposaltoothless.Itmademoresense,Fordwasadvised,toforgotheplantationideaandjustopenapurchasingofficeintheAmazon.Andsureenough,evenbeforeFordgavethefinalgo-ahead,worldrubberpricesbegantotumble;soonthecostoflatexwouldbesubstantiallylowerthanitwasinthe1910s.1

Fordpressedforward.InJune1927,heassignedpowerofattorneytotwoofhisemployees,O.Z.IdeandW.L.ReevesBlakeley,anddispatchedthemtoBrazil.ThemenwerechargedwithnegotiatingalandconcessionwiththegovernorofthestateofPará,thejurisdictionwherethepropertyrecommendedbyLaRuewaslocated,andincorporatingasubsidiarycompanyunderBrazilianlawtooverseetheplantation.

IDEANDBLAKELEY,boththirty-sevenyearsold,andtheirwivestraveledtoNewYorkbytraininlateJune.IfFordthoughthimselfaninternationalist,hisfar-flungcompanyprovidedhimwithausefulforeignservice.Forwhatevermission,hisagentscouldrelyonForddealerstoorganizethetrip,establishcontacts,arrangeaccommodations,andprovidetransportation—aLincolnifstatuswarranted,otherwiseaModelTorA.

InManhattan,theDearbornemissarieswereshepherdedaroundina“Lincolncar”by“Mr.Leahr,ofthebranch,”whohelpedthemobtaintheirvisasandpreparefortheirdepartureontheBritishBoothLine’sSSCuthbert.Thetwocouplestookinthecityandenjoyedafewmeals,includingoneattheWaldorf-Astoria.TheyalsocaughtOscarHammerstein’sDesertSongattheCasinoTheater,thestoryofaFrenchgeneralsenttoMoroccotosuppressananticolonialArabuprisingledbythemysterious“RedShadow,”whoturnsouttobethegeneral’sson.Idewroteinhisdiarythatitwas“asprettyandinterestinganoperetteasIhaveeverseen.”

Idewasenjoyinghimself.Butjustbeforesettingsailhegotasenseofhispartner’stemperamentandwhathesawdidn’tbodewellforthesuccessoftheircharge.Blakeleygot“hot”whenshownhissleepingquarters.Theyweren’tuptohisstandards,hesaid,andhethreatenedtocallthewholetripoff.Blakeley,ofcourse,didn’thavethepowertodoanythingofthekind,buthedidbullythecaptaintomoveashipofficeroutofhisstateroom.Placated,Blakeleyandhiswifeboardedtheship.

OntheCuthbert,IdeeyedBlakeleywarily,yetthetwo-weekcruisetoBelémwasuneventful.BlakeleyhadalreadybeensenttoBraziloncebeforebyFord,onatripwherehehadmetJorgeVillares.ButitwasIde’sfirstseavoyage,andastheshippulledawayfromtheBrooklyndockandsailedoutoftheNarrows,hewistfullynotedthe“filigreeofConeyIslandandAtlanticCity.”HebroughtadictionarywithhimandtriedtolearnPortuguese,buthisinterestsoonwaned.Ide’s“fleshandspirit”proved“abittooweaktoovercometheblissfullethargyandtemptationtodonothing.”Hesurrenderedtoanendlessbridgegame,andwithinafewdaystheship’spassengers,withtheconventionsofshorelifebehindthem,gaveup

wearingtheircoatsandneckties.

OnJuly7,theCuthbertenteredtheBaíadeMarajó,oneoftheAmazon’smanymouths,soenormousthatlandwasnotsighteduntiltheeighth.RoughlyfourthousandmileslongandbeginningjustaslivereastofthePacificOcean,theAmazonisthelargestriversystemintheworld,comprisingabout15percentofalltheearth’sriverwater.TheMississippidischarges41percentoftherunoffofthecontinentalUnitedStates,buttheAmazonexpelstwelvetimesasmuch—fifty-sevenmilliongallonsofwaterpersecond.Oceangoingvesselscantraveldeepintoit,asfarwestasIquitosinPeru.

LiketheMississippi,theAmazonanditstributarieshavebeenworkedonoverthecenturies.Man-madecanalsandfootpathshavetransformednature’sbaroqueintohumanrococo,weavinganalreadybedazzlingecologyofwaterwaysintoanevenmoreintricatesetofnestedtradingsystems,connectingnine(ofthirteen)SouthAmericancountries—Brazil,Venezuela,Peru,Bolivia,Ecuador,Colombia,Suriname,Guyana,andFrenchGuiana—and,viaVenezuela’sOrinocoRiver,numerousCaribbeannations.Retainingwallsprotectsettlementsfromthetidesandseasons,asdodams,whichpermitthedryingofwetlandsandseasonalfloodplains.Dredgeskeepsedimentfrombuildinguparoundportsandbuoylightsguideships,especiallyduringlowwater.ButtheMississippiistrulyanindustrialriver;itssteppedlocks,levees,dikes,dams,navigationsignals,andexcavatedchannelsmakeitthemostmanagedandmanipulatedwatersystemintheworld.Incontrast,theAmazon,despiteitsgrandeur,is—asitwasatthetimeofIdeandBlakeley’sarrival—anartisanalriver.Itspilotsrelyonalifetimeofexperienceandskilltonavigateshiftingbars,fast-changingdepths,andapowerfultidalborethatcouldtravelinlandfromtheAtlantic,rushing“uptheriverinasheerwallwitharumblelikearegimentoflightartilleryonthestampede”asfarastenmiles,raisingthelargestofshipsandleavingthemagroundonitsrecession.AndunlikethedeltaoftheMississippi,whichoverthelasttwocenturieshasbeenreducedfromapatchworkofbarelynavigablebayous,islands,shiftingsandbars,andestuariesintoarationalizedsluice,theAmazon’sterminusremainsdemocratic,withmanymetamorphosingpathsinandout.2

ONEOFTHEcalmestentrypointsintermsofthetides,andthusthemosttrafficked,istheBaíadeMarajó,alongwiththesmallerBaíadeGuajará,whichgiveswaytoawaterchannelthatconnectsinlandtotheAmazonproper.OnthesoutheasternshoresoftheGuajarápresidesNossaSenhoradeBelém—OurLadyofBethlehem.AstheCuthbertclosedonthecity,theshimmeringconstantgreenofthedensejunglegavewaytoredtileroofsandblue-andcream-coloredwalls.Thoughtherubberboomhadendedmorethanadecadeearlier,theportwasstillbusy.Theharborwascrowdedwithmanydifferentkindsofships,fromsingle-mastedcanoelikesailboats,calledvigilengas,andflat-bottombargesthatservedasfloatingmarkets,filledwithfish,turtles,birds,vegetables,andfruit,tooceanlinersboundfromPortugalorNewOrleanstoIquitosorManaus,citiesthat,likeBelém,hadflourishedduringtheboombuthadsincelostmuchoftheirshine.Themostdistinctivevesselswerethemultileveledsteamboats,knownasgaiolas,“birdcages,”whosehammock-linedboweddecksmadeitseemasiftheyweresagginginthemiddle.

Everythingfelt“strangeandnew,”Idethought,astheFordpartytransferredtoasmallgovernmentlaunchtotakethemtoshore.Theentourageproceededtoalongstonewaterwall,abovewhichworkedcranes,winches,steamtrolleys,andstevedores.Alongthequaysatalineofmetal-roofedbrickcargowarehousesflankedbythecustomsbuilding,andterminalsforthemajorshippingcompanies,liketheBoothLine.Totherightofthewarehouseswasthecity’sfishmarket—knownasver-o-peso,or“check-the-weight”—agreenmetalandconcretecavern,itsfour-corneredornateturretsareminderofthecity’smilitaryorigins.Inside,mongersworkingovermakeshiftbutcherblocksslicedfromAmazonianhardwoodtreessoldanarrayoftheriver’sharvest,includingincalculablevariationsofcatfish.Farther

backfromthewaterstoodarowofthree-storiedexporthouses,shops,andmerchanthomes,behindwhich,onRuaGasparViana,theFordMotorCompanywouldopenanofficetocoordinatethearrivalofcargofromDearbornandthehiringoflaborers.

OnshoretogreettheForddelegationwasJohnMinter,theAmericanconsul,andGordonPickerell,alocalForddealerwhohadhimselfjustretiredfromathirteen-yearrunasUSconsul.AlsopresentwasJorgeVillares,whomBlakeleygreetedwarmly,whichIdethoughtpeculiarsincehedidn’trecallhispartner’smentioninganycontactsonhisprevioustripotherthanPickerellandMinter.Blakeleymadetheintroductions,yethedidsoinanawkwardway,onlymumblingVillares’sname.

ThesunglaredandtheheatfeltintenseastheDearbornemissariesleftthedock,turningontothebroadBoulevardoftheRepublic,whichtookthemtotheirhotel.IdehadnevertraveledmuchbeyondMichigan,sohetookcaretorecordhisimpressionsofhisarrivalinBeléminadiary.Theypassedshopssellingturtleshells,baskets,snakeskins,parrots,monkeys,and“strangebirdsofbeautifulplumage.”Thestreetswerefilledwith“handsomedarkmeninwhitesuits,strikinglyprettygirlsofdoubtfulcast,probablyhalfbreed,”and“niggersornativeswithgreatloadsontheirheads.”ThemidwesternIdethoughtthearchitecture“odd,”almost“orientalorMexican,”bywhichhewasprobablyreferringtotheglazedbluishtilesthatadornedthefacesofmanyofBelém’sbestbuildings.Herecognizedthebuzzards,though,thatflewhighoverthecity.TheyremindedhimofDetroitpigeons.AndthepotholesthatfilledthestreetsmadehimthinkofDetroit’snotoriouslybumpyGratiotAvenue.

ASINANYdiplomaticcorps,divisionsandrivalriesatthehomeofficeplayedoutabroad.Sinceitsfounding,theFordMotorCompanywasfamedforitsfactionalism,whichcreatedcompetingspheresofloyaltyamongemployees.HenryFord’sdelegatingyetincorrigiblycontrollingandmanipulatingmanagingstyleaggravatedthedivisions,asdidhisrelianceonmenwithstrongpersonalitiesandevenstrongeregos.Thecompany’smostfamousschism—describedbyhistoriansasShakespearean—wasbetweenEdsel,Ford’sonlychild,andHarryBennett,theheadofFord’sServiceDepartment.

Edsel,justtwenty-sixwhenhisfathermadehimthenominalpresidentofthecompanyin1919,andHarrywerepolaropposites.Bennett,aboutthesameageasEdsel,wasathugwithorganizedcrimeconnectionsandareputationforgettingintofistfights—duringhisboxingdaysinthenavyhefoughtunderthenameSailorReese—carchases,andgunbattles,storiesofwhichdelightedHenry.Ford“likedthelookoftheman—thecoloredsilkshirts,theWesternbeltbuckle,andthesnap-brimfelthat.HelikedtheDamonRunyonesquequality—thefactthatBennetthadrealexperienceinamasculineworld.”Andhelikedhisloyalty.“IfMr.Fordtoldmetoblackenoutthesuntomorrow,”Bennettoncesaid,“Imighthavetroublefixingit.Butyou’dseeahundredthousandsons-of-bitchescomingthroughtheRougegatesinthemorningallwearingdarkglasses.”3

Incontrast,Edsel,interestedintheaestheticsofindustrialdesignandmodernart,foreverdisappointedhisfather,thoughmanynowcredithimwithholdingthecompanytogetherthroughthetwentiesandthirties.“WhereEdselwasgentle,”thehistorianThomasBonsallremarks,“Henrysawweakness.WhereEdselwasimaginative,Henrysawfrivolity.”IfBennettruledthefactoryfloorasifindustrywereanextensionoftheWildWest,Edselwithhis“martyr’ssmile”quietlyworkedtobringprofessionalismtothecompany,tomitigatenotjustBennett’sviolencebutthearbitrarinessthatgovernedFord’slaborrelations.Muchtohisfather’scontempt,heevenadmiredFranklinDelanoRooseveltandmovedtoaccommodatethecompanytotheNewDeal.Duringthe1930s,HenrywouldcometodespiseFDR,notjustforbeingamemberoftheEastCoastelite(andTheodoreRoosevelt’scousin)andforsupporting

legislationmakingiteasierforunionstoorganize.Roosevelt’sNewDeal,whichextendedthepowerofgovernmenttoregulateindustry,ineffectdirectlycompetedwithFord’sdecentralizationandvillageindustryprogramforhowbesttotamecapitalism.Itwas,forexample,FDR’sTennesseeValleyAuthority,largelyanationalizationofFord’sMuscleShoalsproposal,thatwouldbringelectricityandjobstothepoorfarmersoflowerAppalachia.4

Ofthetwomen,Henrydidn’thidewhomhepreferred.NotonlydidhedonothingtodousethefiresthatburnedbetweenBennettandEdsel,hefannedthem.TheelderFordbackedBennettinhisfightswithEdselinawaytoencouragejealousy,whiletellingBennett,atanysignofrapprochement,“Harry,youthinkyou’regettingalongwithEdsel,buthe’snofriendofyours.”Once,whileEdselwasintheprocessofhavinganewrowofcokeovensbuiltattheRouge’sfoundry,FordtoldBennett,“Harry,assoonasEdselgetsthoseovensbuiltI’mgoingtotearthemdown.”Andhedid.5

WILLISLONGREEVESBlakeleywasaBennettman,andheactedit.Bornin1890inBowlingGreen,Kentucky,Blakeley,afterservinginWorldWarI,joinedthemarchofmigrantsuptheOhioValleytothefactoriesoftheMidwest,andhefoundajobinBennett’sServiceDepartmentasanassistantemploymentmanager.OntheCuthbert,hetriedtobossIdearound,peacockinglikea“bigshot”andtellingeverybodyontheboatabouttheirmissioneventhoughHenryFordhimselfinsistedthat“thisthingshouldbekeptsecretuntilwegotwellintoit.”6

BlakeleytookwelltoBelém,whichcombinedthegrandeurofanoldcolonialcity,energizedbyrubberrichesandthenexhaustedbytheirevaporation,withtheribaldpleasuresofaboomtown,stillconsiderabledespitetheeconomy’scollapse.ItsarchitecturemighthavebeenEuropean,butitssoulwasNewWorldfrontier.ThewriterJoséMariaFerreiradeCastro,aroundthetimeofBlakeleyandIde’svisit,calledthecitythe“Meccaoftheworld’sharlotry,”itsbrothelsfilledwithParisianandEasternEuropeancourtesans.MuchofthewealththatcouldbepulledoutoftheAmazonpassedthroughitsport,anditattractedadventurersandfortuneseekersfromtheworldover.Theygravitatedtowardoneanother,frequentingthesamecasinos,bars,andbrothels.

Blakeleyquicklygainedareputationamongtheroguesandexpatriatesasadrunkardandanexhibitionist.HestayedinthebestcornersuiteonthesecondflooroftheGrandeHotel,Belém’sfinest,withaverandaandfloor-to-ceilingwindows,theshuttersofwhichheleftopenashewalkedaroundnakedandmadelovetohiswife.Thehotel,sincedemolished,waslocatedonthecity’scentralplaza,andBlakeley’sroomfacedthemajesticTheatrodaPaz,wherethecity’sgentrypromenadedeveryevening,coiffedandbedeckedinformalwear.“Everyoneonthestreetcouldsee,”complainedthehotelmanagertoIde.Tomakemattersworse,Blakeley’swindowwasjustaboveamajortaxistand,andthedriverscirculatedgossipaboutthescandalousbehavioroftheFordmanthroughoutthecity.“It’sthetalkofthetown,”saidthemanager,whotriedunsuccessfullytoevictBlakeley.7

Likehisboss,Bennett,whoashispowergrewinDearbornbrokeredcontractswithoutsidesuppliersinwhichhereceivedhealthykickbacks,Blakeleysawaconvergencebetweenhisinterestsandthoseofthecompany.HebegantoworkonaplanwithConsulMinterinwhichasFord’srepresentativehewouldbuybondsissuedbyPará’sdeeplyindebtedstatetreasury,withtheideathattheirvaluewouldsoaroncewordgotoutthatFordhadcommittedtoinvestinginarubberplantation.MintertoldhissuperiorsintheDepartmentofStatethathethoughtitawin-win-winproposition:“takingoverthebondsatorneartheirrecentquotationwouldnotonlymeanultimateprofittotheFordMotorCompany”butalsoentrenchthecompanymore“solidlyinthisstate,increasingitsprestigeandpowertherein.”This,inturn,would

pleasetheBrazilians,who,Minterbelieved,“wouldprefertohavethestatedevelopedbyAmericancapitalthanbyBritish.”8ItisdoubtfulthatDearbornwouldhaveapprovedofanytransactionthatmighthaveexposedthecompanytochargesofengaginginspeculation.AndgivenHenryFord’swell-knownaversiontofinancecapital,it’slikelythatthebondschemewaswhollyinitiatedbyBlakeley.Inanycase,theStateDepartmentquicklynixedtheidea,instructingMinterto“strictlyconfine”hisactivitiesonbehalfofFord’srepresentativestotheprovisionofstatisticalinformation,“withoutcommentoradvice.”9

IDE,OROZashewascalled(O.Z.washiscompletefirstname),workedinFord’slegaldivision,abranchofthecompanyloyaltoEdselandconsideredabastionofprofessionalism.TaciturnwhereBlakeleywasbrazen,thelawyeratfirstdidn’tpickuponwhyhispartnerwasactingsostrangeonthedockwhenheintroducedhimtoConsulMinterandtheForddealerPickerell.ButthenherealizeditwasbecauseBlakeleywastryingtohidefromthemthefactthatIdealsoworkedforFord.“TheythoughtIwasjustsomeonehehadmetontheboat,”rememberedanirritatedIde.Hedidn’tmakemuchofituntillaterthatnight,whenhelearnedthatBlakeleyhadkepthimfrombeinginvitedtoareceptionattheconsul’shouse.Villares,too,wasamystery.IdehadneverheardmentionofBlakeley’selegantfriend,who,sincemeetingthemontheirarrival,wasalwaysaround,offeringhisservicesasinterpreterandgeneralliaisonandseemingtoknowmoreaboutthemissionthanIdehimselfdid.

Ide,ofcourse,wasunawareoftheroleSchurzandVillareshadplayed,withanassistfromLaRue,inpushingtheideathataspecificstripoflandalongtherightbankoftheTapajósRiverwasthebestplacetogrowrubber,thoughhequicklyidentifiedVillaresasan“opportunist”whohadmanagedtoobtainanoptiononthatland.Whateverhisopinion,Idehadlittlechoicebuttocooperatewithhiscolleagues.HecouldtrytoworkaroundthembyenlistingConsulMinter,butHenryForddidn’twanttheUSgovernmenttoknowofhisaffairs,muchlessparticipateinthem.Hecouldtrytonegotiateanagreementwiththegovernoronhisown,buthavingspenthistimeontheCuthbertplayingbridgeinsteadoflearningPortuguese,Idewaslostinthelocallanguage.ThatlefttheubiquitousVillares,whomIdeeventuallycametolike.HeevenlaterdefendedtheBrazilian,believingthatthemoneyheandhispartnerswouldmakewassimplythepriceofdoingbusiness.“Betweenthem,”herecalled,“theyhadtopayofftheGovernorandtheotherpoliticalboyswhohadsomethingcomingtothem.”

Despitethesemachinationsor,asIdesoonrealized,becauseofthem,discussionswentsmoothlywithBrazilianofficials.Villares,Blakeley,andIdemetwithGovernorDionysioBentes—themanwhograntedtoVillares,Schurz,andGreitetheoptiontothelandinquestion—tobeginnegotiations.Therewasn’tmuchtonegotiate.Bowing,nodding,andsmilingtobridgethelanguagegap,BentestoldthementheycouldhaveanythingFordwanted.Theconcessionrequiredapprovalbythestatelegislature,butthat,heassuredthem,wasaformality.Hethensentthedelegationoff,asIderemembered,to“prepareabilltobepresentedtothelegislature,settingforthinthispetitionexactlywhatwewanted.”10

Oneofthefirstthingstheyneededtodowasdrawupalegaldescriptionofthedesignatedproperty.Forthis,theywenttothemayorofBelém,AntónioCastro,whoIdethoughtlooked“kindoflikeamonkey.”CastrowasalreadypromisedsomemoneybyVillares,buthewashappytoofferhisservicesasacivilengineerforanadditionalfee.

Idehadnotbeentotheproperty—itwasasix-dayboatridefromBelém.ButinhismeetingwithCastroheunfoldedamapoftheTapajósvalleyandwithaheavyblackpenciltracedoutaseventy-five-milelineuptheriver,theninlandseventy-fivemiles,thenanotherlineparalleltothefirst,andthenfinallybacktothestartingpoint.Atotalof5,625squaremiles.

That’san“awfullotofland,”exclaimedthesurprisedmayor.“That’snotyourproblem,”Ideshotback.“Ijustwantyoutogiveusadescription.”11

NextontheagendawastositdownwithSamuelMcDowell,thelocalForddealership’slawyer,tohashoutthetermsofthecontract.Ona“yellowtablet”Ide,Blakeley,andVillareswrote“justwhatwewantedinthebillthatwasgoingtothelegislature.”TheyhadonlyvagueinstructionsfromDearborn,sotheyaskedforeverythingtheycouldthinkof:therighttoexploittheland’slumberandmineralreserves,therighttobuildrailroadsandairfields,toerectanykindofbuildingwithoutgovernmentsupervision,establishbanks,organizeaprivatepoliceforce,runschools,drawpowerfromwaterfalls,and“damuptheriverinanywayweneededto.”Theyexemptedthecompanyfromexporttaxes,notjustonrubberandlatexbutonanyproductsandresourcestheplantationwouldwanttoshipabroad:“skinsandhides,oil,seeds,timbers,andotherproductsandarticlesofanynature.”“Wethoughtofalotofthingstherethatwehadneverheardofbefore,”saidIde,and“aswegotintoit,we’dthinkofthesethingsandputthemin.”12

InreturnforBentes’sgenerosity,Ford’snegotiatorsobligatedthecompanyonlytoplantathousandacresofthegrantwithrubberwithinayear.Theydidthistopreservethe“symmetryandequilibrium”ofthecontractandtoprovideashowofgoodfaiththatFordreallydidintendtocultivaterubberandnotjustminethelandforgoldordrillforoil.Blakeleyassumedthathewouldbenamedmanageroftheestateandthathecouldeasilyclearandplantasmuchasthreethousandacreswithinafewmonths.McDowellthen“dressedthecontractupintheproperlanguage”andhadittranslatedintoPortuguese.WhentheteampasseditalongtoGovernorBentes,theyexpectedhimtobalkatsomeoftherequests.Butthegovernorpresentedthebilltothelegislaturewithnaryacomment,completewitheverythingaskedforbytheFordteam.“Muchmore,”wroteIde,“thanwehopedtoget.”13

Alltold,thestateofParácededFordjustunder2.5millionacres,abitlessthanwhattheDearbornlawyersketchedoutonthemapbut,atclosetothesizeofConnecticut,stillavastdispensation.HalfofthiswasfromtheVillaresclaim,forwhichFordwastopay$125,000,apittanceconsideringthecompany’senormouswealth.Publiclandcoveredtheotherhalf,whichFordreceivedforfree.14

Astheywaitedforthelegislaturetoratifythedeal,Idetookcareofunfinishedbusiness.HeandMcDowellincorporatedtheCompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasilasthelegalownerofwhatquicklycametobecalledFordlândia—thePortuguesewordforFordville.ThenheandBlakeleysailedtoRiotoworkoutthetermsofthetariffsthecompanywouldpaytoimportmaterialandmachinery.Atthetime,Brazil’sconstitutionwasamodelof“extremefederalism”thatinvestedinstategovernorsthepowertograntthekindofgenerousconcessionsBentesgavetoFord.Importduties,however,fellwithinthenationalgovernment’sjurisdiction.ButbeforeIdehadachancetoconcludehisnegotiationswithfederalofficials,hewascalledbacktoBelém.SoheleftBlakeleytowrapthingsup.WhenBlakeleyreturnedtotheAmazon,heclaimedtohaveobtainedfromthefederalgovernmentadealthat“everyonesaidimpossible”—thatis,therighttoimportallmachineryandgoodscompletelyfreeofcustomsduties.Asitturnedout,“everyone”wasright.Hereceivednothingofthekind.15

ButtheproblemscausedbyBlakeley’soverconfidencelayinthefuture.BackinBelém,thingsweremovingalongnicely.Benteswasasgoodashisword,andthestatelegislature,onSeptember30,1927,ratifiedtheconcessionexactlyastheFordmencomposedit.Ittookunderthreemonthstonegotiateandfinalizethedeal,afarcryfromthefruitlessyearswastedontryingtogettheUSCongresstoapproveFord’sMuscleShoalsproject.

Withhisworkfinished,Idemadearrangementstoreturnhome.Hewiredhiswife,who,nothavingfaredwellinBelém’sheat,hadleftfortheUnitedStatesafewweeksearlier:“EverythingjakesailingonHuberttonightloveOz.”

HealsotelegrammedDearborn,urgingthehomeofficetocompensateVillares:“IamthoroughlysoldonVillares,bothastohisprofessionalknowledgeoftropicalhorticultureandabilityandalsoastohisreliabilityandhonesty.”

Forhispart,Villares,eagertopayoffGreite,Schurz,Bentes,andtheother“politicalboys”whomadethedealpossible,followedupwithhisowncable.

“Greatjoyenthusiasmamongpeople,”hewrote.“Sendfunds.”16

CHAPTER8

WHENFORDCOMESO.Z.IDERETURNEDTODEARBORNTODEBRIEFCOMPANYOFFIcials.HetriedtowarnEdselandHenryFordaboutHarryBennett’sprotégé,complainingofReevesBlakeley’sexhibitionismandotherroughbehaviorwhileinBelém.YetHenryFord,withthesameleniencyandperhapsfondnesshehadforBennett—whojustthenwasincreasinghiscrueltyonthefactoryflooraswellassolidifyinghisinfluenceoverhisboss—nonethelessdecidedtotapBlakeleytoheadtheplantation.AlongwithanumberofotherFordemployees,includingJohnR.Rogge,alumberjackfromtheUpperPeninsula,andCurtisPringle,theformersheriffofKalamazoo,BlakeleyreturnedtotheAmazoninearly1928tobeginworkandprepareforthearrivaloftwoFord-ownedcargoshipscontainingheavyequipmentandothermaterialneededtoestablishasmallcity.

InBelém,theadvanceteamwasjoinedbyJorgeVillares,whoforafewmonthsaftertheconcessionwasratifiedenjoyedagoodreputationinDearborn.BlakeleyandVillaresformedanunlikelypartnership.TheFordmanwasarrogantandfilledwithpurposefulenergy,theBrazilianfretfullyeffete.Yettheirsharedsenseofconfidencepaperedoverthesedifferencesinstyle.BlakeleyboughtalaunchandtheexpeditionsetoutuptheAmazon,stoppinginthetownofSantarém,atthemouthoftheTapajós.Afterpurchasingprovisionsandhiringaworkcrewoftwenty-fivelaborers,thegrouppushedofffromthetown’spier,towingathatch-roofedbargethatservedasamakeshiftkitchenforTong,aChinesecook,andhisassistant,Ego,andheadeduptheTapajósRiver,tofoundFordlandia.

BlakeleyandVillareshadalreadyselectedthesiteforthenewsettlement,avillagenamedBoaVista,whichmeanspleasantviewinPortuguese,basedontheirreconnaissanceoftheareaduringBlakeley’sprevioustriptotheAmazon.Itsat650milesfromBelémandabout100fromSantarém,atapointwheretheriverstayeddeeprighttotheshore,whichwouldsaveondredgingexpensesandallowtheunloadingofheavyequipment.Thebankquicklyrosefiftyfeetwithinahundredyardsoftheriver,continuingtoclimbanothertwohundredfeetoverthecourseofthenextmile.

Itwasaprovidentiallocationhighenoughtoaffordprotectionfrommosquitoesandotherinsects,BlakeleyinsistedinhisreporttoDearborn,thoughheconsultednoentomologisttosupporthisclaim.Anditwasrichintreesandresources.Onecouldfindabouttwentyexportabletreesonanygivenacre,hesaid,includingtheredwoodmassaranduba,adarkreddishbrownheartwoodcalledangelim,andSpanishcedar,inadditiontoold-growthwildrubbertrees.Therewas,Blakeleybelieved,astrongpossibilitythattheywouldfindoil,alongwithgold,silver,platinum,ores,andpossiblydiamonds.TheCuparyRiver,atributaryoftheTapajósthatrantwentymilesintotheestate,wouldbe,Blakeleysaid,aperfectspotforahydroelectricdam.Anduntiltheplantedrubbermaturedtoproducesap—whichtakesaboutfiveyears—anumberofcompanyoutpostscouldeasilybeestablishedatkeypointstobuywildrubber.BlakeleytoldFordthattheTapajósvalleyproducedfifteenhundredtonsoflatexayearanditwouldberelativelyeasyto“captureallofthat.”Withfairtreatmentandhigherprices,theriver’stapperswouldhappilyabandontheir“Syrianpatrons”andselltheirrubbertoFord’sagents.1

ButbeforeBlakeley,Villares,andtheircrewcouldstartworkinBoaVista,theyneededtosortoutcompetingclaimstothelandalongtheriverbankwheretheywantedtobasetheiroperation.WhenO.Z.IdewasresearchingtheAmazon’spropertyregistryduringtheconcession’snegotiation,henoticedthatthereexistedafewhundreddeededlotswithintheboundariesofthelandgrantedtoFord.Aboutseventy-

fiveorsofamilieslivedalongthebankoftheTapajósRiver,anotherfiftyuptheCuparyRiver,andmorescatteredthroughouttheestate,mostlyrubbertapperswhoworkedatrailortwo.Somehadtitletotheirland,butmanypaidrenttolocalmerchantswhoheldthedeed,liketheFrancofamily,wholivedjustacrosstheTapajós,ortheCohenfamily,justdownriverinthesmalltownofBoim.Mostweredescendantsofboom-timemigrantswhosettledintheareaduringtheheightoftherubbertrade.Theyweregenerallyknownascaboclos,or“copper-colored,”thetermusedtorefertotheruralpoorofmixedancestry,ablendofPortuguese,NativeAmerican,andAfrican.AlsoscatteredthroughoutFord’stwoandahalfmillionacreswereanumberofsmallcommunitiesofTupi-speakingpeople,whohuntedandgathered,farmedandfished,livingoncassavaandotherjunglefruits.“ImetIndiansthere,”JohnRogge,thelumberjackonBlakeley’sadvanceteam,wrotehometotheUpperPeninsula,“andateeverythingbutmonkeymeat.”2

Idewasn’ttooconcerned.Theywere“justsquatters,”hethought,wholivedinlittleshackson“very,verysmallpatchesoflandalongtheriver.Ifanybodyhadanypropertyrightwhereweweregoingtoclear,”theirlandwouldjustbepurchasedandtheywouldbemovedsomewhereelse.BackinDearborn,ErnestLieboldagreed,thinkingtheywerejust“somenativetribes”thatdidn’t“stayinoneplaceverylong.”Idedecidedthebestthingtodowasto“forgetaboutthosefellows”untiloperationswereunderway,andhewroteintotheBentescontractaclausethatwouldallowFordtobuytitletoanypropertywithintheboundariesoftheconcession.3

Itwashard,though,to“forgetabout”theFrancofamily,sincetheyownedtheentirevillageofBoaVista.TheyweredescendantsofAlbertoJosédaSilvaFranco,aPortuguesemigrantwhoacenturyearlierhadbeenoneoftheregion’smostprosperousrubbertraders.HowFrancocametotheTapajósisboundupinoneofthemostbrutalchaptersinAmazonianhistory.

ALBERTOFRANCOARRIVEDintheAmazonfromLisbonintheearlynineteenthcentury,wealthybutnotenoughtoenterintoBelém’selitelusitana—theprosperousPortugueseclassthatcontrolledthecityduringthecolonialperiod.SohesettledinprovincialSantarém,establishinghimselfasaslave-owningmerchant.Buthewassoononthemoveagain,inflightfromtheCabanagemRevolt,ortheWaroftheCabanas,Brazil’sbloodiestuprising.4

Therebellionbrokeoutin1835,whenthousandsofmestizos,mulattos,Africans,andIndiansmarchedonBelém,whichbeforeitwouldbecelebratedforitstropicalBeauxArtsbuildingsandboulevardswasassociatedwithanotherFrenchtradition:revolution.Theranksoftheinsurgentscamefromthecity’smajoritydestituteresidents,wholivedintheadobeandwood-plankedhovels,cabanas,whichgavetherebellionitsname.Thered-shirtedrebelsdeclaredthecityindependentandranitforayear,emptyingprisons,outlawingforcedlaborofallkind,distributingthewealthofmerchants,settingupacommunalfooddistributionsystem,andterrorizinglandlordsandmerchants,especiallyiftheywerePortuguese.BeneficiariesofwhataPrussianprincethentouringtheregioncalled“thefruitsofceaselessoppression,”thePortuguesewereknownbyasetofregionallyspecificderogatorynames,includingcaiado(“chalkskin”)andcaramuru(“fishface”).Thewhite-facedcebusmonkeywaspopularlyknownasthemacacoportuguês.TheBritishnavyhelpedBrazil’snewlyindependentfederalgovernmentblockadethecity,yetitstilltooktroopsmorethanayeartoretakeBelém.Theinsurgentswerefinallyforcedtogiveupthecity,buttherebellionspreadthroughoutthevastinterior,asfarwestasManausanddeepintotheAmazon’smanytributaries,includingtheTapajós.5

MartiallawwasdeclaredthroughoutthelowerAmazon,andsoldiershunteddowntherevolutionaries,

nowjoinedbyruralAfricanandindigenousslaves,withavengeancethatmadetheviolenceagainstthePortuguesepaleincomparison.Troopsengagedinmassdrowningsandmassshootings,festooningthemselveswithrosariesmadeofthestrung-togetherearsoftheexecuted.InsurgentsoccupiedSantarémin1836forafewmonthsbuteventuallyretreateduptheTapajós,whichbecamethesceneoftherebellion’sdrawn-outfinalstage.Forfiveyears,therebelsengagedinarearguardhit-and-runguerrillawarwithfederaltroopsbeforefinallysurrendering,atatradingpostjustupriverfromwhereFordwouldfoundhissettlement.Asmanyas30,000outofaregionalpopulationof120,000werekilled,mostofthematthehandsofgovernmentsoldiers.

TheCabanagemuprisinganditsrepressionhadalastingeffectonthevalley.AshistorianBarbaraWeinsteinwrites,theviolenceweakenedthecontrolofwhitePortugueseelitesovertheruralpopulation.Runawayslavesdesertedplantationsenmasse,foundingfugitivecommunitiesthroughouttheforest.Butthebreakdownofsocialrelationsalsoallowedprovincialmerchantsandtraderstofillthevacuum,especiallyoncefederaltroopsgottheupperhandagainsttherebels.ThesenewregionalelitesleveragedtheassaultonPortuguesepowertosetuptradingoutpostsandclaimlargeparcelsofjungleland,layingthefoundationfortheimpendingrubberboom.Onceestablished,theybegantoresorttoavarietyofmechanismstoerodetheautonomyofpeasantcommunities.Pará’sgovernmentpassedvagrancylawsaimeddirectlyatdrivingsmallholderswhodidn’thavedeedstotheirpropertyintodebttomerchants.Indigenouscommunitieswereparticularlyhard-hit,andmanysoonfoundthemselvesontheedgeofculturalandoftenphysicalextinction,havingsufferedslaveraids,tribaldispersal,andforcedrelocation.Menwereconscriptedastappersandboatmen,whilewomenwereforcedintodomesticserviceorintoconcubinage.Survivorssoughtrefugedeepinthejungle,leavingtheTapajós’smaintrunkandtributariestothepoormigrantfamiliesthatcamefromBrazil’simpoverishednortheast—theforebearsoftheunfortunatessographicallydescribedbyLaRue.6

Memoriesoftherebellionlingeredfordecades.In1866,theconservationistandpoetGeorgeWashingtonSears,morefamousforhisdescriptionsofcanoetripsthroughtheAdirondacks,traveleduptheAmazonandspokewithrebelsurvivors.HavinggrownupamongNativeAmericansinupstateNewYorkandhimselfhavingjustfoughtfortheUnionintheCivilWar,Searswasmovedbytheirstoriestowriteanodetotheinsurrection.Thehistoricalprecisionof“TupiLament”ishaunting,capturingtheruefulprideinhavingstagedtherevoltbutalsotheshameofdefeatandsexualsubjectionthatunderwrotewhatAmazonianscholarSusannaHechthascalled“terrorslavery”:

Wesingthenobledeadto-night

Whosleepinjunglecoveredgraves.

Wesingthebravewhofellinfight

BesidetheAmazona’swaves,

Thewhitemancountsuswithhisbeasts,

Andmakesourgirlstheslavesofpriests.

Woe,woefortheCabano!

.......

WeswepttheirforcesatPara,

ButEnglishshipswereonthewaves.

Andstillourgirlsareserfsandslaves.

Woe,woe,fortheCabano!

WedrovethemfromtheTocantins,

WesweptthemfromtheTapajoz.

Afeebleracewithfeeblemeans,

Ourcourageconqueredallourfoes.

........

Wewereafierceavengingflood

ThatnoBrazilianforcecouldstem.

Wereddenedalltheirtownswithblood,

FromOnca’sisletoSantarem,

Butah,ourbestareintheirgraves

Andweagainareserfsandslaves!

Woe,woe,fortheCabano!7

FAMILYLORESAYSthatAlbertoJosédaSilvaFranco,alongwithhiswife,hischildren,andahandfulofloyalslaves,barelyescapedSantarém,fleeinguptheTapajós.Afternearlyaweekpaddlingontheriver,astheytookshelterfromastorminamarshyinletofalargeislandnamedUrucurituba,abassjumpedoutoftheriverandintotheboat,whichAlbertoJosétookasadivinesignthattheislandwaswherehisfamilyshouldstaketheirnewlife.Therevoltwasstillroilingthevalley.JustayearafterhislandingonUrucurituba,insurgentsslaughteredfortyresidentsofthevillageofAveiros,anhourdownriver,ontheoppositebank.SotheFrancoskeptalowprofile,buildingasmallhousewithanadjacentchapeltoSaintPeter,whomAlbertoJosédesignatedastheisland’spatron.Oncetheinsurrectionwasputdown,AlbertoJosébegantospreadout,soonbecomingoneoftheTapajós’smostimportantlandlordsandmerchants,wellplacedtoprofitfromthepacificationofthevalleyandincreasingrubbertrade.Heregisteredtheisland,aswellaslandonbothbanksoftheriver,inhisnameandplantedsugartodistillandsellcachaça.Therumwasvaluablenotjustasatradableproductbutforitseffectivenessinweakeningthewillofthosewhotriedtoholdoutagainstfallingintodebt.HealsobuiltastatelierCasaGrande,ahacienda.Thenewhousehadsixairyrooms,oneconsecratedasachapeltoSaintPeter,rightnexttotheofficewhererubberwasweighedanddebtrecorded,andatwelve-postedterracotta-tiledverandathatranalongtheentirelengthofitsfront.Wherehisfirstmodesthomewassetinaninconspicuouscove,thisonewasbuiltonaprominentknoll,framedbyarowofgrandHavanapalms.Whenhedied,heleftUrucurituba,alongwithhisotherholdings,includingBoaVista,oppositetheislandontheTapajós’srightbank,tohismanysons.8

AlbertoJosé’sgreat-grandson,EimarFranco,isstillalive,andheremembersthecomingofFordtotheTapajósas“provokingatruerevolutionupanddownthevalley.”Hewassevenyearsoldin1928andhadonlytwicetraveledbeyondSantarém,when“allofasuddenmodernboatswereplyingtheriverinalldirectionsandimmensetractorswereroaringdayandnight,diggingupthedirt,pullingdowntrees,openingroads,”hesays.On“oursideoftheriverwewerestilllivinglikeourancestorsdid,withafew

alterations.”Eimar’smemoriesaccordwiththoseofDavidRiker,whowasjustaboywhenhisBaptistfather,alongwithotherConfederate“cavaliers”and“roughs”whopreferredexileratherthansubmissiontothetermsofAppomattox,settlednearSantarémaftertheCivilWar.RikerdescribedthecomingofFordasshakingtheTapajós“toitsfoundations.”Itwaslikea“bloodtransfusion,”hesaid,joltingaliveamoribundeconomywithaninjectionofmoney,electricity,andinternalcombustionenginesinaregionthatstillreliedmostlyonbarter,debt,andwood-burningsteamboatstocirculategoodsandpeople.Nearlyovernighttherewasacash“marketforanythingnegotiable.”9

Onethingthathadnotbeennegotiableforalongtimewasland,asitsvaluehadplummetedtoalmostnothinginthetrailoftherubberbust.ButasBlakeleyandVillarespitchedcampandbeganpreliminaryclearing,HenryFordsentatrustedaccountant(hedidn’ttrusttoomanyaccountants),JamesKennedy,uptheTapajóswithasatchelofcashtobuywhateverlandBlakeleyindicatedwasnecessarytoadvanceoperations.AndsincetheFrancoshadfallenonhardtimeswiththecollapseofrubber,theywelcomednotjustthecashFord’saccountantwasofferingbutthepossibilityofmakingmoneybyprovisioningtheworkcamp.

AsinMuscleShoalsandtheFloridaEverglades,whereverFordorhiscompanywent,orwasbelievedtobegoing,landpricesskyrocketedandspeculatorsboughtuppropertytoresellatjacked-upprices.WhenwordgotoutinIronMountain,Michigan,thatFordwasopeningasawmill,rentsjumpedfromfifteendollarsamonthtofifty-fiveandthepricesofhousesincreasedthreefold.BoaVista’svaluejustafewmonthsearlierwasnegligible,butnow,in1928,theFordMotorCompanywasbuyingitincashforfourthousanddollars.10

ThesaletookplaceonUrucurituba,inthefirstmodesthousebuiltbyAlbertoJoséninetyyearsearlier.JamesKennedy,alongwithhissatchel,arrivedontheisland,accompaniedbyanotarytoofficiatethesaleandDavidRikertointerprettheproceedings.HelpingforeignersgetbyontheTapajóshadbecomesomethingofatraditionfortheConfederatesandtheirdescendants;ahalfcenturyearlier,David’sfatherhadlentahandtodown-on-his-luckHenryWickham,justbeforeWickhamlightedoutforLondonwiththeseedsthatwoulddoomtheBrazilianrubbertrade.AlargecrowdofUrucurituba’sresidents—theequivalentofsharecroppers,whopaidtheFrancosrentinrubberandotherjungleproducts—gatheredaroundthehouse,whichstoodnexttothealreadycrumblingchapelofSaintPeter.“Analmostreligioussilence”fellovertheassemblyasthenotarybegantorecitethetermsofthetransactionfroman“enormousbook.”Whenthereadingwasfinished,KennedyopenedhisbagandhandedthemoneytoEimar’sfather,Francisco.Franciscowasstandingproxyforhisyoungnephew,Luiz,whohadjustinheritedBoaVistafromhisfather.Theboylookedonwide-eyedashisunclecountedoutthebills,onebyone,onthediningroomtable.WhenFranciscofinishedthetally,hehandedthemoneytoatremblingLuiz,whotookthepaymentunderhisarmandleftforhishouse,withalargeprocessionintow.“Nothinglikethat,”Eimarsaid,“hadeverhappenedontheTapajós!”11

NEWSTHATFORDhadcompletedthedealpromptedwildspeculationastohisabilitytorevivetheAmazon’seconomy.Modernizers,boththosefromSãoPaulolikeConsuldeLimabutalsomanyfromtheAmazon,hopedthatFord’splanforcapital-intensive,high-wageindustrialdevelopmentwouldovercomethejungle’spovertyandbackwardness,whichmanyunderstoodtoberootedinitsextractivedebteconomy.NationalandlocalnewspapersreportedthatFordwouldbuildarailroadlinkingtheinteriortotheAtlantic,roadsthatwouldflankthejungle’smanyrivers,andelectrictrolleylinesrunningupanddownbothbanksoftheTapajós,allallowingeasyaccesstotheAtlanticmarketforthestate’sagricultural

products.*RumorscirculatedinthepressabouthowbigFord’scitywouldbe(thebiggestintheAmazon,mostagreed),theamountofmoneyheintendedtospend($40million,reportedonepaper),andhowmanyworkershewouldhire(atleastfiftythousand,wroteanother).TheAmazonwouldfinallybecome,asHumboldtpredicted,the“world’sgranary.”OnnewsofFord’simminentarrival,Belém’smunicipalgovernmentpavedroads,filledpotholes,andlaidnewsidewalks;thecitybegantorouseitself,“justlikeanoldbroken-downfirehorsewhenhesniffssmoke.Themomentsomebodysays‘rubber’outloudthereisasuddenstirinalltheoldrivertowns.”12

Inthepressfrenzysurroundingtheconcession,Fordwasasymbolofhopebutalsoaflashpointofconflict,asmanybegantoquestionhismotives.MembersofBrazil’sintellectualandpoliticalclasswereoftenstronglynationalistic.TheyadmiredUSindustryandneededUScapital,buttheydistrustedWashington’sintentions.Notanunreasonablefear,consideringthatevenasFordwasorganizinghisrubberproject,USmarineswereoccupyingNicaragua,Haiti,andtheDominicanRepublic.AndthedeathofHenryWickham—nowgenerallyknownaroundBelémas“HenrytheFirst”—inSeptember1928,widelyreportedintheBrazilianpressjustasFord’smenweregettingunderway,remindedmanyofanearliertreachery.13

ThetensionbetweenthepromiseofdevelopmentandthefearoflossofsovereigntywasespeciallyacuteintheAmazon,overwhichRiohadbutaprecarioushold—aswitnessedbytheprolongedCabanagemRevolt.Thevastrainforestseemedtoattractinternationalintrigue,bothrumoredandreal.In1850,MatthewFontaineMaury,theheadoftheUSNavalObservatory,floatedperhapsthefirstofwhatwouldbealonghistoryofschemestotransfertheAmazontosomejurisdictionotherthanBrazil’s.*InthehopethattheUnitedStatescouldbothavoidacivilwarandkeepitsexpandingcottonindustry,MauryproposedthatWashingtontransfertheentiresouthernplantationeconomy—slaves,slavers,andlivestock—tothelowerAmazonvalley.ThequestionMauryaskedwaswhethertheAmazonwould“bepeopledwithanimbecileandanindolentpeopleorbyagoaheadracethathastheenergyandenterpriseequaltosubduetheforestandtodevelopandbringforththevastresourcesthatliehiddenthere.”†“HowmenfromtheMississippiwouldmakethingshumalongtheAmazon,”waxedanotherAmericanobserverin1910.14

AndsoafteraninitialflushofenthusiasmthepressinRioandParácriticizedtheconcession’svaguenessandunduegenerosity.Itwasa“monstrouscontract,”wrotetheinitiallysympatheticFolhadoNorte,a“mostshamefuldocument.”15ThatFordwasrequiredtoplantrubberononlyonethousandofthetwoandahalfmillionacresgrantedledsometosuggestthatwhatthe“multimillionaireYankee”wasreallyinterestedinwasnotlatexbutoil,gold,andpoliticalleverage.Muchofthisearlycriticismwasreallyanattackonthemanwhooriginallybrokeredtheconcession,GovernorDionysioBentes,apowerfullocalpartybosswithmanyfriends,quiteafewenemies,andhigherpoliticalaspirations.Criticsblastedthesecrecyinwhichtheconcessionhadbeennegotiatedanditslavishtaxandtariffexemptions.Theynotedthattheestate’sautonomousbank,schools,andpoliceforceviolatedBrazil’ssovereignty.Itwas,theypointedout,asifFordhadtherighttorunFordlandiaasaseparatestate.16

InprovincialSantarém,newspapersreportedonthedebateswithwrydetachmentthatseemedtohaveeludedtheirmoreearnestcounterpartsinBelémorRio.“WhenFordComes”isthe“catchphraseoftheday,”onewroteoftheexcitementthatwasbuildingoverthearrivalofthecarmaker,witheverybodydreamingofthemoneytobemadeandthemarriagestobehad.ThesamekindofChrist-likehopeplaced

byruralpeopleinthecomingofaredeemerthatsotroubledSenatorNorrisinTennesseewasnotlostontheSantarémpress,whichoccasionallyreferredtothesaviorasSãoFord—SaintFord.“WeusethewordFord,”wroteonecolumnist,“asifitwereanamulet,aprotectivetalisman,ifnottogetrichthanatleasttogetoutofthetightsituationwefindourselvesin.”HewentontosuggestthatperhapssausagesandtoiletpapershouldbearthenameofFord,aswellasanewcocktail,madeupofaçaí—alocalberrybelievedtobeanaphrodisiac—andAmerican“uísque,”thatis,“whiskey.”

ButthescornandsarcasmwerelargelylostonthemanywhocontinuedtobelievethatFord’sarrivalmeantthesalvationoftheAmazon.17AFordcarwasaculturalsymboltheworldover,weightedwithmeaningandfamiliartoeventhosewhoexistedonthemarginsofsurvival,eveniftheylivedinaplaceemptyofroads,dirtorotherwise,liketheTapajósRivervalley.“NowIamfinallygoingtolearnhowtodrive,”wasonetapper’sresponsetothenewsthatFordwasstartingarubberplantationthere.AndthroughoutthelowerAmazon,thoselookingforworksimplysaidtheywereontheirwayto“Ford”—or,rather,“For,”asitwaspronouncedintheregionalPortuguese.Theymightusethemasculine“oFor,”torefertotheman,orthefeminine“aFor,”toindicatethecompanyorplantation,buteitherwaythemeaningwasclear:“EuvoupráFor”—“I’mgoingtoFord.”18

AndtheyhopedFordwouldcometothemaswell,toseeBrazilandthewondrousAmazonfirsthand.ConsuldeLimakeptpromisinghewoulddeliverFord.Hesaidthecarmakerwastohavevisitedasearlyas1922butafailedmilitaryuprisinginterruptedhistrip.“Withtheapproachofthewinter,”deLimawroteDearborninNovember1925,“IwonderifyoucouldinformmeataboutwhattimeyouwouldbereadytoleaveforBrazil?”ErnestLiebold’sresponsewasnotencouraging:“IcouldnotsaydefinitelyatthistimewhetherMr.FordwillbeabletoundertakethistriptoBrazil.”Anothersecretaryfollowedupyetanotherinquiry:“Mr.Fordhasnotyetmadeanydefiniteplansconcerningthetripyoumention,consequentlyweareunabletogiveyouthedesiredinformation.”Nottoworry,theconsulassuredhisfellowcountrymeninlate1927,fornowthatthenegotiationssurroundingtherubberconcessionhadbeenconcludedtoeveryone’ssatisfaction,“itisinthecardsthatverysoonwemayhaveavisitfromMr.Ford,”mostlikelyinhis“famousyachtthatgoes20knotsanhour.”“Perhaps,”deLimahoped,“hewillcomewithhisoldfriendMr.Edison.”19

Fordsaidhewouldcome.“Icertainlyintendtovisit,”hepromisedin1928,“thoughIcannotnowsayhowsoon.”

____________

*BrazilianswerenottheonlyonestoseeopportunityinFord’sproject.DearbornreceivedlettersfromaroundtheworldofferingtosellFordcheaplandorsharevisionaryideas.LeslieEvans,ofBattleCreek,Michigan,forexample,wrotetothecarmakerofhisplantocreateasystemofrailandrivertransportationthroughoutBrazilcompletelypoweredbybiofuelmadefromthebabassupalmnut,which“growsabundantlyinawildstate”intheAmazon.Theideawas“worthmillions,”accordingtoEvans,whosaidthathehimselfwouldbuildthebabassu-poweredtrainsandshipsandallFordwouldhavetodotoearnapartoftheproceedswastoputhimintouchwiththeproperBrazilianofficialsandguaranteethatthelineswouldnotoperateataloss(BFRC,accession74,box13,“GeneralCorrespondence”).

*BraziliansunderstandablychafedwhenAlGorerecentlysaidthat“contrarytowhatBraziliansthink,theAmazonisnottheirproperty,itbelongstoallofus.”DuringWorldWarII,NelsonRockefellerrecommendedbuildingaseriesoflargecanalsconnectingVenezuela’sOrinocodeltatotheAmazonand

beyondtoArgentina’sRiodeLaPlata,asawayofmakingsurethatLatinAmericanrawmaterialscouldgettoUSfactoriesdirectly,withouthavingtotraveltheGermansubmarine–infestedAtlantic.Andin1965,thefuturistHerbertKahn,founderoftheconservativeHudsonInstitutethinktank,recommendedthattheUnitedStates,aspartofitsanticommunisteconomicmodernizationpolicyforLatinAmerica,damtheAmazontocreatefive“GreatLakes,”tospurindustrialdevelopmentandgenerateelectricity,notjustforBrazilbutforallofSouthAmerica(HermanKahn,“NewFocusontheAmazon,”NewYork:HudsonInstitute,1965;MichaelGoulding,NigelJ.H.Smith,andDennisJ.Mahar,FloodsofFortune:EcologyandEconomyalongtheAmazon,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1999,p.47;GerardColbyandCharlotteDennett,ThyWillBeDone:TheConquestoftheAmazon;NelsonRockefellerandEvangelismintheAgeofOil,NewYork:HarperCollins,1996).

†Maury’sproposalreflectedtheUSSouth’shopethatexpansionintotheCaribbeanorLatinAmerica,byseizingCubaorpartsofCentralAmerica,couldsaveslavery.ItspoliticiansandmerchantspushedBraziltoallowforfreenavigationuptheAmazon,arguingthattheSouthAmericanriverwasreallyanextensionoftheMississippi.In1849,theRichmond,Virginia–basedSouthernLiteraryMessengerwrotethatsinceAtlanticcurrentssweepitswatersnorthintotheGulfofMexico,theAmazon“mayveryproperlyberegardedasoneofthetributaries”to“thisournoblesea,”theCaribbean.JustastheMississippiValleyworkedasthe“escapevalve”forslaversmigratingfromabolitioniststates,believedtheVirginianMaury,“sowilltheAmazonValleybethattotheMiss.”

PARTII

LORDFORD

CHAPTER9

TWORIVERSSHORTLYAFTERTHENEWYEAR’SDAYTHATFOLLOWEDTHEratificationofthelandgrant,HenryFordwiredGovernorBentestowishhimwellfor1928andtothankhimforthe“fineassistance”hehadextendedtoIdeandBlakeley.“Weareatpresentworkingoutplans,”hewrote,“andarefittingupashipofourownforthevoyage”totheplantationto“inauguratethenucleusofaprojectwhichwetrustwillcontributetotheprosperityofNorthBrazil.”1

TheshipinquestionwastheLakeOrmoc,oneof199decommissionedmerchantmarinevesselspurchasedin1925.Throughoutthe1920s,RiverRougemanagerspioneeredtechniquesofindustrialrecycling,scouringthroughthedetritusofgovernmentandcommerceforreusableresources.Fordwasobsessedwithfindingasmanywaysaspossibletousenature’sbounty.JustafewmonthsafterwiringBentes,forinstance,FordwasinEnglandtopromotehisnewModelA.ToldthatagarbagedumpinDagenham,Essex,hadbeenburningforoverathousandyears,heproposedbuildingapowerhouseonthesitetotransformitsheatintosteamtorunhisnearbyfactory.“Thisdumpgoesbacktoprehistorictimes,”hesaid.“Thosefireshavebeenburningaway,wastedabsolutely,allthesecenturies.Iwouldliketoseethemworkingforman.”2

InthecaseoftheOrmoc,theshipwaspartofafleetof“lakers”decommissionedbyWashingtonafterWorldWarIandsittingrustingforyearsinseaportsalongtheEastCoast,untilFordacquiredthematacutrate.UnderthedirectionofCharlesSorensen,Ford’slegendaryengineerwhoranproductionattheRouge,theshipsweretowedtoDearborn,strippedofbrass,copper,piping,wires,andwood,thensentthroughamassivehalf-mile-longaquaticdisassemblyline.Thelinewascomposedoftenpositionsfittedwithwreckingcranes,industrialtorches,andgiantshears,eachchargedwithshreddingadifferentshipsection:masts,deckcabins,boilers,engines,hulls,andkeels.Boilersandengineswererefurbishedandusedelsewhere,andcabinsbecametoolshedsandstockrooms.RailcarsrolledtheshearedsteeltotheRouge’spig-castbuilding,whereitwasmeltedinenormousblastfurnacesandshippedtothefoundry.Ittooklessthanaweektorenderwhatittookmonthstobuild,leavingonlyashadowof“oilandrustonthewater.”“Whatwecallwasteisonlysurplus,”Fordonceremarked,“andsurplusisonlythestartingpointofnewuses.”3

Twoshipswerespared.RougeworkersgavetheLakeOrmocanewdieselmotor,amachineshop,andwaterdistillationplant,bothfordrinkingandboileruse.Theyrefittedtheship’smechanics,reducingthenumberofmenneededtosailitfromtwenty-fourtosix.Thecaptain’sdeskanddiningtable,hisshower,andbedspringsforthecrew’smattresseswereallmadeofmaterialrecycledfromothersalvagedships.Astheproposed“baseship”untilFordlandiawasupandrunning,theOrmocwasequippedwithahospitalandanoperatingroom,chemistrylab,refrigerators,laundry,a“wellstockedlibrary,”lounge,andscreened,relativelyspaciouscabins.TheLakeFargewasconvertedintoatowbarge,tobeusedtohaulmostofthemakingsofFordlandiatotheTapajós.4

InearlyJuly,boxcarsbegantopullalongsidetheRouge’sslipandcranesandwinchesstartedtofilltheholdsoftheOrmocandFargewiththemachineryandmaterialneededtostartandmaintaintheplantation:asteamshovel,electricgenerators,road-buildingmachinery,tractors(somewiththreadedwheels),picks,shovels,astonecrusher,ahugeice-makingmachine,hospitalequipment,concretemixers,

asawmill,piledriversandstumppullers,adieseltug,smallerriverlaunches,prefabricatedbuildings,anentiredisassembledwarehouserecycledfromFord’sHighlandParkfactory,pilesofstructuralsteelprecutandfittedforthequickconstructionofbuildings,asbestostobeusedasaroofingmaterialtodeflectthesun’srays,plumbingfixtures,officesupplies,clothes,medicine,andfood,includinga“hugesupplyoffrozenbeef”andvegetablesto“obviateanynecessityofrecoursetonativetropicaldiet.”Therewasevenarailroad—alocomotive,rails,andties—salvagedfromFord’sUpperPeninsulasawmilloperations,whichbythenusedmostlyFordtruckstotransporttimber.Itwasamilliondollarsworthofgoodsalltold.5

Unfortunately,theRouge’ssynchronizedindustrialefficiencydidn’talwaysspillovertothecompany’sadministration.NoonetoldSorensenthatanunderwaterrockledgecutacrosstheTapajósfiftymilesdownriverfromwheretheyplannedtoestablishtheplantation,makingitimpossibleforshipsthesizeoftheOrmoctoreachthesiteduringthedryseason,whenthewaterwaslow.

“Whereareyougoingtosendthisboat?”ErnestLieboldaskedSorensen,whohadcalledFord’ssecretaryovertotheRougetohavehimtakealookatthenewlyequippedOrmoc.

“Downtotheplantation,”Sorensenreplied.

“Youcan’tgetupthere.”

“Whynot?”

“You’vegotarockledgethatgoesacrossthere,andyou’veonlygotninefeetfornavigation.”

“Howdidyoufindthat?”

“Well,thatinformationwasavailable.IfyouhadtoldmeyouweregoingtosendtheOrmocdownthere,Imighthavetoldyou.”6

Sorensendidn’tbelieveLiebold,soheaskedEinarOxholm,aNorwegianseacaptainsentbyFordtodoadvanceworktocheckitout.Oxholmreportedbackthattherewasindeeda“shoalintheriver”thatmadeit“impossibleforanythingoverninefeetindrafttomoveupatlowwaterperiod.”

ANYWHEREBETWEENSIXTYandahundredinchesofwaterfallintheAmazoneveryyear,mostlyduringthehigh-waterseason,whichrunsfromDecembertoJunebutoftenlingersonthroughJulyandAugust.TokeepwiththestandardmostoftenusedbytheFordmen,that’sfourtimesmoreprecipitationthanwhattheUSMidwestgetsinanyyear.RaincombineswithmeltingAndeansnowtoswelltheAmazonanditstributariesduringthesemonths,andriversriseasmuchasthirty-sixfeet,overflowingintothejungle’sfloodplains,orvárzea,leavingbehindacoatingofrichmountainsoilthatduringthesubsequentlow-waterseasonwillnourishcultivatedmanioc,corn,beans,andotherjunglecrops.Duringthefloodmonths,thejungletakesonanetherworld,shape-shiftingquality,asplateausandhillsbecomeislandsandtreesseemtofloaterect,eachanecosystemtoitself,alivewithlichens,moss,algae,insects,snakes,bats,andmammals.FromDecembertoJune,muchoftheAmazonbasinformsavastbutseasonalfreshwaterlake,whatthePortuguesecalledaseariver,thatconstantlyreworksthecontouroftheland.Duringthesemonths,theOrmocandFargecouldeasilymakeituptheTapajóstotheplantationsite.

ButtheshipswerereadytogoattheendofJune,andbackinBrazilBlakeleyandVillares’sadvanceteamhadalreadystartedtocleartheplantationsiteandtheyneededtheheavyequipment.SoForddecidedtodispatchtheOrmocandFargedespiteOxholm’sadvicetowaituntiltherainyseason.TheywouldatleastmakeitasfarasSantarém,aboutahundredmilesdownriverfromBoaVista,thesleepy

rivervillageofafewdozenfamiliespickedtobethe“capitalofFordlandia.”Intheseearlydays,“Fordlandia”referrednottotheplantationsettlementbutrathertotheentiretyofFord’s2.5millionacres.7

WithCaptainK.E.Prinzatthehelm,theLakeOrmoclefttheRougedockonJuly26,threedaysbeforeFord’ssixty-fifthbirthday.Itsdeparturewasaneventmomentousenoughtoearnfront-pageapplauseinmosteverymajorUSdaily.AllofBrazil,announcedtheDetroitNews,waseagerlyawaitingthetwoshipsloadedwith“science,brains,andmoney.”“BrazilianAreaBiggerThanNewJerseyExpectedtoYieldGumtoMakeTiresfor2,000,000CarsYearly,”rantheWashingtonPost’sheadline.TheChristianScienceMonitorsaidthatFordplannedtoplantfivemillionacreswithrubber,whiletheNewYorkTimespredictedthattheestatewouldeventuallyproduce“fivetimesthetotalworldproductionestimatedbyexpertsforthisyear,”or“6,000,000,000poundsofrubberayear,enoughtomakenearly1,000,000,000Fordtires.”8*

Despitethisfanfare,Ford,usuallyloathtomissapublicityopportunity,skippedthesend-off.Aweekearlier,heandEdselhadtakentheOrmocoutonatrialrundowntheRougeRiverintoLakeErie.Butnow,aheatwavehadsettledoverlowerMichigan,killingscoresofpeople.DefyingtheAmazon’sdryseasonfromaworldawaywasonething.SufferingDetroit’shumidityinthefleshwasanother,soFordescapedthecitybytakingoffononeofhisroadtrips.

Bythispointinhislife,Fordhadbecomeanardentantiquescollector,anotheroneofhiseccentricitiesthatthepressenjoyedreportingon.TheDetroitNewsranasteadystreamofstoriesdetailinghispurchasesofoldfurnaces,musicalinstruments(particularlyviolins),clocks,books,tools,kitchenutensils,Londonchurches—anythingthatcouldbeshippedbacktoanoverflowingwarehouseinFord’stractorfactory.Justthatyear,FordhadThomasEdison’sFortMyers,Florida,workshop—ahousebuiltbytheinventor’sfatherin1884—disassembledandrebuiltinGreenfieldVillage,amodeltownFordhadstartedbuildinginDearborncomposedofimportantlandmarksinAmericanhistory.

Now,inhisflightfromtheheat,FordfirstheadedtoatraindepotinFraser,Michigan,wherehehopedtoacquirethekeyonwhichayoungEdisonhadlearnedhowtotransmittelegraphmessages.

“Whatdoyouwantforit?”heaskedthestationmaster.

“Well,I’dliketogetdeliveryonmynewFord.Itwasorderedalongtimeago.”

“Wecanfixthatup.”

Fordgothis“relic”andthenextdaythestationmasterreceivedhisnewlypaintedModelA.FordthencontinuedontoNewJerseytocelebratehisbirthdaywiththeagingEdisoninperson.9

ReturningtoDearbornafewdayslater,Fordheldapressconferencewherehetoldreportersthathehimselfhaddrivenagoodpartoftheseven-hundred-miletripinthenewModelA.Ford’sbirthdaycorrespondedtothesilveranniversaryofhiscompany,whichnowemployedwellover200,000meninoperationsonsixcontinents.IthadgonefromproducinglessthantwothousandcarsayearinitsoldMackAvenueworkshoptooverninethousandinasingleday.“Thecompany’s25thbirthday,”wrotetheWallStreetJournal,“findsHenryFordinthemidstofthemostintensiveperiodofactivitysincehefirstbegantodreamofhorselesscarriages.”“Isn’tthereanagelimitsomewhere?”hewasaskedbyareporteronhisreturnfromNewJersey,aboutnotjusthisendurancebehindthewheelbuthissteerageofhiscompany.“Ihaven’tfoundityet,”Fordanswered.Hesaidheexpectedto“domoreinthenextfiveyears

thanIhaveinthelast20.”“Youhavegottokeepgoinganddoing,”Fordwroteinhisnotebook.10

THEORMOCCUTacrossLakeErietotheWellandCanalandLakeOntario,thenouttheSt.LawrencetotheAtlantic,dockingatKearny,NewJersey,inNewYorkHarbor.ThereitjoinedtheslowermovingLakeFarge,whichhadleftDearborntwoweeksearlierpulledbythetugBellcamp.Theshipspickedupadditionalsupplies,alongwithfourteenpassengers—theplantation’sstaffandtheirwives—whohadarrivedfromDetroitbytrain:adoctorfromtheHenryFordHospital,anelectricalengineer,achemist,anaccountant,and“severalcompetentmanagers.”TheOrmochadplentyofscience,brains,andmoneyonboard.Whatitdidn’thavewasahorticulturalist,agronomist,botanist,microbiologist,entomologist,oranyotherpersonwhomightknowsomethingaboutjunglerubberanditsenemies.11

Theshipsaveragedaboutahundredmilesaday,stoppinginBelémforafewdaysandthenarrivinginSantaréminmid-September,intimeforajungleheatwavethatforthenextthreemonthsraisedtemperaturestendegreeshigherthannormal.Itwasanexceptionallydryseason,andtheTapajós’sbanksweredrawnlow,exposingatwo-meterstripofsand,rock,andcrackedclay.Aspredicted,itwouldbeatleasttwomonths,probablylonger,beforetheshipswouldbeabletomakethefinalhundredmilestoBoaVista.12

FordexecutivesonthedeckoftheLakeOrmoc.Lefttoright:WilliamCowling;EdselFord;EinarOxholm;HenryFord;PeteMartin,inchargeofproductionatHighlandPark;CharlesSorensen;andAlbertWibel,headofcompanypurchasing.

Formonthslocalnewspapershadtalkedaboutwhatwouldhappen“whenFordcomes.”Now,ayearaftertheconcession’sratification,themomenthadfinallyarrived.Santarémwasfoundedasafortintheearlyseventeenthcentury,whenPortugueseslaverspusheduptheAmazonRiver,obliteratingthepeacefulTapajóIndians.Hometoafewthousandpeopleinthelate1920s,thecityislocatedwheretheimpressiveTapajósRivercomestoanend,givingwaytotheevenmoreimposingAmazon.ThejunctureofthetworiverssitswheretherockybluffsofBrazil’ssouthernalluvialshieldbuttupagainstthelowerandflatteralluvialplain,creatingasheerdropjustoffSantarém’sshorethatallowslargevesselsliketheOrmocandFargetopullupclose.Butdespiteanaturaladvantagethatmadetheinlandtownadeepwaterport,residentswereusedtobigshipsignoringthem,stoppingonlyforamoment,ornotatall,ontheirwaytoManausorIquitos.Decadeslater,ElizabethBishop,poetlaureateoftheUnitedStates,visitedSantarémandwroteaneponymouslytitledpoemthatcapturedthetown’slanguid,time-stoppingqualities:

ThatgoldeneveningIreallywantedtogonofarther;

morethananythingelseIwantedtostayawhile

inthatconfluxoftwogreatrivers,Tapajós,Amazon,

grandly,silentlyflowing,flowingeast.

Suddenlythere’dbeenhouses,people,andlotsofmongrel

riverboatsskitteringbackandforth

underaskyofgorgeous,under-litclouds,

witheverythinggilded,burnishedalongoneside,

andeverythingbright,cheerful,casual—orsoitlooked.

Ilikedtheplace;Ilikedtheideaoftheplace.

Tworivers.Hadn’ttworiverssprung

fromtheGardenofEden?No,thatwasfour

andthey’ddiverged.Hereonlytwo

andcomingtogether....

Alongriverbeach—whichBishopdescribedinalettertoafriendasmadeof“deeporangesand”—andwharfservedastheheartofthecity,whoseirregularcobblestonedstreets,thenlinedwithamixofclose-croppedblueandredstuccoandtilehousesandthatchedstrawhuts,risegentlyfromthebeach,likeaislesawayfromastageinanamphitheater.Thetownhadonecar,anoldrustedFordtruck,andhadrecentlybuiltasmallelectricplant,whichpoweredafewstragglingstreetlamps.FacingtheriverstoodthebleachedblueandwhiteNossaSenhoradaConceição,OurLadyoftheConception,thetown’sturretedcathedralbuiltintheeighteenthcentury.13

Thescenerarelychanged.Womenbeatdirtylaundryonthebeachrocks.Freighters,steamships,fishingboats,andtheoccasionaltimberraftviedfordocksidespace.Smallboatsfilledwithbirds,monkeys,fruits,and“turtlesofmammothdimension”paddledtointerceptoceanlinersheadingtoManaus.Dockmenhoistedsteersontocattleboatswithaharnessandapulleyrope.“Tworiversfullofcrazyshipping—people/allapparentlychangingtheirminds,embarking,/disembarking,rowingclumsydories,”Bishop’spoemcontinues.TherewasalsothestrangeconfluenceofthebluegreenwateroftheTapajósandthemuddybrownoftheAmazon,eachkeepingitsowncolor,flowingliketwobandsformileswithoutblending.Occasionally,aboatwoulddischargeafortuneseekerornaturalist:HenryWickhamlivedjustoutsidethecitybeforegatheringtheseedsthatwoulddoomtheBrazilianrubbertrade;HenryWalterBates,AlfredRusselWallace,andRichardSprucemadesignificantcontributionstonineteenth-centuryevolutionarytheorybyusingSantarémasabaseofoperationstosendsamplesofplantsandinsectsbacktoLondon’sKewGardens.*Andduringthehigh-waterseason,aparadeofup-valleydebris,thebloatedcarcassesofalligatorsandmanatees,fallentrees,andevenwholeislandsmadeofrivergrass,bromeliads,vines,moss,andphilodendrons,floatedpastthetownastherivermadeitswaytotheAtlantic.14

AfadedviewofSantarém’swaterfront,1928.

ButthatSeptembertherewasanewshow,asonlookerstookintheFordshipsandwaitedtoseewhattheywoulddonext.TheOrmocandFargewereheartyAmericanvessels,about250feetlongandnearly50across.Wellprovisionedandnewlypainted,theyspokeforFord’sseriousnessofpurposeandprovencapability.YettheyseemedratherforlornastheysatintheTapajós’smassive“mouth-lake”—twelvemileswideandninetylong—whichintersectedwiththeAmazonRivertocreateabodyofwateroneanthropologistcomparedtoan“inlandseaoroneoftheNorthAmericanGreatLakes.”Onecould,observedaFordemployee,“dropLakeHoughton,thelargestofMichigan’sinlandlakes,”intotheTapajós“andstillhavemilesofmarginleftover.”15

CAPTAINOXHOLM,WHOhadtakenovercommandfromPrinzupontheships’arrivalinBrazil,consideredhisoptions.Hecouldwaitamonthorsoforthewaterstorise,butimpatientDearbornwantedtoseeprogress.ThatmeanthehadtotransfermostofthecargotosmallerlaunchesandusetheBellcamptotugthemtotheplantationsite.Onelocalcompany,affiliatedwiththeBritishBoothLine,offeredtodothejobforsixdollarsaton.ThiswasperhapsthelasttimeOxholmwouldbequotedafairestimate,forinthemonthsahead,afterFordmadethecaptainchiefmanageroftheplantation,hedevelopedareputationasa“softtouch”easilyfleecedforgoodsandservices.Inthisinstance,though,hedeclinedareasonablebid.Heoptedinsteadtorentlightersandhirelabordirectly,whichnotonlywastedmuchvaluabletimebutcost,accordingtoasubsequentaudit,roughlythirty-fivedollarsaton.Withacapacityof3,800tons,Oxholmpaidoutabout$130,000tounloadjusttheFarge.16

Thetransferwasslowedbecausethe“specialcranes”neededtoremovetheheavyequipmentwerepackedfirst,“belowallotherfreightontheships.”Infutureshipments,managersurgedRougeworkersto“endeavortousegoodjudgment”infillingtheOrmocsothat“articlesofgeneraluseorwhichmighthaveseveralusescanbeeasilyfound.”AnotherreasonfordelaywasthatittookatleasttwodaysfortheBellcamptomakeituptotheconstructionsiteandback,teachingtheFordstaffanearlylessonintheslowrhythmsofAmazonlife.Andevenifthetugcouldgofaster,themakeshiftdocktheadvanceteamhadconstructedwastoosmalltohandlesuchamassiveshipmentofmaterialandtoowobblyformuchoftheheavyequipment.Norwasenoughoftheriverbankclearedtoreceivethecargo,whichledtomorebottlenecks.ThentherewastheconfusionofPortuguese-ignorantforemensupervisinglocallaborers,makingforwhatoneeyewitnessdescribedasgood“materialforasuperCharlieChaplinfilm.”ModernTimesmeetsFitzcarraldo.

OnOctober4,theplantation’srepresentativeinBelémcabledCharlesSorenseninDearborngoodnews:“LakeOrmocleftSantarémlastnightboundforplantation.”Butlaterthatdayhesentacorrection:“ReportOrmocleavingSantarémforplantationinerrorduetomisunderstanding.OrmocstillatSantarém.”Thenathird:“Watergoingdowninsteadofrising.”17

AttheendofNovember,therewerestilloverathousandtonsofequipmentontheFarge,andthegeneralchaosoftheworkgotonthecrew’snerves,yieldingto“nastyaccidents”andscuffles.Onthelastdayofthecargotransfer,“SailorStadish”wasonthedeckoftheOrmocoperatingasteamwinchandteasing“FiremanPatrick,”whowasintheholdsupervisinglocalworkersinafinalcleanup.Stadishsaidsomethingheshouldn’thave,oratleastnottosomeoneintheholdofashiponadaywhenthethermometerhadwellpassedninetydegrees.HelookedupandsawPatrickcomingafterhimwithanironbar.Takingastepback,Stadishfellintoanopenhatchtwenty-fivefeet,fracturinghisskullandbreakingafewribs.18

Itwasnotanauspiciousbeginningforacompanythathopedto,asEdselFordputit,bring“redemption”totheAmazon.IttooknearlyuntiltheendofJanuarytofinallygettheshipsuptoBoaVistaandfullyunloaded.Andthenthetroublereallybegan.

____________

*Thoughanimprobableamount,boththeTimesandtheLosAngelesTimesreportedthissixbillionfigure,mostlikelyprovidedbyacompanypressrelease.

*ItwasSprucewhoidentifiedanddeliveredtoLondonapotentvarietyofcinchona,usedtobegincultivationinIndiatomakequinine—describedbyoneofficialwiththeEastIndiaCompanyin1852asthemostvaluablemedicinaldrugintheworld,“withprobablythesingleexceptionofopium.”AtSantarém,whereSprucelivedforoverayear,hedocumentedthelocaluseofguarana—acaffeinelikestimulantprescribedfornervousdisordersandthoughttobeaprophylacticforavarietyofdiseases—believingitcouldbeintroducedintoEuropeanpharmacies,perhapsasasupplementtoteaorcoffee(MarkHonigsbaum,TheFeverTrail:InSearchoftheCureforMalaria,London:Macmillan,2003,p.5;RichardSpruce,NotesofaBotanistontheAmazon&Andes:BeingRecordsofTravelontheAmazonandItsTributaries,London:Macmillan,1908,p.452).

CHAPTER10

SMOKEANDASHASTHEYWAITEDFORTHEORMOCANDTHEFARGETOREACHTHEM,BlakeleyandVillaressetaboutestablishingaworkcampjustoutsidethehamletofBoaVistaandstartedtoclearthejungle.TruetothekindofoptimismtypicaloftheFordMotorCompanyinthe1920s,reinforcedbyVillares’sconstantassurancesthathehadplantationexperience,Blakeleywasconvincedthattherainforestanditspeoplewouldsoonyieldtoa“greatindustrialcity”housingtwenty-fivethousandworkersandahundredthousandresidents.Theproposedlocationforthismetropolis,onariseslopinggentlytotheriver,“lendsitselfwelltoaneconomicaldevelopmentofsewage.”ThoughBlakeleywasnomoreanengineerthanhisimmediateboss,HarryBennett,hethoughtbuildingacitywouldbe“amoreorlesssimplematter.”Hisplanwastoallowarrivingworkerstoliveintemporaryquarterssetapartfromthemainsettlement,untilpronouncedfitbyForddoctorstomoveintoFordlandiaproper.Undercompanysupervision,Brazilians,Blakeleyproposed,shouldbeallowedtobuildtheirownhomesaccordingtolocaltraditions,thoughhewouldinsistontheconstructionofproperandsanitaryouthouses,whichwouldbeanimportantstepinbringing“forthanewrace.”HetoldtheAmericanconsulinBelémthatFordhadgivenhim“carteblanche”tospenduptotwelvemilliondollars,notjustto“showsomeprofitforthecompany”butto“dogood”fortheAmazon.1

InapreliminaryreporttoDearborn,hesuggestedpayingworkersbetweentwenty-fiveandfiftycentsadayandteachingthemhowtogrowvegetableandfruitgardenstodiversifytheirdiet.Schoolsandchurcheswouldbebuiltlater,asthetapperswerelongusedtolivingandworkinginisolation,freefromreligiousandeducationalinstitutions.UnlikeattheRouge,hedidnotforeseeadisciplineproblem;Brazilianworkersare“mostdocile,”hewrote.Amonghiscrew,hehadn’theardthe“slightestmurmurofBolshevism.”NoteventheexecutionofSaccoandVanzetti—whichtookplacejustasheandIdewerenegotiatingtheconcessionwithBentes—arousedtheirsympathy,Blakeleysaid.2

YetalsotruetotheFordtradition,Blakeleyquicklydevelopedareputationasanautocrat.DuringhisshortreignatFordlandia“hiswordwaslaw.”HehadsethimselfupinanoldBoaVistafazenda—Portugueseforhacienda—thatwasdecrepitbutwellventilatedwhilethelaborerssleptoutdoorsinhammocksorinpalmlean-tosandhisforemencrammedintoaquicklyerected,sweltering,malaria-riddenbunkhouse,eachgiven“oneroomwithonedoorandnowindowandnobath.”DearbornfirstgotaninklingthatsomethingwaswrongwhenBlakeleytriedtotakecontrolofthesubsidiarycorporationIdehadsetupasthelegalowneroftheplantation.“Youhavenotexplainedwhy,”companyofficialswrotehimpointedly,“itwasnecessarytoelectyourselfmanagingdirector.”3

ButwhereautocracyinotherrealmsoftheFordempiretendedtoproducesomeconcordancebetweenvisionandexecution,inthejungleitledtodisaster.

THEFORDMOTORCompanyenjoyedawell-deservedreputationforindustrialimmaculateness.HundredsofworkerspaintedtheDetroitplantsonaregularbasis.Cleanersscrubbedthemasiftheywereoperatingrooms,makingsureeventhemostremotecornerswerewelllit,topreventspitting.“Onecannothavemorale,”Fordsaid,“withoutcleanliness.”4

Imagine,then,Dearborn’sreceptionofthisveryfirstnoticeonFordlandia’sprogress:“Nosanitation,nogarbagecans,fliesbythemillion,allfilth,bananapeels,orangerindsanddishwaterthrownrightout

ontheground....About30mensickoutof104,nodeathsbutplentyofmalaria....Fliesaboundedinkitcheninallfoodandontablesanddishesuntilyoucouldhardlyseethefoodandtables.Noscreensformentosleepunder,nonets.”ThereportwasfiledbySãoPaulo’sForddealer,KristianOrberg,afteravisittothecamp.OrbergtoldDearbornthattwocreeksborderingthemainworksitehadbeenconvertedtoadump,breedingfliesandmosquitoesthatledtoasevereoutbreakofmalaria.Asaresult,workcametoastandstillfornearlythewholemonthofAugust.Foodrotted.“TheyneedICEworstofall,”hesaid.

TheimpendingarrivaloftheOrmocandFargepromisedtractorsandotherheavyequipmentthatwouldeasetheworkinvolvedinlandclearing.ButinthemeantimeBlakeleyandVillarestriedtomakedo.InBelém,Blakeleyhadpurchasedafewpowersawsandasmalltractor,whichhehaddeliveredtotheworksite.Yethequicklyranoutofgas,sothemachinessatidle.Aftermonthsoflabor,withworkerscuttinganddragginglogsbyhand,onlyafewhundredacresoftreeshadbeenfelled.

Toaddtothedifficulties,thetwomenhadpickedthewrongtimeoftheyeartobeginwork.Ideally,theclearingofjungleforplantingorpastureshouldbedoneduringthedryseason,betweenJuneandOctober,whenthedownedtreescanbelefttodryforafewmonthsbeforebeingburned.ButBlakeleyandVillareshadstartedfellingtreesduringthewetseason.Whentheytriedtotorchthewastewood,dailyrainswouldextinguishthefire,leavingsoakedpilesofcharredscrub.Sotheyhadtousecopiousamountsofkerosenetostartasecondburn,biggerthananyyetseenontheTapajós—orinmostotherpartsoftheAmazon,forthatmatter.Thejunglewasturnedinsideout,asflamesroseoverahundredfeet,forcingtapirs,boars,cougars,boas,pitvipers,andotheranimalsintotheopen,“crying,screaming,orbellowingwithterror.”Toucans,macaws,andparrotstookflight,someofthemfallingbackintotheflames.5

“Theyburnedhundredsofhectaresofprimitiveforest,”remembersEimarFranco,whowatchedtheprogressofFordlandiafromacrosstheriver.“Theystartedafirethatlastedfordaysanddays,”heremembers,invokingbothanimageassociatedwithtoday’sAmazon—theforestlaidwastebyfire—andthesmokestackandforgefiresofnineteenth-centuryfactoryindustrialization:“Itterrifiedme.Itseemedthatthewholeworldwasbeingconsumedbyflames.Agreatquantityofsmokerosetothesky,coveringthesunandturningitredanddull.Allthatsmokeandashfloatedthroughthelandscape,makingitextremelyfrighteningandoppressive.Wewerethreekilometersaway,ontheothersideoftheriver,andyetashandburningleavesfellonourhouse.”6

Charredtrunksandstumpsafteranincompleteburn.

DEARBORNWASGROWINGincreasinglydistrustfulofBlakeley.NoarchivalevidenceprovesthatBlakeleytookaprofitfromthemachinationssurroundingtheBentesconcession,yetthefactthathekepthisdealingswithVillares,Greite,andBentes,aswellashisknowledgeofkickbacks,asecretcouldn’thavesatwellwithHenryFord,wholearnedabouttheswindlefromStateDepartmentofficialsinearly1928.7ForBlakeley’spart,whateveropportunitieshesawarisingfromFord’srubberenterprisewerefannedbyagrowingsenseofgrievance.Hebegantoresentthefactthatthecompanywasnotrewardingallhisgoodworkwithadequatecompensation,andhesentCharlesSorensenaletteraskingthathissalarybeincreasedto“A”level.HislongstaysinBrazil,hecomplained,hadforcedhimtosellhisDearbornhouseandlosetrackofhisinvestments.HeremindedSorensenthathehadgivenupmuchAmerican-stylepleasureandcomfortinorderto“accomplishthingsinacountrysuchasthis.”Hebegantopocketplantationcash,moneythatshouldhavebeenusedtobuyquinineforthefever-riddenorgasforthepowersawandtractor.Heevenrefusedtobuyahorseforthefifty-four-year-oldRaimundoMonteirodaCosta,alocalrubbermanhiredtoscoutouttheconcession.Duringthehottestpartoftheday,the“oldman”wasmakingtwofour-miletoursonfoot.AndthoughBlakeleypromisedworkersfreeroomandboard,hedeductedthecostoftransportationtothesitefromtheirfirstpaymentandchargedthemfortymilreis,aboutfourdollars,forhammocksthatcosthalfthat.Dearborndidn’tgetwindofthispettygraftuntilmuchlater,yetinJulyawitnesshademerged,afellowpassengerontheSSCuthbert,whosupportedIde’saccountofBlakeley’scoarsebehavior“ineveryparticular.”8

DearbornrecalledBlakeleyanddismissedhiminOctober,andhissuddendepartureledtoacollapseofwhatlittleauthoritytherewasattheworkcamp.TheremainingAmericansbickeredamongthemselves.Villarestriedtoleveragethebedlamtohisadvantage.Noonewasclearlyincharge,sonoonetookresponsibilityforfeedingandpayingthecamp’slaborforce,whichhadgrownto380men.Amonthofbadfood,nomoney,longworkdays,andincreasinglyinsultingbehaviorbyincreasinglydesperateforemenwereaggravatedbyaheatwavethatmadethejunglehotterthanusual.

Inthebestofconditions,clearingjungleisbrutal,close-inwork.ButasOctoberranintoNovember,hightemperatureswerehitting106degrees.ExhaustionandsicknessovercamethecontractedlaborerswhomadeupFordlandia’sfirstcrewastheyhackedtheirwayintothedense,dankwoodwithmachetesandcutlasses.Theyworkedstrippedtothewaist:throughouttheday,asthesunroseandthehumidityincreased,theirbodies,coveredwithsweat,werescrapedbythornsandbranchesandpuncturedbythebitesofticks,jiggers,blackflies,andants.Theworkerswerenotprovidedhatsthoughthesewereindispensablewhenmakingthefirstpassatjungleclearing,asoftenthechoppingofacreeperoravinecoulddisturbinsectnests,rainingscorpions,wasps,orhornetsonthosebelow.Justatouchofabranchoravineandwithinsecondsaswarmofantscouldcoverabody,leavingworkersredwithfesteringbites.Themortalityratewashigh,asworkers,bendinglowtochoptheundergrowth,diedquicklyfromsnakebitesorsufferedamoreprolongedwastingawayfromfever,infection,ordysentery.

Workersclearingthejungleposeforaphoto.

InearlyNovember,withtheOrmocandFargestillstuckinSantarém,tensionscametoahead.Whenthecrew’scookservedyetanothermealofrottenmeatandstinkingfish,“hellwasloosed.”Demanding“goodfoodthesameforall,”theysackedthekitchenandstorehouse.TheriotersarmedthemselveswiththemachetesandcutlassesandchasedtheAmericansintothewoodsoroutintotheriveronboats.Inalettertohisformercomanager,Blakeley,nowinDearborn,Villaresclaimedcreditforrestoringcalm,sayingthatheslaughteredtwosteerstofeedthemenandbrokeredadealinwhichtheywouldgettheirwagesiftheypromisednottohurttheAmericansordestroyplantationproperty.Therewere,hepointedout,hundredsofgallonsofkeroseneandtwohundredpoundsofdynamitewithintheirreach.9

ButlikemostotherthingshavingtodowithVillares,itwashardtofigureoutwherethelineseparatingfactandself-promotionlay.Evenbeforetheriot,theAmericans,particularlyJohnRoggeandCurtisPringle,hadlostpatiencewiththeBrazilian.Atfirsttheythoughthimtobe“energeticandcapable.”YetattheplantationsiteVillaresprovedtobesupremelyimpractical.Hedisplayedlittleknowledgeofagriculture,whileBrazilianworkers,whoreliedonhimasaninterpretertocommunicatewiththeAmericans,foundhimhaughty.VillaresknewenoughabouttheAmazontoknowthatwhattheAmericansweredoing—especiallywhenitcametoclearingandburningthejungleduringtherainyseason—waswrong.Buthedidn’tknowenoughtosayclearlywhatshouldbedoneandsoonlycontributedtotheworksite’sconfusion.Duringtheriotagangofworkerschasedhimintothewoods,wherehefellintoaditchandfracturedhisfingerandnearlybrokealeg.HemadehiswaytoBelém,onlytobeorderedtoleavethecountryimmediately,byhiscoconspiratorGovernorBentes,inalast-minutebidtosuppressabrewingscandalthatwasabouttorevealtoallofBraziltheshadydealingsthatwentintograntingFordhislandconcession.

ItturnsoutthatCaptainGreitedidnottearuptheletterVillareshadsenthimtwoyearsearlierfromDetroit’sCadillacHotel,afterthemeetingwiththeFordswhereVillarespitchedtheideaof“Fordville”and“Edselville.”Heinsteadmadeacopyofit,alongwitheveryotherdocumentrelatedtotheFordswindle.Believingthathispartnerswereshortchanginghim,Greitehandedthemovertoalocalnewspaper,whichpassedthemontoBrazil’sCommunistParty’snewspaper,AManhã,forpublicationinRio.

Inearly1929,thestoryofthekickbacksandpayoffsbehindtheconcessionexplodedinthepress.Itallcameout:the“ghoulishmotives”ofGreite,the“pueriletactics”ofSchurzandVillares,thecashtoBentesandothers.“WhileGreiteandVillaresreceivedagoodshareoftheopprobriumattachedtothetransaction,”theAmericanconsulinBelémwrotetotheStateDepartment,“BentesandtheFordCompanyreceivedthebruntoftheblame.”Thepressexpresseditsindignationatthebriberythatledtotheconcession,butUSdiplomatsthoughtthegrafttrivialcomparedwiththecorruptionthatusuallyattendedtheexpansionofAmericancorporationsabroad.ItwascommonpracticeforUScompaniestoputlocalofficialsonthepayrollfornonexistentconsultingservices,todispersecompanysharestopoliticians,andtogiveoutrightbribes.InestablishinghisrubberplantationinLiberia,HarveyFirestone,forinstance,floateda$5millionloantogovernmentofficialsthathelpedthingsgoconsiderablymoresmoothlyforhiminAfricathantheydidforFordinBrazil.“Nearlyalllargecompanies,”wroteUScommercialattachéCarltonJackson,whoreplacedWilliamSchurz,“havelearnedtobe‘practical.’”ButtheFordMotorCompanybribedjustenoughtoprovokeascandalbutnotenoughtokeepitquiet.Thecontroversy’srealdamage,then,wasnottoFord’sreputationforhonestybutrathertohisreputationforcompetence.Thegreatman,itseemed,wassnookeredbyasyndicateofbunglingandbickeringprovincialsintopayingforlandthatwasbeinggivenawayfree.10

JorgeVillares,backleft,andworkcrewwithaxesandmachetes.

VILLARESPROBABLYDIDN’Twelcomethescandal’spublicity.YetforthenephewofAlbertoSantos-Dumont,whoBraziliansinsistwasrobbedofthecreditforinventingtheairplane,therewereworsefatesthantobeknownasthemanwhobestedFord.Claimingtobesufferinganervousbreakdown,Villares,inducedby“threats,togetherwiththepaymentofasumofmoney”—bothcourtesyofGovernorBentes—boardedasteamerheadedforFrancetoretrievehisaviatoruncle,whoreallyhadsufferedanemotionalcollapse.11

ThedisappointmentofAlbertoSantos-Dumont’slifewasnotthathedidn’tgetcreditforinventingflight,thoughhedidresentthattheWrightbrotherswonalltheacclaim.Hisrealheartbreakwasthathelivedlongenoughtoseethemachinehehelpeddevelopbeusedasaninstrumentofdeath.Santos-Dumontwasn’tanideologicalpacifistlikeHenryFord,buthedidhopethatairplaneswouldknithumanityclosertogetherinanewpeacefulcommunity,justasFordhadbelievedthathiscar,alongwithothermodernmachinery,couldbringaboutawarlessworldandaglobal“parliamentofman.”Bothwereofcourse

provenwrongbyWorldWarI,whichbroketheconceitofmanylikeFordandSantos-Dumontthattechnologyalonewouldusherinanew,higherstageofcivilization.“Iuseaknifetoslicegruyere,”Santos-DumontsaidwhenwarbrokeoutinEurope,“butitcanalsobeusedtostabsomeone.Iwasafooltobethinkingonlyofthecheese.”12

Forddealterraticallywiththefactthat,afterallhishigh-handedoppositiontoWorldWarI,heturnedhisfactoriesovertowarproduction.Hecontinuedtospeakoutprovocativelyagainstwar,maintaininghispositionthatsoldiersweremurderersandquotingTennyson’s“LocksleyHall”totheendofhisdays.YetFord’sfaithinAmericaasarevitalizingforceintheworldledhimtosaythathewouldsupportanotherwartodoawaywithmilitarism.“IwanttheUnitedStatestocleanitallup,”hesaid.NowondertheTopekaDailyCapitalsaidthatFordputthe“fistinpacifist.”13

Santos-Dumont,incontrast,wascrippledbyjusthismereassociationtoamachinethatwasusedformassmurder.Heheldhimself“personallyresponsibleforeveryfatality”causedbyhis“babies,”thatis,airplanes.“Henowbelievesthatheismoreinfamousthanthedevil,”commentedafriend.“Afeelingofrepentanceinvadeshimandleaveshiminafloodoftears.”14AfterthewarhevainlycalledongovernmentsandtheLeagueofNationsto“demilitarize’theairplane(acallthatthesurvivingWrightbrother,Orville,didn’tsupport.Orvilleinvokedadifferentkindoftechnologicalutopianism,insistinginsteadthattheplaneitself“hasmadewarsoterriblethatIdonotbelieveanycountrywillagaincaretostartawar”).Buttheslaughtercontinued,anddeathfromabovebecameaconstitutivefactofmodernlife.Britain,forinstance,encouragedbyMinisterofWarandAirWinstonChurchill,regularlybombedandstrafedArabsasawayofmaintainingcost-effectivecontroloveritscolonies.AndonJuly16,1927,justaweekafterIdeandBlakeleyarrivedinBelém,USmarinesinNicaraguastagedtheirfirstdive-bombingcampaign,againsttherebelAugustoSandino.Marinepilotsdescendedtothreehundredfeettofirefourthousandroundsofammunitionanddroptwenty-sevenbombsonanythingthatmoved.Hundredswerekilledintheslaughter.15

Throughoutthe1920s,Santos-DumontfoundhimselfcheckinginandoutofvariousEuropeansanatoriums,refusingtoeatandlosingweight.Deathseemedtopursuehim.PersuadedbyhisnephewJorgetoreturntoBrazil,Santos-Dumontarrivedhomeahero.AdozenofBrazil’sleadingpoliticians,intellectuals,andengineersboardedtheSantos-Dumont,abimotoredseaplane,tomeetthesteamshipthatcarriedtheflyerandhisnephewasitenteredRio’sharbor.Butcelebrationturnedtotragedywhenoneoftheplane’smotorsexploded,plungingitspassengersandcrewmemberstotheirdeathsandSantos-Dumontdeeperintodepression.Whentheshiplandedatthequay,theaviatorwas“greetedwithprofoundsilencebythemultitude.”16

Andthekillingcontinued.Warbrokeoutinearly1932betweenBoliviaandParaguayoverastretchofworthless,hellishlyhotscrublandthoughttoholdoil.Itwasafullymechanizedslaughter,withbothsidesborrowingcopiousamountsofmoneyfromforeignbanksandpetroleumcompaniestopurchasetanksandplanes.Bythetimeitwasover,morethanahundredthousandBoliviansandParaguayansweredead.Thatsameyear,afterwitnessingtheaerialbombingofhisbelovedcityofSãoPaulobyfederalforcesputtingdownaregionalrevolt,Santos-Dumontcommittedsuicide.HavingsenthisnephewJorgeoutonanerrand,hespokehislastwordstoanelevatoroperatorashereturnedtohisroomtohanghimself:“WhathaveIdone?”17

BACKINTHEAMAZON,Benteshadleftthegovernor’smansionforthefederalsenatejustbeforethe

scandalbroke,yetthecontroversyeffectivelyendedhispoliticalcareer.Hisreplacementasgovernor,EuricodeFreitasValle,tookofficeinFebruary1929andimmediatelyannouncedthathewouldreview,andreviseifnecessary,theFordconcession.18

AcommittednationalistwhowasfearfulofaFordmonopolyovereitherrubberorlumber,GovernorVallefirstcanceledthegrant’sacross-the-boardexporttaxexemption.TheFordMotorCompanytookthisgravely.Whileofficialshopedthatthepropertywouldholdoilorvaluablemineralssuchasgoldandmaybeevendiamonds,theyknewitwasrichinhardwoodsandDearbornassumedthatthesaleoflumberwouldcovertheplantation’sstartupcosts.Addingtotheiraggravation,ValledecreedthatonlyrubbercultivatedatFordlandia—andnotlatextappedfromwildtreesonthepropertyorpurchasedfromtappersworkingelsewhere—wouldbecoveredbythetaxexclusion.

Valle’smoveshadanimmediateimpact.ShortlyafterheannouncedhisrevocationofFord’staxexemption,thegovernorofAmazonas—thestatetothenorthwestofParáwhosecapitalwasManaus—hadtwenty-fourcasesofrubberseedsdestinedforFord’splantationseizedandimpounded.FordintendedtoshiptheseedstoCaliforniaorthePhilippines,heclaimed—implicitlybutnonetoosubtlyassociatingHenryFordwiththeusurperHenryWickham.19

TheseseedshadbeenobtainedbyFordagentsintheupperAmazon,ontheadviceofCarlLaRue,whothoughtthewesternregionwashometoapurerandmoreproductivestrainofHeveathanwhatwasfoundaroundFordlandia,eventhoughitwashewhohadrecommendedthesoutheasternbankoftheTapajósasthebestplacetogrowrubber.Inanycase,theembargooftheseeds,combinedwiththedelayunloadingtheOrmocandFarge,leftplantationmanagersscurryingtofindlocalseeds.Iftheydidn’tsucceedinplantingathousandacresbytheendofJuly1929—astipulationoftheBentescontractintendedtoensurethatFord’sproposedrubberplantationwasnotsimplyacoverforaquestforoil,diamonds,orgold—thenVallewouldhavegroundstorevoketheconcession.

CaughtbetweenBelémandManaus,theplantationalsohadtoanswertoRio.ContrarytoBlakeley’sassurancesthatthefederalgovernmenthadreleasedthecompanyfrommostimporttaxes,customsofficialsinsistedthatFordpaydutyonallmaterialandmachinerynotdirectlyrelatedtorubbercultivation.WhentheOrmocandFargefirstarrivedinBelém,Oxholmhadleftadepositof$12,000tobeusedagainstfuturelevies.Portauthoritiesdidn’twanttoholduptheshipsbyinspectingtheircrammedholds,sotheywavedthemthrough.ButnowtheysaidthatFordowedanadditional$58,000fortheinitialshipmentandthathenceforthallshipmentswouldhavetopayassesseddutiesinfullbeforeproceedingupriver.20

From1929to1931,theOrmocmadesuccessiveround-trips,bringingmaterialfromDetroittotheAmazonandstoppinginBritishGuyanaonthewaybacktoloadbauxitefortheRouge’smetalworks.AsthecargopileduponBelém’sdocks,thecompany’staxbillsoared.Fordlawyersarguedthatallmaterialbroughtinwasultimatelytosupportthecultivationofrubber,butportauthoritiesinterpretedthelawnarrowly,disqualifyingtheequipmentneededtobuildthetown,cutwood,sinkwells,runtrainlines,constructhouses,andlayroads.Companyofficialsnegotiatedtoreleasesomeimports,therebyallowingconstructiontoproceed.YetbyMarch1931,sixteenthousandtonsofFordgoods—paint,steel,trainrails,shelving,furniture,tools,stationery,hospitalmachines,surveyingequipment,labinstruments,electricalparts,enameledsinks,andmanyotherthings—stillsatunusedinacustomswarehouse.21

ThesesetbackstookplaceintheshadowoftheworseningpresscoverageleveledatBentes’s

“mercenary”contract,whichfora“miserablehandfulofdollars”allowed“thevesselsofthemultimillionairetotransporteverythingwithoutpayingasinglecenttoouremptytreasury.”Ford,thepaperssaid,wasgivena“concessionfordominion.”22

Thetonewasoutrage,thestyleexposé.Onereportafteranotherdocumentednotjustthecorruptionthatsurroundedtheoriginaltransactionbutthecomplaintsofworkerswhohadlefttheplantationaboutlowpay,putridfood,abuseofworkers,forcedevictions,and,particularlydamningforFord’sname,ineptitude.

TheAmericanconsulwroteDearbornthattheManausandBelémnewspaperswereaccusingFordofhaving“commencedtheprophesiedsubjectionandexploitation”ofAmazonianworkers.Oneex-FordlandiaclerkabscondedwithanumberofdocumentsthatheclaimedshowedalargedifferentialinthewagespaidtoBraziliansandAmericans,peddlingthemtovariousnewspapersfora“monetaryreward.”Inearly1930,customsagentsboardedandsearchedtheOrmoconitsreturntotheStates,actingonatipthatitwassmugglingcasesofdiamondsoutofthecountry.Itwasnow“commongossip,”wrotetheconsul,thatFordlandia’smanagerswerepayingworkersjustthirtycentsaday,whileenteringeightyintheaccountbooksandpocketingthedifference.(Thegossipcontinuestothisday:IwastoldbyaresidentofFordlandiathatplantationmanagershollowedouttreetrunksthattheyusedtosneakgoldpastportauthorities.)23

TheconsulhadthesestoriestranslatedintoEnglishandpassedthemontoHenryForddirectly.Theywere“patentlyfalse,”hetoldFord,yet“yourcompanyisnotaltogetherwithoutfaultinthematter.”24

CHAPTER11

PROPHESIEDSUBJECTIONFOLLOWINGREEVESBLAKELEY’SDISMISSALANDTHENOVEMBERriot,CharlesSorensensuggestedtoHenryFordthatheappointCaptainEinarOxholmasFordlandia’smanager.Bornin1892inFredrikshald,Norway,neartheborderwithSweden,Oxholmranawayfromhomewhenhewasthirteentojointhemerchantmarine,workinghiswayupfromcabinboytodeckhand,thentocommandofhisownshipwiththeNewOrleans–basedUnitedFruitCompany.Afterreadinganoticeinalocalpaperinearly1928thattheFordMotorCompanywashiringshipcrews,hetraveledtoDearborn.HenryFordgavehimajobonthespotandsenthimtotheAmazonwithBlakeley’sadvanceteam.WordhadnotyetreachedDearbornofOxholm’sclumsyunloadingoftheOrmocandFarge,sothecarmakertookSorensen’srecommendation.

Oxholmhadnoexperienceintropicalbotanicsorplantationmanagement.Butthisdidn’ttroubleFord,whodisdainedspecializationandexpertise.Helikedtobragthathiscompanyneveremployedan“expertinfullbloom”becausethey“alwaysknowtoadotjustwhysomethingcannotbedone.”“Noneofourmenare‘experts,’”Fordsaid.“Wehavemostunfortunatelyfounditnecessarytogetridofamanassoonashethinkshimselfanexpert—becausenooneeverconsidershimselfexpertifhereallyknowshisjob.”1

Muchofthiscontemptwaspureposture,forFordinfacthiredexperts,fromlawyersanddoctorstoseacaptains.Yethedidhavefamedluckentrustingcomplexmissions,evenindustry-transformingtasks,topeoplewithintuitiveengineeringintelligence.Itwasnotatrainedmetallurgistbutaformerfactorysweeper,JohnWandersee,whoperfectedthealloyprocessforvanadium,thebreakthroughlightweightsteelcompoundthatmadetheModelTpossible.Ford’s“pioneeringspirit,”asAlbertWibel,thecompany’spurchasingchief,putit,allowedhimtotakechancesonunprovenmen.“Hethoughtofitintermsofcommonsense.”2

ForFord,theLutheranOxholmdidhaveonequalitythatmadehimperfectforthejob:areputationforabsolutehonesty.StoriesfromBrazilofcorruptionandkickbackstroubledDearbornofficials,asdidreportsofdrinkingandprostitution,notjustbyBraziliansbutbyFordmen.

Ford,then,chargedOxholmnotjustwithtakingoverwhatBlakeleyhadstartedbutputtinganendtowhathehadletfester.ItwasSorensen,afellowScandinavian,whogaveOxholmhisbrief:“IamoftheopinionthatthedifficultiesyouareupagainstwillgraduallyclearupifyouconfineyourselfstrictlytotheprinciplesoftheFordMotorCompany,whichareabsolutelyhonestineverydirectionyouaredealing,”hewrote.“ItisonthisonepointthatIamdependingsomuchuponyourself,becauseathome,whilewefeelyourlackofexperienceinmattersofthiskind,weare,however,stronglyoftheopinionthatwecandependuponyourhonesty.Theexperiencethatisrequiredwillcomebykeepingthispointinmindatalltimes,anddoingtheworkinaccordancewithstrictFordprinciples.”3

OXHOLMMAYHAVEbeenhonest,buthonestyisnotarequiredjunglevirtue.NorwouldstrictFordprincipleshelphiminterpretlocalexpectations.

HerefusedthereasonablebidbyashippingfirmtounloadtheOrmocandFarge,insteadspendingoverahundredthousanddollarstodohimselfwhatotherswouldhavedoneforafractionofthecost,becausehedidn’twanttoseemaneasymark.Worsestill,hisstrictreadingofhisordersinflamedthe

importdutyissue.Littlecontretempsthatcouldhavebeensettledwithabitofcharminhishandsturnedintoanexhaustingfightthatlastedthreeyears.Brazilianlawstatedthatwhencustominspectorsneededtotraveloutsidetheirstationedportofentrytoexaminecargo,theownersofthemerchandisewereresponsibleforpayingabout$2.50fortheirroomandboard.ButwhenBelém’sinspectors,havingtraveledtoSantarémtoinventorytheholdsoftheOrmocandFarge,requestedthefee,Oxholmthoughthewasbeingtappedforabribe.Heindignantlyrefusedtopayit,leadingtheportauthoritiestohardentheirassessmentonfutureFordimports.4

A“bigman”witha“weakmind,”asoneofhisassistantsrememberedhim,Oxholm,havingwastednearlythreemonthsunloadingtheOrmocandFarge,onlycontinuedBlakeley’s“chaos”and“mismanagement”atFordlandia,accordingtotheUSconsulinBelém.5ByJanuary,withtheOrmocandFargefinallyattheplantationsiteandorderrestoredaftertheriot—thankstoa“quantityofarmsandmunitions,includingmachineguns,”sentbyBrazilianauthorities,asonelocalnewspaperreported—Oxholmbegantohiremoremen.6Bytheendof1929,theBrazilianworkforceatFordlandiahadgrownfromafewhundredtooverathousand.Workerspouredinfromalloverthecountry,andboatsarrivedeverydaybringingmore.“Wearesteadilyincreasingtheforce,”OxholmtoldDearborn.Yetevenasthenumberofemployeescontinuedtoclimb,progresstowardmakingtheplantationanefficientproductiveunitfaltered.

Oxholmhadstartedconstructiononanadministrativeoffice,amakeshifthospital,andworkshops,hopingtoestablishatemporarysettlementuntilagoodpatchofjunglecouldbeclearedandenoughrubberplantedtomeetthetermsofthecontract.Thenhewoulddevotehimselftosurveyingastreetgridforthetownandbuilding“properhousesaccordingtoblueprints.”Butinthemeantime,singleworkerscrammedintohastilybuilt,poorlyventilatedbunkhouses,andmarriedfamiliesthrewupramshacklehousesalongtheworksite’sedge,usingdiscardedplanksfrompackingcratesforwallsandpalmthatchorcanvastarpsforroofs.“Wearehavingahardtime,”OxholmadmittedtoDearborninDecember1929,making“thisplacelookasaFordplantshould.”7

***

THECAPTAIN’SMAINproblemwaslabor:gettingit,keepingit,andmanagingit.Itwouldbeyearsbeforetheestateneededrubbertappers,butthecompanystillrequiredasmanymenasitcouldhiretoclearthejungle.OxholmhadtohaveatleastathousandacresplantedbyJuly1929,asperthetermsoftheconcession.Healsoneededmentolevelroadsandthebedfortherailwayandtobuildthephysicalplantandtownresidences.

Inthefirstmonthsofhistenure,Oxholmhiredthousandsofworkers.Buthehadtroubleretainingthem.Duringsomeweeksin1929,particularlythroughJune,July,andAugust,theturnoverrateequaledthatoftheFordMotorCompanybackinHighlandParkintheyearspriortotheFiveDollarDay.Threetimesasmanyworkerswerequittingaswerebeinghired,whichmeantthattheplantation’smanagersandforemenhadtospendagoodpartoftheirdaytrainingnewworkerstoadjusttotheregimentationofplantationlabor.

Oxholmcouldn’ttellDearbornwhyhewashavingsuchahardtimebuildingandkeepingasteadylaborforce.“Wehavelatelylostquiteanumberofmenwithoutbeingabletoobtainanyspecialreason,”hewrotetothehomeofficeinJune.Foremenwerepowerlesstostopworkersgettingonboatsandleaving.Mostrefusedtosaywhytheywerequitting,butOxholmbelievedtheydidn’twanttoworkduringthedry

season,whichwasalsotheinsectseason,“whenthefeverismostprevalent.”Hetriedtomake“thesepeopleunderstandthatthisplaceisfarhealthierthantheplaceswheremanyofthemlive,swampyregions,wherenothingisdonetosubduethemosquitoes,andwherethereisnomedicalattentionwithinreach.”Butperhapshavingsurvived,orheardof,themalariaepidemicthatcrippledthecamptheyearbefore—whenBlakeleyrefusedtoprovidethesickwithquinine—theydidn’tlisten.

OtherAmericanswhospenttimeontheplantationthoughtthelowretentionratehadtodowiththefactthatlivingwastooeasyinthebountifuljungle,oratleasttheythoughtitwas.AlongtraditionofAmazontravelwritingattributedtheregion’ssupposedlethargytoitsfecundity,which,byeasilyyieldingitsnutritionalriches,wassaidtoencourageidleness.Thoughthegenrewouldbecomemostlyassociatedwithnineteenth-centuryVictoriantravelandnaturalistwriters,oneofthefirstEuropeanstoappreciatethesatiatingrichnessofAmazonianlifewasthemanforwhomtheAmericaswerenamed,AmerigoVespucci,whouponsailinguptheAmazonin1499saidthathe“fanciedhimselftobeneartheterrestrialparadise.”“Oneturtlesufficestosatisfythelargestfamily,”wroteFatherCristóbaldeAcuñaacenturyandahalflater.“Thesebarbariansneverknowwhathungeris.”Ifdailylifecouldsimplybepickedoffatree,therewaslittleincentivetoharnesstheresourcesofthejungletosetproductiveforcesloose.“Whentheygotalittlemoneytheywouldjusttakeoff,”theMichiganwifeofoneearlyFordlandiaadministratorrecalled.Workerswouldambleintothewoodsandbring“outavocadoswhichgrewwild.Wildbananasaresweet,yellowandareusedfordesserts.Thenativeswouldbringbackgrapefruits,orangesandpapayaandlimabeans....BeansgrowabouttentimesthesizeoftheirMichiganrelatives.Theorangewasbiggerthanthegrapefruit....Fishingwaswonderful.Thisgivesyouanideaofhowsimpleitwasforthenativestolive.”ThesawyerMattMulrooneythoughtthenativesthe“richestpeopleintheworld....Alltheyhadeverseenwasthewoodsandwater.Theydidn’tknowanythingaboutwork.”HavingcometotheUnitedStatesasaboywithhisfamilyfromIrelandtoescapefamine,Mulrooney,butagenerationremovedfrompeasantlaborhimself,appreciatedtheAmazon’sabundance.“Thereispears,orangesandbananas,”hesaid.“RightinfrontofthehousewhereIlived,bananasweregrowing.”People“couldgooutSundayandkillmonkeys.Theyhadmonkeymeattheretheyeararound.Thewoodswasfullofthem.Youcouldgoouttherewithagunandintwentyminuteshaveamonkey.Theydidn’thaveguns.Theygotthemwithaslingshot.”8

ThatFordpaidwages,asopposedtoadvancingcredit,didseemtoundercuttheplantation’sabilitytoensureastablelaborforce.Onceaworkeraccumulatedenoughsavingstoliveonforafewmonths,therewaslittleincentivetostophimfromreturninghometohisfamilyandtendingtohiscrops.“Therewasnothingdowntheretoabsorbtheirearnings,”saidErnestLiebold,acknowledgingthattheAmazonlackedakeyingredientofFordism:somethingtobuy.DavidRiker,whoforatimeservedasoneofFordlandia’slaborrecruiters,hadasimilarview.Hehaddifficultyfindingworkers,sinceaslongasBrazilianscouldlivewithoutwagestheyresistedthe“Fordmachine.”9

Othersattributedworkerflighttoabusiveforemen,badfood,andcontinuedpoorhousingconditions.Yearsearlier,Ford,duringhisanimatedconversationwithBraziliandiplomatJoséCustódioAlvesdeLima,saidhehadeveryintentionofpayinghiscelebratedFiveDollarDaywage,apromisedeLimarepeatedlypublishedthroughoutBraziltobuildsupportforthecomingofFord.Butinitsmanyoverseasoperations,theFordMotorCompanytendedtopayanotchabovetheprevailingwage,whichiswhatitintendedtodointheAmazon,notwithstandingFord’sshowboating.

This,thoughttheAmericanconsulinBelém,waspossiblyoneofthereasonsforthehighturnoverrate,asworkerswhoshowedupthinkingthattheywouldbegettingfivedollarsadayweredisappointedto

receivethirty-fivecents.10

LABORRECRUITERSFANNEDoutthroughtheregion’smazeofrivers,creeks,andlakesbutfoundthegoingexasperatinglyslow.“Itishardtogetaroundasfastasonewouldlike,”saidJamesMurray,aScottishrecruiterwhowassailingaroundtheconfluenceoftheTapajósandtheAmazonnearSantarém.TravelingthroughLagoGrande,justuptheAmazonfromSantarém,Murray’ssteamshipranagroundforthreehours.A“terrificstorm”thendelayeditanotherfour.HefinallyarrivedinthetownofCuruaiandroundedupthirty-threerecruits.Thenatmidnight,theboathitbottomagain.Byseveninthemorning,itwasstilltryingtobreakfree.Andwhileriverboatscouldbeusedtotraveltothemainrivertowns,manyofthesettlementsdispersedalongthebanksoflesserrivers,streams,andlakescouldbereachedonlybysmallercrafts.11

Murraytriedtosendadvancewordthroughpriests,traders,andsteamboatpilotsthathewouldbearrivinginagivenvillageonanapproximatedatesothatthosewholivedinlandlookingforworkcouldgatherintheirvillageplaza.Buthefoundlocalelitesnonetoocooperative.ManyfearedthattheFordMotorCompany,andthecashitpaid,woulddisruptthepatronagerelationsthatgovernedlifeontheriver.

WhenMurraylandedinthetownofMonteAlegre,hehadhopesthathewouldbeabletofindsomeworkersamongwhatappearedtobealargelyidleandpoorpopulation.Buthehadarun-inwiththemayor,whonotonly“flatlyrefusedtohelpinanyway”butthreatenedtochargethecompanyataxoffifteendollarsforeveryinhabitantMurraytookfromhistown.Anelectionwascomingup,andthepoliticiandidn’twanttoloseanypotentialvoters.Onthetown’soutskirts,therecruiterspokewithanumberofmigrantfamilieswhohadsettledinParábecauseofseveredroughtintheirhomestatesofCearáandMaranhão.TheywereinterestedinFordlandiawork.Buttheywereindebtedtothestategovernmentforthelandandtoolsadvancedthemandwerenotpermittedtoleave,astheirlaborwascontractedtoalocalcottonplantationowner.

ThentherewerethesteamboatoperatorswhoshuttledrecruitersaroundrivertownsandcarriedcontractedlaborbacktoFordlandia.ThatFordagentsmighthavetospenddaysinaforlornvillagewaitingforaboattoarrivetendedtoweakentheirabilitytonegotiatereasonablefares.WhentheSantaMariafinallyshowedupinParintins,anislandtownintheAmazonRiver,Murraywentaboardandaskedhowmuchitwouldcosttotakehimandthetwenty-threemenhehadsignedupbacktotheplantation.Thecaptainfirstsaidhewastoobusytotakethejob.Then,whenpressed,hequotedapriceoffourdollarsahead.Murraysaidhewascrazyandwalkedaway.Butstuckonanislandwithfewotheroptions,hereturnedtothedockandpleadedthepricedowntothreedollars.Murraytriedtopassthisexpenseontohisrecruits,buttheybalked.Twentyofthemchangedtheirmindsanddecidednottotakethejob.TwootherssaidtheywouldgettoFordlandiaintheirowncanoe.

MurrayalsosawmanymenwhoseemedtobeunoccupiedinthetownofAlenquer,acrosstheriverfromSantarém,somanythathewrotetheplantationtosaythathehad“afeelingofconfidencethatlabourisavailable.”Buthewasquicklydisappointed.“Therearemanymenaround,butwhenyoutalktothemandsuggestworkingahoetheytellyouflatlythatthistypeofworkdoesnotinterestthem.”InsteadoftheconstantworkFordlandiawasoffering,Murrayreportedthatlocalresidentspreferredseasonallabor,tappingrubberorgatheringnutsonexpeditionsfinancedbylocalmerchants.Mostshowed“littleinterestinFordlandia.Claimpassageratestoohigh,toofarfromhome,andhighcostofliving.”LikewiseinSantarém,anotherFordmancomplainedthatwhiletherewere“hundreds(maybe2000)idlemen”whodidn’t“haveonethindime,”theydidn’t“wanttowork.”12

SteamboatontheTapajós.

HenryFordsentinstructionsthatFordlandiawastopayatleast25to35percentmorethanthelocalwage.ButitwasimpossibleforFordlandia’sstafftotranslatethatdifferentialintocash,sincesomuchoftherivereconomywascalculatedinkindandcredit.“Nofixedscaleofwagesexist,”Murraywrote.“Whatthecabocloearnsissecondarytohim.”Howmuch,heasked,wastobeaddedtoaFordwagethatwouldcompensateaworkerfortheabilitytothrowalineintotheriverandfishforthatnight’sdinner,evenashesatonadockandsortedbrazilnutsforsomemerchantwhohiredhimfortheday?13

IfFordpaidtoolittle,hewouldn’tattractenoughworkerstobeginwith.Ifhepaidtoomuch,therewasnothingtostopthosewhodidcomefrommeltingbackintothejungleoncetheyearnedenoughtoliveforafewmonthswithoutwork.Laborinexchangeforgoodsadvancedoncreditcreatedafamiliarsetofexpectations,againstwhichpurecashwagesandafixedscheduleoftencouldn’tcompete.Murraywrotethatwhattappers“likeistobefreeandgoandcomewhentheythinkfit.”It’sasentimentconfirmedmorerecentlybyanthropologistEdvigesMartaIoris.InthecourseoffieldworkinruralcommunitiesintheTapajósNationalForest,whichtodayoverlapswithwhatwasFordlandia,shemetafewsurvivingFordworkerswhotoldherthattheywouldstayontheplantationforatimebutleavewhentheyneededto“plantthefieldcrops,gofishing.”14

Murrayandotherrecruitersmostlyscoutedamongtherivercaboclocommunities,madeupofdescendantsofmigrantsfromBrazil’snortheasterndepartmentswhohadcometotheregionduringtherubberboom.Thesecommunities,whoseeconomyrestedsolelyonrubbertapping,werehard-hitwhenthelatexeconomycrashed.Ford,however,wasarrivingnearlytwodecadesafterthebust,whensomeofthemhadmanagedtoreviveanddiversifytheirsurvivalstrategies,plantingcrops,keepinganimals,andfishingtoprovideabasiclevelofsubsistence,takingjobswithlocalpatronsasneeded.

Buttherewerealsosettlementsofdesperatelypoor,hungryindigenouspeoplesaroundtheTapajóswhohadmanagedtosurvive,justbarely,rubber’sheyday.WhetherornotFordlandiawouldhavebeenabletodrawasignificantamountoflaborfromthesecommunitiesisdebatable,asacombinationofracismandignoranceprecludedanyone’seventrying.Atonepoint,alaborrecruiterindicatedthattherewasagroupof“2000starvingIndians”recentlysettledbythegovernmentonthebanksoftheXingu,ariverrunningroughlyparalleltotheTapajós,totheeast,andthattheywouldprobablywelcomeworkingatFordlandia,whichwouldprovidethemwith“freehousing,freemedicalattention,freehospital,goodwater,freeschool,andasteadyjobforsteadymen.”YetbeforeanagentcouldbedispatchedtotheXingu,EdmarJovita,anOxford-educatedBrazilianwhoworkedforthecompanybutwasthentraveling,sentatelegramurgingtheplantationto“havenothingtodowiththeseIndiansastheyarenottamed.”FordlandiawiredbackaskingifJovitathoughtthatjustahundredmencouldbehired,withthe“distinctunderstandingthattheyaresubjecttodiscipline.”ButtheBrazilianrespondedforcefully:“Todaymorethaneverhavetheopinionthatweshouldnothaveany[Indians]intheplantationeithertheseorothers....Youwouldhavetroubleahead.Eveniftheyweretametheyarelazyandundisciplined.Besidesallotherdefectstheyaretreacherous,eventhetamest.”Fordlandiarelented.“OkayonIndians.Werepeatwedon’twantthem.Gladyougotrightinformation.”15

FROMBEYONDTHEAmazon,wherewagelaborwasmoreinstitutionalized,manyimpoverishedBraziliansdidtraveltoFordlandiaattheirownexpense,toomanyforOxholmtohandle,eitherasplantationmanagerortownadministrator.Soonmorethanfivethousandpeoplelivedinandaroundtheplantation,aboutdoubleSantarém’spopulation.Thereexistedlittleinfrastructuretosupportsuchafast-growingcommunity.Through1929andinto1930,therewasnopermanentdockorreceptionhallforFordlandia’snewarrivals.Sowhenjobseekersgotoffthesteamboats,theyspreadoutalongtheriverfront,settingupfamilycamps,buildingcookingfires,andhangingtheirhammocks.Ajungleshantytownquicklytookshape.“Sometimesitisseveraldaysbeforetheypresentthemselvesattheemploymentoffice,”complainedoneforeman.

Themigrantswereavariedlot,describedbyoneobserverasmadeupof“thehopeless,thelame,theblind,theunemployedandeverythingelse,alongwithsomegoodmen.”Somewerehired.Butthosewhoweren’tstayedanyway,asdidmanywhowereinitiallyemployedyetquitsoonafter;witha300percentturnoverrate,Fordlandiahadtomakeaboutsixthousandhirestokeepapayrolloftwothousand.ManyofthesenewarrivalstookupresidenceinthesmallvillagesthatpredatedtheFordcontractanddottedtheperipheryoftheplantation,suchasPaud’Agua,asettlementofsharecropperslocatedaboutahalfmileupriverfromtheclearedriverfrontthat,likeBoaVistabeforeitssaletothecompany,wasownedbythemerchantFrancofamily.Awholeserviceeconomysprangupinthesevillages,andtheplantationbecame,asoneobserversentbyDearborntoseehowFord’snamesaketownwasprogressingputit,a“meccaforallundesirables,evencriminals,oftheentireAmazonValley.”These“troublemakers,”theFordofficialwenton,“endeavoredinanywayconceivabletomakealivingoffofthemenwhowereworkingforthecompany.”Thesuddeninfluxofcashgavebloomto“filthysmallcafes,restaurants,meatandfruitshops,”

gamblinghouses,andthatchedbordellosestablishedbylocalmerchantsandstaffedmostlywithwomenfromBrazil’spoornortheast.RiverboatspulleduptoFordlandia’smakeshiftdockdaily,andworkers“swarmedaboard”tobuybeerandcachaça.16

CaptainOxholmandJamesKennedy,Ford’saccountant,triedtohavethesevillagesdestroyed,buttheyranintoresistance.ThoughtheFrancoshadbeenwillingtopartwithBoaVista,theyinsistedonholdingontoPaud’Agua,whichprovidedthefamilyausefulmonthlyrevenueinrubber,pigs,hens,ducks,and,increasinglyasFord’swagesbegantoseepintothelocaleconomy,cash.InadditiontotheFrancos,anumberofotherlandownersalongtheTapajósanduptheCuparyRiverrefusedtomoveorsell,eventhoughpropertyvalueshadincreaseddramatically.WhatmadethisstandoffevenmoreintractablewasthattheFordMotorCompanyrefusedtocompensateresidentswhodidnothaveaclearandlegaldeed.Thismeantthatthosewhohadoccupiedtheirlandfordecadeswithouttitles,acommonenoughsituationintheAmazon,hadlittleincentivetomove.KennedywrotetoDearbornsayingthathehadmanagedtobuyoutafewfamilieswhodidhavedeeds.Yettheyrefusedtoleavetheirhomes,andwhentheaccountanttriedtohavethemevictedtheycomplainedtothepressthatFordhadswindledthem,buyingtheirlandfromilliteratefamilymemberswithouttheirauthorization.TheFordMotorCompanydidn’talwaysgetitsway—Fordwas,afterall,frustratedatMuscleShoals—yetitoftendid.InMichiganin1923,whenpropertyownersrefusedtoselllandwhereFordwantedtobuildahydroelectricdamtopoweroneofhisvillageindustries,thecompanygotthestatelegislaturetopassaneminentdomainlawthatallowedittoexpropriatetheproperty.ButintheBrazilianstateofPará,withGovernorValle’santi-Fordcampaigninfullswing,ajudgeissuedaninjunctionorderingKennedytoceasehisevictionthreats.17

PROHIBITIONWASONEoftheFordprinciplesOxholmwassworntouphold.IthadbeenthelawofthelandinMichigansince1916(alawthatFordlobbiedfor,tellingreportersthathewouldconvertDetroit’sbreweriestoproducealcoholfuelforhiscars)andintheUnitedStatessince1920.Prohibitionofcoursedidn’tstopdrinkingbutratherprovidedfertileopportunitiesfortheextensionoforganizedcrime.DetroitandDearbornsprawledwithbarsandspeakeasies.InMichigan’sUpperPeninsula,IronMountain,wheretheFordMotorCompanypaidhighwagestoalargeworkforce,alsosawthespreadof“unparalleledconditionsofviceandprostitution.”MobgangswithtiestoDetroit’sMafiamovedintosetupwhiskey“joints,”casinos,brothels,andmorphinedensalongitsmidway.“Onepretty18-year-oldmiss,”reportedalocalnewspaper,“hasfoundthatthereareshadowsaswellasbrightlightsalongtheprimrosepathofjazz,”havingsuccumbedtothetown’samplesupplyof“whitepowders.”18

ButtheproblemscreatedbythecriminalizationofalcoholfailedtodiminishFord’ssenseofvirtue.WithreportscominginaboutdrunkenrevelriesintheAmazon,heinsistedthatwhatwaslawinAmericabecompanypolicyinBrazil.“Mr.Fordconstantlyimpressedmewiththefactthathedidn’twantanyonearoundaddictedtoliquor,”ErnestLieboldrecalled.“Wewereinprohibition,andhewanteditenforced,asfarasouremployeeswereconcerned.Eventhoughitwasaforeigncountry,IthinkitwaslargelyinlinewithFordpolicytocarryitintothatcountry.Ifweweretopermitpromiscuoususeofliquoronourplantation,why,theemployeesmightoncertainoccasionsgetbeyondourcontrol.”19

ItwasFord’swill,butSorensenwashisenforcer.HefiredoffonedirectiveafteranothertoOxholm,demandingstrictcompliancewithProhibition.“Weabsolutelywillnothaveit,”meaningalcohol,“onourproperty.Weknowfromeventsthathavehappenedduringthepastyearthatdrinkinghastakenplace.”Heinsistedon“absolutelynotolerance.”20

Intruth,Oxholmwaspowerlesstostopthedebauchery.Hecouldn’tevenkeepalepernamedCastrofromcampingonthedocktosolicitalms.Shooedaway,themendicantsimplyreturnedwhenthecaptain’sattentionswereelsewhere.Similarly,whenOxholmdidmanagetoshutdownafewbordellosandbars,theproprietorssimplysetupshoponanislandjustoffFordlandia’sbanks,buildingtheirbrothelsonstiltsbecausetheislandwashalfwetlandsandpronetofloods.Itwasironicallydubbedthe“IslandofInnocence”since,asEimarFrancoputit,“nooneonitwasinnocent.”

Besides,Oxholmhimselfdevelopedafondnessforcachaçacomlimão.Manyafternoons,evenbeforetheworkdayhadcometoaclose,he’dtakeafastlaunchovertotheislandofUrucuritubatovisithisfriendFranciscoFranco,whoafterhisnephewLuizusedthemoneyfromthesaleofBoaVistatomovetoBelém,hadtakenoverthemainhacienda.SwayingonahammockonFranco’sveranda,rightinfrontofthechapeltoSaintPeter,OxholmsippedrumandwatchedFordlandia’sbustle.21

BACKONHISsideoftheTapajós,Oxholmfoundhimselfgoverningacommunityofailingmigrants.Bylate1929,theworkforcehadgrownconsiderably,yetonanygivendayaboutahundredwouldbeinthehospitalsick.The“amountofmedicalattentionfortheapproximately1300menonthepayroll,”hewroteDearborn,“iswayoutofproportiontowhatonewouldexpect.”Duringtherainyseason,thenumbersofsickincreased,taxingthehospital“tothelimit.”Itsbedsfilledwithworkerswithsuppuratingsoresontheirfeetandlegs.Themedicalstaffwaschargednotjustwithtreatingthesickbutwithscreeningrecruits.PotentialemployeesstrippednakedinfrontofaForddoctor,whoexaminedtheireyesandears,recordedtheirweightandheight,andtooktheirurine.22Thecompanyrejected5to10percentofallapplicants.Somewereturnedawayforillnessesrangingfromcirrhosisandbronchitistoparalysis,hernias,andleprosy.Onewasblindintherighteye.Anotherintheleft.Andatleastonejob-seekerwastooshort.23

Thatdidn’tmeaneveryonewhogotajobwashealthy.Morethan85percentofjobseekershadinthepastsufferedfromatleastonedisease:syphilis,malaria,beriberi,dysentery,parasites,typhoid,ringworm,filariasis—causedbyamosquito-bornethreadwormthatinfectsthelymphaticsystemandleadstoathickeningoftheskin—oryaws,skinulcerscausedbybacteria.ButOxholmcouldn’taffordtoturnanybodywithsuch“gardenvariety”illnessesawaysince“nearlyeveryonehasthem.”ByDecember,athirdofthehiredworkforcehadtopasssometimeinthehospitalbeforeevengettingstarted.24

Healsohadtodealwiththeemployeeswhohadcontractedvenerealdiseases,runningatarateofaboutnineamonth,inthecamp’sbordellos.WhenaForddoctorvisitedoneofthebrothels,hefoundthatsevenofitsnineprostituteshadanactivegynecologicalinfection.Oxholmorderedthefollowingsignpostedaroundtheworksitesandvillages:

ItisaseriousmattertocontractvenerealdiseaseduringtheperiodofemploymentinthisCompanyandtheCompanywishestodiscourageit.AnyemployeehavingcontractedvenerealdiseasemustimmediatelyreportthefacttotheMedicalDepartment.IncaseitisdecidedtohospitalizehimtheCompanyreservestherighttochargeareasonableamounttocoverthisservice.AtintervalstheremaybeaMedicalInspectionofemployeestoascertainifthereareanyunreportedcases.ThedispositionofthesecaseswillbeatthediscretionoftheCompany.

Astothewomen,Oxholmwouldnottreatthem:“Wedonotwanttohaveanythingtodowiththem,andhaveabsolutelyrefusedtreatmentinanyway,shape,orform.Wehopethatbydoingsotheywillbeforcedtoleave.”

ThefamiliesofmigrantworkersputyetanotherstrainonFordlandia’salreadyoverwhelmedhealthservices.Plantationadministratorsfactoredintothecostoftransportonewifeandthreechildrenperworker.ButtheysoonrealizedthatworkersfromnortheastBrazil,wheremanymigrantstotheAmazonoriginated,were,asonelaborrecruiterputit,“veryprolificand5childrenshouldbereckoned.”Themedicalstaffwascompletelyunpreparedtodealwiththeinfluxofthesechildren,manyofwhomweremalnourishedandsufferedfromhookworm,intestinalillnesses,andjunglefevers.“Whilewemakeitapracticetoexaminemenwhoenterouremploy,”thecaptainreportedtoDearborn,“wehavenotbeenexaminingthewomenandchildrenwholiveinthenativecamp,andeveryriverboatwhichreachesourpropertyisbringingmoreofthem.Theboatsarealsobringinginfriendsandrelativesofemployees.”Oxholmhadtorelent,allowingthehospitaltosetupachildren’sward,whichwasneverwithoutaseverecaseofmalnutrition.

Tooffsetalltheseexpenses,Oxholmsuggestedthatthecompanyabandonitspromiseoffreemedicalcare.Hesetupapaymentscalethatwouldcoverjobapplicantswhoneededhospitaltreatmentbeforetheystartedworking,familymemberswhorequiredcare,andthoseemployeeswhocontractedvenerealdiseasedespitethepostedwarnings.Hewantedtodeductfeesfromsalaries,yettherewasnobookkeepingsysteminplacethatcouldmanagesuchaccounts.IttooksometimetolocatetheofficesuppliesthatwerepackedintheFarge,andoncetheywerefound,typewritercarriageshadrustedandpaperhadgrownmoldyfromthehumidity.Theroofoftheaccountingofficepouredinwatersothateverytimeitrained“allrecordshavetobegatheredupandputawayandtheofficeforcehastoevacuatethebuildinguntiltherainhasceased.”Inanycase,whenOxholmtoldDearbornofficialsofhisplan,theyoverruledhim,insistingthatmedicalcareshouldremainfree.

INHISSEARCHforlabor,OxholmalsolookedtotheBritishCaribbean,whichhadalonghistoryofsupplyingworkerstolarge-scaleconstructionprojectsthroughoutLatinAmerica,suchasthePanamaCanal.InthefirstcoupleofmonthshemanagedtoattractanumberofWestIndiansfromtheupperAmazonwhohadsurvivedtheconstructionofthe228-mileMadeira-to-Mamorétrainline,oneofthemostbrutalandill-conceivedindustrialprojectseverexecuted.Thelinewasstartedinthe1870sattheheightoftherubberboomwiththeideaofbypassingaseriesofformidablerapidsthathinderedtheuseoftheupperMadeiraRiver,whichranroughlyparalleltotheTapajós,fartherwest.AnengineerforthefirstcompanytoundertakethistaskcalledtheAmazona“charnelhouse,”withworkers“dyinglikeflies”astheytriedtobuildaraillinethat“ranthroughaninhospitablewildernessofswampandporphyryridges.”Evenwiththe“commandofallthecapitalintheworldandhalfitspopulation,itwouldbeimpossibletobuildtheroad.”Aseriesofothercompanieswereengagedtofinishthejobuntilonefinallydid,in1912,justastheboomcollapsed.Alltold,itcost$30millionandtooktenthousandlives—one,itissaid,foreverytiethatwaslaid.25

Whenthelinewascompleted,workers,includinganumberofWestIndians,wereleftabandonedintherailroadworkcampofPortoVelho,whichhadgrownintoasmall,destitutecity.AtthenewsthatFordwashiring,manyheadeddowntheAmazonandthenuptheTapajóstotheplantation.AddedtothesestrandedWestIndiansrailworkersweremigrantswhocamedirectlyfromJamaica,Barbados,andSaintLucia.

Theyarrivedatacampwheremanyofthesameconditionsthatsparkedtheriotinlate1928continued—poorhousingandworkingconditions,particularlyforthosehiredtoclearthejungle,confusingpayschedules,andbadfood—aggravatedbystridentattemptstoregulatehygieneandenforceProhibition.InJune1929,aknifefightbrokeoutbetweenaBrazilianworkerandJosephHippolyte,amigrantfromSanta

Lucia,asthetwomenwaitedonlinetoreceivetheirwages.HippolytestabbedtheBrazilian,whosefriendsretaliatedbynearlybeatingtheSantaLuciantodeath.

InhisreporttoSorensen,theincreasinglybeleagueredOxholmseizedthemomenttoshowcasehisdecisiveness.HeblamedthebrawlonBrazilianracism,sayingthatitwasimpossibletomakenativeworkerstoilalongside“foreignNegroes.”AsVillaresdidthepreviousyear,Oxholmclaimedthathisquickactionshadheadedoffariot,tellingSorensenthathegaveallofFordlandia’sWestIndianssometravelmoney,loadedthemonalighter,andsentthemdownriver.

“Wethinkyouwillagreewithus,”hewrote,hedgingbehindtheplural,“thatonsuchoccasionsastheseaquickanddecisivepolicyisbetterthandilly-dallyingandwaitingforeventswhichmayprovetobedisastrous.”

TheBritishconsulinBelémdisagreed.HewrotetoHenryFordsayingthatOxholm’semphasisonBrazilianprejudicedivertedattentionfromhisalreadywell-knownincompetence.ThediplomatpointedoutthatfordecadesWestIndianshadworkedonlarge-scalerailwayandpublicworksprojectsthroughouttheAmazonvalley“onfriendlytermsalongsidetheirBrazilianfellows.”HealsocontestedOxholm’sclaimthattheplantationhadcoveredthetravelcostsoftheexiledworkersto“wherevertheywantedtogo.”AtleasthalfpaidtheirownfaretoBelém,wheretheyfoundthemselves“strangersinalandofwhichtheydidnotspeakthelanguage.”ManywerestrandedatthemouthoftheAmazonina“moreorlessdestitutecondition.”AsaresultofOxholm’sactions,hesaid,FordcouldnolongercountonHerMajesty’sassistanceinsecuringCaribbeanworkers.

“Iinvitethecompany,”theconsulconcluded,“toconsiderwhether,inthecircumstancesdescribed,inpreferencetosacrificingjusticetoexpediency,theydonotfeelthemselvesbound,atleastmorallyandequitably,ifnotlegally,toassumesomeresponsibilityfortheloss[totheWestIndianworkers]theiractionhasinvolved.”26

Oxholm,though,hadmorepressingmatterstoworryabout.Rubberplanter,constructionmanager,townplanner,healthcareprovider,Prohibitionist,theseacaptainhadyetanotherresponsibilitytodischarge:undertaker.

Bytheendof1929,ninetypeoplehadbeenburiedinthecompanycemetery,sixty-twoofthemworkersandtherest“outsiderswhohaddiedontheproperty.”Mostofthedeathswerefrommalnutritionandcommondisease.Butlethalsnakebites,fromvipersespecially,infectionsfromant,hornet,orvampirebatbites,and,beforepropershelterswerebuilt,jaguars,whichoccasionallysnatchedbabiesrightfromtheirhammocks,allmadetheplantationespeciallydangerousduringthoseearlyyears.Oxholm’smaidhadherarmbittenoffbyacaimanandbledtodeathwhilebathingintheTapajós.Andthecompanywasresponsibleforinterringallwhodiedontheplantation,notjustworkers.AsOxholmexplainedtoDearborn,Brazil’scivilcoderequiredthat“ifstrangerscometoourpropertyandwerenderthemaidweareresponsiblefortheirburialintheeventofdeath”—alawthatinvokedabondbetweendeath,community,andsoilreminiscentofGabrielGarcíaMárquez’sobservation,madeinanovelaboutthefoundationofanotherdoomedtown,that“apersondoesn’tbelongtoaplaceuntilthereissomeonedeadunderground.”Ayearlater,therewerethreetimesasmanygraves—includingfourthatcontainedOxholm’sownchildren.

BYTHEENDof1928,itseemsthatFord—whoonceclaimedtohaveinventedthemodernworldandallthatwentwithit—foundhimselfinmuchthesamepositionasdidSpanishandPortugueseconquistadorescenturiesearlier:presidingoveranenormouslandgrantpopulatedbyquiteanumberofdependents.

FriendFordhadbecomeLordFord.

CHAPTER12

THEFORDWAYOFTHINKINGTOFORD’SPEOPLEBACKINDEARBORN,THECONFLUENCEOFEVENTSinBrazilhamperingthedevelopmentoftheplantation—threatstorevokeexporttaxexemptions,seizureofseeds,leviesofimportduties,rebelliousworkers,andrelentlessbadpress—seemedlikeaconspiracy,aconfirmationofpreexistingprejudicesmanyofthemhadaboutdoingbusinessinLatinAmerica.Whattodo?ThedecisiontoinvestinrubbercultivationhadbeenbasedontheassumptionthatFord’sAmazonoperationwouldpayforitself,notwithlatexatfirstbutwiththesaleoflumberorminerals.Butmountingcostsandflounderingconstructionprovedsuchaforecastwildlyoptimistic.Alreadybythebeginningof1929,Fordhadspentoveramillionandahalfdollarswithlittletoshowforit.AnevengreaterconcernthanthemoneywasFord’sreputation,fornewspapersandnewsreelshadalreadyannouncedtheimminentrescueoftheAmazonfromthe“scrapheapofcivilization.”SowithHenryFord“exercised”aboutimportduties,andCharlesSorensen“annoyed”byOxholm’sinabilitytoresolvematters,thecompanydidsomethingFordhadalwaysbeenloathtodo:itturnedtoWashingtonforhelp.1

TheFordMotorCompanyhadextensiveoverseasbusinessinterests.Yetremarkablyithadnocontacts,eitherformalorpersonal,withanyoneintheStateDepartment.EdselhadtogotoHerbertHoover,nowpresident,whilethecompany’schieflawyer,CliffordLongley,approachedAttorneyGeneralWilliamMitchell,askingtobeputintouchwiththerightpeople.Outoftheseinquiries,SorensenobtainedameetingwithDanaMunro,theassistantsecretaryofstateforLatinAmerica.ButwhenhetraveledtoWashingtontoaskforhelpinputtingpressureonRio,MunrotreatedSorensencoolly.Thiswasperhapstobeexpectedconsideringthecompany’slonghistoryofcold-shoulderingUSdiplomats.Whateverthereason,theassistantsecretaryconsideredFord’sBraziliantaxproblemroutineandsimplysentoffaperfunctorydirectivetotheembassyinBraziltorenderwhateverassistancepossible.Tolittleeffect.TheAmericanambassador,abouttosailtoEuropeonhissummervacation,hadlefthisconsiderablylessinfluentialdeputytohandlethematter.2

WithnohelpfromWashingtonforthcoming,FordappointedWilliamCowlingashispersonalrepresentativeanddispatchedhimtoBraziltomakethingsright.Aloyal“Fordling”—asmidlevelexecutiveswithoutofficialtitlewereknown—CowlingwasbutthefirstofmanysuchfixersDearbornwouldsendtoBraziloverthenextcoupleofyears.3

CowlingarrivedinRioonAugust8,1929,andspentthenextninedaysmeetingwithgovernmentofficialsandother“peopleofimportance.”Hewasn’tlookingforaquicksettlement.Hesensedthatthegamewouldnotbewonbylegalormoralrighteousness.AlthoughSorensenandothercompanyofficialssawFord’sproblemsinBrazilasallconnected,Cowlingknewtheysprangfromdifferentsources,especiallyfromconfusedlinesofauthorityseparatingstateandfederaljurisdiction.ItwasthenationalgovernmentthatimposedimportdutiesandembargoedbuildingmaterialsentfromDearborn,whilethestategovernmentsappliedexporttaxes.WhohadthepowertoimpedeinterstatecommerceandseizeFord’sseedswasanybody’sguess,andCowlingleftthatissuetobedecidedbyBrazil’sSupremeCourt.

Cowling,whobothinallegianceandinmannerwasdecidedlynotaHarryBennettman,quicklyunderstoodthattheissuesatplaywerenotnecessarilycapturedinthereportsandnewspaperclippingssenttoDearborn.Hemovedcarefullyandinhismeetingswithofficialsdidn’tpushforanimmediate

answeronspecificmattersliketheimportdutydispute,preferringtoletthelawyerswhoworkedfortheForddealershipinRioresolvethematter.Thelargerproblem,heguessed,wasthatFordagents,particularlythoseinBelémassociatedwiththeplantation,mostlykepttothemselves,doinglittletoestablishfriendshipswithBrazilianpoliticiansandbusinessmen.Hedecidedtofocusonmakingcontacts,buildinggoodwill,andsolayinga“thoroughfoundationforfutureaction.”Cowlinghopedto“educateBraziltotheFordwayofthinking,”notarrogantly,asthatphrasesuggests,butratherbyconvincinglocalopinionmakersofthesincerityofFord’smotives.4

ASHELEFTRio,sailingnorthonaslowboataroundBrazil’seasternbulge,pastthecityofRecifetoBelém,Cowlinghadtimetoreflectonwhathebelievedwastherootofthecompany’sproblem.HeputdownhisideasintwolengthyletterstoHenryFordandothertop-levelcompanyofficials.5

Firstoff,Cowlingwrote,FordlandiawaslocatedfarfromRiodeJaneiro,thecenterof“Brazilianthought,”andwhatpeoplethere“knowaboutit,orthinktheyknow,comestotheminanundergroundway,fullofscandalofallsorts,detailingtheworstimproprietiesonthepartofplantmanagersandotherAmericans.”Outrageovertherevelationsofkickbacksandbribeswasnotreallytheissue;the“factthatwepaidforcertainworthlessconcessions”wasappreciatedas“goodbusinessabilityonthepartofthosewhosoldtous.”“OfficialBrazil”wasnotsomuchindignantoverthecorruptionasdisappointedinFord’sbusinessskill.AndthatFordsubsequentlymadeabigdealof“absolutehonesty”inalltransactions,ofrefusingtoindulgein“pettygraft,”onlyaddedtothedisenchantment.Itseemedthecarmakerhadfollowedupcredulitywithnaïveté.

This,Cowlingbelieved,ledtoasecond,moreseriousperceptionproblem.Many“higher-upBrazilians,”havingreadFord’sbooksandinterviews,couldn’treconcilewhathesaidwiththestoriestheyheardfromFordlandia,talesoflostopportunities,mismanagement,wildparties,and“drunkenrevelry,notbynativesbutbyourownmen.”Suchgossipwouldn’tmatterforanyothercompany.ButFord’sself-promotedreputationforrectitudeandefficiencysetahighbar.

WhenCowlingassuredBrazil’sministerofagriculture,whohailedfromParáandwasanallyofGovernorValle,thatHenryFordwas“takingapersonalinterest”inFordlandia,theministersaidthathewasgladtohearitforhe“feareduptothistimethathewasnot.”Cowlingaskedhimtoexplain,andtheministerrepliedbecausehehad“readMr.Ford’sbooksverycarefully”andthereforehadtheideathatFord’s“successwasduechieflytothefactthatnothingwasallowedtobewasted.”AndyettherewerereportsofthesquanderingofresourcesintheAmazon,including“thousandsofdollarsworthofwonderfultreeswhichhadbeenburnedinclearingtheland.”IftheUnitedStatesdidn’tneedthelumber,theministersaid,surelyBrazilcoulduseit.

CowlingwarnedFordnottounderestimatethepoliticalintelligenceofBrazilianofficials.“WemustnevergettheideathatthoseinpowerinBrazilarenotshrewd,”hesaid.They“matchupverywellwiththosewemeetinWashington.”ButneithershouldFordequatethiscunningwithmerevenality.WhateverproblemsthecompanyhadinBrazil,theyhadlittletodowithcorruption.“TheyneverforgetBrazil,”hesaidofthecountry’sleaders,revealinganabilitytoappreciatethecomplexissuesfacinglocalpoliticiansusuallybeyondthereachofmostFordmen.If“theyarecorrupt,itisnotinsuchasmallwayasininterferingwithus.Therearealwaysbiggerthingsthanplayingwithoneindustry.”

Theproblemwasratherthecompany’sactions,whichhadnurturedabemuseddetachmentamongBrazil’spoliticalclass.EverypoliticianCowlingmetwithseemedtobereadingfromthesamescript.TheyfirstexpressedgreatadmirationforHenryandEdselandgraciouslyacceptedthegiftofsigned

photographsofthetwoFordsthatCowlingpresentedonHenry’sbehalf.Thentheyapologizedfornotbeingabletohelpsincetheconcessiondidn’tfallunderfederaljurisdiction.Nexttheyclaimedthattheyhadn’treallybeenfollowingeventsalongtheTapajós.Thentheyofferedtellingcriticismsandrecommendations.“Theyknowmoreaboutourprogress,”wroteCowling,“thansomeofusdo,buttheyneveradmitit,fortodosowouldbetoplacethemselvesinthepositionofhavingtoexpressanopinion”—andsofarthebunglingoftheFordMotorCompanydidn’tdeservesuchacommitment.

“Andso,”Cowlingconcluded,“outofallthischaotictalkhascomeasortofindifferenceonthepartofpoliticalinfluences,adecidedsuspiciononthepartofnewspapermenthatwewerenotallweclaimedtobe,andbackofitalltheideathatintheendwewoulddowhateveryoneelsehasdonebeforeus,exploitthecountrytothefullestextent.”

UPONARRIVINGINBelém,Cowlingshiftedtactics.InRio,Brazil’spoliticalandculturalcapital,notwantingtoseemimperious,hewiselydecidednottopushtheissueofimportduties,preferringtoletthematterwinditswaythroughthecourts.Butintheprovinces,Cowling’ssolicitousnessgavewaytoahardline.HemetwithValle,lettinghimknowincleartermsthatFordwouldpulloutoftheAmazonifthegovernor’sharassmentcontinued.Valleblinked,andonthekeyissueofexporttaxesthetwomenreachedacompromise:theplantationwouldholdofffromexportinganythingfortwoyears,afterwhichitwouldbeexemptfromduties,asperthetermsoftheoriginalconcession.Followingthissettlement,amonthlater,Brazil’sSupremeCourtorderedthereleaseofFord’sseeds—thoughthiswasasymbolicvictory,sincemostofthegatheredseedshadgerminated.6

Muchencouraged,CowlingnexttraveledtoFordlandiatoseeforhimselfifwhatBrazilianofficialshadtoldhimwastrue,iftheplantationwasreallyinasbadshapeastheysaiditwas.Andsureenough,whathefoundafteralongandlistlesstripuptheAmazon,firsttoSantarémonasteamer,andthentotheestateonacompanylaunch,madeamockeryofeverythingtheFordMotorCompanyanditsstate-of-the-artRiverRougeplantstoodfor:efficiency,synchronization,orderliness,smartuseofresources,discipline,andindependence.

WithinafewweeksofCowling’sSeptember1929visittoFordlandia,HenryFordwouldpresideoverLight’sGoldenJubilee,acelebrationtomarkthefiftiethanniversaryofThomasEdison’sinventionoftheincandescentlamp.Fivehundredinviteesattendedthecommemoration,includingJohnD.Rockefeller,MarieCurie,OrvilleWright,WillRogers,GerardSwope,thepresidentofGeneralElectric,JuliusRosenwald,theheadofSears,Roebuck(whoyearsearlierhadbeensingledoutintheDearbornIndependent’santi-Semiticcampaign),J.P.Morgan(whomFordhadattackedasawarmonger),PresidentHerbertHoover,and,ofcourse,theeighty-two-year-oldThomasEdison,whohadtakenabreakfromworkathisFortMyers,Florida,laboratory,wherehewasstilltryingtofindsubstitutesfortropicalrubber.TheeventnominallytookplaceatFord’srecentlyconstructedGreenfieldVillage,themodeltownneartheRougecomposedofhistoricalhomesandbuildingsimportedfromotherlocations.ButthecelebrationreallytookplacealloverAmericaandbeyond.AlbertEinsteinaddressedthecrowdbyradiofromGermany.Inalivecoast-to-coastbroadcast,anNBCannouncerdramatizedthemomentthatEdisonlitthefirstelectricbulbinhisMenloPark,NewJersey,laboratory.Acrossthecountry,Americanswereurgedtoparticipatebyshuttingofftheirlights,gatheringaroundtheirradiosinthedark,andthenswitchingthemonwhentheyheardthecue:“Mr.Edisonhastwowiresinhishand;nowheisreachinguptotheoldlamp;nowheismakingtheconnection....Itlights!Light’sGoldenJubileehascometoatriumphantclimax.”Theextravaganza,whichwasheldonOctober21,aweekbeforethestockmarketcrash,wastomarknotjusttheinventionofelectriclightin1879butthehalfcenturyofdizzying

technologicalinnovationthathadfollowed,includingthetelephone,motionpictures,theinternalcombustionengine,thetransistor,andtheautomobile.7

BackontheTapajós,Oxholmwashavingtroublekeepinglitthestringofbulbsthathungoverthefewbedraggledstreetshehadcarvedoutofthejungle.EquipmentandtoolsunloadedfromtheOrmocandFargelayscatteredaroundthegrounds,andtherehadbeennoattempttodoaninventoryorsetupacheckoutsystem.Theftwasrampant.Oxholmhadstillnotconstructedapermanentdockorcentralreceivingbuilding,soadditionalmaterialshippedfromBelémorDearbornpiledupontheriverbank,likewiseunsupervised.Bagsofconcretesatonthebanks,“hardasarock.”8

Treeshadbeencutbackfromtheriverside,buttheunderbrushremaineduntouched.Inthethousandacrescleanedandburnedforplanting,charred,blackstumps,whichOxholmdidn’tbothertopullup,mingledlikedarkenedtombstonesamongtheemergingseedlings,makingtheplantationlooklikeanuntendedgraveyard.Thecaptainhadbuiltsomehouses,butnotnearlyenoughtomeettheneedseitherofworkersorofmanagersandtheirfamilies.Thehospitalbuildinghad“sunkonitsfoundationsandleakedterribly.”Thesoggyofficedoubledasaresidenceforitsstaff,withluggagestoredontheporchforlackofclosetspace.TherewasnoplaceforvisitingBrazilianofficialstosleep,sotheystrungtheirhammockswheretheycould.OnemarriedAmericancouplesleptinan“oldseedshed.”Anotherthreatenedtoleaveifthecompanydidn’tprovidethemwithadecenthouse.AsOxholmhadyettoassembletherefrigerationplant,keepingfoodfreshforalaborforcenowwelloverathousandremainedaproblem.9

ThroughoutMay,June,andJuly,Oxholmhadrushedtomeettheconcession’sJuly1929deadlineforplantingathousandacreswithrubber.ButManaus’sseizureofFord’sseedsforcedhimtouselocalseedsofdubiousquality,andhedidsoatthebeginningofthedryseason,theworsttimetoplantrubber.Inhishastetomeetthetermsofthecontract,Oxholmsentgangsofworkerstospreadoutacrosstheclearedjunglearmedwithsticks,oneendwhittledtoapoint,whichtheyjabbedintothegroundtomakeplantingholes.Asecondteamfollowedbehind,droppingeitherhastilygatheredseedsorseedlingsfromamakeshiftnurserythatoneBritishobserversaidwere“ruthlesslytornoutoftheground”andthenleftunderthe“hotsun”for“two,three,andevenfourdays.”InagreeingtoaJulydeadline,IdeandBlakeleyhadnoidea,andifVillareshadhedidn’tleton,thattheclearingoftropicaljunglebesttakesplaceinthedryseasonandtheplantingofrubberinthewet.HavingstartedworkonFordlandiainearly1928,theFordmenhadonlyonedryseason(JunetoDecember1928)toprepareathousandacresforplantingduringthesubsequentrainymonths,whichineffectedshortenedtheJulydeadlinetoAprilorMay.ThatOxholmwasplantingatthebeginningofthedryseasonwasofcoursenothisfault,consideringthemessBlakeleylefthim,thedifficultyofsecuringastablelaborforce,andManaus’sseedembargo.NorcouldhehaveknownthatBlakeley’sabundantuseofgasolinetofirethefelledjunglehadscorchedthesoilofthefirstlotcleared,adverselyaffectingitsabilitytonurturehealthyrubber.Itdidn’thelpthatafewmonthsearlierOxholmhaddrivenRaimundoMonteirodaCosta,oneofthefewpeoplewithrubberexperienceinFord’semploy,offtheestateafteranargumentoverplantingtechniques.Bytheendof1929,itwasclearthat,whilehavingmettheconcession’srequirements,Fordlandia’sfirstplantingwouldhavetobeplowedunderand“plantedwithbetterseedsattherighttime.”10

AterracedhillsideinFordlandiaplantedwithrubber.

ThesawmillposedproblemsforOxholmaswell.Blakeleybeforehimhadindeed,astheministerofagriculturecomplainedtoCowling,begunclearinglandduringtherainyseason.Theplantationwaslitteredwith“hugepilesofgreenwood”thatcouldbeneitherburnednorcutintolumberbecausethefelledwoodwastoobig,toosoft,ortoowet.Inaddition,neitherBlakeleynorOxholmhadproperlygradedthe2½-mileroadleadingfromtheplantationclearingtothesawmill.Whentherainsturnedtheroadintomud,astheydidmosteveryday,theplantation’stractorscouldn’thaulthelogstothemill.Evenwhenworkerslaycuttreesovertheworststretches,creatingwhatlumberjackscallacorduroyroad,itwasstillslowgoing.Andwhentheydidgetthrough,theycouldtransportonlyabouteighttotenlogsatatime.Withgasolineatforty-eightcentsagallon,thecostofmovingwoodwithintheplantationalonewasprovingtobeprohibitive.11

LikeMichigan’sUpperPeninsula,theTapajósvalleyisfilledwithmixedstandsofbroad-leavedtreesaboutahundredfeetinheight,withrobust,shade-providingcrownsandstraighttrunksrelativelyfreeofbranches.YetunlikeinMichigan,wheremostspecieswereneithertoohardnortoosoftandfellwithinaprofitablerange,muchofthewoodintheTapajóswaseithertoopulpyortoodensetobeusable.Someofthelargesttrees,likeangelim,wereoftenhollow.AndMichigansawblades,whentheydidn’trustfromthehumidity,werenomatchforthehardestofBrazilianhardwood.A“round-sawwouldscreamhalfwaythroughagiantlogandstopdead,”reportedamanager,whilea“band-sawwouldmeltintosmoke.”BeingFordmenthemanagersdidwhatFordmendowhenconfrontedwithanobstacle:theyorderedaspeedup.Runningdoublefast,the“sawsshookdowntheirstationsandalmostwreckedthemill,”blowing

outtheelectricgeneratoranddelayingworkuntilDearborncouldsendhardenedblades.

AlsounliketheUpperPeninsula,whichcountedonaverageaboutsixdifferenttreetypesperacre,theTapajóscontainedaboutahundreddifferentspecieswithinthesamespace.Sawyersquicklyrealizedthatpotentiallyprofitabletreeswerenevergroupedtogetherbutscatteredthroughouttheforest.Andtheforestwassothickwithtrees,climbers,andvinesthatfourorfivetreeswouldhavetobecutandyankedbeforeaclearingcouldbemadeforafreefall.“Itcosttoomuch,”rememberedonelumberjack,“togetinhereandtherethroughthetimbertogetthekindofwoodthatwasanygood.Youcouldn’twalktenfeetintothewoodswithoutcuttingyourway.Itisjustamassofjungleandvines.”

Makingahighcutonabigtree.

SoOxholmbegantopurchaselumberforhisconstructionneeds,whichmeantthattheplantationwasnotonlyfailingtogenerateincomefromtimberbutactuallylosingmoneytopurchaseit.Andsincetheunsettledcustomsdutyissuemadetheimportationofvalue-addedmaterialexpensive,OxholmhadnochoicebuttobuyrawtimberinBrazilandmillitattheplantation.Heendeduppurchasingwoodfromlocalindigenousvillages.TheFordMotorCompanymayhavebeenbringingthetechniquesofcentralizedandsynchronizedmassindustrialproductiontotheAmazon,butforatleastatimeitreliedonjungledwellersusinglittlemorethancrudehandaxestosupplyitswould-berubberplantationwithlumber.12

Atthispoint,HenryFord,whohadpioneeredinnovativeconservationmethodsinhistimberlandsinthe

UpperPeninsula,interveneddirectly.Heorderedanendtotheburningofwood,demandingthatlogsbemilledandstoreduntil“suchtimeasworldpricesmakeitsalableatthisend,andataprofit.”ButFordlandia’ssawyershadlittleexperiencestoringhardwoodinahumidenvironment,andthesun-driedlumberquicklyrottedandwarped.EdselFordquietlycountermandedhisfather,allowingfortheburningofallwoodthatwas“worm-eatenandrapidlydecaying.”13

AndOxholmhadnomoreluckthandidMichiganofficialsenforcingFord’s“absolutelynotolerance”liquorpolicy.Hetriedtoevictthe“squatters,”ascompanyofficialsnowcalledtitleholderswhowouldn’tsell,andtoshutdownbarsandbrothels.ButfacedwithwhattheNewYorkTimesdescribedas“smalluprisings”ofmachete-wieldingprotesters,hebackeddown.Effortstokeepworkersoffliquorboatsalsoresultedinthethreatof“armedresistanceonseveraloccasions,”accordingtoOxholm,whoturnedtoBrazilianauthoritiesforhelp.ButalltheydidwaspointoutthatProhibitionwasaUS,notaBrazilian,law.Theyalsocriticizedhishypocrisysince,astheypointedout,theNorwegiancaptainandhisforemenwereknowntoliketheirdrink.BalkingattheattemptbyFordlandia’smanagersto“applyProhibitiontoBrazilianworkerswithoutacceptingitthemselves,”alocalmagistrateorderedOxholmtolettheliquorboatsdockalongsideFord’sproperty.WhenplantationmanagersturnedtotheitinerantCatholicpriesttohelppreachagainstdrinking,herefused.“Forheaven’ssake,”hesaid,“I’mnotaBaptist.”14

SodespitetheconcernsofBraziliannationalistswhothoughtthattheconcessiongrantedtoomuchautonomytoFord,theplantationfounditselfcaughtinarelationshipwiththerestoftheAmazonsimilartotheoneThirdWorldcountriesoftenhavewiththeFirst:extremedependency.OxholmdependedonadetachmentofBraziliansoldiersequippedwithmachinegunsandotherarmstokeeporder.Stuckinthemiddleofarainforestyetrequiringasteadyflowofmoneytopayworkersandsuppliers,hedependedontheBelém-basedBankofLondonandSouthAmericafortwice-monthlycashshipments.Nowherenearclosetothestandardofself-sufficiencyFordsetforhisvillageindustriesbackintheUnitedStates,OxholmdependedonIndianswholivedalongtheTapajóstosupplythecampwithfishandproduceandonlocalmerchantsforcattleandotherfood.Thoughhehadaccesstoafewboats,includingaspeedyChris-Craft,togobackandforthtoSantarém(andUrucurituba),Oxholmdependedonlocalancientwood-burningsteamerstobringgoodsandpeopletotheplantation.“Thewordsslow,inadequate,aggravating,etc.hardlyexpresswhatcouldbesaidregardingthismatter,”wasoneDearbornofficial’sdescriptionofhistripuptheAmazon.15

Overandover,Fordlandia’smanagersfoundthemselvesreliantonoutsidesupport,unabletoreplicateeithertheextremeindependencepioneeredbyFordandSorensenattheRougeortheEmersonianidealofself-relianceembodiedinFord’scommunityfactoriesandmills.

THEDAYBEFOREhelefttheestate,Cowlingsummoneditsstaffand“lecturedthemseverelyfortheirlackoforganizationandefficiency.”HewasharshonOxholm,whomhefoundoverbearingandarrogantandunwillingtoofferdirectiontohismanagersandforemen.Cowlingcondemnedthelackoforganizationthathadproduced“wasteofvariouskindswhichisappalling.”Withnoleadershiporplanformovingforward,theplantation’sforemen,hesaid,wereturningincircles.Onnumerousoccasionsduringhisshortstay,Cowlinghadseenfourorfivemembersofthestaffdeepinconversationforextendedperiodsoftimeovermattersofrelativelylittleimportance,andeventhentheyoftendidn’tcometoadecisionaboutwhattodonext.

“Manythings,”CowlingscoldedOxholm,“arebegunandthennotfollowedupandtosaythatyour

entireoperationiscostingatleastfiftypercentmorethanitshouldisputtingitmildly.”16

CowlingurgedtheNorwegiancaptaintoactinawaythatwouldrepairthe“moralreputationoftheFordMotorCompany”andtoliveuptoa“highersenseofdutytotheCompanyaswellasakeenerideaofpersonalresponsibilityinyourwork.”“Youarealongwaysfromyouroldhome,butyoumustcarryonjustasiftheeyesofthehomeofficewereuponyou.”

Thehomeoffice,infact,nevertookitseyesoffOxholm,andSorensenfollowedupCowling’svisitbyfiringoffcableaftercabledemandinganaccounting.

“Doyouyourselfuseintoxicatingliquorsofanykind?”SorensenaskedOxholm.“Haveyouanyintoxicatingliquorsinyourpossession,eitherinyourhomeorelsewhereonourproperty?Whatwasthetroubleonthisliquorquestion?WhataboutconductofotherofficialsofthecompanywithreferencetothissamequestionthatIappliedtoyou?Doanyofthemuseintoxicatingliquor?Whatisthereasonforthislongdelayinansweringletters?”Sorensenendedthisbarragedemandingimmediateanswers“withoutanyevasion.”17

Oxholmhadhadenough.HissisterEleanorandwife,CecileHilda,hadjoinedhimtowardtheendof1928,alongwithhissonEinarandthreedaughters,Mary,Marcelle,andEleanor.Bytheendof1929,threeofhischildren—Einar,Mary,andEleanor—haddiedinanepidemicofanunnamedfever.Inearly1930,asecondson,alsonamedEinar,diedatbirth.Sorensen’scablesgrewincreasinglyshrill,butbythenOxholmhadstoppedreplyingtothem.InMayheeitherquitorwasfired—companyrecordsaresilentonthematter—boardingtheOrmoc,alongwithhisbrokenheartedwifeandtheirsurvivingdaughter,Marcelle,tosailbacktotheUnitedStates.UponarrivinginNewOrleans,hecontinuedontoDearborn,wherehemetwithHenryFord,debriefinghimontherubberplantationandaskingiftherewasanothershiphecouldcaptain.Fordsaidno,andOxholmreturnedtoNewOrleanstoonceagainworkwiththeUnitedFruitCompany.

Fordlandia,Oxholmwouldlatersay,was“thehardestpropositionIhaveevertackledinmylife.”18

WILLIAMCOWLINGLEFTFordlandiainlateSeptemberforRioandsailedforDearbornonOctober2.ArequestfromaNewYorkTimesreporterforaninterviewbeforeheleftwasmetwithrefusal,whichthepaper“interpretedasindicatinghefoundconditionsdiscouraging.”ThoughhehadmanagedtoestablishsomegoodwillinRio,negotiateacompromiseontheissueofexporttaxes,andidentifywhattheproblemswereinFordlandia,othertroublespersisted.GovernorVallecontinuedtorefusetoreadtheconcessionasgivingFordtherighttoexpropriatethepropertyofsettlerswhowouldn’tsell.NorwouldheforceFranciscoFranco,themerchantpatriarchoftheislandofUrucurituba,acrosstheriverfromFordlandia,topartwithPaud’Agua,thesmallvillagethattheFordMotorCompanyfelthadbecomethesourceofmuchoftheplantation’svice.AndwhiletheimportdutyissuewassupposedlysettledthroughtheinterventionofFord’sRiorepresentative,customsinspectorsatBelémwerestillholdingupmaterialthattheydeemedunrelatedtothe“refiningofcruderubberorthemanufactureofrubberproducts.”19

Thenthecompany’sfortunesreceivedanunexpectedboost.InOctober1930,arevolutionbroughtGetúlioVargastopower.Vargas,areformerwhowoulddominateBrazilianpoliticsforthenexttwodecades,creatingthemodernBrazilianwelfarestate,isoftencomparedtoFranklinDelanoRoosevelt.TheVargasgovernmentpassedlaborlegislation,regulatedthefinancialsectorandotherareasoftheeconomy,andgenerallypresidedoverthestrengtheningofthecentralgovernment.IntheUnitedStates,FordwouldcometodetestFDRandhisNewDealforimplementingmanyofthesamepolicies.Yetin

Brazil,Vargas’sascensionmeantmostlygoodnewsforFord,asitsignaledtheendoftheexcessivefederalismthathadtheFordmentiedinknotstryingtoaddressproblemsinBelém,Manaus,andRio.

TheripplesoftherevolutionwereimmediatelyfeltinthestateofPará.Thoughtherevolutionarieswerenationalistsandthereforesuspiciousofforeigncapital,theywerealsomodernizers,hostiletotheregionaloligarchswhoruledeachstateasifitweretheirownpersonalfiefdom.Fordposedaparticularconundrum.Hewasbothamodernizer,promisingtobringcapital-intensivedevelopmenttothebackwaterAmazon,andamanwhowantedtorunhisnamesakepropertywithsovereignautonomy,liketherubberlordswhodidn’tlikeRiomeddlingintheiraffairs.Vargascutthroughthisdilemma.Soonaftercomingtopower,hereplacedVallewithsomeonesympathetictoFord.HealsoconfirmedFord’slandconcession,agoodsignconsideringthathecanceledallforeigncontractsinParáexceptforFord’sandoneother.Ittooksomewhatlongertoresolvethesundrytaxissues,asFordlawyerscontinuedtodebatewithofficialshowtointerprettheminutiaeofBrazil’scustomtaxlaw.Eventually,inaseriesofdecreesin1932and1933,VargasgrantedFordlandiaitslong-soughtimportandexportdutyexemptions—retroactively,whichwaskeysincebythetimeofVargas’sdispensationthecompany,accordingtoCowling,hada“coupleofmilliondollarscharged”againstit.20Fortheforeseeablefuture,Fordcouldcountonarelativelysupportivegovernmentandapredictabletaxstructure.21

CHAPTER13

WHATWOULDYOUGIVE

FORAGOODJOB?HENRYFORD,EVERREADYTOCHALLENGECOMPANIONSTOAfootraceorafence-jumpingcontest,represented,asbothiconandhuckster,thefreedomofmovementthatdistinguishedAmericanindustrialcapitalismfromitsEuropeanequivalent.“Allthatissolidmeltsintoair,”KarlMarxwroteinthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturytodescribetherevolutionarypotentialofcapitalismtobreakdownfeudalhierarchiesandthesuperstitionsthatjustifiedthem.ButEuropetookaconsiderablylongertimetothawthantheUnitedStates:innoothercountryhadnationalidentitybecomesocloselyassociatedwithmovement—whetherhorizontal,thatis,themarchwestandthenoverseas,orvertical,theideathatthoseborntothelowestrankscouldclimbpower’speaks.

Therewouldbeinventorsoffastermachinesthanhismotorcar.Yetnobodycouldclaimtohavetransformed,atleastinsuchanoticeableway,nearlyeveryrealmofdailylife,fromthefactoryandfieldtothefamily.Andforcapitalism’ssakehedidsointhenickoftime.JustasindustrialamalgamatorslikeJohnD.Rockefellerweredeclaringthat“theageofindividualismisgone,nevertoreturn,”Fordcamealongtoputthecar—asupremesymbolofindividualism—inreachofmillions.“Happinessisontheroad,”Fordsaid.“Iamontheroad,andIamhappy.”

FordpeddledchangeasifheweretheheadnotofamotorcompanybutoftheMetaphysicalClub.“Lifeflows,”heremarkedinhiscowrittenautobiography.“Wemayliveatthesamenumberonthestreet,butitisneverthesamemanwholivesthere.”Themyth,ofcourse,didn’tcomeclosetomatchingthereality,forwhatsomecametocalla“newindustrialfeudalism”intensifiedexistingprejudicesandcreatednewformsofexclusionandcontrol,includingthoseperfectedbyFordhimself.“TheFordoperatorsmayenjoyhighpay,buttheyarenotreallyalive—theyarehalfdead,”mournedthevicepresidentoftheBrotherhoodofElectricalEngineersin1922.Fordrespondedbyjustifyinghisantiunionismnotinthelanguageofreactionorevenprimarilyinthatofefficiencybutratherbyassigningtoittheessenceoftrue“freedom”:“Thesafetyofthepeopletoday,”hesaid,alsoin1922,isthattheyare“unorganizedandthereforecannotbetrapped.”ButifmostofhisemployeeshadbeenreducedtocogsinthegreatermachinecalledFordism,forafewmobilitywasmorethanapromise.1

CharlesSorensen—handsomeasAdonis,thoughtacolleague,and“masculineenergyincarnate,”wroteahistorian—startedoutworkingatFord’sfoundrypatternshopintheoldHighlandParkplant.Bythe1920s,hisengineeringintelligencehadcombustedwitha“burningpassionforadvancement”tocatapulthimtothepinnacleofcompanypower.SorensenjockeyedforpositionwithFord’sotherlieutenants,includingEdselFordandHarryBennett,andbecametheexecutiveforcebehindRougeproduction,aswellasassumingalargeroleintherunningofFordlandia.2

Otherswhodidn’tmakeitthathighnonethelesshadnewvistasopenedtothem.VictorPerini,atwenty-year-oldsonofSicilianpeasantimmigrants,wasapprenticingasatoolmakerwiththeRichardsonScaleCompanyinPassaic,NewJersey,whenheheardfromafriendthattheFordMotorCompanyneededworkers.Soheandhiswife,Constance,headedforDetroit.Itwas1910,andthecompanywasstilloperatingoutofitsfirstplantonPiquetteAvenue,thenproducingahundredModelTsaday.

“Canyouuseatoolmaker?”Victoryelledthroughtheplant’sgates.“Ohyes,wecanuseatoolmaker,”cametheanswer.Hewashiredatthirty-fivecentsanhour.3

AsPerini’sengineeringknow-howmaturedintoareservedyetmeticulouslyobservantmanagerialstyle,hewaspromotedtohelprunFord’scopperradiatorfactoryandhydroelectricdamonGreenIsland,intheHudsonRivernearTroy,NewYork,thensenttoManchester,England,whereheoversawthemanufactureoftheBritishModelT,andontoIronMountain,wherehebuiltanairstripbeforebecomingmanagerofFord’sstate-of-the-artsawmill.

“WecoveredalotofplacesduringtheyearsthatmyhusbandwasatFord’s,”ConstancerecalledofVictor’scareer.“Thecompanywasmorethangenerousinarrangingaccommodationsforourcomfortandconvenience.Wealwayswentfirstclass.”Sherememberedwithgratitudethat“becauseofthistheentirefamilyhashadexperiencesthatarenotoftenduplicated.”Buttherewasonenot-so-comfortableplaceFordsentthem.

VICTORFIRSTLEARNEDaboutFordlandiafromHenryFordhimself,whenhisbossvisitedthePerinisattheirhomeinIronMountaininlate1929.“Youwouldthinkthatheownedeverythingaroundhere,”saidHenrytoConstanceashesurveyedthephotographsofFordfactoriesthathungontheirlivingroomwall.Overtheirkitchentable,Ford,havinghimselfbeenrecentlydebriefedbyCowling,toldVictoraboutthemessOxholmhadmadeofthingsinBrazilandaskedhimtocheckontheseacaptainandrelievehimofhisdutiesifnecessary.Periniimmediatelysaidyes.

ThefirstthingPerinididwastapotherworkershewantedtobringwithhim,andhedidsowiththesamekindofinformalitythatgothimhisfirstPiquetteAvenuejob.OnemorningafewweeksafterFord’svisittohishome,Perini,alongwithanotherIronMountainmanagernamedJackDoyle,ranintothetousle-hairedsecond-generationIrishsawyerMattMulrooneyonhiswaytowork.4

“Whatwouldyougiveforagoodjob,Mulrooney?”askedDoyle.

“Acigar,”Mulrooneyrespondedwithoutmissingabeat.

“Comeonandgiveittome.”

“Ihaven’tgotthecigaronme.Mr.Perini,you’vegotsomeinyourpocket.Lendmeone.”

PerinididandMulrooneyhandedittoDoyle,who“sprungthisproposition”onhim“aboutgoingtoSouthAmerica.”

“Whatdoyousay?”theyaskedthesawyer.

“Ihaven’tgotanythingtosay.IfI’mofmoreusetothecompanydowntherethanIamhere,I’dbeadamnpoorstickifIwouldn’tgo.They’vebeenfeedingmeherequiteawhile.Itwouldbeagoodthingtogodownthereandeatoffthemforawhile.”

“Well,that’sprettygood,”saidPerini,wholaterdescribedMulrooneyasa“gentlemanlyyoungman.”

“Don’tsayanythingaboutitnowforawhile,”Perinitoldhisrecruit,“lateron,we’llsee.”

MulrooneyprovedmoreobligingthandidPerini’swife.Constancewastiredofpackinguphouseastheymovedfromoneposttoanotherandwantedto“liveatthesamenumberonthestreet”forjustabitlonger.“Yougobyyourselfthistime,”shetoldherhusband.

“Okay,youcanstayhere,”Victorsaid.ButFordoverruledhim.Dearbornhadbythenreceivedword

thatthedrinkingandgamblingofFordlandiamanagerswasmitigatedsomewhatbythe“presenceofAmericanwomen.”Wiveswerehavinga“beneficialeffectonthegeneralappearanceofallthemenhere,”aFordlandiamanagerwrote.Eventhe“whiskermania”thathadgrippedAmericanscutfreefromMichigan’sclean-shavendecorumwanedintheirpresence.Ford’smenandmachineswouldcivilizetheAmazon,butFord’swomenwereneededtocivilizehismen.5

“Whereyougo,”FordtoldPeriniwhenthetwomenmetlaterinDearborntodiscussspecifics,“yourfamilygoeswithyou.”VictornoddedandphonedConstancebackinIronMountain.“Iguessyoubettergetready.”

THEPERINIS’TRIP,inearlyMarch,wasnothinglikeIdeandBlakeley’sgentlerolltoBelémtwoyearsearlier.OffthecoastofFlorida,theOrmocranintoahurricane.Lashingraindrenchedtheship,whosemotorswerenomatchforthewhitecapswashingoveritsdeck.Unabletomakesteerageway,theboatdriftedhundredsofmilesintotheAtlantic.Pitchingandrolling“alldayandnight,”theOrmoctossedcargointotheseaasthepassengershuddledintheircabins.

ThePerinifamily.

Ittooktwodaysfortheshiptorightitscourse,andanothertwoweekstoarriveinBelém.ThePerinisandtheirthreechildrenstayedattheGrandeHotel,whichwasthebestinthecityyetstillaplacewherespiderscouldbefoundinthebedclothes.Belém’sFordagent,JamesKennedy,toldConstancetogetusedtoit.IntheAmazon,hesaid,“thecockroachesfollowtheants,andthemicefollowthecockroaches.Everythingtakescareofitself,don’tworryaboutit.”

Afteraroughnightinasoftbed,whichgaveoutunderVictor’sweight,thePeriniswere“gladtogetbackontheOrmocbecauseitwasniceandcleanthere,eventhoughtravelingwasrough.”BoththeAmazonandtheTapajósarebroadrivers,inplacesvastlyso.Inaworkpublishedjustthatyear,theBrazilianwriterJoséMariaFerreiradeCastronotedthattheAmazonmakesperspectiveimpossible.Insteadofappreciatingitsvastpanorama,first-timeobservers“recoilsharplyundertheoverpoweringsensationoftheabsolutewhichseemstohavepresidedovertheformationofthatworld.”AndasthePerinismadetheirwayuptotheplantation,thewideskycombinedwithlongstretchesofdenseforestto

weighonVictor’smind.Hecomplainedofthetediumastheypassedendlesslowbankswith“nohillsofanykindandnothingbuttreesandvinesvisible.”Theviewwasinterruptedonlybyoccasionalvillages,mostderelictandsomedeserted.Thefamilywastravelingduringtherainyseason,whentheAmazonjustbelowSantarémisatitswidestandtheconstantgreenoftheshoreatitsmostdistant.Duringthesemonths,thefloodplainspillsoverintotheforest,creatinghalf-submergedislandsanda“vastflowofmuddywater,”asthewriterRoyNash,whomadethetripjustafewyearsbefore,describedhisimpression.Sailingascloseupthemiddleofthewaterwayaspossible,voyagersonoceangoingshipsoftenmissthesublime,radiantsensationmanyexperienceundertherainforestcanopy;travelingonacrowdedboat,wroteNash,oneisevencheatedofthe“poignancyofsolitude.”*AfterleavingSantarém,theOrmoc’scaptain,unfamiliarwiththeTapajós’sshiftingchannelsthatmakeitdifficulttotravelevenwhenthewaterishigh,rantheshipagroundandwaspulledfreebyatugonlyafter“considerableeffort.”6

VictorwasevenlesstakenwithFordlandia,andwhateverrecoilhemighthavefeltonhisvoyagefromthehumanemptinessofthejunglewasintensifiedwhenheconfrontedtheamountofworktheplaceneeded.Hisfirstimpressionuponleavingthedockwasoftractorsandtrucks“wailinginmud,”slippingandslidingonroadsthatweren’tgraded,drained,orsurfacedproperly.Therainwasconstant,andthewetheat,withoutthereliefofariverbreeze,overpowering.“Thereissomuchtobedonethatitlookshardtodecidewheretostart....Itwillbenecessary,”hethought,“tostartarailroadlineatonce,”alongwithhouses,schools,andareceivingbuilding.7

DESPITEPERINI’SINITIALimpression,anddespitefirstBlakeley’sandthenOxholm’sclumsyadministration,Cowling’slecturehadhadagalvanizingeffectonFordlandia’smanagersandtheprojectoftransformingthejungleintoasettlementandplantationhadadvancedconsiderably.Thelaborsituationhadstabilizedsomewhat,andbytheendof1930Fordlandiaemployednearlyfourthousandpeople,mostofthemmigrantsfromthepoverty-anddrought-strickennortheaststatesofMaranhãoandCeará.Beforehedeparted,CowlingdelegatedmoreauthoritytotheengineerArchilausWeeks,whohadarrivedinFordlandiain1929fromFord’sL’Anselumbermill,locatedonLakeSuperiorinMichigan’sUpperPeninsula,totakechargeofconstruction.8

UnderWeeks’sdirection,arecognizabletownhadbeguntotakeshapealongtheTapajóstoreplaceBlakeley’sworkcamp.Havingpulledupthestumpsandburnedtheundergrowthalongtheriverfrontage,Weeksorganizedamoreefficientsystemtoreceivematerialandprocesspotentialemployees.Workershadbeguntolaypipesandwiresforwater,sewage,andelectricsystems.Thesawmillandpowerhousehadbeencompleted,andthewatertowerwasrising.Aboutthirtymilesofroadscrisscrossedtheproperty,pushingintothejungle.Workwasunderwayona3,200-square-footdininghalltoreplacetheshamblesofamesshallleftbyBlakeley.Theoldlopsidedhospitalwastorndown,andinitsplacewasbuiltasleeknewclinicdesignedbyAlbertKahn.Andsoonafterhisarrival,Perinitookchargeofsupervisingtheconstructionofwhatwouldbeathree-mile-longrailroad,cuttingthroughtheestate’smanyhillsandlinkingthesawmilltothefarthermostfieldcamps,whichwerechargedwithclearingmorelandforrubberplanting.9

Dearbornhadalsofinallysentatopographerdowntodoapropersurveyandidentifythebestlocationfora“cityofatleast10,000peopletocoveraboutthreesquaremiles.”ThoughFordlandiawasgoingonitsthirdyear,theconstructionofpermanenthousesforitsBrazilianworkershadnotyetbegun.SinglelaborerslivedinbunkhousesorinholdouttownslikePaud’Aguaalongtheplantation’speriphery.Afew

tookupresidenceacrosstheriver,onUrucuritubaisland,andpaddledtoworkeverymorning.Marriedworkersmostlylivedintheevermetastasizing“nativevillage”stretchingalongtheriver.Thelargest,ramblingpartofthissettlementwasmadeupofthefamiliesoftheplantation’scommonlaborers.Theysleptandcookedinone-roomthatchhouses,someofthemreinforcedwithplankspriedoffdiscardedpackingcrates.Children,mothers,fathers,andotherrelativeshungtheirhammockslikeradiatingspokesfromacentralpole;thecookingfire’ssmokedamagedtheirlungsbutprotectedthemfrommosquitoes.Better-paidworkers—hospitalorderlies,coffeeroasters,cooksandtheirhelpers,waiters,logloaders,swampers,deckmen,firemen,gardeners,painters,oilers,janitors,sweepers,clerks,bookkeepers,stenographers,teachersfortheBrazilianchildren’sschool,draftsmen,boatpilots,meatcutters,tinsmiths,andblacksmiths—livedinslightlynicerhouses,oftenmadeofmilledwood,butalsowiththatchedroofsanddirtfloors.Astheworkforceincreased,thetowngrewhaphazardly,withpackingcrateplanksrecycledasboardwalks,laidoveramidwaythatturnedtomudintherainandbakedintorutsinthesun.

Top:An“ambulance”arrivesatFordlandia’shospital,designedbyAlbertKahn.Below:Thesceneinthehospitalward.

By1930,theplantation’slinesofadministrationhadevolvedintoamoreorlesssettledroutine.Oxholm,whoeitherdecidedorwastoldtoleavetheplantationtwomonthsafterPerini’sarrival,wasstillthenominalmanager,yetworkwasorganizedthroughanumberofdepartments:“plantation,”“gardens,”“construction,”“sawmill,”“transportation,”“generalstores,”“kitchens,”“clerical,”and

“medical.”Americans,Europeans,andskilledBrazilianspresidedasmanagersandassistantforemenoverworkgangsofBrazilianlaborers,whomostlyremainednamelessasfarascompanyrecordswereconcernedsolongastheydidn’ttrytoorganizeaunion,steal,orcausesomeotherkindoftrouble.ArchieWeeksoversawthelargestpartofthelaborforce,themenwhodidthehardest,mostexhausting,andoftendeadliestwork,beatingbackthejungle,quarryingstone,cuttingunderbrush,sawingtrees,burningthewoodwaste,tillingtheashandsoil,andplantingnewblocksofrubber.Weeksdevelopeda“rareknackoftrainingthenativestodohiswork,”accordingtohispersonnelfile.Hewasa“driver,”butinawaythat“madehismenlikeit,”whichmayverywellhavebeenthecasesincemostcreditedhimwithwhateverprogressPerinisawuponhisarrival.

Inotherareasofplantationlife,however,effortstoaccustomafast-growinglaborforcetoFord-styleregimentation,discipline,andhygienegeneratedtensions,oftenaggravatedbybrusqueandantagonizingmanagers.Oxholm,forinstance,hadorganizedaten-man“servicedepartment”toenforceProhibition,dispatchinghisagentstodospotsearchesofthebunkhousesandbungalowsandtoconfiscateanystashedliquor.KajOstenfeld,whowasfromDenmarkbuthadworkedforfiveyearsasacashierinaRioForddealership,wasputinchargeofthecamp’spayroll.Hisrudeimpatienceinexplainingcertaindeductionsfrombiweeklywages,includingforfoodservice,compoundedtheresentmentsinglemenalreadyfeltabouthavingtoeatinacrowdedmesshall(marriedemployeeswholivedintheplantation’sriversidevillagewereallowedtoeatathome).AndthoughDr.ColinBeatonwasrespectfulinhisdealingswithhispatients,hiseffortstomaketheplantationvillageconformtocertainhygienicstandardswerefelttoberadicallyintrusive.BeforecomingtoFordlandia,mostoftheworkershadbeendestitutebutatleasthadthefreedomoflivingastheysawfit.10

AtFordlandiatheyfoundthemselvessubjecttothedictatesof“sanitationsquads”and“medicalteams”thatroamedthecamp,drainingandoilingpotentialmosquitobreedingsites,killingstraydogs,checkingforgonorrhea,andswattingflies.Inspectorssweptintohomestomakesurethatfoodwascorrectlystored,thatlatrineswerekeptclean,andthatallknewhowtouse,andproperlydisposeof,company-providedtoiletpaper.Theireffortstopreventfamiliesfromsleepinginthesameroomwherethecookingfirewaskeptnotonlywereimpractical,sincethecompanyhadnotbuiltmultiroomhouses,butignoredthelocalpracticeofusingthesmoketoprotectfrominsects.Inspectorsfinedfamiliesthatdidn’tkeepthesmall,crudepigandchickencorralsinfrontoronthesidesoftheirhousescleanandinsistedthatwomenhangwetlaundryonclotheslines.Dr.Smith,apathologistDearbornsentdowntoassistDr.Beaton,believedthatthecommonpracticeoflayingitemsflatonthegroundtodryhelpedtransmithookwormandothersoilparasites.

***

Dr.andMrs.Smithshowoffacollectionofbutterflies,tarantulas,andotherjunglefauna.

BEHINDTHENATIVEvillage,totheleftifone’sbackwastotheriver,stoodadozenorsoclapboardbungalowswhereEuropean,American,andBrazilianengineers,foremen,andsawmillworkerslived.Amongthem,workingintheplantandseeddivision,wasDavidSerique,thesonofJulioSerique,aTangiers-bornJewishémigréwhohelpedHarryWickhamgathertheTapajósseedsthatendedBrazil’sdominanceoftheworld’srubbersupply.AlsoattheestatewereafewofSantarém’sSouthernBaptistConfederates,whoinanoddhistoricalturnfirstencounterednorthernindustrialregimentationintheAmazon.Duringtheplantation’sfirstbunglingyears,membersofthiscommunityprovidedindispensablesupport,provisioningitwithgoodsandinterpretinglocallanguageandcultureforitsmanagers.DavidRikeractedasatranslatorandalsorantheplantation’scattleyardandstockyard.Pushingseventy,heisdescribedinhispersonnelfileasan“oldermanthantheCompanywouldusuallyemploytoputinchargeofsolargeawork.”YethisintimateknowledgeoftheTapajós,alongwiththefactthatsincehisfatherhadestablishedasmallrubberfarmontheoutskirtsofSantarémhewasoneoftheonlypeoplearoundwithexperienceincultivatingHevea,compensatedforhisage.“Healthyandactive,”with“severalgoodyearsahead,”Riker,asidefromhisserviceaslaborrecruiterandinterpreter,presidedoverthe“cleanestnativecamponourpremise.”ThreeofhissonsmovedtoDearborn,wheretheytookjobsattheRiverRouge.Astheoldestmaninthecamp,Rikerhadthehonorinearly1928ofplantingFordlandia’ssymbolicfirstseedlinginapatchofclearedforest.Adozenorsoworkersstoodinacircleastheoldmanpushedhisspadeintothesoilwithhisfoot,turnedit,settheseedlinginthehole,andpattedthesoilbackin.HethensaidafewquietwordsaskingthattheLordblessthetreeandmakeprosperity,fortheplantationandthevalley,flowfromitsbark.11

ManyofFordlandia’sskilledworkerswere“prosperityboomers,”who,havingarrivedinLatinAmericatohelpdigthePanamaCanaltwentyyearsearlier,passedfromonejobtoanother.Theytraipsedthroughthejungleanddesertfrontiers,findingeasyworkintheUS-ownedmines,railroads,oilfields,andplantationsthatwerespreadingoutacrossthecontinent.Ateachnewjob,theywaxedaboutthegloriesofthelast,andattheendoftheday,overbeerandwhiskey,they“persistedindiggingtheCanalagain”intalesthatgrewtallerwitheveryretelling.OthersfirstcametotheAmazontoworkontheMadeira–Mamorérailroadandthenstayedon.TexascowboyJimmyJames,forexample,hadbeenlivinginBelémwhenhebefriendedReevesBlakeleyandsignedontohisworkcrew.Fordlandiaalsoattractedanumberof“AmericanandEuropeanrenegades”fleeingtheirpasts.TheFrenchmenYvesEfira,whodidFordlandia’sclericalworkandwasconsidereda“splendidlinguist,”wasrumoredtobeanescapeefrom

Devil’sIsland,theprisonislandlocatedjustoffFrenchGuiana.Additionally,theplantationhiredanumberofveteranswhoforonereasonoranotherhadlandedinBrazilafterthewar.Oneofthem,amachinistnamedSullivan,“nevermissedanopportunity”totalkabout“ParisandthewonderfulFrenchgirls.”Buthedidn’tgetalongwithMueller,anAustriandraftsman.Tensionsbetweenthetwomenboiledover,andafteronefightthemachinisttooktheAustrian’sclothesandsuitcasesfromthebunkhouseandthrewthem“outsideinthemudfromthetorrentialrain.”Muellerquittheplantationsoonafter.12

Mostofthesemigrantswereengineersandmechanics,bringingyearsofexperienceworkinginthejungletotheplantation.ButitwashardtocheckcredentialsontheTapajós,soafewprofessedtohavetalentsthattheydidn’t.ADanenamedSimonsenclaimedtobearubberexpertandsaidthatthebestwaytoprotectseedlingsfrominsectswasbyrubbingVaselineontheirtrunks.“Hesucceededingettingridoftheinsects,butthetreesdiedtoo,sohewasgivenapinkslip,”accordingtoonepersonalaccount.13

BythetimeFordlandiagotfullyunderway,lifeforquiteafew“tropicaltramps”hadturneddesperate.Inthe1910sand1920s,theyhad“boomedfromjobtojob,”everreadytoquitonebecausetheyknewtheycouldalways“findworkattheendofthetrail.”Butafter1929,EuropeansandAmericanswerelikelytoarriveatthemines,plantations,andrailroadslessboisterousandmorehungry,searchingnotforadventurebutforsteadyworknolongeravailableintheirhomecountries.IncreasinglyduringtheGreatDepression,theyfoundworksitestobeunacceptingoftheindulgencesandpleasuresassociatedwiththedriftinglifeofskilleditinerants.Miningandplantationcompanieshadlearnedtheimportanceofhiringmarriedmen,beholdentowomenandchildren,asawaytomaintainastableandresponsiblelaborforce.Corporate-runcompanytownsgrew“moreandmorerespectable,moreandmoreconsciousoftheuglinessofsin,”asatravelwriterwhopassedthroughtheregionputit.

Fordlandia’spuritanismwasespeciallyhardonJackDiamond.LikeJimmyJames,DiamondfirstarrivedinBraziltobuildtheMadeira–Mamorérailroad,beforemovingontootherlargeinfrastructureprojects,eventuallydriftingovertheAndestotakeajobinChile’scoppermines.WiththeonsetoftheDepression,though,Diamondfoundhimselfoutofworkandstranded.BumminghiswaybacktotheAmazon,hehopedtogetworkagainontheMadeira–Mamoréline,onlytofindit“virtuallydead,”practicallykilled,firstbythecollapseofrubberpricesandthenbytheglobalrecession.Afterallthehumanliveswastedtobuildit,itwasby1930runningonlyonetraineachwayeverytwoweeks.HetraveleddowntheMadeiraRivertoManaus.There,agroupofexpatriatesraisedacollectiontostakehimatickettoFordlandia,since“HenryFordhadareputationofneverrefusingworktoanymanwhocametohisrubberplantationinsearchofit.”ButDiamondcouldn’treconcilehimselftoFord’s“newmorality,”includinghisattempttobandrinkingandsmoking.Theshockwasnotofphysicalwithdrawal:everybodyfromtheheadmanagertocommonlaborersgotaroundFord’sprohibition,andDiamondcouldalwaysfindadrinkonwhattheskilledworkerscalledrumrow—theboats,barges,andcanoesthatservedasfloatingbarsandgamblinghousesbobbingjustofftheplantation’sshore—orontheIslandofInnocents.Itwasrather,asoneofhiscontemporariesputit,thatFordlandia’sstricturesforcedonhimtherealizationthathehad“outlivedhisday,”that“timehadpassedhimbyandthattherewasnolongeraplaceforhiminthisworld.”14

SohequittheplantationandboardedacattlesteamerbacktoManaus.Astheshipslowedtoapproachthecity’sdock,Diamondlookeddownfromitsupperdeckintoitsbrownwatersandsawhiswayout.Heclimbedovertherailingandleapedintoacongregationofcrocodiles.

SETEVENFARTHERbackfromtheriverwerethe“modernwoodenhouses”thatOxholmhadbuiltfor

theAmericanstaff,withporchesandslopingfrontyards,onawidestreetlinedwithmangotrees,sidewalks,andstreetlamps.TheseresidencessatonahighspotonabendintheriveraboutamileandahalffromthedockandhadstunningviewsintwodirectionsoftheTapajós.Withinafewyears,thisneighborhoodwouldhaveaclubhousewherethemenplayedcardsandpool,ahotelforvisitingguests,atenniscourtandswimmingpool,amovietheater,andagolfcourse.Comparedwiththe“veritableBabel”oftheskilledworkers’internationalcamp,asEimarFrancodescribedit,thiscompound,asidefromtheoccasionalEuropeanlikeOxholm,tendedtobeinsularandhomogeneous.TheTexanJimmyJamesmarriedOxholm’ssisterandKajOstenfeldweddedhisBraziliansecretary,yetthosewhocamedirectlyfromFord’sMichiganoperationstendedtokeeptothemselves.Havingvisitedthetownwithhisfather,EimarFrancorememberswalkinginandthinkingtheAmericanstobearaceapart.“Theywereverywhite,blondwithblueeyes,andspokeadifferentlanguage,”herecalls.“Itwasasiftheearthhadbeeninvadedbybeingsfromanotherplanet.”OnetravelerthroughtheareaatthetimecomparedthemunfavorablytotheConfederates,whothoughtheybuilttheirownBaptistchurcheslivedhuddledtogetherinagroupandmaintainedtheirsoutherndrawlandfadedgentrymanners,marriedBrazilians,andproducednewgenerationsof“AmericanfacesandgrayeyeschatteringPortugueseonSantarém’sstreets.”Incontrast,themidwesternersatFordlandiahaderecteda“wallofprovincialism”aroundthemselves.15

MostneverreallymasteredPortuguese,beyondlearninghowtoconjugatetheimperativeformofasmallnumberofverbs.AjokeamongBrazilianswholivedontheplantationswent:“WhatdotheAmericanslearnhowtosayaftertheirfirstyearintheAmazon?”“Umacerveja.”Abeer.“Andaftertwoyears?”“Duascervejas.”16

IntheUnitedStates,themenandwomenFordsenttotheAmazonweredecidedlyworking-orlower-middleclass,accustomedmoretoshowingdeferencethantoreceivingit.Eventhosewhohadacertainamountofstatusbackhome,likeDr.Beaton,whobeforebeingtransferredtoBrazilworkedinDetroit’sHenryFordHospital,werenotusedtosittingattheabsolutetopofthesocialladderastheydidinFordlandia.FormenlikePeriniandWeeks,chargedwithbuildingaplantationandcompanytown,thechangeinclasspositionprobablyelevatedtheirsenseofself-worth.Forthewomen,however,theshiftwasdisconcerting.Suddenlyfindingthemselvesservicedbyacompletedomesticstaff,includingcook,washerwoman,housecleaner,nanny,and“choreboy,”theyquicklysuccumbedtoboredom.IlliterateinPortuguese,thewivescouldn’tevenenjoythepleasureofspeakingthelanguageofcommandtotheirservants,whocompetentlywentabouttheirjobswithlittledirection.“Frankly,Ibelievethatoneofthetroubleswiththeladies,”wroteonestaffmemberbacktoDearborn,isthat“forthemitisalistless,uselesslife,nothingtodo,andtheyhavenottheenergytodoanything,duetotheclimate,whichisundoubtedlyofaninsidiousnature.”

SomeAmericans,inparticularchildren,tookhappilytotheadventuretheAmazonoffered.LeonorWeeks,ArchieWeeks’sdaughter,waseightwhenshearrivedattheplantation.ShelovedhertimeatFordlandiaandtodayconsidersitthemostinterestingpartofherlonglife.SheremembersswimmingintheAmericanpool,whichwasrightbyherhouse,andplayinggolfwithherfather.Shesufferedfromoneboutofmalariabutdidn’tthinkitmuchworsethantheflu.Shedidhatethe“horriblehairyspiders”thatoftengotinherhouse.Ifsheevercameacrossasnake,shejustdidwhatherfathertaughtherandletitpass.Unliketheirparents,AmericanboysandgirlssocializedwithBrazilians,attendingtheplantation’sschoolsalongwiththechildrenofBrazilianworkers,andsome,likeCharlesTownsend,whowasborninFordlandiain1938,grewupspeakingPortugueseastheirfirstlanguage.(WhenTownsendreturnedafewyearsagotovisitthehousehelivedin,nowhometohundredsofbats,hecouldn’tbelievethathehad

survivedsuchhumidity.)TheyoungerLeonorwastutoredathome,butshetoolearnedPortugueseandrodebikeswiththechildrenofherservants.HerfondestmemoryofthetimeatFordlandiaisofChico,herpetmonkey,whichshedescribesasdifferentfrommost,with“longblackhairandbangs.”LeonortookChicowithherwhenshereturnedtotheUnitedStates,muchtothedelightofherMichiganschoolmates.17

FordpioneersontheirwaytotheAmazonbutdressedforMichiganwinter.

Astotheadults,CurtisPringle,aleanex-sherifffromKalamazoo,Michigan,whosportedathinClarkGablemustacheandwasdescribedbyacolleagueas“absolutelyfearlessinthejungle,”stayedforoveradecade,earningareputationasapractical-mindedforeman.Dr.Beaton,thirty-oneandsingle,alsoenjoyedtheassignment,sweetenedasitwasbyhavinghispaytripledfromwhatheearnedinDetroit.Whenhisfirsttourwasup,hesignedonforanothertwo-yearturn.HeputhimselftolearningPortugueseandsoonspokethelanguagemorefluentlythananyotherMichigantransplant.“Extremelywellliked,”hispersonnelfilesaid;Beaton“fithisjoblikeanoldshoe.”And,importantlyconsideringthehighattritionrateofAmericansduetojungleillnesses(hereplacedFordlandia’sfirstdoctor,whocouldn’tstandtheheat),heenjoyedgoodhealth.18

ThesawyerMattMulrooneywasalsoneversick,notevenforadayduringhisyearinFordlandia.Hisimmediatesupervisorthoughthehada“chiponhisshoulder,”butwhatwasinterpretedasdisaffectionwasinfactawryIrishsenseoftheabsurd.MulrooneythoughtitwasfunnythathecouldturnonhisradioandlistentoAmericanmusicpatchedinfromtheUnitedStatesviarelaysinManagua,Nicaragua,andSantaMarta,Colombia.Onenight,heandhiswifedancedtoaRudyValleeconcertbroadcastlivefromGreenBay,Wisconsin.America’soriginalpopidol,Valleewasthefirstsingertomastertheintimate,disembodiedtoneofnewradiotechnology.AtthetimeofhisGreenBayconcert,hewasridinghighonaparadeofmoviemusicalsandhitsongs,including“I’mJustaVagabondLover”and“DeepNight,”thelyricsofwhichwaftedthroughFordlandia’sAmericanvillage,asMulrooneyheldhiswifeclose:

Deepnight,starsintheskyabove

Moonlight,lightingourplaceoflove

Nightwindsseemtohavegonetorest

Twoeyes,brightlywithlovearegleaming.

.........

Deepnight,whisperingtreesabove

Kindnight,bringingyounearerandneareranddearer

Deepnight,deepinthearmsoflove.

“Whereothershaveplayedtothousands,”rantheadforoneofthesinger’smovies,“Valleesingsnightlytomillions,”includingthosewhofoundthemselvesdeepintheTapajósvalley,hisvoicecompetingwiththenighttimesoundsofhowlermonkeys,frogs,andacacophonyofcrickets.19

TheMulrooneys.

MANYOFTHEAmericans,though,didnotwelcometheirpostingtotheAmazon.Thejunglepressedheavyonthem,withitsincessantrainsthatgavewaytobakingsun.“Itwaslikelivinginasteambath!”thoughtConstancePerini.Therewereflyingbugswith“clawsjustlikelobsters,”heatrashesandsunburns,insectbites,ticks,skinfunguses,anddysentery.TheFordstaffwasintroducedtoanarrayofminorpestsbearingstrangenames,suchaspiums,smallbitingblackflies,aswellasminusculefleasthatdugunderfingernails,leavingtheireggstofesterandinfecttheskin.Atnight,vampirebatsoftenworkedtheirwaypastwindowscreenstofeed,andsincetheirrazor-sharpincisorscouldpainlesslypierceflesh,theAmericanswouldsleepthroughanattack,wakinguptofindtheirtoesandanklesbloodied.Andifmalariadidn’tgetyou,thenightmaresbroughtonbythedailyquininepillswould.“Dopeeveryday,”washowMulrooneyrememberedtheprophylactic.

Illness,oftenthekindofundiagnosedfeversthattookthelivesofOxholm’schildren,becameachroniccondition.WilliamCowlingwasjustoneofthecompanyofficialswhoreturnedtoDearborngauntaftersometimeintheAmazon.MalariabecameascommonasaDetroitcold,andmanyofthemenandwomenspenttheirdaysrecoveringfromanattackorexpectinganewone.“Somehadmalariatwoorthreetimes,”recalledoneworker.“Roggehaditthreetimes.BrickerhaditIdon’tknowhowmanytimes.Cassonhadit.Theyallhadit.”

Dr.BeatonsentasteadyflowoftelegramstoDr.RoyMcClure,hisDearbornsuperiorandheadof

surgeryatDetroit’sHenryFordHospital:

Mrs.Oxholmhashadrecurringattacksapparentlycholelthiasis(gallstones)probablyalsofunctionalnervousdisturbance.Oneaggravatesother.Needsalsoconsiderabledentalworkherdaughterneedstonsilsextracted.RecommendbothgoFordhospitalsoon.

Mr.Carr’ssonhadarecurrentattackofacuterheumaticfeverwithcardiacdecompensationduringthevoyageuptheAmazonRiver.

AdvisabletoreturnMr.Babcockbyfirstavailableboathecontinuestoloseweight.

Mrs.Johnstonkeepslosingweight,shewas127,andisnow106.Ihavetriedtopersuadehertogohome,butsheisnotkeenaboutthat,however.

Mr.andMrs.RungeareleavingforMiami.Mr.Rungedidnotgetalongtoowellinthiscountrybutthatmaybethefaultofthecountry.

Mrs.Bradshawhassufferedduringthemonthfromgastrichyperaciditywithattacksofdullhungerlikepainaccentuatedifanythingbymealsandrelievedtemporarilybyalkalis.Attimesthehighlyacidstomachcontentsarevomitedwithrelief....[Herillnessis]provokedbythenervousstraininherentwithlifehere.SheisverysoonreturningtotheStates....Theunrelievedstretchoftwoyearsworkundertensioninatropicalclimateistoolonganditseffectscontinuetomanifestthemselves.ThecitiesofBelémandManausarenohealthresortsbutvisitstothemor...quietrestsonranches,huntingtrips,etc....wouldsteadynerves,calmruffledtempers,distractattentionfrompettyexasperationsandinfuseonewithnewandmoreworthwhileinterests.

Forsome,theisolationoftheplantationincreasedfearsbornofloneliness,makingsomefeelasiftheywere“prisoners.”Moodyandunabletoconcentrate,Mr.Groth,achemistdoinglabworkonparasiticalinfectionsfortheplantation,keptaskingtobeallowedtoreturntotheUnitedStates.Hissupervisordismissedhiscomplaintsas“imaginaryills”stemmingfromafearofcatchingsomeofthediseaseshewasstudying.“Takeholdofyourself,”hescoldedGroth,tellinghimthat“asamanthinkssoheis.”Thismaynothavesoothedthechemist’snerves,butitdidkeephimquietforawhile.Butwhenheagaindemandedtobeallowedtoleave,managementrelented.“Wearenottryingtopersuadehimanymore.Webelieveheislonesomeandhashadsometroublewithhissweetheartandhefeelsthathecan’tcarryon.”20

ThemoststrikingdefectionwasVictorPerini’s.HenryFordhadhopedPeriniwouldturnthingsaround,butPerinicouldn’ttaketheAmazonheat.HehatedthejungleandfromhisfirstdayinBelémbegantosufferfrom“edemaoflegsandpuffinessofface.”

“Awaitinginstructions,”adistressedDr.BeatonwiredDearborn,“onwhattodowithVictorPerini.”Diagnosedwithchronicexhaustion,VictoreventuallytookhisfamilyandsailedbacktoDearborninMay1930ontheOrmoc,onlytwomonthsafterhisarrival.

MOSTOFTHErubberOxholmhadplantedinthemiddleof1929,duringthedryseason,underthehotsuninburntground,withseedsandseedlingsofdoubtfulquality,hadcomeupweak.AndinApril,beforehelefttheplantation,Perinihaddecidedtoplowthefieldoverandstartagain.WhichmeantthatitwouldbeatleastanotherfiveyearsbeforeFordlandiawouldproducelatex.Thelumbermill,too,wasamess,itsbladesandsawsillsuitedfortheveryhardorverysoftjunglewood.Hiredtobeasawyer,Matt

Mulrooneyfeltmorelikeanundertaker:“Theyaveragedaboutamanadaydying.Iusedtogetorderseverysooftentocutthislumberforcoffins.Therewasacertainthicknessandacertainwidththeyusedtomakethecoffinsoutof.They’dbringanorderupeverysooftenandgiveittome.I’dsay,‘What,somemoreofthemgone?’‘Yep,betterfixupforaboutten,Matt.’”

Fordlandiacemetery.

LikemanyoftheothermenFordsenttoBrazil,Mulrooneybelongedtothegenerationofskilledcarpenters,miners,andlumberjacksthathadpresidedoverthetransformationofMichigan’snaturalresourcesintowealth;theyhadseentheconversionofthestate’sforests,minerals,andwaterwaysintotheenergyandcapitalthatfedthegreatindustrialfactoriesandcitiesoftheMidwest.SawyerslikeMulrooneyhadwitnessedintheirlifetimestheseeminglyinexhaustiblewhitepineforestsofupperMichiganthinout,leavingfirstinferiorstocksofyellowpine,birch,anddeciduousaspenandthenwastelandsofcutovers,trunks,shrubs,andbranchesofnoeconomicvalue.YettheyalsosawtheriseofcitiesthatspokeofprosperityenjoyednotjustbythelordsandbaronsinthemanorhousesofChicagoandDetroitbutbyincreasinglyaffluentworking-andmiddle-classcommunitiesthatspreadoutfromthesecities.21

SoMulrooneycouldtakeprideasthegnarloftheAmazongaveway,slowly,totheorderoftheplantation.“Youknow,anoldsawyerlikesthelooksofasawedlog,”hesaid.“Therewassomenice-lookinglogsthere,somenice-lookingtimber,awfulnice-looking.Togooutandlookatabunchofthattimbercutupinthewoods,itwasreallyapicturetolookat,straightandnotalimboraknotinit.”

Butthesawyeralsoknewthata“very,verybigpercentage”ofthecutwoodwas“nogood.”Watchingtheabsurdityofitall—Oxholm’sbungling,thesillinessoftryingtoimposeHenryFord’sideasconcerningdietandmorality,theenormousexpenseandwasteofresources,theimpossibilityofmakingthemillworkright—Mulrooneyhadadistinctsenseoffutility.Attheendoftheworkday,heandhispalEarlCasson,alsofromIronMountain,would“grinandwonderhowwe’deverwoundupinamadhouse,orifwe’deverwin.Wetaggeditasagame.”

____________

*Morethanahalfcenturyearlier,HenryWickhamwroteaboutthesensationofsittingintheforestandgazingupatthe“leafyarchesabove”andbecoming“lostinthewonderfulbeautyofthatuppersystem—a

worldoflifecompletewithinitself.”TheBritishexplorerCharlesLuxmoore,travelinguptheTapajósin1928tryingtolocatePercyFawcett,complainedincessantlyinhisjournalabouteverythingheencountered—people,food,insects,heat,andthelandscape.Yetupontakingahikeintheforest,“litupbythesun,”hepronouncedit“verybeautiful.”“Iwouldnothavemissedthispartofthejourneyforanything,”Luxmooreconceded.(JocJackson,TheThiefattheEndoftheWorld:Rubber,Power,andtheSeedsofEmpire,NewYork:Viking,2008;99;DevonRecordOffice,Exeter,UK,CharlesLuxmoore,Journal2,1928,521M–1/SS/9.)

CHAPTER14

LET’SWANDEROUTYONDERITISALMOSTIMPOSSIBLETOTELLTHESTORYOFFORDLANDIAWITHoutinvokingJosephConrad’sHeartofDarkness,thatgreat,indelibleallegoryofEuropeancolonialismingeneralandBelgianbrutalityinparticular.Here,theRougeRiverstandsinfortheThames,thestartingpointofConrad’stale,andtheOrmocfortheNellie,whichcarriesMarlowtohisrendezvouswithtropicalmadness.AnynumberofFordagents—Blakeley,forinstance,orOxholm—coulddoubleforKurtz,defyingthe“whitedsepulchre”ofDearbornpuritanismandgivingintotheirlusts.

Yetthere’ssomethingmoreMarkTwainthanJosephConrad,moreHuckleberrythanhomicidal,aboutthestoriesofFordmenlostinthewilderness.ConsiderMr.Johansen,aScot,andMr.Tolksdorf,aGerman,dispatchedtogatherrubberseedsinSeptember1929byFord’senvoyWilliamCowling.Theirmissionwasurgent.AfterthedisasterofCaptainOxholm’sfirstplanting,thetwomenwerechargedwithlocatinggrovesofhigh-yieldingrubbertrees,gatheringtheirseeds,andreturningintimetoplantthembythecomingMay,beforetherainsended.TravelingwithaBrazilianassistantnamedVictorGilanda“Negrocook”namedFrancisco,thetwoEuropeanscutloosetheirBrazilianunderlingsamonthintothetrip.Giltheyabandonedinatwo-hutvillage,andFranciscotheyputashoreonanuninhabitedisland.1

JohansenandTolksdorfheadedtoBarra,asmallrubbertownattheheadwatersoftheTapajós.Withtheideathatitwouldbe“nicetohaveahighballortwo”onthecomingNewYear’sEve,theyorderedwine,whiskey,andbeerandpaidforitwithcompanyfunds.Theyproceededtoget“intoxicatedandremainedthatwaymostofthetimethrowingmoneyawayandmakingfoolsofthemselvesingeneral.”Onenight,Johansenstumbledintoatradingpost,wherehepurchasedseveralbottlesofperfume.Hethenheadedbackouttothetown’sonestreet,swervingbackandforthashechaseddowncows,goats,sheep,pigs,andchickens.Baptizingthelivestockwiththeperfume,herepeatedthebenediction“Mr.Fordhaslotsofmoney;youmightaswellsmellgoodtoo.”

Afteraboutaweek,thetworenegadescontractedalaunch,loadeditwithFord-boughtwhiskeyandaprostitutetheyhiredasacook,andsetoffonwhatsoundedmorelikea“vagabondpicnicthanarubberseedgatheringexpedition.”Theycontinuedtheirriverineribaldryfromvillagetovillage,onesmallerthanthenext,untiltheylandedinagovernmentareasetasidefortheMundurucúIndians,centeredonaCatholicFranciscanmission.ThereJohansenestablishedhimselfasthe“rubberseedkingoftheupperrivers,”usingacrewofaboutfortyIndianstoclearunderbrushandgatherseeds.

FORDMANAGERS,LIKEEuropeancolonialistsinAsiaandAfrica,werefixatedonrace.ErnestLiebold,afterall,advisedFordtoplantrubberinBrazilandnotinLiberialargelybecauseofhislowopinionofAfricans.“Shehasjustatouchofthe‘tar-brush,’”wroteO.Z.IdeinhisdiaryaftermeetingtheBrazilianwifeofaBelém-basedBritishexporter.OtherswhofollowedIdeusedthewordsniggerandnegroesfreelyand,accordingtohistorianElizabethEsch,plottedworkersbyskincoloronaspectrumthatrangedfrom“tameness”to“savagery.”WhenArchibaldJohnston,whowouldshortlybecomeFordlandia’smanager,wantedtosendHenryFordandothercompanyexecutivessomesamplesofrainforestwood,hehada“littlewoodenniggerboy”madefromdifferentspecimensoftreesfoundontheestate.Johnstonsaidinanoteaccompanyingthegiftthatitscolorwas“allnatural.”Itscap,coat,teeth,andcollarweremadeofpaumarfim,adense,cream-coloredwood.Itsheadwascarvedfrompausanto,akindoftonewood.Andthebuttonswerepauamarelo,oryellowheart.Ford’ssecretarythanked

Johnstonforthe“niggerboy,”sayingthathisbosswas“verypleased”withthegift.“Itisindeedafinepieceofwork,”Sorensenreplieddirectly.2

YetinsteadofunleashingthekindofmortalracismthatgrippedKurtz,thejungleseemedtocatalyzeinFordmenanothertraitendemictoAmericans:ablitheinsistencethatalltheworldismoreorlesslikeus,oratleastanimaginedversionof“us.”HereisthesawyerMattMulrooneycommentingonworkers,manyofwhomintheUnitedStateshewouldhaveundoubtedlyconsideredblack:

Mostofthepeoplearewhitepeople.Theyareaswhiteasweare.Theyarenotcoloredup.Onceinwhileyouwouldrunacrossafellowandyoucouldseehewassmearedupwithsomeothernationality.Iwouldn’tsayitwasIrish,orEnglish,orScotchorDutch.Idon’tknowwhatitwas,buthe’dhaveadifferentcoloronhim.Youcouldn’ttell.Therewasacolorthere.Hewasn’tasmokeyorawhiteface.Themarethebestworkers.Therestofthe3,300peoplewereallthesame,allwhitegenerally,theyareallwhite,sunburnedortanned.

NorweretheFordmenseducedintothinkingaboutthenaturalwondersoftheAmazoninexistentialtermsasmarkersofevilorhumanprogress—asweresomanytravelwriters.ForTheodoreRoosevelt,whovaluedtheroughfrontierorjunglelifeascharacterbuilding,theBrazilianrainforestwassimultaneouslyemptyofthemoralmeaningcreatedbycivilization’sadvanceandacureforitscorruption.ButthemenFordsentdowntobuildFordlandia,andthewomenwhowentwiththem,largelyavoidedsuchmusings.Theydidoccasionallymakementionofthetropicalfloraandfauna,yetofteninthemostprosaicway,commentingonthesizeofthebugsortherelentlessnessoftheheatandrain,andusuallyinmundanecomparisonwithwhattheyknewbackintheStates.TwodecadesafterConstancePerinireturnedhome,whatstillimpressedherthemostwerethe“blackantswithclawsjustlikelobsters”andthe“largestflyingcockroachesI’veeverseen”—or,shesaid,“atleasttheylookedlikecockroaches.”3

Chargedwithtransformingthejungleintoaplantation,companymanagerswereofcourseconcernedwiththeAmazon’snaturaldimensions.Theyhadtoconsidermanyvariables—qualityofthesoilandleveloftheland,irrigation,potentialforhydropower,densityofmosquitoes—whenchoosingwheretoplantrubber,wheretobuildtheworkers’settlementandtowncenter,andwheretoplacethefactoryanddock.Dearbornsentasteadystreamofquestionstodeterminewhatequipmenttoship:“WhatisthegeneraltenacityofattachmentofvinestotreesandcantheybereadilypulledawayfromtreeswithheavytractorsorwithaFordsontractor?”“Isnatureofsoilsuchthattreeswillclingtightlytosoilandcarryalargeportionofsoilwithrootsifpulledupwithtractors,orissoillooseandfreeenoughtoallowtreestobepulledoutwithoutleavinglargeholeswhichwillrequirebackfilling?”“Whatpercentageoftreeswillbesuitableforlogging?”“Whatwouldbethecostofloggingover1000boardfeetusingnativehandlaborwithoutmachinery?”“Ascertainsources,qualityandquantityofstone,gravelandsandforconcrete.Crushingstrengthandchemicalcompositionofcleansharpsand,gravel,andlimestoneshouldbedetermined.”Butthemanagersansweredthesequestionswithanunimpressedprose,unlikethekindoffloridversethattheAmazonusuallyprovoked.4

Thejungletendedtoproducenotapocalypticreflectionsonman’splaceintheuniversebutratherawistfulhomesickness,aconstantcomparisonoftheAmazonwithMichigan.Mulrooneygota“bigkick”when,uponhisreturntoMichigan,hisfriendswouldsaytohim,“Oh,gee,Mulrooney,itmusthavebeenawonderfulplacetofishandhunt,allwoods.”“Yep,fineplace,”hetoldthem,“youcouldn’tgetoutinthewoodstohunt.Ifyoucaughtafish,itwasn’tanygood.Theywerejustabunchofgrease.GivemethefishinMichigan!”WhetherFordmanagers,engineers,andsawyersmayhavethoughtthejungleagothichell

orawindowontotheconsumingindifferenceoftheprimevalworldtothehurriednessofman,theymostlykeptittothemselves.Whentheylookedupandsawvultures,asO.Z.IdediduponarrivinginBelémforthefirsttime,theythoughtofDetroitpigeons.

IFJOHANSENANDTolksdorfwerecomicalKurtzes,theywerepursuedbytheirownMichiganianMarlow,JohnR.Rogge.An“oldtimelumberjack”anda“naturalbornmillman”fromtheUpperPeninsula,RoggehadbeenatFordlandiasincethefirsttreewasfelledinearly1928,havingbeensentbyHenryFordtojoinBlakeley’sadvanceteam.SincehehadsurvivedwithhisreputationrelativelyintactboththeopportunismofBlakeleyandVillaresandtheineptitudeofOxholm,Cowling,beforehelefttheplantation,namedRoggeassistantmanagerandtoldhimtokeepaneyeonOxholm.

RoggewasinastaffmeetingwhenFrancisco,themaroonedcook,showedupattheofficewithatalestraightoutofa“dimenovel.”ItwasnightwhenJohansenandTolksdorfputFranciscoonshore,andhedidn’trealizeuntilmorningthathewasonanuninhabitedisland.Tostaymeanttostarve,sohelashedsomedriftwoodtogetherandfloatedafulldaydownriveruntilhecameuponthehutofarubbergatherer,whogavehimsomefoodandshelter.Hethenbargainedforacanoe,takingtwenty-fourdaystoreachtheFordplantation,“throughdangerousrapids,tropicalrains,andallofthehazardsoftravelontheUpperTapajós.”Afterashortdiscussionamongthestaff,RoggedecidedthattheprocurementofusableseedswasatoppriorityandthathewouldheadanupriverexpeditiontosearchforthetwowaywardFordagents.5

Roggewashappytogo.BornonaWisconsinfarminLangladeCounty,hewasoneofnineboys,threeofwhommovedtonorthernMichigantolookforworkinthetimberindustry.HefeltateaseintheTapajósvalley,which,likeMichigan’svastforests,wassparselypopulated.IftheAmazonwashotandhumid,theeasternGreatLakeplainsoftheUpperPeninsulaweresimilarlyswampyandmoistandmademiserablebyhorsefliesandotherinsectsduringagoodpartofthesummer.Roggewasalsousedtoorganizinglifeandworkaroundthechangeofseasons:mostofUpperPeninsularloggingwasdoneinthewinter,whenthecoldhardenedtheroadsandfrozetheswamps,allowingeasieraccessintotheforest.Andhewasnostrangertowatertransport:LiketheAmazon,theremoteUpperPeninsulawascutthroughwithrivers,whichbeforethearrivaloftherailroadservedasthemainarteriesforloggers,whobuiltcampsontheirshores.6

JohnRoggewithyoungrubbertree.

Roggethoughthis“sleuthingofaScotchman”and“aGerman”wouldallowhimtoescapethefamiliarroutineoftheworkcampandleavebehindtherelativelyunimpressivelowerTapajósfortherealAmazon.NorthernWisconsin,wherehegrewup,issteepedinNativeAmericancultureandhistory.Yetbytimethe“Americanlumberjack,”asRoggedescribedhimself,cameofageintheearlytwentiethcentury,GreatLakesIndianslikethePotawatomi,Menominee,andOjibwafoundthemselvesstrugglingtosurvive,victimsofpopulationdecline,forcedremovalpolicies,andcoercedassimilation.Rogge,therefore,hopedthathistripwouldprovideanopportunitytoencountertrueIndians,ofthekindthatlivedinthe“real,untouchedjungle.”Hegatheredateamtogether,includingafewBrazilianswhoknewsomethingaboutseeds,andoutfittedasmallsteamboat—opentotheweatherexceptforasmallthatchedsleepingcabin—withatwomonths’supplyoffoodandequipment.AstheysetofffromFordlandia,RoggeandhismenmadethemostofwhatanthropologistHughRaffleshascalled“hospitalitytrails,”routeslongusedbyEuropeanandAmericanexplorers,scientists,andbusinessmenastheytraveledaroundtheAmazon.Ontheseroutes,nativelabordidthehauling,cooking,cleaning,andpoling(whenrapidsprohibitedtheboat’spassage),andplanters,merchants,townofficials,andpriestsprovidedshelterandsustenance.7

Roggewasimpressedwiththeskillofhisbarefootandnaked-to-the-waistboatmen,whooccasionallyhadtojumpoverboardtopushhisboatthroughfast-movingwater.Hewaslessenthusiasticabouthiscook,alsobarefootanddressedina“pairofpantsandajacketthatweresogreasyanddirtythattheyinterferedwithhiseverymovementonaccountoftheirstiffness.”Roggeorderedhimtoputoncleanclothesandtokeepthecookingareaneatandorderly,whichhedid,thoughheneverlearnedtoprepareeggstothelumberjack’staste.

ROGGELEFTFORDLANDIAinearlyDecember1930,travelingduringthelaststretchoftherubberseason,thesix-monthdryperiodwhenlatexistapped,smoked,andsentdownriver.Hepassedriverboatsandcanoestakingballsofrubbertotradingposts.Hesleptinthehousesoflocalmerchantsandtraders

andnegotiatedwithlocaltapperstoallowhiscrewtostringtheirhammocksaroundthetrappers’huts.Allofthisgavehimafirsthandviewoftheriver’srubbereconomy.

AsinotherareasoftheAmazon,rubbertreeswerenotplantedbutrathergrewwildalongthe1,235-mileTapajós,particularlyinitsupperheadwatersandfloodplains.Makinghiswaytothesethick,rubber-richgroves,Roggefoundthattheslopingbanksframingtheriver’swidelowerreachesgavewaytoforbiddingjungleoverhang.WithinafewdaysupriverofFordlandia,thejunglebecamedenseandtheTapajósnarrowedtoagap,flankedbylimestonecliffsanddottedwithtree-filledislands.Theriverthenclimbedoveraseriesofwhite-watertorrentsandfallsthatonlylow-draftboats,lightenoughtobepoled,pulled,ordraggedoverland,couldtravel.Forthefirstcoupleofdecadesafterthe1835CabanagemRevolt,whentherubbertradetookoff,theseobstacleshaddiscouragedcommercialexploitation.AFrenchmanwhomadethistripintheearly1850sdescribed“roaringandterrible”rapidsthat“crossandrecrossanddashtoatomsalltheybearagainstblackrocks”guardingthe“deepsolitudes”oftheupperTapajós.Yetbythe1870s,thediminishingyieldofHeveaaroundthemouthoftheAmazon,combinedwithincreasingworlddemand,promptedmerchantsandtraderstopushfartherandfartherintothevalley,avoidingtherapidsandfallsbybuildingportagepathsthroughthejungle.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,mostoftheupperTapajóslatextradewasdominatedbyoneman,RaymundoPereiraBrazil,whosefamilyhadmigratedtotheregionfromthestateofMinasGerais.Attheheightoftheboom,Brazilownedtwothousandrubberestradas,ortrails.Hecontrolledtheriver’sworkforcethroughdebtbondageandmonopolizedtradeandtransportationroutes.8

Brazil’sbankruptcyin1918,followingthecollapseoflatexprices,leftapowervacuumontheupperTapajós.Althoughabusesofworkerscontinued,riverresidentswerenowinapositiontobettertheirlotbyplayingtheremainingtraders,merchants,andtrailownersoffoneanother.Atthesametime,thedeclineoftherubbertradeforcedmanytappers,includingnodoubtRogge’sboatmen,tobroadentheirsurvivalstrategies,supplementingtheirtappingbygatheringnuts,planting,fishing,supplyingriverboatswithwoodfortheirboilers,andhiringoutascrewsonsteamboats.

Evenwiththisdiversification,themiseryRoggewitnessedwasintense.Ateveryhuthepassed,hesawpovertyanddisease,includingchronicmalariaandhookworm.ThroughaPortugueseinterpreterhebroughtwithhimonthetrip,RoggeheardthesamekindofstoriesofabuseandexploitationLaRuetoldHenryFordafewyearsearlier.TapperscomplainedaboutthelowpriceofrubberandsaidthatiftheycouldsaveenoughmoneyfortheirpassagetheywouldleavetheirrubbertrailsandlookforworkinBrazil’sindustrializingsouth.

***

ROGGESETOFFinsearchoftherealAmazon,yetnomatterhowfarhetraveledhisthoughtscontinuallyreturnedtoAmerica.

IttookRoggeafewweekstoreachthetradingpostatBarra,thelastreportedlocationofJohansenandTolksdorf,justbelowwheretheTapajósbreaksoffintoanumberoflessertributaries.Thetriphadbeentedious,oftentakinghourstogojustaquartermile,withRogge’screwstrainingmusclestopolethethatch-roofedboatthroughcurrents,navigatingaroundrocks,trees,andshallows.Atanumberofplaces,smallcataractsforcedthepartytodisembarkandwalk,andbearershoistedthevesselabovethecascadewithamakeshiftpulley.Themoretheboatslowedandthenarrowertheriverbecame,thethickertheswarmsofbugs.“Fromtherisingtothesettingofthesun,”anothervoyageralongthesewatershadwritten,“cloudsofstinginginsectsblindthetraveler,andrenderhimfranticbythetormentstheycause.”

Rogge,too,begantocomplainofwhatseemedlikeaninexhaustiblevarietyofmosquitoes,flies,gnats,andmidges,mostsosmallthatnettingprovidedlittleprotection.Exhaustedandsickfromtwoweeksofquinineandhisskininflamedbybugbites,thelumberjackwelcomedthehospitalityofBarra’sprincipalcitizen,JoséSoteroBarreto,awell-offrubbertraderwhomTheodoreRooseveltmetonhisjourneyoveradecadeearlieranddescribedasa“gentlemanofhighstanding.”BarretogaveRoggeroomandboardanddideverythinghecouldtomaketheFordagentcomfortable.9

Asherecuperated,Roggeenjoyedthepleasuresofthemanor,builthighofftheground,withabroadverandaandglasswindows.Itwas,hethought,the“bestlookingplace”hehadseensinceleavingFordlandia.Revivedbyasteadyflowoftea,milk,and“plentyofchickensoup,”heattendedthenightlydancesBarretoheldinhisparlor.Duringitsgoldenyears,theregionalrubberaristocracyhadbeenfamousforitsloveofallthingsEuropean,particularlyItalianmarbleandItalianopera.Butthebustdulledtheoldcontinent’sappeal,andastherubberlordslookednorthtoAmerica’sboomingcarindustryforsalvationtheyalsobegantoappreciateAmerica’sequallyboomingpopularculture.TheBritishexplorerCharlesLuxmoore,travelinguptheTapajósinearly1928insearchofthelostColonelPercyFawcett,reportedarrivingatthesmallvillageofVillaNovatofindpeopledoingtheCharleston.*AndonoffereverynightonBarreto’sVictrolawere,amongotherAmericanstandards,“MyOhioHome”and“Ramona,”bothrecordedjusttheyearbefore.TotherecoveringRogge,the78s“soundedrathergoodhundredsofmilesfromhome.”10

AttheendofWernerHerzog’sFitzcarraldo—thatothertaleofupriverobsession—thetitlecharacter,playedbyKlausKinski,standsonthedeckofhisdecrepitriverboatastheturntableplaystenorEnricoCarusosinging“OParadiso.”Thesceneismeanttoinvokecivilization’sfragilebeautyinthefaceofwhattheBrazilianwriterJoséMariaFerreiradeCastrodescribedastheAmazon’s“overpoweringsensationoftheabsolute.”Butit’salsomeanttoconveyadeepresonance,aharmony,betweenthatenormityandtheopera’semotionalbaroque.Despitetheforeignprovenanceofthearia,theimageisinescapablyembeddedintheAmazon.

Here,though,themusicthatRoggelistenedtowaspurelynostalgic,notsomuchgroundinghiminthejungleastransportinghimbackhome,ormorepreciselybacktoanAmericathatwasfastdisappearing.Incontrasttothesexualized,insinuatingwooingofRudyValleethatreachedMulrooneyandhiswifeinFordlandia,thelyricsthathelpedrestoreRogge’sspiritsconveyedarestlessdiscomfortwiththeartificialityofmoderntimes.“Iwanttowakeupinthemornin’andhearthebirdiessaygoodmorning,thewaytheyalwayssaygoodmornin’inmyOhiohome....Iwanttowanderinthemoonlightandmeetmysweetieinthemoonlight.”Suchwanderlustwaltzesorballads,oftensetintheAmericanWest(andjustasoftenpennedbyEuropeanimmigrants,aswasthecaseofGusKahn’s“MyOhioHome”)providedanantidotetotheurbane,topsy-turvyworldofaggressivewomenandpleadingmenthatpopulatedJazzAgecrooning.Theyharkenedbacktoanearliereraofpropercourtship,beforethecomingoftheelectronictechnologiesthatallowedsoft-voicedeffeteslikeVallee—no“oldtimelumberjack”he—tobecomesexobjects,reachingdirectlyintohomes,bedrooms,and,startingin1933,Fordcars.11

“Ramona”wakenedsimilarlongingsforauthenticity.Thesongwasbasedonthewildlypopular1884HelenHuntJacksonnovelofthesamenamethattransformedNativeAmericansintoobjectsofnostalgiaandSouthernCaliforniaintoamajortouristdestination,asgenerationsoffanscontinuetothisdaytosearchouttheplacesJacksonusedassettings.Filmedthreetimesby1928,Ramona,whichdrawsfromJackson’sexperienceasagovernmentagentinvestigatingabusesagainstNativeAmericans,isan

indictmentofAngloracism.ItstitlecharacterrepresentsOldCalifornia’svanishingMissionIndianculture,avictimofwhitedepredationbroughtbytheGoldRush,by“Americanspouringin,atallpoints,toreaptheadvantagesoftheirnewpossessions”anddrivingtheIndiansofftheirland“asiftheyweredogs.”Asinthenovel,thesongyearnsforapastoralidyll,alwaysjustoutofreachbeyondthenextvalleyor,ifRoggestretchedhisimagination,riverbend:

Iwanderoutyondero’erthehills

Wherethemountainshigh,seemtokissthesky

Someone’supyondero’erthehills

Waitingpatiently,waitingjustforme.

.......

Ramona,whenthedayisdoneyou’llhearmycall

Ramona,we’llmeetbesidethewaterfall

Idreadthedawn

WhenIawaketofindyougone

Ramona,Ineedyou,myown.

SuchmelancholyprovidedaparticularlyaptsoundtrackforRogge’stravelsinsearchof“realIndians,”theoneswhohadlongagoretreateddeeperintothejungle,inflightfromthekindofviolenceRamonadramatizesashavinghaddecimatedNativeAmericansinSouthernCaliforniaand,forthatmatter,inWisconsinandMichigan.A“sadlegacy,”Jacksonwrote,“indissolublylinkedwithmemorieswhichhadinthemnothingbutbitterness,shame,andsorrowfromfirsttolast.”12

ASHECONVALESCEDinBarra,RoggegatheredevidenceconfirmingJohansenandTolksdorf’sFord-financeddrinkingandwhoring.HelearnedthatthetwomenhadheadeduptheCururuRivertoitsHevea-heavyfloodplain.There,theyhadsetupaworkcamp,hiredaboutfortyMundurucúIndians,andstartedclearingtheforestundergrowthinordertogatherrubberseeds.Thoughnotfullyrecovered,Roggewasresolvedtofinishhisassignment.“Ihadyet,”hetoldhimself,“toseethefirsttimethatIwasgivenajobthatIcouldn’thandle.”Sohecontinuedontheirtrail.TheCururuistighterthantheTapajós,withameshofthicktangledcreepersobscuringitsbanks.AfteramonthofDecemberrains,theforestwascoveredwithwater,andastherivernarrowed,fliesandmosquitoesgrewdenserandthesoundofcroakingfrogslouder—RioCururumeansRiverofFrogs,fromtheTupinameforthepoisonousandloquaciousgiantcanetoadsfoundthroughouttheregion.IttookRoggeaboutafulldaytogettotheCatholicmission,establishedbyGermanFranciscansin1912inthewakeoftheboom.Stillnotfeelingwell,Roggerestedafewmoredays,dustingoffhischildhoodGermanandenjoyingheart-shapedChristmaspastry,orKuchen,madebythenuns.

HerethenwasascloseasRoggewouldgettothe“real,untouchedjungle”andthe“Indiansthatwerereportedtobelivingthere.”ThelumberjackobservedtheMundurucúwithakeenethnographiceye.Theylivedmostlynaked,henoted,tattooingtheirbodiesfrom“headtofootwiththejuiceofsomeberryandathorn.”Eachhadthreeearpiercings,filledwith“woodenplugs.”Womenalsopiercedtheirlowerlips,andmothersnursedtheirbabiesuntiltheywerethreeyearsold.Childrenmarriedasearlyasnineyearsofage,anditwasthe“squaw”whodidallthe“heavycarrying”whilethemalefollowedbehindwith“his

hammock,bowandarrow.”Fordonceobservedthatpeopledon’t“stayput,”andneitherdidtheMundurucú,whomovedclosertotheriverduringthedryseasonandinlandduringthewet.Thosenotsettledinthemissionlivedinsmall,itinerantgroupsoftentofifty,“scatteredthroughouttheforestinlargepalmhuts,”underwhichtheyentombedtheirdead.Whentherewasnomoreroomforfurtherburials,theyabandonedthehutandestablishedanewcommunityelsewhere.Yet“untouched”theMundurucúwerenot.

PortuguesetroopshaddefeatedthecontentiousTupí-speakingMundurucúacenturyandahalfearlier,in1784inabattlethathelpedopenuptheTapajósvalleytoEuropeans,notjustbecauseitendedoveracenturyofraidsoncolonialsettlementsalongtheriverbutbecausethedefeatedMundurucúofferedtheirservicesasmercenariestopacifyotheruncooperativeindigenousgroups,includingthosewhojoinedthe1835CabanagemRevolt.“AndGodrequitetheMundurucu,”wroteGeorgeWashingtonSears,inhis“TupiLament”commemoratingtherebellion,“forontheirheadsshallresttheguiltofIndianbloodbyIndiansspilt.”Thisalliancewithgovernmentforces,alongwithareputationfor“unalloyed,untemperedsavagery,”asRobertMurphy,ananthropologistwhoworkedintheregioninthe1950s,putit,helpedtheMundurucúsurvivetheravagesoftherubberboom—unlikethosestarvingrefugeesonthebanksoftheXinguthatFordlandiamanagersconsidered,andthenrejected,asasourceoflabor.Yettheirnumbersdiddeclinerapidlyoverthecourseofthenineteenthcentury,byasmuchas75percent,leadingtotheabandonmentofwarfareasawayoflifeandanincreasingdependenceontheFranciscansforsurvival(thoughwellintothe1950s,accordingtoMurphy,“warwasthefavoritetopic”ofconversationamongMundurucúmen,whotradedstoriesofmilitarystrategy“asifitwereyesterday”).ByRogge’svisit,onlyafewthousandlivedalongtheCururuandintheinlandsavanna,alongwithacoupleofhundredmorearoundtheCatholicsettlement.13

TheFranciscans’objective,likeFordlandia’s,wasacivilizationalone.Themissionsuppliedclothingtoitschargesandsetupseparateschoolsforboysandgirls.Italsoencouragedtheestablishmentofpermanentvillages—urgingwhathadbeennomadicfamiliestoliveinsettledhomeswithindividualgardenplots—inoculatedchildrenwiththelatestvaccines,andpromotedsanitationandhygiene.ThehomesdirectlyundertheFranciscans’care,Roggenoticed,“wereveryclean.”YetunlikeFord,thepriestsandnunswentabouttheirevangelismwith“somedegreeoftactandrestraint,”atleastaccordingtoMurphy.ItwasnotthekindofrashassaultFordhopedtolaunchonthepreindustrialrelationsandsentimentsofthepeoplewholivedintheAmazonbutratheraslowsubversionthattransformedtheideasandsocialbondsthatheldthemtogetherasapeople.14

Mundurucúmissionchildren,withGermannuns.

TheMundurucúRoggesawwerenominallyCatholicandacceptedtheauthorityofthemissionasaninstitution.YetChristianritualsandtheologyremainedsubsidiarytoindigenouspracticesandbeliefs.PriestsbaptizedandconfirmedMundurucúchildrenandestablishedaproperChristianburialground.ThoseMundurucú,however,wholivedoutsidethemission’sjurisdictionignoredtheadmonitionsofthemissionariesandcontinuedtointertheirdeadunderthefloorofthecommunalhut.TheFranciscansurgedtheirwardstotakepublicCatholicweddingvows,andRoggesaidthepriestsrefusedtoperformmarriageceremoniesunlessthegirlwasatleastfourteenandtheboysixteenyearsold.ThiswasfinewiththeMundurucú,whothoughtthepublicceremony“embarrassingandshame-provoking”andmade“everyefforttoavoidit.”

OnSundays,whenoutlyingMundurucútraveledtothemissiontotradetheirrubber,thepriestsandnunsurgedthemtoattendmass.Mostdid,motivatedlessbyfaiththanbydeferencetotherespectedFranciscans.Childrensatinthefrontwiththenuns,mentookthepews,remainingina“rigidkneelingposition”throughouttheservice,andwomensatcross-leggedonthefloorofthecenteraisle,nursingtheirbabiesasthepriestsaidmass.

Wellintothe1950s,theMundurucúcontinuedtohavetheirowncreationmyth,aswellasenchantedexplanationsforthemundanesufferingandjoysoflife,someofwhichharmonizedwithCatholictheology:Duringthetimebeforethebeginningoftime,theybelieved,gardensbloomedwithoutlaborandaxescutoftheirownaccordandtheonlyrequirementwasadivineinjunctionnottolookdirectlyattheworktakingplace.ButtheMundurucúlooked.The“axesstoppedchopping,thetreetrunksgrewhard,andmenthereafterhavehadtoswingtheaxesthemselves.”

Yettheideaoforiginalsindidnottakehold,nordidtheconceptofdamnation.TothedegreetheMundurucúbelievedinhell,theythoughtita“particulardestinationofwhitepeople.”15

ROGGEFINALLYCAUGHTupwithJohansenandTolksdorfadayupriverfromthemission.HefoundthetwomenpresidingoveralargeMundurucúworkcrewandpayingtheminkind,withmaterialpurchasedfromadownrivertradingpost.Afterallthederelictionsofthetworenegades,itwastheirdefianceofthecompanydirectivetopaywagesthatputanendtotheiradventures.Fordwasadamanton

thispoint.Indeed,whenhediscussedthebenefitshisrubberplantationwouldbringtoAmazondwellers,heusuallydidsointermsofwages.“WhatthepeopleoftheinteriorofBrazilneed,”Forddeclared,justatthemomentCaptainOxholmwasbunglingtheunloadingoftheOrmocandFargeinSantarém,“istohavetheireconomiclifestabilizedbyfairreturnsfortheirlaborpaidincash.”16

AmongtheMundurucú,however,moneyasastandardofvaluewasunknown.Giftgivingwasthedefiningfeatureoftheircultureandeconomy;theexchangeoffood,knives,guns,andcookingutensilscreatedasenseofidentityandboundindividuals,households,andsettlementstogetherinadiffusenetworkofreciprocity.BythetimeofRogge’sarrival,theMundurucúsystemofgeneralizedsharingwasbeingincreasinglyreplacedbybarterrelationswherebyindividualsnegotiatedtheirexchangeitemforitem.*Still,throughoutthe1920sand1930s,eachtransactionremainedhighlypersonalized,unlikethekindofcold,facelessexchangesassociatedwithcasheconomies.†

RoggehimselfwaswellawareofMundurucúcustominthatregard.AnobservantCatholic,hehadattendedChristmasEvemassatthemissionandwasparticularlyfascinatedbythenuns’handingoutpresentsaftertheserviceended.Overtheyears,theCatholicoutposthadaccumulatedalargecollectionofdollsof“allshapesandsizes,”whichhadbeendonatedby“everycountryontheglobe.”AndeachChristmasthenunswouldgatherupthedollsdistributedthepreviousyear,dresstheminnewlysewnclothes,andhandthemouttothenextgenerationofgirls.RoggeunderstoodthatthenunsweretryingtoimbuegiftgivingwithaspecificreligiousmeaningtocelebratethebirthofChrist(aswellastoteachyoungchildrenthevirtueofwearingclothes).Butwhenhewasconfrontedwiththewaywardagents,Rogge’sethnographicsensibilityfailedhim.HeaccusedJohansenandTolksdorfoftheft,ofpayingtheirindigenouslaborerswithcheapgoodsandpocketingthemoney.Thetwotriedtodefendthemselves,insistingthattheMundurucúdidn’t“wantmoney.”Roggewouldnotrelent,andafterrecitingthelitanyofscandalousstorieshehadheardaboutthemenduringhistravels,hestrippedthemoftheiraccountbookanddischargedthem.YetwhateverthemotivesofJohansenandTolksdorf,whenRoggerequestedthattheMundurucúcontinuecollectingrubberseeds,theyrefusedtobepaidincashandinsteaddemandedmerchandiseforthelabor.Sohenegotiatedexactlywhattheywantedinordertocontinuetheirgathering.

ItwaslateJanuarywhenRoggefinallyheadedbacktoFordlandia.Carriedquicklyonwatersmadeswiftbytheseasonalrains,thelumberjackdescendedintwentyminutesrapidsthattookthreeorfourhourstoclimb.HethoughtaboutthegiftshehadreceivedfromtheFranciscanmissionaries,whichincludedaphotographof“Indianlife,”asmallwoodentoy,and“someIndianrelics,”andpledgedtoalwayskeepthemasa“remembranceofmyChristmasspentamongtheMundurucúIndiansintheinteriorofBrazil.”AsheapproachedFordlandia,Roggefeltsatisfiedthathehadaccomplishedthejobthathehadbeen“sentintotheheartofBraziltodo.”Dearborn,perhapskeptinthedarkabouthisaccommodationtolocalcustom,wastoo.HenryFordnamedhimplantationmanagershortlyafterhisreturn,followingVictorPerini’ssuddendepartureowingtohealthreasons.

“WELIVEASwedream,alone,”isjustoneofthemanythoughtsthatmoveMarlow,thenarratorofHeartofDarkness,ashejourneysupriverinsearchofKurtz.Rogge,too,foundthejungleeducative,althoughdecidedlylessexistential.“OneofthethingsIlearnedonthistrip,”herecountedafewyearslaterashereflectedonhistravelsintheupperTapajós,“isthatnowhitemancanliveandbehealthyonnativedietandnomatterhowmuchgoodfoodyoumayhavewithyouitisadvisabletohaveacookalongthatisknowntobecleanandcanpreparefoodundertryingconditions.”Thelessoncouldseemtrivial,exceptforthefactthatfoodwasindeedasignificantsourceofwoe,andoftenconflict,inthejungle.In

fact,exactlyoneyearafterhispursuitofJohansenandTolksdorf,afightoverfood,sparkedbyahastilymadedecisionbyRoggehimself,nearlycausedthedestructionofFordlandia.

____________

*HistorianBryanMcCann,whohaswrittenwidelyonBrazilianmusicandpopularculture,notesthatatthistimetheupperTapajóswasonlytenuouslylinkedtosouthernBrazilandrelativelyrecentmigrantcommunitieswerereceptivetonewdanceandmusictrendscominginfromtheAtlantic.Theanimated,African-basedswingoftheCharlestonwouldhavelentitselftothekindofinformalcommunalcelebrationLuxmooredescribesatVillaNova.Residentsofthevillageprobablyhadseenoneofthemanyshortfilmsorcartoonsfromthemid-1920sfeaturingthedance,eitherinSantarémorinoneofthemovingcinemassetupbyitinerantmoviemenwhoroamedthebacklands(figuresmemorializedinByeByeBrasil[1979]andCinemaAspirinaeUrubus[2006]).McCannalsoreportsthattheCharlestonwasadanceformthatcouldeasilybetranslatedintomanydifferentcultures;in1927,JeanRenoir’sCharlestonParadefeaturedanalienwholandsinpostapocalypseParisandlearnstodotheCharleston(DevonRecordOffice,Exeter,UK,CharlesLuxmoore,Journal2,1928,521M–1/SS/9).

*Itwouldnotbeuntilthe1980s,whengoldwasfoundontheirland,thattheMundurucúwouldcompletelyadoptmoneyasauniversalstandardofvalueandexchange.

†ThereisatemptationtothinkofthiskindofpersonalizednetworkofgiftgivingastheantithesisoftherationalizedindustrialwagesystemtheFordMotorCompanyhelpedpioneerbackinMichigan.Yet“wages”forFordwerealwaysmorethanasimpleunitofvalue.Theywereastateofmind,thekeytohissuccessbothasamanufacturerandasasocialengineer,asenchantedandfilledwithculturalmeaningaswasMundurucúgiftgivingandbartering.“Onthecostsheet,”Fordsaid,“wagesaremerefigures;outintheworld,wagesarebreadboxesandcoalbins,babies’cradlesandchildren’seducation—familycomfortsandcontentment.”Norwasheaboveusinggiftstocreatepersonalbondsofloyalty.HepaidHarryBennett,forinstance,onlyasmallyearlysalaryyetshoweredhimwithpresents,includingseveralyachts,houses,andevenanislandmansionintheHuronRiver.“Never,”heoncetutoredBennett,“giveanythingwithoutstringsattachedtoit”(CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.132;“LifewithHenry,”Time,October8,1951).

CHAPTER15

KILLALLTHEAMERICANSINDECEMBER1930,WORKERSHADFINISHEDPAINTINGTHEFORDlogoonthelandmarkthatdistinguishesFordlandiatothisday:its150-foottowerand150,000-gallonwatertank.“Whentheviewishadfromthedeckofariversteamer,”wroteOgdenPierrot,anassistantcommercialattachéassignedtotheUSembassyinRio,ofhistriptoFordlandia,“theimposingstructuresoftheindustrialsectionofthetown,withthetremendouswatertankandthesmokestackofthepowerhouse,catchtheviewandcreateasensationofrealwonderment.”

Hewenton:

Thisisnotunusualwhenitisconsideredthatforseveraldaystheonlysignsoflifethathaverelievedthemonotonyofthetriphavebeenoccasionalsettlementsconsistingoftwoorthreethatchedhutsagainstabackgroundofgreenjungle.Afeelingakintodisbeliefcomesoverthevisitoronsuddenlyseeingprojectedbeforehimapicturewhichmaybeconsideredaminiatureofamodernindustrialcity.Smokestacksbelchingforthaheavycloudformedbywastewoodusedasfuel,alocomotiveindustriouslypuffingalongaheadofflatcarsladenwithmachineryjustreceivedfromtheUnitedStates,steamcranesperformingtheirendlesshalfturnsandreversesforthepurposesofretrievingheavycargofromtheholdsoflightersmooredalongsidethelongdock,heavytractorscreepingaroundthesidesofthehillsdraggingimplementsbehindthemforlooseningandlevelingtheearth,othersheavingattautcablesattachedtostumpsoftremendousproportions—allcombinetoincreasetheastonishmentcausedintheuninitiatedvisitorstothisdistrict,whohadnoconceptionsofwhathadbeenaccomplishedinthebriefspaceofslightlyovertwoyears.

Industrialsublime:Fordlandia’spowerhouseturbine.

Muchofthepipingthatwouldprovideindoorplumbingtothetownwasscheduledtobecompletedthefollowingyear.ButasChristmasapproached,workersboltedtothetoweronefeaturethathadnothingtodowithwater.1

ITTOOKDEARBORN’Spurchasingagentssomeefforttofindafactorywhistlethatwouldn’trustfrom

thejunglehumidity.Oncetheydid,theyshippedittoFordlandia,whereitwasperchedontopofthewatertower,abovethetalltrees,givingitaseven-milerange.Thewhistlewaspiercingenoughnotonlytoreachdispersedroadgangsandfieldhandsbuttobeheardacrosstheriver,whereeventhosenotaffiliatedwithFordlandiabegantopacetheirdaytoitsregularlyscheduledblows.Thewhistlewassupplementedbyanothericonofindustrialfactorywork:pendulumpunchtimeclocks,placedatdifferentlocationsaroundtheplantation,thatrecordedexactlywheneachemployeebeganandendedhisworkday.2

InDetroit,immigrantworkersbythetimetheygottoFord’sfactories,eveniftheywerepeasantsandshepherds,hadhadampleopportunitytoadjusttothemeterofindustriallife.ThelonglinesatEllisIsland,theclocksthathungonthewallsofdepotsandwaitingrooms,thefairlypreciseschedulesofshipsandtrains,andstandardizedtimethatchoppedthesun’sdailyarcintozonescombinedtoguidetheirmotionsandchangetheirinnersenseofhowthedayspassed.

ButintheAmazon,thetransitionbetweenagriculturaltimeandindustrialtimewasmuchmoreprecipitous.PriortoshowingupatFordlandia,manyoftheplantation’sworkerswhohadlivedintheregionhadsettheirpacebytwodistinctyetcomplementarytimepieces.Thefirstwasthesun,itsriseandfallmarkingthebeginningandendoftheday,itsapexsignalingthetimetotaketotheshadeandsleep.Thesecondwastheturnoftheseasons:mostofthelaborneededtosurvivewasperformedduringtherelativelydrymonthsofJunetoNovember.Rainlessdaysmaderubbertappingpossible,whiletherecessionofthefloodsexposednewlyenrichedsoils,readytoplant,andconcentratedfish,makingthemeasiertocatch.Butnothingwassetinstone.Excessiverainorprolongedperiodsofdroughtorheatledtoadjustmentsofschedules.BeforethecomingofFord,Tapajósworkerslivedtime,theydidn’tmeasureit—mostrarelyeverheardchurchbells,muchlessafactorywhistle.Itwasdifficult,therefore,asDavidRiker,whoperformedmanyjobsforFord,includinglaborrecruiter,said,“tomake365-daymachinesoutofthesepeople.”3

Fordlandia’smanagersandforemen,incontrast,weremostlyengineers,preciseintheirmeasurementoftimeandmotion.OneofthefirstthingstheAmericansdidwassettheirwatchesandclockstoDetroittime,whereFordlandiaremainstothisday(nearbySantarémrunsanhourearlier).*Theyscratchedtheirheadswhenconfrontedwithworkerstheyroutinelydescribedas“lazy.”ArchieWeeks’sdaughterremembersherfatherthrowinghisstrawhatonthegroundmorethanonceinfrustration.WithadecidedsenseofpurposethatgratedagainsttheestablishedrhythmsofTapajóslife(DavidRikerlikedtosaythathurrywasan“obscene”wordinthevalley),proudlyaffiliatedwithacompanyrenownedforitsvanguardinterlockingefficiency,Ford’smentendedtotreatBraziliansasinstruments.Andcalledthemsuch.MattMulrooneygavehisworkersnicknames.“ThisfellowIhadnamedTelephone.WhenIwantedtosendamessageoranorderdownfront,I’djustholler,‘Telephone!’andhe’dshowup.”4

AndtheyusedthemselvesasstandardstomeasurethevalueofBrazilianlabor.“TwoofourpeopleeasilycarriedsometimberswhichtwelveBraziliansdidnotseemtobeabletohandle,”observedaDearbornofficialattheendof1930.WhatamancoulddoinaDearbornday“wouldtakeoneofthemguysthreedaystodoitdownthere.”5

TheseAmericanmanagersandforemendid,afterall,workforamanwhoseobsessionwithtimelongpredatedhisdrivetorootout“lostmotion”and“slack”intheworkdaybydividingthelaborneededtobuildtheModelTintoeversmallertasks:7,882tobeexact,accordingtoFord’sowncalculations.Asa

boy,Fordregularlytookapartandreassembledwatchesandclocks.“EveryclockintheFordhome,”aneighboroncerecalled,“shudderedwhenitsawhimcoming.”Heeveninventedatwo-facedwatch,onetokeep“suntime”andtheotherChicagotime—thatis,centralstandardtime.Thirteenwhenhismotherdiedgivingbirthtoherninthchild,Henrylaterdescribedhishomeafterherpassingas“awatchwithoutamainspring.”6

Healsoknewthatattemptstochangethemeasureoftimecouldleadtoresistance—again,wellbeforehemetlaboroppositiontohisassemblylinespeedup.Hewastwenty-twowhen,in1885,mostofDetroitrefusedtoobeyamunicipalordinancetopromotethe“unificationoftime,”asthecampaigntogettheUnitedStatestoaccepttheGreenwichmeridianastheuniversalstandardwascalled.“Considerableconfusion”prevailed,accordingtotheChicagoDailyTribune,asDetroit“showedherusualconservatisminrefusingtoadoptStandardTime.”Ittookmorethantwodecadestogetthecitytofully“abandonsolartime”andsetitsclocksbacktwenty-eightminutesandfifty-onesecondstoharmonizewithChicagoandtherestoftheMidwest(thecitywouldswitchtoeasternstandardtimein1915,bothtohavemoresunlighthoursandtosynchronizethecity’sfactorieswithNewYorkbanks).7

InFordlandia,industrialregimentationentailedahostofotherinitiativesbesideswhistlesandpunchcardclocks.Thepayingofsetbimonthlywages,basedonthosepunchedcards,wasthemostobvious.Sowasaconceptionoftheworkdaythatmadeaslittleconcessionaspossibletotheweather,keepingworkers“ontheclock”whenrainpoureddowninsheetsandthetemperaturesoaredpast105degrees.Theefforttorationalizelifereachedintothesmallestdetailsofaworker’sday.AsinDearborn,plantationemployeeswererequiredtowearametalFordbadge,embossedwiththeirIDnumberandanindustrialpanoramathatincludedafactorycomplex,anairplane,twoships(theOrmocandFarge?),andawatertower.Thefieldhandswhoclearedthejungleandtendedtotheyoungrubbertreesoftentookofftheirshirtsintheheat,andsotheypinnedtheirbadgestotheirbeltbuckles.Thecostofalostbadgewasdeductedfromwages.

Menlineuptoreceivetheirpay.

Aworker’sbadgedepictingtheFordlandiaideal.

Regimentationalsoextendedintohygieneandhealth.Thecompanyrequiredworkerstosubmittoblooddrawstotestfordiseaseandinjectionstovaccinateagainstsmallpox,yellowfever,typhoid,anddiphtheria.Whenworkerswenttopunchoutattheendoftheday,theyweremetattheclocksbymembersofthemedicalteam,whogavethemtheirdailyquininepill.Theywereoftenreluctanttotakeit,though,asthehighdosageprescribedbyFord’sdoctorscausednausea,vomiting,stomachpain,skinrashes,andnightmares.Hidingthepillsundertheirtongues,theworkers,onceoutofsight,wouldcompetetoseewhocouldspittheirsthefarthest.Plantationdoctorsalsoinsistedthatallworkerstaketheantiparasiticalchenopodium,without,asoneemployeecomplained,examiningthemtoseeifthemedicinewasrequired.“TheAmericanssupposethatweareallfullofworms,”hesaid.8

ATDAWN,WHENthewhistlegaveitsfirstblastsummoningworkerstotheirstations,Fordlandiawasoftenstillshroudedinmist.ItsmanagerswouldsoonlearnthatthefogthatwaftedofftheTapajósearlyinthemorningacceleratedthespreadoftherubber-destroyingfungi.Yetinthoseearlydays,beforetheblighthit,theythoughtitbeautiful,especiallywhenthemistmingledwithlight’sfirstraysthroughstandingtrees.Theundulatinghillsandhollowsoftheplantingareanolongerlookedlikeawasteland,asovertwothousandacresofsix-feet-tallrubbertrees,linedupinneatrows,hadbeguntosportyoungcrownsofleaves.TheestatewasespeciallyenchantingaroundtheAmericancompound.Thoughitwassetbackfromthedockaboutamileandahalf,therowofhousesnestledonariseaboveabendintheTapajós,gaveitsresidentsapanoramicsunsetviewofthebroadriver.Behindthehouses,asabuffertotherestoftheplantation,ArchieWeekshadleftastandofforest,creatingwhatresidentsdescribedasa“naturepark.”Withmostofthejungle’sdangersremoved,itwaseasiertocontemplateitspleasures.Pathsrakedcleanoftherank,rottingleavesthatnormallycovertheforestfloormeanderedthroughferns,tropicalpalms,falsecedars,andkapoksgarlandedwithclimbers,bromeliads,bignonias,andothertropicalflowers;largemorphobutterfliesflittedovertheblossoms,theirwingsshiningblueandblack.AndthatDecember,Dearbornhadsentdownaboutadozenlivepines,tobeusedasChristmastreesintheAmericanhouses,soitshomesickAmericanstaffcouldhaveaproperAmericanholiday.

Slowly,beforethesecondwhistlesignaledtheofficialstartoftheday,themorningsoundsoftheforestwouldgivewaytothenoiseofwakingfamilies,womengrindingmanioc,andthechatter,firstsubduedandthenplayful,ofassemblingmen.Mostcamefromthebunkhousesortheplantationsettlement.Butacontingentcommutedfromtheothersideoftheriver,theircanoepaddlessplashingthewater,oillamps

piercingthethickfog,helpingthemnavigate,asdidtheoccasionalsoftwhistleifonedriftedoffcourse.OtherswalkedfromPaud’Aguaoroneoftheothersmallsettlementsontheplantation’sedgethathadsofarwithstoodthecompany’sattemptstobuythemoutorshutthemdown,continuingtoofferadegreeofnighttimeautonomytoFordlandia’sworkers.Timecardswerepunched,ignitionsturned,instructionsgiven,andtheworkdaycommenced.

Bytheendof1930,then,itseemedasifFordlandiahadmadeitthroughitsroughstartandhadsettledintoaworkableroutine.Mostofthephysicalplantwasbuilt,andcrewswerepushingintothejungle,clearingmoreland,plantingmorerubber,andbuildingmoreroads.JohnRogge,namedactingmanagerfollowinghisreturnfromtheupperTapajósandVictorPerini’ssuddendeparture,hadarrangedforasteadysupplyofseedstobesentdownfromtheMundurucúreservation.RoggehadalsosentDavidRikerearlierintheyeartotheupperAmazon,toAcreinfarwesternBrazil,tosecuremoreseeds,someofwhichhadarrivedandhadbeenplanted.Sanitationsquadsstillpolicedtheplantation’sthatchedsettlementwhereworkerswithfamilieslived,inspectinglatrinesandkitchensandmakingsurelaundrywashungproperly,wastewasdisposedofinahygienicmanner,andcorralswerekeptdry,welldrained,andfreeoffeces.Butmanagershadtheirhandsfullgettingtheplantationandsawmillrunning,sotheyhadmostlygivenupinsistingthatallsingleemployeesliveontheestateproper,thoughtheydidtrytoforceunmarriedworkerstoeatlunchanddinnerinthecompany’snewlybuiltdininghall.Nordidtheadministrationinthoseearlyyearsprovidemuchinthewayofentertainment.Formostemployees,theworkdayendedatthree.Apartfromdinnertherewasn’tmuchelseforsinglementodobuttodrifttothecafes,bars,andbrothelsthatsurroundedtheplantation,wheretheycouldeatanddrinkwhattheywantedandpayforsexiftheyliked.OnSundays,small-scaletradersandmerchantsfromnearbycommunitiesarrivedoncanoes,steamboats,andgracefulsailboats,stillwidelyusedatthetime,settingupabustlingmarketontheriverbank,sellingfruit,vegetables,meat,notions,clothes,andbooks.

Thestrikes,knifefights,andriotsthatmarkedFordlandia’sfirsttwoyearshadsubsided,andforallof1930therewerenomajorincidents.Roggedecidedthatthedetachmentofarmedsoldiersthathadbeenstationedatthecampsincethe1928riotwasnolongerneeded.Fordlandia’send-of-the-yearreport,compiledinearlyDecember1930,praisedifnottheworkethicthenthe“docility”ofBrazilianworkers,whodo“notresentbeingeithershownorsupervisedbymenofothernationalities.”

Still,Roggekeptatugandasmallerlaunchattheready—notatthemaindockbutuptheriver,accessiblebyapathfromtheAmericanvillage.

THETROUBLESTARTEDintheneweatinghall,acavernousconcretewarehouselikestructureinauguratedjustafewweeksearlier.Toenforcetheregulationthatsingleworkershadtotaketheirmealsontheplantation—bothtodiscouragethepatronageofbarsandbordellosandtoencourageahealthydiet—Rogge,backfromafour-monthvacation,decidedafterconsultingwithDearbornthatthecostoffoodwouldbeautomaticallydeductedfrombimonthlypaychecks.

ThenewsystemwentintoeffectinthemiddleofDecember.Commonlaborerssatatoneendofthehall,skilledcraftsmenandforemenattheother;bothgroupswereservedbywaiters.WorkersgrumbledaboutbeingfedadietsetbyHenryFord,consistingofoatmealandcannedpeachesimportedfromMichiganforbreakfastandunpolishedriceandwholewheatbreadfordinner.Andtheydidn’tliketheautomaticpaydeductions,whichmeanttheycouldn’tspendtheirmoneywheretheywanted.Italsomeanttheyhadtoformalineoutsidethedininghalldoorsothatofficeclerkscouldtakeattendance,jottingbadgenumbersintheirrollbook.Butthearrangementseemedtobeworking.

ThenonDecember20,ChesterColemanarrivedinthecamptooverseethekitchens.BeforehavingspentevenadayatFordlandia,hesuggestedthattheplantationdoawaywithwaiterservice.FreshfromhisjobasforemanatRiverRouge,withitsassemblylinesandconveyorbelts,Colemanproposedhavingallthemenlineupfortheirfood“cafeteria-style.”Roggeagreed,andthechangewentintoeffectonthetwenty-second.RoggealsochargedtheunpopularKajOstenfeld,whoworkedinthepayrolloffice,withthejobofdeductingthecostofmealsfromworkers’salariesandwithmakingsurethatthenewplanwentsmoothly.DearbornbelievedOstenfeldamanof“unquestionedhonesty,”thoughtheydidthinkhecouldusesomerefinementandsuggestedthatatsomepointhebebroughttoDetroitfor“furtherdevelopment.”Workershadlongbeenunhappywithhiscondescending,provocativemanner.9

Duringthefirsthourorso,eighthundredmenmadeitinandoutwithoutaproblem.Ostenfeld,though,heardsomeoftheskilledmechanicsandforemencomplain.“Whentheycamefromwork,”hesaid,theyexpectedto“tositdownatthetableandbeservedbythewaiters”—andnotbeforcedtowaitonlineandeatwiththecommonlaborers.Asthelinebegantobunchup,thecomplaintsgrewsharper.“Wearenotdogs,”someoneprotested,“thataregoingtobeorderedbythecompanytoeatinthisway.”Theswelteringheatdidn’thelpmatters.Theoldmesshallhadbeenmadeofthatch,withhalf-openwallsandatall,airyA-frameroofthatwhilerusticlookingwaswellventilated.Thenewhallwasconcrete,withasquatroofmadeofasbestos,tar,andgalvanizedmetalthattrappedheat,turningthebuildingintoanoven.10

Cookshadtroublekeepingthefoodcomingandtheclerkstooktoomuchtimerecordingthebadgenumbers.Outside,workerspushedagainsttheentrancetryingtogetin.Inside,thosewaitingforfoodcrowdedaroundtheharriedservers,whocouldn’tladlethericeandfishontoplatesfastenough.ItwasthenthatManuelCaetanodeJesus,athirty-five-year-oldbrickmasonfromthecoastalstateofRioGrandedoNorte,forcedhiswayintothehallandconfrontedOstenfeld.Therewasalreadyanimositybetweenthetwomenfrompastencounters,andastheirwordsgrewheated,workersindirtyshirtsandrattystrawhatsandsmellingofaday’shardworkgatheredround.OstenfeldknewsomePortuguesefromhispreviousworkatRio’sForddealership.Butthatdidn’tmeanhefullyunderstooddeJesus,whomostlikelyspokefastandwithathickworking-classnorthBrazilianaccent.OftenFordmenhadjustenoughPortuguesetogetby,whichcouldbeadangerousthing,creatingsituationswherebothpartiesmighteasilymistakeobtusenessforhostility.Inanycase,OstenfeldgraspedwhatitmeantwhendeJesustookoffhisbadgeandhandedittohim.

Ostenfeldlaughed.AsdeJesuslatertestified,“itwasasifhewasmakingfun,”which“infuriated”thosewhowerestandingcloseby,followingtheargument.Forhispart,OstenfeldclaimedthatdeJesusturnedtothecrowdandsaid:“Ihavedoneeverythingforyou,nowyoucandotherest.”11

Theresponsewasfurious,oneobserverrecounted,like“puttingamatchtogasoline.”The“horriblenoise”ofthebreakingpots,glass,plates,sinks,tables,andchairsservedasaclarion,callingmoreworkerstodescendonthemesshallarmedwithknives,rocks,pipes,hammers,machetes,andclubs.Ostenfeld,alongwithColeman,whohadwatchedthewholesceneunfoldnotknowingawordofPortuguese,jumpedinatrucktoescape.AstheyspedawaytotellRoggewhatwashappening,theyheardsomeoneyell:“Let’sbreakeverything,let’sgetholdofOstenfeld.”

WithOstenfeldinflight,thecrowdwentonarampage.Havingdemolishedthedininghall,theriotersdestroyed“everythingbreakablewithinreachoftheircourse,whichtookthemtotheofficebuilding,powerhouse,sawmill,garage,radiostation,andreceivingbuilding.”Theycutthelightstotherestofthe

plantation,smashedwindows,dumpedatruckloadofmeatintotheriver,andbrokepressuregauges.Agroupofmentriedtopulloutthepilingsholdingupthepier,whileotherssetfiretothemachineshop,burnedcompanyrecords,andlootedthecommissary.TheriotersthensettheirsightsonthethingsmostcloselyassociatedwithFord,destroyingeverytruck,tractor,andcarontheplantation.Windshieldsandlightswereshattered,gastankspunctured,andtiresslashed.Anumberoftruckswerepushedintoditches,andatleastonewasrolleddowntheriverbankintotheTapajós.Thentheyturnedtothetimeclocks,smashingthemtobits.

OnegroupbrokeawayandheadedtoPaud’Aguatogetliquor,whileanotherrantorouseotherprotesters.Unawareofwhatwasgoingon,ArchieWeeksnearlydrovea“touringcar”straightintoagroupofmenarmedwithclubsandknives.Hespunthesteeringwheelhardandspedaway,butnotfastenoughtoavoidarainofrocksthatshatteredhisbackwindow.Gainingsomedistance,WeeksditchedthecarandmadehiswaybackonfoottowheretheAmericanslived.

Learningoftheuprising,Rogge,whohimselfwasgettingreadytoeatdinnerathishomeintheAmericancompound,dispatchedatrustedBraziliantocableBelémforreinforcementsbeforethemobgottotheradio.HethenorderedCurtisPringle,whobythispointwasinchargeofFordlandia’srubberplanting,toevacuatemostoftheAmericansfromtheestate,especiallythewomen,whowere“inaverynervouscondition.”SomeleftonthelaunchRoggekeptattheready.Othersavailedthemselvesof“allmeansoftransportationsuchascanoes,motorboats,horseback,etc.”

Rogge,withhisremainingstaff,headedouttomeetagroupofaboutfortyworkerswhowereadvancingontheAmericanhouses.

Smashedtimeclock .

“Whatareyourgrievances?”heaskedthem.

“Wearemechanics,masons,andcarpenters,nottablewaiters,”theyreplied.

Roggesaidhewassympatheticandpromisedtoaddresstheirconcerns,butonlyiftheywouldgoandcalmtheirfellowworkers.Butthemensenttofindliquorhadreturned,andtheriotwas“infullswing.”WhenRoggeheardagroupofdrunkenworkerschanting“BrazilforBrazilians.KillalltheAmericans,”

hedecidedthatitwastimetoleave.Heorderedhismentomakeforthetugboat,butDavidRiker,justbackfromAcre,andArchieWeeksfoundthemselvescutofffromtheevacuationroute.Fleeingintothejungle,theyhidoutfortwodayswhiletheriotragedon.12

Roggeandtherestofhisstaffmadeitontheboatsafely,passingthenightanchoredinthemiddleoftheTapajós.Astheriver’swaveslappedagainstthehull,the“tremendousnoise”thatsignaledthedestructionofFordlandiacontinuedintothemorning.

***

FORDLANDIA’SUPRISINGWASanaftershockoftherevolutionthathadrockedBrazilafewmonthsearlier,theonethatbroughtGetúlioVargastopower.Vargas’sascensionwasrelativelybloodless,yetthefrissongeneratedbyhisinsurrectioncreatedasensethattheoldrulesnolongerheldandtheoldhierarchiesnolongerhadtoberespected.IntheweeksbeforetheDecemberriotanumberofFordlandia’sstaffmadementionofthechargedatmospherethatenvelopedtheplantation—whichis,perhaps,whyRoggekeptatugwaiting.“Afewradicalsamongtheskilledworkers,”wroteFordlandia’sBelémagent,JamesKennedy,toDearborn,“misinterpretedthesuccessfulrevolutionalloverBrazilwhichoccurredinOctoberandtheseradicalsbeganagitatingagainstanythingpertainingtoforeigners.”Workersevenhoistedredflagsovertheirbunkhouses,whichtheAmericansdecidedtoletfly.ButtheascensionofVargasalsoundoubtedlysavedFordlandia,forthemanhenamedtoreplacePará’sgovernor,EuricodeFreitasValle,whohadledthecampaigntoreviseFord’sconcession,immediatelyagreedtoprovidewhateveraidwasneededtoretaketheplantation.

TheriotbeganonMonday,andthatnightKennedywiredJuanTrippe,thelegendaryfounderofPanAmericanAirways,athisofficeinNewYorktotellhimthatFordlandiahadfallento“mobrule.”TrippehadrecentlyestablishedatrunklinebetweenBelémandManaus,withamailandrefuelingstopinSantarém,andKennedyaskedifoneofhisplanescouldflyhimandafewsoldierstotheplantation.Iftheydidn’tgettheresoon,Kennedywarned,the“placewillbeatotalwreckin24hours.”Trippeimmediatelyagreed.

Thenextmorning,Tuesday,havingsecuredamilitarydetachmentfromthelocalarmybase,Kennedy,aBrazilianlieutenantnamedIsmaelinoCastro,andthreearmedsoldiersboardedaPanAmtwin-engineSikorskyhydroplane,takingofffromBelém’sriverfront.Ittookaboutsevenhoursfortheplanetoreachthearea,andwhenitlandedintheearlyafternoonoutsidethetownofAveiros,justdownriverfromFordlandia,KennedyandCastroweregreetedbyRoggeandafewotherAmericans(therestofthestaffhadfledtoSantarém).KennedyandthelieutenantdecidedtospendthenightinAveirosandtraveltoFordlandiathefollowingday.Thenextmorning,theyreceivedwordthattheplantationhadawakedquiet.Butlaterthatday,“irate”residentsofPaud’AguaandothervillagesthatringedFordlandia’speripherymarchedontheestate’sofficewithgunsandmachetes.Angryatthecompany’seffortstoevictthem,theywereperhapsurgedonbyFranciscoFranco,whoafterOxholm’sdeparturehaddevelopedanincreasinglyantagonisticrelationshipwithFordlandia,aggravatedbyKennedy’sheavy-handedeffortstoforcehimtosellhispropertyinPaud’Agua.

KennedyandCastrohadthepilotoftheSikorskyswoopdownandbuzztheprotesters,dispersingthethreat.TheplanethenlandedintheTapajósandpulledupalongFordlandia’sdock.Calmseemedtoberestored,thoughCastroandhismenwentashoreontheirown,tellingKennedytowaitbehind.13

Adelegationappointedbytheworkersreceivedthelieutenantwithalistofgrievancestheywantedto

bepresentedtothecompany.HighonthelistwasthedemandthatOstenfeldbefired.Therestofthecomplaintshadtodomostlywiththerightoffreemovement.Workersdemandedtoeatwhere,andwhat,theychose.Theyweretiredofbeingfedwholewheatbreadandunpolishedrice“forhealthreasons,”asperHenryFord’sinstructions.Theywantedtobeabletofrequentthecafesandrestaurantsthathadsprunguparoundtheworkcampandbeallowedtoboardsteamboats,presumablytobuyliquor,withoutfirsthavingtoobtainpermission.Singlemencomplainedaboutbeingjammedfiftytoabunkhouse.14

Intheweeksaftertheriot,regionalnewspapersranstoriesfeaturingothercriticismsoftheplantation’smanagement.ManuelCaetanodeJesus,themasonfingeredastheriot’sinstigator,toldtheEstadodoParáthattheworkershatedthetimeclocks,notjustbecausetheywereunaccustomedtosuchregimentationbutbecausetheclockswereimpracticallyplacedtoofarfromtheirworkstations,makingitdifficulttopunchinasrequiredtodo“underpenaltyoflosingwages.”MarioPinheirodoNascimentocomplainednotjustaboutbeingchargedforfood,whichwasnotpartofthedealwhenhecontractedforwork,butaboutthe“verypoorquality”ofthefooditself.Thekitchenstaff,hesaid,oftenserved“rotten”fish“notfitforadogkepthungryforthreedays.”15

Othersgrousedthatcomepayday,thecompany,dependentonshipmentsofcashfromBelém,wasfrequentlyshort.Soithandedout“cards”asmarkers.Butifsomeonetriedtoleave,theplantationmadeitdifficultto“exchangethosecardsformoney.”ThehospitalandmedicalstaffhaddonemuchtoimprovethehealthconditionsoftheresidentsinthecenterofFordlandia.Yetthedeathrateremainedhighfrom“beri-beriandotherunknownfevers”forthosewhoworkedontheestate’soutskirtsbuildingroads,gatheringpalmforthatchandtimber,orclearingforesttoplantmorerubber.Pitvipers—large,thick-bodiedsnakeswithatriangle-shapedheadandroundedsnout—continuedtostrikeatthehandsofworkersastheychoppedatthejungle’sundergrowth.*Othersmadementionofcrampedlivingconditions,ofbeingmadetoworkintherain,orofmandatorytripstothehospitalwithoutreasonorexplanation.16

FORDVISCERALLYOPPOSEDthenotionofworkersrepresentingthemselvescollectively;heoncecalledunionsthe“worstthingthateverstrucktheearth.”Andasunionsgainedinpopularityandstrength,heseamlesslyaddedlaborleaderstohisgalleryofenemies.Atthetimeofthe1930riot,FordcouldclaimaseriesofvictoriesagainstorganizingcampaignsledbythemilitantIndustrialWorkersoftheWorldandtheAFL-affiliatedCarriage,Wagon,andAutomobileWorkersUnion,andhewouldsettlefornothinglessintheAmazon.ThemenhesentdowntoBrazil,alongwiththeirsupervisorsbackinDearborn,werewellversedintheirboss’sthinkingwhenitcametolaborunrest,andtheytookitasanarticleoffaiththat,asSorensenwouldrepeatedlyremindFordlandia’smanagement,thecompanywouldnot“letanystrikersdictatehowourbusinessmustberun.”

SoKennedytoldLieutenantCastroflatoutthathewouldnotmeettheprotesters’demands“underanycircumstances.”Instead,hedecidedtousetheopportunitypresentedbytheriotto,asthesawyerMattMulrooneyputit,“cleanhouse.”HewiredJoséAntunes,ownerofthenamesakeriverboatZeantunes—ZébeingshortforJosé—whowasinBelémwaitingtobringashipmentofgoodsrecentlyarrivedfromNewYork,alongwithtwohundrednewlycontractedemployees,toFordlandia.Kennedytoldhimtounloadthecargo,dismisstheworkers,andgototheBankofLondonandwithdrawanemergencyshipmentofcash.

AsKennedywaitedforthemoney,aboatcarryingthirty-fivesoldiers“fullyarmedandequippedwithmachineguns”dockedatFordlandiaonChristmasEve.Thetroopsinspectedtheplantation,confiscatingknives,guns,andanyotherimplementthatcouldbeusedasaweapon.Kennedythenorderedthesoldiers

toevicttheresidentsofPaud’AguaandtheothershantytownsthatsurroundedFordlandiaandclosedownthebars,restaurants,andbrothelsthathadlongbedeviledtheplantation.“Entirelycleanthemout,”hetoldthesoldiers.Afterthefamilieswereforcedoutandtheirhousestorndown,Kennedysentinthesanitationsquadto“cleanitup,”toburnthelatrinesandpourquicklimeintothepits.Shortlythereafter,withthebackingofVargas’sgovernment,hefinallyforcedFranciscoFrancotosellhimthelandwherePaud’Aguahadstoodfor,asEimarFrancoputsit,“thepriceofabanana.”17

TheZeantunesarrivedonNewYear’sDaywiththerequestedcash.FlankedbyarmedBraziliansoldiers,Kennedygatheredtheplantation’sworkerstogetherandpaidthem“foralltimeuptoandincludingDecember22.”Hethenfiredtheentirelaborforcesaveaskeletoncrewofafewhundredmen.18

WithFordlandiainruinsanddamagesestimatedtorunovertwenty-fivethousanddollars,hewaitedtohearfromDearbornwhattodonext.

____________

*BrazilresistedforoveradecadeaninternationalagreementthatwouldsettheGreenwichmeridianasthebaseforreckoninginternationalzones,holdingoutfortheuseofitsowncoordinatestostandardizetime.Itdroppeditsoppositionin1913andacceptedGreenwichtime,thoughmostinteriorregions,especiallythosewithouttrainlinessuchastheAmazon,continuedtokeep“God’stime.”

*Alsoknownasabushmaster,thissnakeisamongthemostlethalintheworld.ItsLatinname,Lachesismutamuta,derivesfromLachesis,oneoftheFatesinGreekmythologywhodecidesindividualdestiny,andcanbetranslatedas“bringingsilentdeathinthenight,”since,thoughitvibratesitstailpriortostriking,ithasnorattle.

PARTIII

RUBBERROUGE

CHAPTER16

AMERICANPASTORALITTOOKTIMEFORTHEGREATDEPRESSIONTOREACHTHETapajós,whereHenryFord’smassiveinfusionofmoneyandresourcesintothecash-pooreconomyoffsettheeffectsofplummetingcommodityprices,capitalflight,highinterestrates,anddecliningexportsthathadshockedBrazil—andtherestofLatinAmerica—immediatelyafterthestockmarketcollapseofOctober1929.ButbackinDetroit,theimpactwasimmediate.Thecrashhitthecityhard,destroyingmorethantwo-thirdsofitseconomy.IntheyearspriortotheDepression,cityandsuburbanfactorieshadproduced5,294,000carsworth$3.7billion;fouryearslater,thenumberhadfallentolessthantwomillionvaluedat$1.1billion.Over50percentofthecity’sworkforcewaslaidoff.Hundredsofthousandsofitsresidentseitherwentonrelieforsimplypackedupandleft.Hundredsofthousandsbecamehomeless,manyfindingabedinanabandonedfactorythecityhadconvertedintoashelter.Thesuiciderateskyrocketed;fourthousandboysandgirlsstoodonbreadlinesfortheirdailymeals;and18percentofschoolchildrensufferedfromsevereundernourishment.Thewelfaredepartmentwasreporting7,500monthlyevictions.Peoplewerefounddeadonthestreet,poisonedbyputridfoodtheyhadscavengedoutofgarbagecans.Atnight,menlootedgrocerystoreswhilechildrenprowledthestreets,breakingshopwindowsandstealinggoods.Somefamiliesdugholesinthegroundforshelter,protectedbynothingotherthansomelaid-overbrush.1

FordatfirstrestrainedhimselffromusingthecrashtoscoldWallStreetandlashoutatthemoneyinterests.Heinsteadrespondedinawaymanydeemedresponsible,preachinghisgospelofconsumerspendingasawayoutofthedownturn.Tobackitup,hepledgedthatnotonlywouldhecontinueproductionattheRougefullborebuthewouldraisehisdailyminimumwagefrom$6to$7aday.Fordseemedwellpositionedtoleadtherecovery:hehimselfhadlittleinvestedinstocks,sohispersonalfortunewasuntouched,andhiscompany,unlikeGeneralMotors,whosesharepriceplummeted,wasn’tpubliclytraded.YetdemandforthenewModelAgraduallyslowed,andinventoriesbackedup.Fordlowereditsprice,takingthedifferenceoutofdealers’commissions.Butbytheendof1930,therewasnomarginleftforanymorereductions.Thecompanyquietlybegantocutproductionandtobuymoreandmorepartsfromoutsidelow-wagesuppliers—thusbeginningtheerosionofthefearsomeself-sufficiencyoftheFordMotorCompany.Byearly1931,thecompanyhadslashedthenumberofweeklyhoursofmostworkers,renderingmeaninglessFord’svauntedSevenDollarDay.Laterthatyear,thecompanyofficiallyreducedthataswell.AndtheninAugusttheassemblylinegroundtoahalt—Fordhadmorecarsthancustomerstobuythem.Justfouryearsafteritsintroductioninlate1927,theModelA,whichFordhadhopedwouldhaveaslongarunastheT,washistory.2

AsFordapproachedhisseventhdecade,thedestructionunleashedbytheDepressionandthefactthathiscompanyhadbeenvulnerabletoitseffectsacceleratedhisculturalconservatism.Hisworldviewgrewgnarledandknottedwithfearandmistrust,andhismind,astheformerheadofhisSociologicalDepartmentonceputit,continuedonitspathtoisolation.Forcedtorecanthisanti-Semitismafewyearsearlier,heneveragainpubliclycriticizedJews.ButthekindofoptimismFordhadexpressedearlyintheDepressiontookonahectoring,recriminatingtone.Hebegantolinkthenation’seconomicproblemstohiscritiqueofthecorrosivenatureofAmerica’smodernconsumersociety.WithDetroitchildrendiggingthroughgarbagecansforfoodlessthantenmilesfromhisFairLaneestate,Fordsaidhewelcomedtherecession’scleansingdestruction,believingitwouldwashtheexcessesofthe1920sfromtheland.He

pronouncedtheDepressiona“wholesomethingingeneral,”the“besttimeswehaveeverhad.”“It’sagoodthingtherecoveryisprolonged,”Fordsaid,“otherwisethepeoplewouldn’tprofitfromtheillness.”Hisspokesman,WilliamCameron,whohadpreviouslypennedmanyoftheIndependent’santi-Semitictracts,saidontheFordSundayEveningHour,aweeklyradioshowproducedinaFordstudio,thattheDepressionwassentby“goodProvidence”toforceatonementfor“ourformerfalseprosperity.”“Thebadtimeswerebackin1929andbefore,”Fordtoldareporter.“Thatwastherealpanic—thatso-calledprosperousperiod.Business,atbottom,neverwassobadasitwasinwhatwecalledboomtimes.”3

ThislastcommentappearedinalonginterviewintheNewYorkTimeswhoseheadlinepronouncedthatFord“SeestheDawnofaBrightFuture.”Perhapstheinterview,publishedinFebruary1933,wastimedtopreemptthemomentumbuildingaroundthecousinofhisdepartednemesis,TheodoreRoosevelt.FranklinDelanoRoosevelttookofficeamonthaftertheinterview,andFordprobablyfoundmuchtolikeinhisinspirationalinauguraladdress.FDRcondemnedthestubbornincompetenceofWallStreet’s“unscrupulousmoneychangers”andadmittedthattherewasan“overbalanceofpopulationinourindustrialcenters.”Andhecalledforthe“restoration”of“ancienttruths”and“socialvaluesmorenoblethanmeremonetaryprofits.”Yetearlyinhisspeech,thenewpresidentsaidthatonlya“foolishoptimistcandenythedarkrealitiesofthemoment,”whichthethin-skinnedFordmusthavetakenasareprimand.

ItincreasinglyseemedtomanythatFord’ssocialcriticismwasaformofself-rebuke.Hisreformerimagewaswearingthin,asheandhiscompanybecameimplicatedinmanyofthemodernviceshecondemned.Throughoutthe1930s,Fordsteppeduphisjeremiadsagainstcrowded,dirty,crime-riddencities.YetevenbeforetheruinoftheGreatDepression,FordhadcontributedtotheslowdeclineofDetroit’sdowntownbytransferringmuchofhisproductionandadministrationtoDearborn,pavingthewayforChryslerandGeneralMotorstolikewiseabandonthecenterofthecity.FordlobbiedforProhibition,sayingthatDetroit’sdistilleriescouldbeconvertedtomakebiofuels.YetthecriminalizationofalcoholservedonlytodeliverDetroittogangsterism.FordrailedagainstfinancecapitalismeventhoughhiscompanywasheavilyinvestedinDetroit’sGuardianGroup,abankinghousethat,whenitwentbankruptin1933,helpedsparkanationwidebankpanic.FordaggravatedthecrisisbyfirstofferingtobailoutDetroitbanksandthen,perhapsactingonadvicefromHarryBennett,withdrawingtheoffer.ThecollapseoftheGuardianGroupledtoawaveofforeclosuresofbusinessesandhomesthatwoulddevastatetheMotorCity’sdowntown.4

Ford’ssocialinterventionsweresimilarlycorrosive.Fordcomplainedabouttheeasewithwhichtechnologycouldbeusedtomanipulatemasssociety.Butthroughtheearly1930s,helunchedregularlywiththefascistCatholic“radiopriest”CharlesCoughlin,whorousedhislistenerstofitsofanti-SemiticrageanddefendedGermanNaziviolenceagainstJewsduringKristallnacht.EvidenceevensuggestsFordfundedthepriest’scampaign.FordimaginedhimselfafriendofAfricanAmericans,hiringtheminlargenumbers—morethanhiscompetitorswere—andpayingthemthesameashedidwhites.YetmostofhisAfricanAmericanemployeeswereconfinedtotheRouge’sworstwork,initsfoundry,rollingmill,orpaintshop,withlittleopportunityforadvancement,whilehisgradualpulloutfromDetroitcontributedtothatcity’sdeepeningpovertyandintensifyingwhitevigilantism.AndevenasheexpandedinDearborn,herefusedtochallengethatcounty’ssystemofsegregation,whichwasconsideredtheworstnorthoftheMason-Dixonlineandlastedintothe1970s.HehiredfewAfricanAmericansoutsidetheRougeandpracticallynoneinhisvillageindustryprogram,designedtogiveworkersafuller,morebalancedlife.InhisoperationsinIronMountainintheUpperPeninsula,a“concilium”oftheKKKorganizedbyFordmillworkers,whousedFordwoodandkerosenetobuildandburntheirinauguralcross,droveAfrican

Americanmigrantslookingforjobsoutoftown.Theplant’smanagerissuedastatement:“Mr.Fordwasn’temployin’nocoloredpeople.”5

Fordcontinuedtopreachpacifism.Yetnotonlyhadhealreadyonceturnedhisplantsovertowartimeproduction,hissystemofmassproductionhelpedmakemodernmechanizedwarfarepossible.*Fordbelievedincommunity,butthehighwaysystemthatdevelopedintandemwithhiscarsetsmall-townAmericaonthepathtodestruction(tosavehisownchildhoodfarm,hehadtopryitfromitsfoundationsandmoveitwholesale).Fordcelebratedself-reliance,thoughhedidmorethananyonetoturnmanintoacoginamachine.Andofcoursehevaluedindividualismevenashedeniedindividualstherighttojoinaunioniftheywanted,respondingtodemandsforindustrialdemocracybyunleashingHarryBennett,whothroughoutthe1930swouldleveragehisboss’sparanoiaandincreasingdivorcefromrealitytotightenhisgriponthecompany.BennettwaswellknowninDetroitanditsenvirons,wherehemaintainedcloseconnectionswithbothlawenforcementandthecriminalunderworldandwherethelocalpresstreatedhimaffectionately,likeacolorfulcharacteroutofaDamonRunyonstory.Butthestepped-upbrutalitycommittedbyBennettandhismenduringtheGreatDepressionbegantopromptothercomparisons—namelytothefascistshocktroopsthenonthemarchinGermanyandItaly.

OnMonday,March7,1932,Bennett’s“servicemen”openedfireonamarchoflaid-offFordworkersandotherprotesterswhoarrivedattheRiverRougetodemandjobsandhungerrelief.Whenthesmokecleared,fiveprotestersweredead,anothernineteenseriouslyinjured,andtheworldoutsidetheRouge’sgatesgotacloselook,thankstoreportersandphotographersonthescene,ofwhatlifewaslikeforthosewhoworkedforthe“despotofDearborn,”asthewriterEdmundWilsondescribedFordinScribner’sMagazine.BothFordandBennettescapedlegalresponsibilityforthedeaths,yet,ashistorianDavidHalberstamnotes,theworldwidepresscoverageofthe“DearbornMassacre”wasthebeginningoftheendforFord’sreputationasabenevolentreformer.6

Sincehispeaceship,Ford’sphilosophizinghadbeenthesubjectofagooddealofridiculeandhisindustrialmethodthefocusofseriouscriticism,butstartingin1932negativeportrayalsbegantooutweighthepositive.AldousHuxley’sBraveNewWorld,withitsforecastofafuturemadeperversebyFordism,waspublishedjustamonthbeforethecarnage;JonathanLeonard’sTheTragedyofHenryFord,whichcameoutafewweeksafter,wasgreetedwithaNewYorkTimesreviewheadlined“Ford,theSmall-TownManWhoKilledSmall-TownLife.”In1937,UptonSinclair’sTheFlivverKing:AStoryofFord-America,asked:“WhatisHenryFord?Whathavetheyearsdonetohim?Whathashisbilliondollarsmadeofhim?”SinclairchargedFordwithprovidingfinancialsupporttoHitlerinGermany,andhisaccusationgainedcredibilityayearlaterwhentheNaziconsultoDetroitbestowedtheGrandCrossoftheGermanEagleonFordonhisseventy-fifthbirthday.Afterthemassacre,therealsoappearedanumberofexposésof“thelittlemaninHenryFord’sbasement”—thatis,ofHarryBennett,“generalofthegangsterarmy,andbooncompanionoftheoldmansittinginhisestateonthehill,wellwithinhearingoftheshooting.”7

Early1932,then,withbreadlineswrappingaroundcorners,banksfailing,factoriesclosing,andprotestersbeingshotinthestreet,wouldhardlyseemlikeapromisingmomentforDiegoRiveratobeginworkonacelebrationoftheinnovative“spiritofDetroit.”

DIEGORIVERAWASrelativelywellknownintheUnitedStatesastheleadinglightofMexico’smuralistrevival,anartmovementthatcapturedtheenergyofthe1910MexicanRevolution.Aleftist,RiverawasexpelledfromMexico’sCommunistPartyin1929afterhavingbeenexpelledfromtheSoviet

UniontheyearbeforeforhiscriticalstanceagainstStalin.HecametotheUnitedStatesin1930topaintaseriesoffrescoesfortheSanFranciscoStockExchangeandtheCaliforniaSchoolofFineArtsandtostagearetrospectiveofhisworkatNewYork’sMuseumofModernArt.ItwasaroundthistimethattheDetroitInstituteofArtscontactedhimandaskedhimto“helpbeautify”thewallsofitsgardencourtyard.

RiveraarrivedinthecityinApril,amonthafterBennett’smassacre,withafreehandtotakeasthesubjectofhismuralanythinghewanted.Thelettercommissioninghimmerelysuggestedasatheme“somethingoutofthehistoryofDetroit,orsomemotifsuggestingthedevelopmentofthetown.”EdselFord,whosatontheDIA’sboard,offeredtohelptheartistgainadmittancetostudyanycitybusinessorfactorythatwasstillrunning.Rivera,though,knewexactlywhathewantedtoseeandpaint:theRiverRouge.8

Despitetheslowdown,theRougewasstillthegrandestachievementofindustrialcapitalismtodate.RowsofmachinesandbeltsattheRougewereplacedevenclosertogetherthantheywereintheoldHighlandParkfactory,whichmeantthattheDearborncompoundwaslargerthanitseemed:haditsmachinerybeenspacedasitwasatDodgeorChrysler,orHighlandPark,thephysicalplantwouldhavehadtobealmostdoubleindimension.ThegeniusoftheRouge,though,wasnotitssizebutitssynchronizedflow,withrawmaterialsandfinishedpartsmovedfromstationtostationbylorries,cranes,freightbins,assemblylines,andcrisscrossedconveyorbelts.TheinterchangeabilityofpartshadbecomeanobsessionfortheFordMotorCompany,andintheRouge,asoneemployeeputit,“everymachinetoolandfixturewasfittedfortheproductionofasingleproductwhoseeveryparthadbeenstandardizedtotheminutestdetail.”ThisiswhyitwassoenormouslyexpensivetoswitchoverfromtheModelTtotheAafewyearsearlier.Fordhadtoscraporrefurbishmorethanthree-quartersoftheplant’s45,000specializedtools(valuedat$45million)andspendmillionsmorebuying4,500newones.AndthefactthatFordinsistedonplacingtheRouge’smachinesandworkstationsasclosetogetheraspossibleaddedtotimeandcostoverrunsbecause,asoneworkerputit,“themachineswereinsotightthatsometimesifwehadtomoveamachine,we’dhavetomovefourorfivedifferentmachinestogetthatoneout.”9

Rivera,whoneverlearnedtodrive,spentamonthinsidetheRiverRouge,visitingeveryoneofitsplantsandsketchingitsoperations.Inhisautobiography,RiveratellsoflosinghimselfforwholedaysandnightsintheRouge’smorethanninetybuildings,observingthemovementofitsseventythousandworkers,“makingliterallythousandsofsketchesoftoweringblastfurnaces,serpentineconveyorbelts,impressivescientificlaboratories,busyassemblingrooms,alsoofprecisioninstruments,someofthemmassiveyetdelicate,andofthemenwhoworkedthemall.”Whatothersthoughtadeafeningroar—liketheBritishjournalistJulianStreet,wholikenedthesoundofRouge’spredecessorHighlandParkfactorytoNiagaraFalls—Riveraheardasa“newmusic,”a“wonderfulsymphony.”Histimeinthelabyrinthawakenedhischildhood“passionformechanicaltoys,”whichhadmaturedintoanappreciationofthemachine,“foritsmeaningtoman—hisself-fulfillmentandliberationfromdrudgeryandpoverty.”ItwasasentimentFord—whotitledachapterinoneofhiscoauthoredbooks“Machinery,theNewMessiah”—surelywouldhaverecognized,forhesimilarlyandrepeatedlyinsistedthatmechanizationmeantemancipationfrommaterialdrudgery,moretimetoenjoythefinerthingsoflife.“Formostpurposesamanwithamachineisbetterthanamanwithoutamachine,”hesaid.“Unlesswebetterunderstandthemechanicalportionoflife,wecannothavethetimetoenjoythetrees,andthebirds,andtheflowers,andthegreenfields.”10

AfteronemonthintheRouge,Riveraspentanothereightpaintinghismasterwork.Hesawhiscommission,financedmostlybyEdselFord,asanopportunitytotakethemachineasanobjectofmodern

art,notinthegauzy,distantwaythatimpressionistsdepictedtrainsrunningthroughagreenvalleyorsteamrisingfromafactorymill.Rather,hewanted,inhiswords,tobringtheRouge’s“noise,smoke,anddust”directlyintotheinstitute’s“charmingsanctum,”tounsettlethecityswells.Whenhehadfinished,themuseum’spatronsdidcomplainoftherudenessofhiswork.Askedwhyhehadn’tchosenamore“traditional”subject,astilllife,say,oralandscape,Riverasaidthathe“foundanyfactorymoresignificantandbeautifulthananyofthesubjectstheysuggested.”CollectivelyknownasDetroitIndustry,Rivera’smuralsareperhapsthemostfaithfultributeevercomposednotjusttotheRouge’spowerbuttotheholismofHenryFord’sthinking,eventhoughFordmakesonlyacameoappearance,inasmallpanelwhereheisteachingatradeschoolengineclass.*

Themuralscomprisetwomajorpanels,alongwithaseriesofminorones,mixingtechniquesdrawnfromcubismandfuturism,socialrealism,classicalandRenaissanceart,andtraditionalAztec,Mayan,andOlmecmotifstodepictoverfiftymajorRougeoperations.Thecourtyard’snorthwallfeaturestoweringspindles,castingboxes,sandblasters,rollingmills,andalloftheovensandmachinesneededtomaketherecentlyinauguratedV8engineandtransmission.Inthebackgroundloomsavolcano-likeblastfurnace,illuminatedbyflaresofyellow,red,andorange.Riveracalledthemakingofsteelathingof“plasticbeauty,”as“beautifulastheearlyAztecorMayansculptures.”Thesouthwallmural,whichdepictsthefinishingworkofmakingacar,thestamping,pressing,welding,painting,andtesting,ismorerestrainedintermsofcolorandtechnique.Elsewhereinthecourtyard,RiveraportraysotherelementsoftheRouge,itsaviationandboatproduction,railroads,andpowerhouses.

Unlikethehaunting,unpeopledworkofCharlesSheeler,whoaroundthesametimewascapturingtheRougeinaseriesofwidelypublicizedphotographsandpaintings,Rivera’sfrescoesarejammedwithoverall-cladworkers—painters,welders,forgers,femalesparkplugtesters,andevenaccountants—allthehumanenergythatwentintobuildingacar.Productivemotionisconveyedbycontraposition.Onthenorthwall,men,particularlythoseintheforeground,allseemtobebendingbackward,theirmuscularbodiespullingonethingoranother.Onthesouth,theyleanforward,intotheirwork.“Ithoughtofthemillionsofdifferentmenbywhosecombinedlaborandthoughtautomobileswereproduced,”Riverasaidinhisautobiography,“fromtheminerswhodugtheironoreoutoftheearthtotherailroadmenandteamsterswhobroughtthefinishedmachinestotheconsumer,”conquering“spaceandtime”andwinning“ever-expandingvictories...againstdeath.”

Rivera,theMarxist,paintedafewnotesofdissent,includingasmallpaneldepictingworkersleavingthefactoryoverthepedestrianoverpasswhereBennett’smenhadgunneddownthehungermarchers.Whileeverywhereelseinthemuralshumansrunintooneanother,withnoclearlinefullyseparatingonepersonfromthenext,suggestingconnectivityandsolidarity,herethesolemnprocessionalfiguresaredistinct,implyingthatthealienationothercriticsofcapitalismattributedtoassemblyproductionbegins,forRivera,atthefactory’sexit.Thegeneralmoodofthefrescoescelebratesdetermination,portrayingworkersenergizedbystrenuousactivityratherthanenervatedbymachines.RiverahimselftookgreatpridewhenanengineerrepresentingagroupofChryslerworkerspraisedhimforcapturingtheessenceoftheproductionprocess,fusing“together,inafewfeet,sequencesofoperationswhichareactuallyperformedinadistanceofatleasttwomiles,andeveryinchofhisworkistechnicallycorrect.”Theonlythingmissing,anothergroupofworkerstoldRivera,wasthefactorywhistle.

FromCharlesSheeler’s1927seriesofRiverRougephotographs.“Thesilenceisawesome,”wrotehistorianLeoMarxofanotherofSheeler’sworks.“Bysuperimposingorder,peace,andharmonyuponourmodernchaos,SheelerrepresentstheanomalousblendofillusionandrealityintheAmericanconsciousness.”

HowRiveramanagedthiscompressionisthepointwherehisfrescoesmovefrommerelyrepresentingtheRougetoembodyingtheideabehindit.Fordismisdefinedasanindustrialprocessthatbreaksdownthehumanmovementthatgoesintomakingaproduct—inFord’scaseacar—intoitssimplestcomponentandthenusesassemblylinestochoreographthatmovementtoachievemaximumefficiency.Itisaprocessthatisimpossibletoobservesequentiallyovertime,thatis,byfollowingthestepsneededtotransformrawmaterialintofinishedproduct,sinceFordisminitstotalitycombinesmultiplesubassemblyprocessesthattakeplacesimultaneously—likea“riveranditstributaries”—beforeconverginginamaintrunkline.Riveraachievedthiseffectbyapplyingthemedievaltechniqueofpolyscenicnarrative,inwhichmultiplescenesareplacedtogetherinaunifiedspace.Suchpolyscenicnarrationusuallytellsastoryovertime,withthesamecharactersappearingindifferentscenesthattakeplacechronologically,thatis,oneaftertheother.TheDetroitmurals,however,illustratespecifictaskstakingplaceindifferentplacesduringasinglemoment,compressingintoanintegratedvisualimagetheRouge’sintenseinterconnectivityandunrelentingflow.Whilemedievalpaintersseparatedsceneswithcolumns,archways,andwindows,RiveramadeuseofAlbertKahn’ssnakelikeconveyorbeltsandsteelgirderstomoveviewersfromonediscretejobtoanother,fromforegroundeddieandpressworkerstothefoundrymendeepinthepainting’srecesses,thewholethingbacklightedorangebytheforgefire.11

IfRivera’stwoprincipalpanelssoughttofreezeinasingleinstancethemultiple,simultaneousmotions

neededtoproduceacar(adefiningfeatureofmodernismisitsreductionofexperiencetoanexplosive“now”),healso,inaseriesofsurroundingpaintings,revealedanappreciationofthemillenniaittooktoproduceboththerawmaterialsandthehumanlaborneededtomakeaFordcar.Aboveeachofthetwomainfrescoesarenarrowoblongframesdepictinggeologicalsedimentation,layersofrock,fossil,crystals,limestone,crustaceans,andsand—inotherwords,theprehistoryofmuchoftherawmaterialsthatfedtheRouge’sforges,ovens,andfurnaces(aswellasthefrescoesthemselves,astonsofsandandlimestonewereneededtomixplasterandpigments).Elsewhere,RiveraincludedwhatcouldbeascenefromanUpperPeninsulaforestandarubbertreebeingharvestedbywhatappearstobeBraziliantappers(thoughnoFordlandialatexhadyetmadeittotheRouge).Andatthetopofthewalls,abovetheoblonggeologicalpanels,Riverapaintedfournudefemales,allegoricalrepresentationsoftheworld’sgreatraces,whichproducedtheworkersneededtoextracttheresourcesfromtheearth.Inbothstyleandsentiment,theseallegoriesconnectRivera’sDetroitfrescoestohisMexicanmurals,whichoftencontainedidealized,romanticportrayalsofthegloriesofAztecsorOlmecs,progenitors,inRivera’sepicvisualhistory,ofMexico’srevolutionarynationalism.

AutoworkersthoughttheonlythingmissingfromDiegoRivera’sDetroitmuralswasthefactorywhistle.

NeitherRiveranorFordsawacontradictionincelebratingthepowerofmachineryandsciencewhileatthesametimeidealizingalostpast.FordsharedRivera’ssensethathisfactoryresultedfromthecollisionofmultipletimeframes:industrial,geological,mytho-historical.Influencedbytheeclectic

spiritualismofhistime,aswellbyhisfavoriteauthor,RalphWaldoEmerson,herepeatedlyvoicedbeliefsthatresonatedwithRivera’supperpanels—inreincarnation,intheexistenceofan“over-soul”composedoftheaccumulatedexperienceofpastlives,intheideathat“memoryneverdies.”“Werememberthingsfrompastlivesinourpresentlife,”andnotjustindividuallybutcollectively,Fordsaid.Hebelievedthattheearthhadnourishedandlostmanycivilizationsovermillionsofyears—likeRivera’sAztecsandOlmecs—andthattheknowledgeproducedbythesecivilizationshad,insomemysticalway,beenhandeddown,culminatingintheadvancementsofmodernindustry.“Whatsurvivediswisdom—theessenceofexperience.”12

RIVERALOSTHIMSELFnotjustintheRiverRougeinpreparationforhisDetroitmuralsbutalsoinGreenfieldVillage,Ford’selaboratehomagetoruralAmerica.BythetimetheMexicanpainterarrivedintheMotorCity,Fordhadaddedantiquecollectingtohismanyotherlate-in-lifepassions.Hehadbegunacquiringhistoricalcuriossinceatleast1906,whenhestartedbuyingpiecesofEdisoniana,anythingtodowiththelifeandworkofhismentorandfriendThomasEdison,aswellascopiesofhisbelovedchildhoodschooltextbook,WilliamHolmesMcGuffey’sEclecticReader.Butcollectingbecameamuchmoreintenseoccupationfollowinghishumiliating1919trial,whichwasconvenedtosettleasuithefiledagainsttheChicagoTribuneforcallinghiman“anarchist.”Ford’slengthytestimonybecamethetalkofthecountry,asnewspapersreportedonhisapparentilliteracyandhisignoranceofhistoricaleventssuchastheAmericanRevolutionandtheWarof1898.AskedtosaywhoBenedictArnoldwas,Fordreplied:“He’sawriter,Ithink,”promptinghootsoflaughterfromthecourthouseaudience.Itwasaroundthistimethathefirstproclaimedthat“historyisbunk,”anopinionhewouldrepeatthroughoutthe1930sand1940s.“Isayhistoryisbunk—bunk—doublebunk,”hesaidin1940.“Why,itisn’teventrue.”

Fordwascondemningnotsomuchallreferencestothepastasaparticularinterpretationofhistory,onethatemphasizedgreatmenandtheirdeeds.AshistorianStevenWattshasnoted,Fordsawhistoryin“surprisinglymodernterms,”notasan“empiricalrecoveryofabsolutetruthbutasinterpretationsofthepast.”Ifhistorywasbeing“rewritteneveryyearfromanewpointofview,”howthen,heasked,could“anybodyclaimtoknowthetruthabouthistory?”Ford’sanswerwastoreject“great-man”historyinfavorofanaccountrootedintheslowevolutionarychangesthatoccurinthe“everydaylifeandworkofordinarypeople.”HemightnothavebeenabletosaywhattheWarof1898was,butFordwassurethatstoriesofthekindthathailedtheheroicsofTheodoreRooseveltchargingupSanJuanHill,eveniftheyweretrue—whichhedoubtedtheywere—hadlittletodowithwhatdroveprogress.“Therealhistoryofapeoplewasnotexpressedinwars,”hesaid,“butinthewaytheylivedandworked....ThehistoryofAmericawasn’twritteninWashington,itwaswritteninthegrassroots.”Andanyhistorybookthatcelebrated“gunsandspeeches”butignoredthe“harrowsandalltherestofdailylifeisbunk,”Fordinsisted.13

Drivinghomefromthetrial,whichhewon,thoughthesix-centsettlementhereceivedwasmorearebukethanavindication,Fordturnedtohissecretary,ErnestLiebold,andsaid,“I’mgoingtostartupamuseumandgivepeopleatruepictureofthedevelopmentofthecountry.”Healsosoondecidedtobuildatowntogowiththemuseum,askingwithoutanypriorconversationEdwardCutler,anarchitectinhisemploy,todrawhimplansforavillage.Itwas,saidCutler,“purelyimaginative.”

Overthenextdecade,Fordbecamethemostfamousantiquecollectorintheworld.CratesarriveddailyinDearborn,fillingupthebaysandwarehouseofBuilding13ofhisnowvacanttractorplant(productionhadbeenmovedtotheRouge).TrucksandMichiganCentralboxcarsdeliveredanythingonecouldimaginerelatedtothemechanicalordecorativearts—cast-ironstoves,sewingmachines,threshers,

plows,babybottles,scrubbingboards,saucepans,vacuumcleaners,inkwells,steamengines,oillamps,typewriters,mirrors,barberchairs,hobbyhorses,fireengines,kitchenutensils,CivilWardrums,trundlebeds,rockingchairs,benches,tables,spinningwheels,musicboxes,violins,clocks,lanterns,kettles,cradles,candlemolds,airplanes,trains,andcars.“Wearetrying,”FordtoldaNewYorkTimesreporter,“toassembleacompleteseriesofeverykindofarticleusedormadeinAmericafromthedaysofthefirstsettlersdowntonow.WhenwearethroughweshallhavereproducedAmericanlifeaslived.”14

InOctober1927—justafewdaysafterPará’slegislatureratifiedFord’sTapajósconcession—Fordbeganworkonbothhistownandhismuseum,modeledonPhiladelphia’sIndependenceHall,tohouseanddisplayhiscollection.Bulldozersclearedatwo-hundred-acrelotandleveledoffaknolloverlookingtheRougeRiverandworkersstartedtolaythefoundationfortheMartha-MaryChapel—builtwithbricksfromthechurchwhereClaraandHenryweremarriedandnamedaftertheirrespectivemothers.JustupstreamlayFord’sFairLaneestate,afewmilesdownriverstoodtheRougefactory,andthenewtownwasbuiltalmostintheshadowofthesmokestackcrownofthecomplex’sPowerhouseNo.1—eightchimneysasharmoniousintheirproportionsastheeightcolumnsholdingupeachoftheParthenon’stwofaçades.“Lifeflows,”Fordlikedtorepeat,buthewouldhaveasayinitscourse.JustasBlakeleyandVillareswerefellingthefirsttreesatBoaVista,surveyorssquaredthesiteofavillagegreenandworkersbegantolayrailroadtracksandreassemblethescoresofbuildingsthathadbeenshippedfromalloverAmerica—an1803Connecticutpostoffice,theWrightbrothers’bicycleshop,AbrahamLincoln’sIllinoiscourtroom,LutherBurbank’sbotanicallabfromCalifornia,EdgarAllanPoe’sNewYorkcottage,thehomesofPatrickHenry,DanielWebster,andWaltWhitman,Ford’schildhoodfamilyfarm,theDetroitshedwherehebuilthisfirstgas-powered“quadricycle,”and,ofcourse,ThomasEdison’sMenloPark,NewJersey,laboratories.15FordnamedthesettlementGreenfieldVillage,afterhiswife’schildhoodcounty,whichbythenhadbeenabsorbedbyDetroit’ssprawl.

Forddemandedhistoricalfaithfulness,orderinghisengineerstorescueasmuchoriginaldetailfromthestructuresandtheirsurroundingsaspossible.ForEdison’sMenloParkcomplex,hehadsevenboxcarloadsofredclayshippedfromNewJersey,alongwiththestumpofanoldhickorytreethatwasonthegrounds.“H’m!”saidEdisonuponseeingtherestoration,“thesamedamnoldNewJerseyclay!”GreenfieldVillagehadeverythingthatonecouldimagineasdefininganAmericantownbeforethearrivalofFordistmassproduction—atownhall,schools,afirestation,adoctor’soffice,ablacksmith,coveredbridges,clapboardresidenceswithneatflowergardens,andevenliquorbottles(filledwithcoloredwater)intheinn’staverns,whichFordtheteetotaleronlygrudginglyallowedafterbeingurgedbyhiswife.Therewasonedetail,though,onemainstayofnineteenth-centurysmall-townAmerica,thatFordrefusedtoreplicate:abank.TheFordMotorCompanymayhavebeenforcedtogointothelendingbusinessbysettingupitsUniversalCreditCorporation,butFord’svisionofAmericanawouldremainpure.HisMainStreetwouldstayforeveruntaintedbyWallStreet.16

ManyinthepressjudgedFord’santiquarianismwithcontempt,pointingouttheironyofthemansingularlyresponsibleforthedisappearanceofsmall-townAmericanowclaimingtobeitsrestorer.“Withhislefthandherestoresaself-sufficientlittleeighteenth-centuryvillage,”wrotetheNation,“butwithhisrighthandhehadalreadycausedthelandtobedottedredandyellowwithfillingstations.”“Itwas,”saidtheNewYorkTimes,“asifStalinwentinforcollectingoldledgersandstock-tickers.”TheNewRepublicchimedin:“Mr.Fordmightbelessinterestedinputtinganextinctcivilizationintoamuseumifhehadnotdonesomuchtomakeitextinct.”Andmanyintellectualswereparticularlydisapprovingofhismuseum.Fordrefusedtoconsultcuratorstoguidehiscollecting(evenasinthe

Amazonhewasforswearingbotaniststohelpwithhisrubberplantation).OneassistantremembersthatFordwas“afraidofbringinginexpertswhoseopinionsmightruncountertohis.”Whenhismuseumfinallyopened,itlookedlike,asonehistorianputit,“theworld’sbiggestrummagesale,”organizedwithnorhymeorreason.17

WhenanintervieweraskedEdwardCutler,thearchitectofGreenfieldVillage,renderedaboveina1934touristmap,ifitwastruethat“justoutoftheclearskyoneday,Fordaskedyoutodrawavillage,”Cutlerreplied“yes.”

Therewas,however,logicatwork.ThevisionoftechnologicalprogressondisplayinFord’smuseumandvillage—fromthecraftserathroughmechanicalsteamenginestoindustrialmanufacturing—wasobviouslyself-serving,endingintherevolutioninmassproductionthathepresidedover.Yetthereisalsoadeepwearinessrevealedinthisvision,adistrustoftheflashofconsumerismthathadovertakentheAmericaneconomy,drivenbydotted-lineloansandtheinduceddemandof“trumperyandtrinkets,”asFordputit,goodswhichperformed“norealservicetotheworldandareatlastmererubbishastheywereatfirstmerewaste.”Conceivedduringtheroilingtwentieswhenhiscompanywasforcedtoadoptyearlymodelchangesandeasyloans,GreenfieldVillageanditsmuseum,alongwithFord’sobsessive,massivecollectingofmaterialgoodsandhistoricalbuildings,wasanantidotetothefetishismofcheapconsumerproductsthathadovertakentheeconomy,andthehucksterismthatsoldthem.Thestockmarketcrashandtheonsetofanintractabledepression,followedbytheaftershocksofsuccessivebankingcrises,onlyheightenedFord’sdesireforsolidity.Theitemsinhisvillageandmuseumembodiedthesocialrelationsandknowledgethatwentintomakingthem,preservingtheessence,infactthebreath—whenitopened,hismuseumdisplayedThomasEdison’slastexhalation,capturedbyhissoninatesttubeatFord’srequest—ofamoredurableAmericanexperience.“Welearnfromthepastnotonlywhattodobutwhatnottodo,”Fordoncetoldaninterviewer.“Whateverisproducedtodayhassomethinginitofeverythingthathasgonebefore.Evenapresent-daychairembodiesallpreviouschairs,andifwecanshowthedevelopmentofthechairintangibleformweshallteachbetterthanwecaninbooks.”Hesaidthatoneshouldn’t“regardthesethousandsofinventions,thousandsofthingswhichmanhasmade,asjustsomanymaterialobjects.Youcanreadineveryoneofthemwhatthemanwhomadethemwasthinking—whathewasaimingat.Apieceofmachineryoranythingthatismadeislikeabook,ifyoucanreadit.It

ispartoftherecordofman’sspirit.”18

DIEGORIVERADIDN’TsharethescornotherintellectualsandartistsheapedonGreenfieldVillage.DuringhisstayinDetroit,Riveravisitedthemodeltown,wanderingarounditsstreets,houses,mills,andworkshopsfromseveninthemorningtoonethirtythenext.HerecognizeditssenseofproportionandhowitrelatedtothenearbyRiverRougeplant.“AsIwalkedon,marvelingateachsuccessivemechanicalwonder,”herecalledinhismemoirs,“IrealizedthatIwaswitnessingthehistoryofmachinery,asifonparade,fromitsprimitivebeginningstothepresentday,inallitscomplexandastoundingelaboration.”19

TheholismthatRiveraidentifiedinFordrepresentsaparticularkindofpastoralism,anAmericanpastoralismthatdidn’topposenatureandindustrialization,ormanandthemachine,butsaweachfulfillingtheother.MuchofFord’sfaiththatindustryandagriculturecouldbebalancedandthatcommunitywouldbefulfilledratherthanoverrunbycapitalistexpansiondrewspecificallyfromRalphWaldoEmerson.Yetit’saconvictionthathaddeeprootsinAmericanthought.AshistorianLeoMarxhaspointedout,withtheexceptionoftheSouthernslavestates,Americanhistoryrevealslittleoppositiontomechanizationandindustrialization.Americaitself,Marxwrote,hasoftenbeenheldupbymanyofitscelebrantsasamachineintheNewWorldgarden,representingbothareleaseofhistoricalenergythroughthe“seizureoftheunderlyingprinciplesofnature”andadomesticationofthatpowerthroughitsConstitution—describedasa“machinethatwouldgoofitself,”aself-regulating,synchronizedsystemofchecksandbalances.20

ThemainstrutsofHenryFord’sphilosophyallhadantecedentsineighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryAmericanpoliticalandliteraryconcepts:thatmechanizationmarkednottheconquestbuttherealizationofnature’ssecretsandthustheattainmentofthepastoralideal;thathistoryisbestunderstoodastheprogressofthisrealization,ofthegradualliberationofhumansfromsoul-crushingtoil;andthatAmericahasaprovidentialroletoplayinworldhistoryinachievingthisliberation.ItwasfromsuchwellspringsoftechnologicaloptimismthatFordwasdrawingwhenhepredictedthathisMuscleShoalsprojectwould“makeanewEdenofourMississippiValley,turningitintothegreatgardenandpowerhouseofthecountry.”AgainstMarxistswhowarnedthatanimpending“crisisofoverproduction”wouldbringdowncapitalism,Fordcounteredbypredictingthat“thedayofactualoverproductionisthedayofemancipationfromenslavingmaterialisticanxiety.”Tothosewhothoughtindustrializationdeadenedmindandspirit,Fordrespondedbysayingthatwantwasthetruecauseofalienation.“Theunfortunatemanwhosemindiscontinuallybenttotheproblemofhisnextmealorthenextnight’sshelterisamaterialistperforce,”hesaid.“Now,emancipatethismanbyeconomicsecurityandtheappurtenancesofsocialdecencyandcomfort,andinsteadofmakinghimmoreofamaterialistyouliberatehim.”21

Theseandsimilarpronouncementswerenotmerelyself-aggrandizingconceitsonFord’spart.Manysawthecheap,durablecarhemadeavailabletothemultitudesasthe“spontaneousfruitofanEdenictree,”toquotetheSpanishphilosopherJoséOrtegayGasset’sdescriptionofthequicknesswithwhichmanembracedtheautomobile.WhatelsecouldexplaintheeffortlessnesswithwhichtheModelT,afteritsdemise,couldbetransformedintoanobjectofpastoralnostalgia,asorneryastheanimalitreplaced?“Iftheemergencybrakehadn’tbeenpulledallthewayback,”E.B.Whitewroteina1936NewYorkeressaytitled“Farewell,MyLovely,”“thecaradvancedonyoutheinstantthefirstexplosionoccurredandyouwouldholditbackbyleaningyourweightagainstit.IcanstillfeelmyoldFordnuzzlingmeatthecurb,asthoughlookingforanappleinmypocket.”22

AsaresponsetotheGreatDepression,Ford’sdriveforbalanceandholisticself-sufficiencymanifesteditselfinanumberofways:heincreasedhiscommitmenttovillageindustriesandhydroelectricity;hesaidsmallhouseholdgardenswoulddomoretooffsetpovertythangovernmentreliefandurgedhisRiverRougeworkerstogrowtheirownfood;andhepromotedhis“IndustrializedAmericanBarn”atthe1934ChicagoWorld’sFairasasolutiontothefarmcrisis.Fordalsosteppeduphisfundingof“chemurgical”(aneologismcoinedin1934,combiningtheGreekwordschemi,ortheartofmaterialtransformation,andergon,work)experiments,manyofwhichtookplaceinGreenfieldVillage’slaboratory,tofindnewindustrialusesforagriculturalproducts.Manyofhisideaswereharebrained,anindustrialversionofmedievalalchemy.FordoncehadatruckloadofcarrotsdumpedinfrontofGreenfieldVillage’slabandtolditschemiststofindusefulpropertiesfromtheirpulp.Buthedidhavesomesignificantsuccesses.IronMountainchemistsfiguredouthowtousewoodchipstomakeartificialleather,whilethelabatGreenfieldVillagedevelopedmanynewusesforsoymealandsoyoil.

ThereissymmetryatworkinwhatFordthoughthewasdoingatDearbornandwhathehopedtoaccomplishontheTapajós,andtheprogressofbothGreenfieldVillageandFordlandiaproceededonremarkablyparalleltracks,functioningalmostascounterweightstoeachotherinapendulumclock,countingoutthelastlongstretchofHenryFord’slonglife.Ford’sexperiencewithmodeltownsandvillageindustriesintheUpperPeninsulaandlowerMichigansetthestageforhisfrustratedMuscleShoalsproposalandthenforbothGreenfieldVillageandFordlandia.

ThisevolutionofthoughtpartlyexplainswhyFordneverbotheredtoseektheguidanceofothercorporationssuchasHersheyortheUnitedFruitCompany,eventhoughtheyhadlongexperiencebuildingandrunningcompanytownsinCuba,CentralAmerica,andelsewhere.FordlandiawastobenefitfromthecombinedknowledgeofFord’smanyvillageprojectsintheUnitedStates.IntheAmazon,Fordfullyexpectedthatchemistswouldturntheminerals,oils,andplantsfoundonhisestateintolubricatinggrease,fuels,paints,soaps,rope,fertilizers,andinsecticides.Fordlandia’smanagerssenthundredsofsamplesbacktoDearborn,aswellastoChicago’sFieldMuseum,andtodayonecanfinddustyboxesintheFordArchivesfilledwithseeds,barks,andleavesofavarietyoftropicalflora,accompaniedbynotesindicatingtheiracidityandnitrogenlevels,aswellastheirash,sodium,andlimecontent.JustasFordhopedhisvillageindustrieswouldachieveself-sufficiencythroughhydroelectricity,hethoughtthattheTapajóswouldprovideenoughpowertolimittheuseofpurchasedgasoline;thatthesawmillwouldcuthardwoodnotjustforlocalusebutforsaletosupporttheplantation;thatnotjustproperhygieneanddecenthealthcarebutflowergardensandsquaredancing—whichFordwouldpromoteinFordlandiaasaresponsetotheDecember1930riot—wouldcultivatevirtuousworkers;andthatallofthisappliedcraftwork,supplementedbyFord-foundedand-fundedschools,wouldproduceanewgenerationofskilledworkers.Thisiswhysomanyofthemen—Rogge,Mulrooney,Weeks,Perini,andothers—alongwiththeirwivesandchildren,whowentdowntostartandrunFordlandiawerefromtheUpperPeninsula,wheretheFordMotorCompanyhadfirsttriedtocombinetherationalandefficientharnessingofnaturewiththeorderlyandaestheticorganizationofhumans.

OVERTHECOURSEofthe1930s,Ford’svisionbegantoturninonitself.BeforetheGreatDepression,theFordMotorCompanycouldseriouslyhaveclaimedtohavesolvedmanyofthemostpressingproblemsthatarosefromtheIndustrialRevolution.Itprovedthatcapitalismcouldbenefitnotjustthebankerorthemonopolistbutthemasses.Anditshowedhowmechanizationcouldnotjustdrivedownlaborcostsbutincreasebuyingpowerandfreeindividualsfrommeniallabor,allowingthemmoretimeforpersonalenjoymentandsatisfactionoutsidethefactorygates.Butmodernconsumercapitalismcreatedawholenewsetofproblems,aggravatedbyadepressionseeminglywithoutend.

Fordlivedlongenoughtoseehimselfandhissystemofproductionimplicatedinmanyoftheviceshepreachedagainst.HealsowitnessedtheascendancyofTheodoreRoosevelt’scousinFranklinasheadofapoliticalcoalition—theNewDeal—thatwassettingAmerica’sreformagenda.Ford’soppositiontoFDRandhisprogramofgovernmentregulationflowedfromthesamekindofpastoralismthatpoweredhistechnologicaloptimism:aviewofindustryandnatureasexistinginfundamentalharmonybyextensiontendstotakeeventhemildestformofgovernmentinterferenceasperverse.*Ofcourse,hisexhortationstoself-relianceandpatronageofvillageindustrieshadaslittlechanceofsolvingtheproblemsrevealedbytheGreatDepressionasFordlandiamanagershadoftamingtheAmazon.YetFordneverrelentedinhiscondemnationoftheNewDeal’ssolutiontothecrisis:thepromotionofunionism,governmentregulationofindustry,andestablishmentoffederalrelief.

Specifically,FordrefusedtowarmtoRooseveltandhisNewDealers.“Peoplelikethat,”hetoldCharlesLindbergh,“alwaysgetwhat’scomingtothem.”ButFordnotonlysawthecountryelectFDRfourtimesbutwitnessedthefederalgovernmentcompleteitsTennesseeValleyAuthorityproject,ineffectcarryingouttheMuscleShoalsproposalFordmadeadecadeearlier.†ItwouldbeRooseveltandnotHenryFordwhowouldbringcheapelectricpowertothefarmersofthelowerAppalachianValley.23

Inthelastyearsofhislife,Fordrespondedtothesesetbacksbylosinghimselfinthepast,inthedetailsofGreenfieldVillage.EvenastheChryslerCorporationwaspushingaheaddespitethefinancialcrashwithitsnamesakemodernistmasterpieceinthebusyheartofNewYorkCity,Fordwasfussingoverspinningwheelsandragdolls.AndasGMandotherbusinesseswererationalizingthemoderncorporatemanagementstructure,Ford’soncerevolutionarycompanywasturninggothic,presidedoverbyagangsterwhoranthelaborforceasifhewereamedievallord.24

FordfellintoadepressionwhenhislongtimefriendThomasEdisondiedinlate1931.Thecarmakerwouldpresideoveronemorebreakthroughengineeringtriumph:theV8engine,introducedin1932,wouldserveastheindustrystandardfordecadestocome.ButFord’sbodyandmindbegantoyield.Hecontinuedtodresswithprecision,hisbackrevealingonlytheslightestofstoops.Andininterviews,hecouldstillrousehimselftograciousanimationofthekindhedisplayedtotheBrazilianconsulJoséCustódioAlvesdeLimayearsearlier.HewascharmingwhenhostingDiegoRiveraandhiswife,FridaKahlo,fordinnerduringtheirstayinDetroit,evenafterKahloaskedhimifhewasJewish.Yetthoseclosetohimnotedthathewaslosinghissenseofhumor,andthemalevolentsideofhispersonalitywasbecomingmoremanifest.Fordhadrenouncedhispublicanti-Semitism,butinhisprivateconversationswithhisoldIndependentstaff,aswellaswithfriendslikeCharlesLindbergh,themainpointofconversationsremained“theJews.”They,alongwiththeCommunists,GM,theDuPonts,andFDR,Fordwassure,weretryingtotakeoverhisfactory.Andthough,assomehavenoted,hisanti-SemitismremaineddetachedfromthecloserelationshehadwithmanyJews,thenastinesshebegantoshowhiscloseassociates,includingthesadismwithwhichhetreatedhisson,Edsel,wasvisceral.AswashisstokingofHarryBennett’sbrutality.“Harry,let’syouandhimhaveafight,”Fordwouldgleefullywhispertohisenforcer,siccinghimonatroublesomeworker.25

ThebalanceFordtriedtoachievebetweenindustryandagriculture,societyandcommunity,gavewaytoafull-onretreatintoantiquarianism.BetweentheRiverRougeandGreenfieldVillage,Fordincreasinglypreferredthelatter.NearlyeverymorningfoundhimatitsMartha-MaryChapel,wherethevillageschoolchildrenstartedtheirdayssinginghymns.“Hespentsomuchtimearoundthevillage,”rememberedEdwardCutler,thearchitectwhohadplannedGreenfield.“Itwasareliefforhimtoget

downthere.”Fordwouldwalkthevillagestreets,situnderatreeandplayhismouthharp,orwarmhimselfbyafiresidehearth.Herefused,atleastduringthevillage’searlyyears,tohaveatelephoneinstalled.“Hedidn’twantanywayforthemtogetaholdofhim,”rememberedCutler.26

FrankLloydWright,whoearlierhadpraisedFord’svisionforMuscleShoals,waslessunderstandingthanRiveraofwhathecondemnedasFord’sunrestrainedtraditionalism.SpeakingofatriphemadetotheRiverRougeearlyintheDepression,WrightpraisedabuildingdesignedbyAlbertKahnasaperfectsynthesisofformandfunction.“Itwasreallyafinething,”hesaid,“eighthundredfeetlong,beautifullylighted.Thesunwasshininginit,andoverabouthalfoftheshiningsurfaceofmapleflooringwasplantedwithwonderfulmachinery,withmenworkingatthemachines.”ButFord—“thecaptain”asWrightcalledhim—wasnowheretobefound.Hewas“outplaying”inhismuseumwithhis“oldthings,...reprehensibleenoughinthemselves,andnowworthless.”Suchantique“slumming,”Wrightthought,waspartofageneralescapefromtheinnovativemodernismofthe1920sintoashamtraditionalism(anescapelikewiserepresentedbythewanderlustballadsthatsoentrancedJohnRoggeontheTapajós).Besides,Ford’s“oldcast-offthings”weren’tevenAmerican.RealAmericanismwasvitalandorganic,likeKahn’sRiverRouge.WhatFordwascollectingwas“Georgian”carriedover“tothisnewfreedombytheColonialsbecausetheyhadnoneotherorbettertobring.”

Wrightcouldn’texplainFord’sturn.“Thisisaman,”hesaid,“fromwhomthefuturehadarighttoexpectsomethingmorethansentimentality.”27

IntheAmazon,too,Ford’svisionbegantosplitapart.HetookapersonalhandinmanyofthedecisionsinvolvedinrebuildingFordlandiaafterthe1930riot,particularlyastheyrelatedtoeducationandrecreation.Yetastheattainmentoftheoriginalmotivefortheproject—togrowrubber—becameincreasinglyelusive,Fordlandiabecamemoreandmoreamuseumpiece,Ford’svisionofAmericanismfrozeninamber.

____________

*ThispointwasunderscoredafterFord’sdeathwhenthepresidentofFordMotorCompany,RobertMcNamara,joinedtheJohnF.Kennedyadministrationassecretaryofdefense,apositioninwhichheusedindustrial“systemstheory”torationalizewarfareandwage“mechanized,dehumanizingslaughter”fromtheskiesoverVietnam.SeeGabrielKolko,“OntheAvoidanceofReality,”CrimesofWar,ed.RichardFalk,GabrielKolko,andRobertJayLifton,NewYork:Vintage,1971,p.15.

*Fouryearsearlier,inhisMinistryofEducationmuralinMexicoCity,RiverapaintedaghastlyFordsittingatabanquettable,alongwithJ.P.MorganandJohnD.Rockefeller,readingastockmarkettickertape.

*Ford’spatronageofchemurgy,forinstance,wasanattempttoprovideacorporate,private-sectoralternativetogovernmentremediesfortheruralcrisis;iftheindustrialmarketforcropscouldbeenlarged,therewouldbenoneedtoregulateagriculturalproduction,astheNewDealersproposed(HowardP.Segal,RecastingtheMachineAge:HenryFord’sVillageIndustries,Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,2005,p.34).

†RooseveltsignedtheTVAActonMay18,1933,shortlyafterhisinauguration.ThelegislationwassponsoredinCongressbynoneotherthanGeorgeNorris,theNebraskansenatorwholedthecampaignthatsuccessfullydeniedFordMuscleShoalsnineyearsearlier.TheactcreatedtheTennesseeValley

Authority,whichsoonbecameaworkinglaboratoryformanyoftheNewDeal’sruralinitiativesandatestinggroundforanewaestheticstylethatsoughttoreconcileregionalismwithmodernism.Spectacularlysuccessful,theTVAbroughttogetherhydraulicandelectricalengineers,doctors,architects,economists,teachers,artists,andthousandsofwell-paid,unionizedworkerstocarryoutanenormousexperimentinsocialplanning.AsArthurMorgan,theengineerinchargeoftheproject,putit,the“TennesseeValleyisthefirstplaceinAmericawherewecansitdownanddesignacivilization.”DespiteFord’santipathy,manyNewDealersdrewinspirationfromthecarmaker’svillageindustriesandusedtheTVAtocompleteanambitiousagendathatincludedmanyofFord’sfavoriteideas:dambuildingforfloodcontrolandhydroelectricity,dredgingtoimprovenavigation,reforestation,effortstostemsoilerosion,andpreventionofdisease,includingmalariaandhookworm.Theyevencreatedamodeltown,Norris,Tennessee,namedafterFord’sadversaryanddescribedasa“rural-urbancommunitywhere1000to2000peoplecanhavefour-acrefamilygardens,moderncityconveniencesofpurewater,electricityforcookingandheating,attractivehomes,andtheaddedinterestofatownforest.”LikeFord,FDRimaginedthedevelopmentoftheTennesseeValleyhavinganexemplaryeffectonthewholecountry.HesaidthatMuscleShoalswouldbecome“partofanevengreaterdevelopmentthatwilltakeinallthatmagnificentTennesseeRiverfromthemountainsofVirginiatotheOhio,”benefiting“generationstocome”and“millionsyetunborn.”InmanyofthediscussionssurroundingtheTVA,animplicitanalogywasdrawnbetweentheraging,uncontrolled,andflood-proneriverwithanunregulatedboom-and-busteconomyandtheneedforgovernmentinterventionandplanningtoputbothinservicetohumanbeings.FDRdrewasimilarcomparisoninhis1935dedicationofanotherlarge-scalepublicworksproject,theHooverDaminNevada:“Asanunregulatedriver,theColoradoaddedlittleofvaluetotheregionthisdamserves.Wheninfloodtheriverwasathreateningtorrent.Inthedrymonthsoftheyearitshranktoatricklingstream.Forageneration,[residents]hadlivedintheshadowofdisasterfromthisriverwhichprovidedtheirlivelihood,andwhichisthefoundationoftheirhopesforthemselvesandtheirchildren.Everyspringtheyawaitedwithdreadthecomingofaflood,andattheendofnearlyeverysummertheyfearedashortageofwaterwoulddestroytheircrops.”SeeWilliamE.Leuchtenburg,“Roosevelt,Norris,andthe‘SevenLittleTVAs,’”JournalofPolitics14(1952):418–41;ArthurMorgan,LogoftheTVA,NewYork:SurveyAssociates,1936,p.19;TimCulvahouse,ed.,TheTennesseeValleyAuthority:DesignandPersuasion,NewYork:PrincetonArchitecturalPress,2007.

CHAPTER17

GOODLINES,STRAIGHTANDTRUEBACKINBRAZIL,A“PALL”SETTLED“OVEREVERYTHING”INFORDlandiaoncetheimmediatethreatoftheDecember1930riotpassed,areportbacktoDearbornsaid.TheAmericansreturnedtotheirhomes,butinthemonthsaftertheclashtheyfelt“intimidated”and“notsurethattheycaredtoremain”ontheplantation.Theyseemedparalyzed,“waitingforsomethingtohappen.”Thewomenwerenervous,themenonedge.TheskeletoncrewofworkersretainedbyJamesKennedyhadbegunrebuildingtheplantation’sphysicalplant.Electriciansgotthegeneratorworkingagain,andlaborersinstalledwindows,hungdoors,andfishedtrucksoutoftheTapajós.Yetasenseofdistress,ofimpendingtrouble,remained.ItwasasiftheshockoftheGreatDepression,heldatbaythrough1930bythemagicofFordwealth,hadfinallyarrivedontheTapajós.

Evenbeforetheuprising,Fordhadfearedthathisnamesakeplantationwasspinningoutofcontrolintoacesspoolofwaste,vice,andridicule.ForabriefperiodafterthedepartureofOxholm,underfirstVictorPerini’sandthenJohnRogge’ssupervision,thesituationseemedtobeimproving.Buttheriotcreatedanewsenseofconcernandurgency.SoinFebruary1931,heonceagainsentVictorPerini,whoayearearlierwasforcedtoleavetheplantationduetochronicedema,tomakethingsright.ThistimePeriniwasaccompaniedbyW.E.Carnegie,Ford’sheadaccountant,andArchibaldJohnston,aSorensenmanfromtheRiverRouge.

Manyonstaffthoughttheteamhadcometoshuttertheplantation.IntheUnitedStates,Fordwasspendingmuchofhiscompany’ssavingsonkeepinghisAmericanbusinessrunningandonenewspaperafteranotherannouncedthathewasplanningtoabandonhisBrazilianoperations.“ReportFordEndingParaRubberWork,”ranaFebruary1931headlineintheNewYorkTimes.“AmericansAssertTropicalLaborersCannotBeMadetoPunchaTimeClockasinNorth.”YettheDearbornrepresentativesdidnotannounce,asmanythoughttheywould,theendofFordlandia.Theyinsteadreaffirmedthecompany’scommitmenttobuilda“modelcity”inthejungle,onecompletewithrestaurants,shops,churches,schools,decent,well-maintainedhouses,and“placesofamusement.”Oncethetownwasestablished,CarnegietoldareporterfromtheTimes,itwould“electitsownMayor,maintainitsownfiredepartmentandpoliceforceandlevyandcollectitsowntaxes.Inotherwords,itwillmanageitsownaffairsasastrictlyindependentcommunity.”1

“Theplanisoneofexpansion,”Carnegiecontinued,“bywhichtheBrazilianpeopleandthecompanywillbebroughttogetherinacloserunionofinterests.”

FOLLOWINGACOSTLYriot,inthemidstofaworldwideeconomiccontractionseeminglywithoutend,withhiscompanyforthefirsttimeeverrunningadeficit,evenasrubberpricesweretumbling,ForddecidedtoallotevenmoreresourcestohisBrazilianventure.HedidquietlysendoutfeelerstoseeifanyBrazilianinterestswouldpurchasetheconcessionbutwastoldthatnoone“wouldputmoneyintotheRubberCompanywheretherewasnoprospectofobtainingaprofitformanyyearstocome.”Andhecontinuedtofundtheeffortsofthenoweighty-four-year-oldThomasEdison,rightuptoEdison’sdeathin1931,toextractindustrial-qualitylatexfromgoldenrodandotherplants.YetwhileEdisonannouncedtothepressthathewasdrinkinganall-milkdietsothathewouldlivelongenoughtofindanalternativetotropicalrubber,hetoldFordthattheproductionofsyntheticlatexwasnotfeasible.WhenSovietscientistsissuedareportaroundthistimeclaimingthattheyhadsynthesizedindustrial-qualityrubber

frompetroleum,theinventor,insistingthatoilcouldnotbeturnedintolatex,denounceditasafake.“Itjustcan’tbedone,”hesaid.Edison’sopinionmighthaveinfluencedthecarmaker’sdecisiontokeepFordlandiagoing.2

Intruth,Fordcouldn’tjustabandonaprojectliterallylinkedtohisname,onesograndiloquentlyproclaimedtotheworld.AndheretheDepressionactuallyreinforcedthedecisiontostayintheAmazon.BackhomeFordwasspendingevenmoremoneyonhisvillageindustryprojects,whichbythispointhadevolvedfromaremedyforthedislocationsofthetwentiestoastrategyforsurvivingthe1930s.“Theremaybenoimmediatebusinessreasonfordecentralization,”admittedaFordspokesmanin1935,“buttheremaybeahumanreason...anditwouldseemthatourlifeissuchthatwhatishumanlydesirableandmorallyrightpresentlyjustifiesitselfasbeingeconomicallypractical.”Andthoughshop-floorrealitywasquitedifferent—withstalledassemblylinesanddrasticallyreducedhoursforworkers—HenryandEdsel,through1930and1931,repeatedlytoldthepressthatnotonlywouldtheynotcutwages,theywouldinvestevenmoremoneyintheRiverRouge.ThesameboosterismtookplaceintheAmazon.3

AmiraclewasneededinthosebleakfirstyearsoftheDepression.AndFordwasonlytoohappytosupplyone.Hiscompanyreverseditsprevioustight-lippedpolicyregardingFordlandia,whichithadadoptedinthewakeoftheconcessionscandal,andbeganissuingpressreleasesandsupplyingfactsandstatisticstoanyreporterinterestedinFord’soperationsontheTapajós.Andsureenough,therebegantoappearaftertheriotaseriesofarticlesinUSandBrazilianpapersreprisingthefanfarethathadannouncedtheoriginalsettlementafewyearsearlier.4

“NoBusinessDepressionHere,”ranaheadlineintheNewYorkTimestwodaysafterChristmas1931,overaphotographofFord’sTapajóstown.“ThisisFordlandia,”thecaptionsaid,“wheretheautomobilemanufacturerisspendingmillionsofdollarsonthescientificgrowingofrubber.Thesettlement,onceawaste,hasbeenconvertedintoamodelcitywherehighwagesprevail.”Aroundthesametime,theWashingtonPostwrotethat“electricityandrunningwaterinnativehomesweremiraclesundreamedbeforeHenryFordwenttothetropicstodevelophisownsourcesofrubbersupply.”TheChicagoTribunelikewisereportedonthe“moderncity”risinginthejungle,onethatwouldsoonboasthundredsof“Swisscottagetype”homes,alongwithshops,parks,achurch,abank,amovietheater,andbusservice:“Fordlandia,anup-to-datetownwithallmoderncomforts,hasbeencreatedinawildernessthatneverhadseenanythingmorepretentiousthanathatchedhut.Waterissuppliedunderpressureafterithasbeenthoroughlyfilteredtoremovedangersoffeverinfection,andelectriclightilluminatedbungalowsinaregionwheresuchinventionsareproofofthewhiteman’smagic.”AndintheUpperPeninsula,theIronMountainDailyNewstolditsreaders,manyofthemFordemployees,that“HenryFordhastransplantedalargesliceoftwentiethcenturycivilization”totheAmazon.5

ThiswasincreasinglythejustificationforFordlandia,broadcastinthematerialsuppliedtothepressaswellasininternationalcompanycorrespondence.Thelongerittooktheplantationtoachieveitsoriginalpurposeandproducelatex,themoreitwasdefendedasamissionaryproject,amodelforwhatFord,andbyextensionAmerica,couldaccomplishintheworld.“Mr.Ford,”saidtheWashingtonPostin1932,“notonlyintendstocultivaterubberbuttherubbergatherersaswell.”“Acivilizingmission,”agreedMajorLesterBakerinanotepublishedintheTimes,a“dream.”6

ForGeraldDrew,whoreplacedJohnMinterastheAmericanconsulinBelém,Ford’sutopianismwasthe“onlytheory”thatcouldexplainwhathesawunfoldingontheTapajós.“Mr.Fordconsidersthe

projectasa‘workofcivilization,’”hetoldhissuperiorsinWashington,includingthesecretaryofstate.Nothingelse,hesaid,couldexplaintheextravagantsumsofmoneythecompanywasspendingonFordlandia.7

Overthenextdecade,thecompanydownplayedtheneedforrubberasprovidingFordlandia’srationaleandinsteademphasizeditscivilizingmission.OnFord’sSundayEveningHour,broadcastnationally,LintonWells,thebaritone-voicedforeignwarcorrespondent,toldlistenershowthe“skillandwits”oftheFordMotorCompanyhadtriumphedoverthe“tricky”and“perverse”Amazonjungle.Wells,whoduringWorldWarIIwouldbetappedbyFDRtofindapossiblehomelandinAfricaforEuropeanJews(herecommendedAngola),describedthecreationofthetown“ontheedgeofnowhere”almost“likemagic”andpraiseditforcontainingallthe“traditionalessentialsforhealth,happiness,andwell-being.”Therewere“churches,schools,andasplendidhospital,withamedicalstafffromDetroit’sfamedHenryFordHospital.Shops,movies,restaurants,andcomfortablehomeslinedpalm-fringedstreets.Therewereelectricity,telephoneandsanitaryservicesandan18-holegolfcourse.”8

Suchcheerleadingwasnotjustforpublicconsumption.Dearbornofficialsweretellingoneanotherthesamethingsthroughoutthe1930s.Aftervisitingtheestate,CharlesSorensenwrotetoHenryFordthatheshouldbeproudofFordlandia,foritwasindeeda“schoolofciviceducation.”9

“Ithinkyouwouldbewelladvised,”wroteoneDearbornmanagerrespondingtoaneconomicsprofessorwhoaskedforinformationonFordlandiatoincludeinalecture,“topointouttoyourlistenersthatMr.Ford’swholeprojectisstillinanexperimentalstage—thathisexperimentisasmuchsociologicalasindustrial.Indeed,itisinthesociologicalfieldthathehasthusfarregisteredhisfinestachievementsinBrazil.”10

PERINIANDCARNEGIE,inconsultationwithRogge,laidoutanambitiousplantohavetherealitycatchuptothepromise.Thefirstthingtheyhadtodowasrebuildtheworkforce,whichhadshrunktoafewhundredworkers.Theplantationbegantohireagain,toppingoffataboutfifteenhundredworkersandtheirfamilies—bringingFordlandia’spopulationuptoaroundfivethousand—withinhalfayear.Thistime,though,theemploymentofficetookpainstovetapplicantsmoresystematicallythaninthepast,whenmanagerswereonlytooeagertoreceiveboatloadsofjobseekers,hiringanyonewhowasclosetohealthy,tooffsetthehighturnoverrate.PeriniandCarnegiecametobelievethatduringFordlandia’sfirstyearorso,EinarOxholmhadunknowinglyemployedlaborradicals,alongwitha“largenumberofcriminals.”TheplantationthereforebegantoworkmorecloselywiththenewVargasgovernment,itselfinvolvedinanattempttoconsolidateitsauthority.BackintheStates,theFordMotorCompany,whichdistrustedthegovernmentwhenitcametopolicyorregulation,hadnoproblemwithlawenforcement.DuringthefirstRedScare,from1919to1921,ithadregularlyopeneditsfiles,includingalltheinformationonthepersonallivesofworkersgatheredinthewakeoftheFiveDollarDayannouncement,tolocalpoliceandtheFBI,asawayofrootingoutpotentialsubversives.AtFordlandia,PeriniandCarnegieputasimilarsystemofvigilanceintoplace,withafileopenedoneveryjobapplicant,tobesharedasneededwiththepoliceandmilitary.Eachworkerwashenceforthrequiredtocarrya“smallbooksimilartoapassport,”whichwouldincludeaphotograph,fingerprint,signature,andpreviouspolicerecords.11

Thenextstepwastocompleteasquicklyaspossiblethe“irradiatingcenterofcivilization,”asEdseldescribedFordlandia,longpromisedbyHenryFordhimself.Ontheeveoftheriot,beyondtheAmerican

compoundandthehandfulofwell-builtbungalowstheskilledworkersoccupied,FordlandiaasatownexistedonlyontheDearbornblueprintsrolledoutforreporterstwoyearsearlier.ThebawdyshantytownsontheedgeoftheplantationhadbeenreducedtoashesandquicklimerightaftertheDecemberriot,thoughthebunkhousesandramshacklevillagewheremarriedworkershadlivedstillstood.AsFordlandiabegantohireagain,singleworkersandfamiliesmovedbackin.ButPeriniandCarnegiedecidedthatthisvillagewasunacceptable,thatapropertownneededtoberaised,witha“civiccenter”completewithstores,movietheaters,and“allotherutilitiesusuallyfoundinacity.”TheyalsorecommendedasignificantexpansionofFordlandia’sschoolsystemsothatitcouldenrollallthechildrenoftheplantation’slargelaborforce.AndsinceitwasnolongerpracticalfortheFordMotorCompany,dependentasitwasonriverboatoperators,localpurveyors,andforeignbanks,tobe,asithadbeentothatpoint,thesolesourceofdailynecessities,fromshoesandclothingtocoffeeandfood,PeriniandCarnegierecommendedthattheplantationcontractouttolocal“concessionaries”therighttoestablishbusinessesinthenewtown,withthecompanyremainingresponsibleforhealthinspectionsandkeepingpricesfairandlow.Inkeepingwiththeirvisionofsmall-townAmerica,theyrecommendedaseriesofsmallMainStreetshops,eachonespecializinginprovidingaspecificitemorservice,suchasshoesandhaircuts.12

Butbeforetheyhadachancetoputmuchoftheirplanintoeffect,VictorPeriniwasstrucksickagain.Hetriedbutjustcouldn’ttakethewetAmazonheat.Asoccurredduringhisfirstvisit,hislegsandfaceswelledup,hiseyelidsgrewpuffy,andhisskinbrokeoutinarashthatrefusedtobesoothedbylotionsorsteroids.HereturnedtoMichigan,againjustafterafewmonthsontheTapajós,andsoonafterretiredfromthecompany,settlingwithConstanceinDetroit.Carnegiealsohadtogetbacktohisaccountingresponsibilities.AndRogge,whileconsideredbyDearborntobetrustworthyandefficient,wasthoughtanineffectivesupervisorofmen,afactunderscoredbytheeventsofDecember.Hestayedonasanassistantmanager,butArchibaldJohnstonwasputinchargeofrebuildingFordlandia.

ArchibaldJohnston.

Johnstonwasforty-sevenyearsoldwhenhetookoverinthemiddleof1931.BorninScotland,hehadathickbrogue,intelligenteyes,andbrushed-backtawnyhairandwasdubbedthe“WhiteTiger”bytheBrazilianpress,asmuchforhisswiftadaptationtojunglelivingasforhispoiseinnavigatingthroughBelém’spoliticalscene.NotonlydidherebuildthelaborforceandreestablishFord’sauthority(withthehelpoftheBrazilianpoliceandmilitary)butitwashewhofinallysecuredthecompany’slongsought-

aftertaxandtariffexemptions.13

WithRoggeandCurtisPringleashisassistants,JohnstonalsomadesomeprogressonturningFordlandiaintoarealtown.AtfirsthehadahardtimefindingthekindofconcessionairesPeriniandCarnegierecommendedtomeetthesettlement’sneeds.Localmerchantswerereluctanttospecializeinoneortwoitems.FranciscoFranco,forinstance,acrosstheriver,keptasmallwarehousestockedwithknives,rifles,ammunition,rope,candles,grains,sugar,shoesandsandals,cookingutensils,andperhapsaguitarortwotoadvanceoncredit,ortoselloutrightifcashwasonhand,torubbertappersandotherriverdwellers.ButhewashardlylikelytoopenabutchershoporashoestoretypicalofanAmericanMainStreet.AsVictorPerinireportedtoDearbornjustpriortohisdeparture,merchants“allwanttoconductageneralstore”becausein“smalltownslikeSantarémitseemstobethecustomforamerchanttoselleverythingthathecanstock,includingliquorsofallkinds.Theydonotlooksofavorablyupontheideaofonemanrunningashoestore,anotheragrocery,andathirdmanameatmarket,asallfeltthattheyshouldbepermittedtosellwhatevertheycan.”14

Johnstoneventuallydidcontractwithenoughconcessionairestoopenabakery,barbershop,shoestore,tailor,astoreselling“notionsandperfumery,”twogrocerystores,avegetableandfishmarket,andabutcher.Healsofoundsomeonetotakeovertherepaireddininghall,nowdividedbetweenthelarger“FordRestaurant”ononesideandaslightlymoreupscaleeatingplaceforskilledworkersontheother.15

ThenheturnedtoFordlandia’shousingcrisis.Theplantation’soriginalplansfrom1928calledforthebuildingoffourhundredtwo-roomhouses“perFordMotorCo.drawings,”atacostof$1,500each—clearlyinsufficientforthethousandsofworkersandtheirfamilieswhohadcometothesettlement.Intruth,thisfailuretoaddressworkers’housingneedswasnotthatdifferentfromwhatwashappeninginMichigan.DespitehisfamedpaternalismandacquisitionoftownslikePequaming,Ford,exceptforasmallexperimentalcommunityof250homes,largelytriedtoavoidprovidinghousesforhisDearbornandDetroitworkers,believinghishighwageswouldbeenoughtocreateprosperousneighborhoods.Hesteadfastlyignoredthecity’smountinghousingproblems,whichhaddoggedtheautomobileindustrysincethebeginningofitsexpansion.Workerslivedinovercrowdedslums,flophouses,andtenements,mostwithoutdecentplumbing,electricity,orheat,withAfricanAmericansconsignedtotheworstofthelot.16*

“Therewasnothingdowntheretoabsorbtheirearnings,”saidErnestLiebold.SoFordlandiaopenedaseriesofshops,includingashoestore.

ButontheTapajós,theFordMotorCompanyrecognizedthatitcouldn’tescapetheresponsibilityforsupplyingdecentlivingquarters,andJohnston,inthewakeoftheriot,wasdeterminedtogetitright.Hedemolishedthe“disreputablestrawvillage”whereworkerswithfamilieshadcrowded,replacingitwithoverahundrednewpalm-roofedadobehousesequippedwithwaterandelectricityandlaidoutin“goodlines,straightandtrue.”Hecleaneduptheriverfrontandgraded,paved,andnamedthestreetsthatranthroughwhatwasfinallybeginningtolooklikeamidwesterntown,withsidewalks,streetlamps,andredfirehydrants.Dearborn,though,wasn’thappywiththethatchedhousesandorderedJohnstontobuildpropermidwestern-styleclapboardbungalows.Johnstontriedtoreasonwithhissuperiors,sayingthatthehutswere“nodisgracetotheAmazonregion.”Heexplainedthat“thenativesarequitehappyandwillingtoliveinthemandaslongastheyarenodetrimenttothehealthofBoaVista,wefeelthattheyshouldbeallowedtousethemsowhybuildmorewoodhousesnow?”17

AsnugbungalowontheTapajós.

Butitwasnotthatchedroofsandmudwallsthatimpressedvisitingreporters,whoinevitablypointedtoFordlandia’shandfulof“Swisscottagetype”homesand“snugbungalows”asexemplarsofa“modelcolonialtown.”SoJohnstonandRoggegottowork,andbytheendof1933therewereovertwohundred“modernhouses”forlaborersandforemen.

DesignedinMichigan,thehousesprovedtobetotallyinappropriatefortheAmazonclimate.BraziliansobjectedtothewindowscreensthatFordofficialsinsistedbeused,believingthattheyservednottokeepbugsoutbuttotrapthemin,“muchasanold-fashionedfly-trapcollectsflies.”Amazondwellersalsopreferreddirtfloors,whichwerecoolerthanwoodorconcreteones.ButVictorPerini,whoduringhisfirstvisithadinspectedhousingconditionswithDr.Beaton,believedthatberiberiwascausedbysleepinginlow-slunghammockswithone’sbackclosetothecoldclay.SoDearbornorderedthatallhouseshavepouredconcreteforflooring.18

Straightandtrue:Fordlandia’sRiversideAvenue,withTapajósRivertotheright.

Metalroofslinedwithasbestos,chosenbyFordengineerstorepelthesun’srays,infactkeptheatin.The“workers’houseswerehotterthanthegatesofhell,”recalledapriestwhoministeredinFordlandia,“becausesomefarawayengineerdecidedthatametalroofwasbetterthansomethingmoretraditionallikethatch.”Theywere“galvanizedironbakeovens,”saidCarlLaRue,commentingonFordlandia’sfoiblesyearslater.“Itisincrediblethatanyoneshouldbuildahouselikethatinthetropics.”Anothervisitordescribedthemas“midgethells,whereoneliesawakeandsweatsthefirsthalfofthenight,andfrequentlybetweenmidnightanddawnundergoesafiercesiegeofheat-provokingnightmares.”Theyseemedtobe“designedbyDetroitarchitectswhoprobablycouldn’tenvisionalandwithoutsnow.”19

Fordmanagers,saidthepriest,“neverreallyfiguredoutwhatcountrytheywerein.”

Theyneverreallyfiguredoutwhotheirworkerswere,either.Inadditiontoinappropriatehousing,FordmanagerslaidonaprogramofciviceducationandwholesomerecreationthathadlittletodowiththeAmazon—andeverythingtodowithAmerica,oratleastHenryFord’sunderstandingofAmerica.

____________

*UrbanpovertyinAmericaisoftenpresentedasaresultofindustrialdecline.YethistorianThomasSugrue,inhisTheOriginsoftheUrbanCrisis:RaceandInequalityinPostwarDetroit(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1996),arguesthattherootsofpovertyandhousingdiscriminationareinextricablylinkedtotheconsolidation—notthedecline—ofAmericanindustrialcapitalism,notonlytotherefusalofcorporateleaderslikeFordtotakeresponsibilityforprovidingadequatehousingforagrowingurbanworkingclassbuttospecificchoicesmadebycompaniestorelocateinsuburbsandotherhard-to-unionizeruralareas.Meanwhile,inDearborn,Ford’sRiverRougeAfricanAmericanworkers,12percentofhistotalworkforce,wereisolatedinpoorsurroundingtownshipslikeInkster,livinginpitifulbungalows,withlittleaccesstobasicserviceslikedecentschoolsfortheirchildren.TheGreatDepressionfinallyforcedFordtospendtensofthousandsofdollarstorehabilitateInkster.Butitwastoolittle,toolateandservedonlytoreinforcesegregationinDearborn,whichtheFordMotorCompanynevercontestedandwhichlastedwellintothe1970s.DetroitcontinueditsslideintourbanpovertyasFord,GeneralMotors,andChryslermovedmoreandmoreoftheirworkoutofthecity.

CHAPTER18

MOUNTAINSOFTHEMOONTHEFIRSTTIMECONSTANCEPERINIMETHENRYFORDWASIN1926asshewaslyinginbedinhisnamesakeDetroithospital,recoveringfromalongillness.“Stayrightthere,”hesaidtofamilymemberswhomadetoleavewhenhecamein.“I’mnotgoingtohurtanybody.”

“Areyoucomfortablehere?”FordaskedMrs.Perini.

“Verymuch.”

“HowdoyoulikeIronMountain?”heinquired.

ItwaswinterwhenthePerinisarrivedintheUpperPensinsula,havingcomefromManchester,England,whereVictorworkedintheFordplant,andtheMichigantownwascoveredintwelvefeetofsnow.

“Idon’tknowwhatIronMountainlookslike.AllI’veseenisroofsandsnow.Theydon’tevenhavesidewalks.”

“Ohyes,theyhavesidewalksupthere.You’llseethemwhenthesnowgoesaway.”

“Idon’tknow...we’llseewhenthesnowgoesaway.”

“You’llsee,”Fordreplied,“thereareplentyofsidewalksthereanddandelions.Youwillbeabletoputflowersinandshowthemhowtodoit.”

Onhiswayout,sheheardFordtellherhusband,“Iknewshewouldcomeoutallright.Youcanbeproud.You’vegotagoodwife.Sheisagoodhousekeeperandagoodmother.Takecareofher.”

ConstancerecoveredherhealthandreturnedtoIronMountain,whereshetookFord’sadvice.Sheplantedflowersthatspring,andsureenough,shesaid,“theideamusthavetakenholdontherestofthetownbecausethenextyeareveryonegottoworkplantingflowersandbushes.Youwouldbesurprisedatwhatadifferenceitmade.”Ford,whenhevisited,“wasquitepleasedwiththelooksoftheplacesonthisvisit,”saidMrs.Perini.“Hesaidsotoseveralpeople.”1

Herethen,summedup,isFord’scivilizinginjunction,issuedinhishomestateyearsbeforehemadehismoveintotheAmazon:Goforthandplantflowers.

FORHENRYFORD,gardeningcapturedhisvisionofholisticEmersonianself-sufficiency,inwhichaestheticsandeconomics,natureandmechanicsworkedasone.AthisFairLaneestateinDearborn,hiswife,Clara,presidedovertwentygardeners,threegreenhouses,asprawlinggeneralgarden,aten-thousand-plantrosegarden,andtherestoration,undertheguidanceofthenaturalistJohnBurroughs,ofagreatportionoftheirlandtoitsforestedstate.FordalsopromotedgardeningasanintegralpartofthecurriculumofthemanyschoolshesupportedintheUnitedStates,includingthoseinGreenfieldVillageandhisvillageindustries.HegavehisUpperPeninsulalumberjacks,jobbers,sawyers,andothermillworkersplotsoflandtogrowvegetablesfortheirownuse.InDearborn,startingin1918,thecompanybegantomake35-by-60-footplotsavailabletoemployeesonFordpropertyandencouragedhomeowningworkerstokeepflowerandvegetablegardensintheiryards.ColoredpostersappearedaroundtheHighlandParkandRougeplantslettingworkersknowaboutFord’sGardenEducationService.A“company-gardener”was“onhandduringalldaylighthourstoanswerallquestions”onhowbesttolay

outplots,whentoplant,andhowtoprepareandfertilizethesoil.Workerspaidadollarfortheseservices,whichincludedtheprovisionofseeds.Thefeewas“totallyinadequatetocoverthecost,”notedaninternalmemo,but“sufficienttogiveeachparticipanta‘stake’intheproject.”ThroughtheGreatDepressionofthe1930s,Fordpushedgardeningasanalternativetogovernmentrelief.Andbytheendofthedecade,somefifty-fivethousandofhisemployeeskepthomegardensandanotherthreethousandworkersmaintainedgardenplotsonFord-allottedland.2

AndsoinFordlandia,aspartofthepost-riotrebuildingprogram,bothHenryandClaraFordbecamepersonallyinvolvedinpromotinggardening,sayingthatitwastheir“expressedwishthattheplantingofflowersandvegetablesbeincorporatedintotheestate’sschoolcurriculumandencouragedamongitsworkers.”RoyMcClure,chiefofsurgeryatDetroit’sHenryFordHospital,wrotetoArchieJohnstonthat“Mr.FordexpressedconsiderableinterestintheschoolsandinthehopethatthemedicalprogramandperhapsgardeningprojectsmightbestartedastheyhavebeenatDearborn,Georgia,NorthernMichigan,aswellasWaysideInn.”3

Aswithhousing,ArchieJohnstondidwhathecouldtocomply.Buthere,too,hefoundthegapwidebetweenDearbornprinciplesandTapajóspractice.“WeareawarethatMr.Fordwantseveryhometohaveasmallplotofgroundinconnectionwithsame,”JohnstonwroteCarnegieinDearborn,“butwewonderifthepictureofBoaVistahasbeenproperlypresentedtohim.”HepointedoutthatbecausetheBraziliansettlementwasnestledtightbetweentheriverandahill,togiveeachhousethe12,000squarefeetoflandFordsuggestedwouldstretchoutthepopulationcenter.“Onemightsay,whatdoesthatmatter,butletusconsiderthecosts,thismeansmilesandmilesofwatermains,electricpoles,wire,sewers,timelostinmaintenance.”

Johnstonfudgedwhenitcametospacingthehouses.HebunchedthemupcloserthanForddemanded.Astogardening,hetoldDearbornthat“wewilldothebestwecan.”Butitwasthedryseasonandtherewasmuchworktobedoneandgroundtobecleared.Workershadmadeconsiderableheadwayduringthe1930rainyseason,withtheseedsupplysecuredbyRoggeonhistripuptheTapajós.AndagooddealofforesthadbeenclearedinthedrymonthsleadingtotheDecemberriot,withmuchofitplantedbytheskeletoncrewkeptonaftertheclash.YetJohnstonfeltthattoomuchtimehadbeenwastedinthemonthsaftertheuprising,andhewantedtofocushisenergiesonwhathefelthehadbeenputinchargetodo,growrubber.Hewaslearningquicklythathehadtospendalotofresourcesdealingwiththeinsectsthatattackedthematuringrubbertrees,andhedidn’twanttoexpendanymoreofthemtryingtofendoffthecreaturesthatfedonfruitandvegetables.“Bugs,”Johnstonwrote,“bothcrawlingandflying,areagreathandicap.”Inaddition,itwasn’teasytoacquiretheseedsforthekindofhorticultureHenryandClarasuggested.4

Hedidtry.Everynewhousewasgivenaquarteracreoflandtoplant,andhouseholdswereprovidedseedsandseedlings.ManyofFordlandia’sworkershadexperienceinmaintainingroças,smalljungleclearingswheretheygrewvegetables,tubers,beans,fruits,andherbs.Othershadfarmedontheseasonallyenrichedfloodplains.5AndwellbeforeFordstartedpromotinggardeningintheAmazon,manyofFordlandia’sworkerswholivedinPaud’Aguaandothervillageshadraisedpigsandchickensandkeptvegetableandmaniocplots.Thisendedupbeingaproblemfortheplantation,sincetoomuchaccesstolandmadeFordemployeeslessdependentonFordlandia’swages,restaurants,andcommissaries.Italsocontributedtoahighturnoverrateamongworkers,asmanywouldjustquitandgobacktotheirhomecommunitiestoplantortofish.6AsinMichigan,Fordpreacheddecentralization,and

hehopedhisgardenprograminFordlandiawouldencouragea“senseofproprietyandpersonalpride”—yetnotsomuchpridethathisworkerswouldbeabletoforsakeacashsalaryaltogether.SoevenasJohnstonwasencouragingresidentstoplantflowersandvegetableshewasorderingfamiliestodismantletheircorrals—ashiscounterpartsintheUpperPeninsulahaddoneadecadeearlierinPequaming—thusprohibitingthemfromkeepinglivestockintheiryards.Gardening,hesaid,shouldbegearedtothe“improvementofthestreetingeneralinsteadofsmallindividualsquares.”7

Eventually,theplantationestablishedagardenclubandpostednoticesaroundtown,translatedintoPortuguese:

Manypersonsherehaveexpressedtheirwishthattherebeaconcertedefforttobeautifyourstreetsandhouses.Itseemsthatthiswishisshared,moreorless,byeveryfamilyandeverypersonontheplantation,butupuntilnowthiswishhasnotbeenpubliclyshownandthereforehasnotbeengenerallyrecognized.Thecultivationofgardenscontributesgreatlytothegeneralwell-beingofanycommunityandisasourceofpleasuretotheowneraswellasanimprovementtotheneighborhood....WiththesethoughtsinmindtherehasbeeninauguratedaGardenClubtowhichanyfamilyandanyindividualmayjoin.

Thisannouncementwasfollowedbythe“BestHomeGarden”contest.Thefirst-placeprizewouldbetwenty-fivedollars,withthehighestscoregiventothegardenthatwas“attractiveaswellaspractical,thatis,itshouldhaveacombinationofvegetablesandflowers.”8

JOHNSTONDIDN’TREALLYbelievegardeningwouldachieveself-sufficiencyorevencontributetothemoralimprovementofcharacter.Hedidthink,though,thatitcouldoccupychildrenandstopthem“frombeingdestructivewithtreesalreadyplanted”—afterschool,theyhadahabitoftramplingthroughjust-plantedfieldsandnurseries,andagardeningclub,Johnstonhoped,mightotherwiseabsorbtheirenergiesthroughtheafternoon.9

Howtokeeppeoplebusy—Americanssotheydidn’tfeellike“prisoners,”Brazilianssotheywouldn’tdecampoutofboredomor,worse,revolt—hadbecomeamajorworryofFordlandia’smanagers.Itwasaconcernbeforethe1930uprising.Rightafterthefirstfoodstrikein1928,Oxholmpurchasedsixsoccerballs,hopingthatthesportwouldallowhismentoblowoffsteam.Andfollowingeverysubsequentlaborconflict,someFordofficialwouldcomeupwithanewremedialamusement.Butafterthe1930riot,withtherazingofthebordellos,bars,andcasinosthathadentertainedworkersduringtheiroff-hours,theprovisionofrecreationbecameamorepressingissueforplantationofficials.IntheirreportbacktoDearborn,PeriniandCarnegiesuggestedsettingupa“softdrinksandicecreamshop”anda“bandstand,”sothatthe“nativeswouldsoonorganizeabandamongthemselves.”10

AstotheAmericans,thecompanyworriedthatthey“havepracticallynodiversion,andgetextremelytiredofseeingthesamefacesatalltimesandplaces.”Dearbornurgeditsplantationstafftotakevacations,tovisitBelémorManaus.RoyMcClure,headofDetroit’sHenryFordHospital,wroteanotetoEdselsuggestingthatFordlandiaresidentstakearailroadtripthroughthejungleontheneardefunctMadeiraline“orwherevertheywishtogoinordertocleartheirmindsofpettygrievanceswhichariseinsomepeoplewhogettofeelingtheyareprisoners.”11Workersbuiltplaygroundsforchildrenandatenniscourtforadults,andCarnegieandPerinithoughtthatifenoughroadwasrolled—by1934therewereclosetothirtymilesofpavedanddirtthoroughfares—then“anautomobiletrip,”inFord“stationwagons,”of“severalmileswillalsobepossible.”12

Newroadstoroam:ALincolnZephyrstuckinFordlandiamud.

BackintheUnitedStates,golfhadgrowninpopularityintheyearsafterWorldWarI,andlikemanyothercorporatemanagersFordMotorCompanyofficials,includingReevesBlakeley,whowhileinBelémnegotiatingthetermsoftheTapajósconcessioncouldoftenbefoundshootingholesonajunglerangeoutsidethecitylimits,hadbecomeavidplayers.AndtheDearbornIndependent,reflectingFord’sgrowingculturalconservatism,particularlyhisdistrustoflarge,easilymanipulatedurbancrowds,promotedgolfasasubstituteforbaseball.Ford’spapercriticizedAmerica’spastimeforconcentrating“tenthousandpeople”inoneplacewhilegivingthemlittletodootherthantositin“cramped-uppositionswatchingninemenhandlingabatandaball....Alargeportionofourso-calledsportsmenaremereshoutersandnoisemakers,andhavenomoreclaimtoberegardedasexponentsofanyparticulargamethantheRomanmobwhichattendedthegladiatorialcontestsinthearena.”Golf,incontrast,got“peopleoutofthecrowdedcitytothepureairoftheseasideorthecountry.”Itencouragedspectatorstobecomeparticipantsthemselves,notaspartofa“team”butasindividuals.Thepaperurgedmunicipalitiesthroughoutthecountrytobuildgolfcoursesasawayofpromotingcivicvirtue,sincea“communityplayinggolfinitsleisuremomentsshouldhavenotimeforlessedifyingpursuits.”Golfdevelops“foresightandperseverance,”asthe“golferneverlooksbackward;‘Fore’ishisslogan,andhisaimistodrivehisballclearofalltrapsandpitfalls.”AndsoFordworkersontheTapajósmovedforward,layingoutanine-holecourseadjacenttotheAmericancompoundandthe“naturepark.”ArchieWeeks’sdaughter,Leonor,dubbedthelinksthe“WindingBrookGolfCourse,”sinceitranalonganigarapé,orstream.13

“Thegolferneverlooksbackward”:Fordlandia’sWindingBrookGolfCourse.

HuntingwasanothersportthattheMichigoniansbroughtwiththemtotheAmazon.Intheforesttheyshotjaguars,panthers,andlargesnakes.Thestaffwasallowedthe“occasionalusewithoutchargeofcompanyboats,”andmenwentoutontheriveronshootingexpeditions.Openingfireintolargecongregationsofcaimansprovidedawaymoretoventfrustrationthantotesthuntingprowess,thoughittookmoreskilltokillmanateesandbotos,theriverdolphinsthatBraziliansaffectionatelyandmischievouslyblamedforotherwiseunexplainablepregnancies.TheAmericanswerealsoencouragedtogoonboatingtrips,yettheTapajóswastreacherous.Violentstormscouldbeconjuredoutofablueday,withafternoonwindheadingupthevalleycrossingwiththedownstreamcurrenttocreatemorethanameter-highchop.Santarém’sCatholiccathedralisadornedwithagildedlife-sizeironChristonacrossmadeoflocalitaubawood,agiftfromtheBavariannaturalistKarlFriedrichPhilippvonMartiusforhishavingnarrowlysurvivedafiercestormjustofftheshoresofthetownin1819.Theinscriptionthanks“divinepity”forsavinghimfromthe“furyoftheAmazonianwaves.”Floatingislands,asbigastwentyacreswideandtenfeetdeep,posedanotherthreat,abletoencircleacraftandparalyzeitspropellerwiththeirunderwatervines.Swimmingintheriverwaslikewisedangerous,filledasitwaswith“alligators,piranhas,electriceels,stingrays,andlargewatersnakes,sometimesaslongas30feet.”SooncethehousesJohnstonhadbuilt,completewithindoorbathroomsandshowers,werereadyforoccupancy,andtwoswimmingpools,oneforcommonlaborers,theotherforskilledworkersandstaff,wereexcavated,thecompanydiscouragedriverbathing.14

Fordworkersandadministrators,including,inthecenter,JamesKennedy,JohnRogge,andDr.andMrs.Smith,viewa“seacow,”ormanatee.Anoteonthebackofthephotographsaysitweighed600pounds.

Fordtugboattrappedinariver-grassisland.

Therewasradioreception,ofthekindthatbroughtRudyValleetotheMulrooneys.ThecompanymadesurethattheFordSundayEveningHour,whichbroadcastwholesomeAmericanmusicaswellassafelyexoticfare,suchastheFordHawaiians,reachedtheplantation.Butreceptionwasoftenruinedbystatic.Andwith“victorolarecordsandbooks”slowtoarrive,managerscontinuedtosponsorcommunity-widepublicactivities,mostlyonSaturdayeveningsandSundayafternoonsbutalsooccasionallyduringtheweek.Brazilianworkersparticipatedincompetitivesportingevents,suchassoccer,boxing,andfootraces,whichhelpednotonlytokeepthemoccupiedbuttoentertaintheAmericans,particularlyboredwomen.Butallenjoyedthevaudevilleshowstagedbythemanagers.Oneextravaganzawassucha“bigsuccess,”wroteArchieJohnstontoDearborn,that“everyonesaysitisthebesteverhere.”15

Attheendof1931,Johnstonbuiltanopen-airdancehallwheretheplantationheld,atHenryFord’surging,traditionalAmericandances.BackinMichiganaroundthistime,Ford,aspartofhisbroaderantiquarianism,begantosponsorfiddlingcontestsandsentagentstoscourthenationtorecordthestepsoftraditionaldancesbeforetheydisappearedorwerecorruptedbythe“sexdancing”thatwassweepingAmerica.Healsoestablishedhisownprivaterecordlabel,EarlyAmericanDances,andhostedballsinDearbornandinhisgrowingcollectionofinns,farmhouses,andvillageindustriesthroughoutthecountry.Employeesunderstoodinvitationsas“thinlydisguisedcommands”toattend,andtheydidtheirbesttomaneuverthroughwaltzes,polkas,minuets,squaredances,aswellasthequadrilleandtheripple.Allguests—evenHarryBennett,wholikedtowearbowtiessothatinafistfighthisopponentcouldn’tgetaholdonhim—wereexpectedtofollowproperdecorum:men,notwomen,weretoinitiatethedanceandtherewastobenocuttinginandnocrossingthemiddleofthedancefloor.BenjaminLovett,theinstructorFordcontractedtoorganizetheseballs,wroteinhisGoodMorning:AfteraSleepofTwenty-FiveYears,Old-FashionedDancingIsBeingRevivedbyMr.andMrs.HenryFord,publishedin1926,thatprotocoldictatedthatthemanwastoguidethewomanwithoutembracing.Therewouldbenobodilycontactexceptforthethumbandforefinger,whichweretotouchthewoman’swaistasif“holdingapencil.”

BoxesofthebookwereshippeduptoFord’stownsintheUpperPeninsula,toAlberta,Pequaming,andothervillages,whereforatimethelocalschoolchildrentookdailydanceclasses.16

InhisencomiumtoFord’smusicpatronage,Lovettlinkedspecificdancesto“theracialcharacteristicsofthepeoplewhodancethem.”ModernAmericandancing,withitsflappersmovingtothefox-trot,shimmy,rag,Charleston,andblackbottom,nottomentiontheobscenelysensuoustango,hadbeensulliedbyinfluences“thatoriginatedintheAfricanCongo,dancesfromthegypsiesoftheSouthAmericanpampas,anddancesfromthehot-bloodedracesofSouthernEurope.”ButFordwasrescuingatruertraditionofdancethat“bestfitswiththeAmericantemperament,...arevivalofthetypeofdancingwhichhassurvivedlongeramongtheNorthernpeoples.”FordhimselftracedtherotnottoAfrica,Argentina,orItalybuttoJews.TheIndependent,duringitsrunofanti-Semiticarticles,complainedthatthe“mush,theslush,theslysuggestion,theabandonedsensuousnessofslidingnotesareofJewishorigins.”17

Ford’sdancerevivalclearlyreflectedhisconservativeturn.AsthehistorianStevenWattswrites,theindustrialist“deployedswirling,waltzingcouplesandstampingsquaredancersasskirmishlinesinalargerculturalcampaigntoreclaimanddefendAmericanvaluesandpracticesfromanearlierday.”FordlandiaallowedFordtogoontheoffensive,toadvancehiscampaignintotheAmazonandreclaimitsinhabitants,someofthemalreadyundertheswayofdancesliketheCharleston,foramorevirtuoussociability.Intherainforest,FordmadehiscounterthrustagainstJazzAgeculturenotonlywithdancebutalsowithverse.Themanmanytheworldoverblamedfor“tramplingdownindividuality,beauty,andserenity,anderectingmachinealtarstoMammonandMoloch”sponsoredinFordlandiareadingsinPortuguesetranslationofEmerson,HenryWadsworthLongfellow,and,ironically,WilliamWordsworth,thepoetwhodeclaimedagainstthemechanical“feveroftheworld”leadinga“rashassault”onEnglishgreenery.18

INADDITIONTObuyingsoccerballstokeepworkersbusy,CaptainOxholmalsoaskedCharlesSorensentosendhima“movingpictureoutfit.”Sorensendid,andFordlandiabegantoscreenfilms.ButtheprojectortheRougesentdownwasoutdatedandthemoviesavailablefromBelém’sdistributorwereold,“terriblyscratched,warpedanddriedout.”Andworkerscomplainedofboredomifthesamepicturewasscreenedtoomanytimes.WhenJohnstontookovermanagement,hesecuredabettersoundprojector,whichallowedhimtofeaturemoreup-to-datefilms.HefoundaFoxagentinRecifewhocouldsupplytheplantationwithBactionpictures,the“typethatisbestlikeddownthere,”saidJohnston.Rio’smovieindustrywasjustgettingstartedinthe1930s,andJohnstontriedtoshowBrazilianfilmswheneverhecould,especiallythepopularchanchadas,slapstickmusicals,includingafewstarringayoungCarmenMiranda.“Weintendputtingonagoodshowforourworkers,”Johnstonsaid.It’sunknownifheeverhadtheopportunitytoscreenLawoftheTropics,aWarnerBros.picturepartlybasedona1936Collier’sWeeklyarticleonFordlandia.Thefilm,releasedin1941,wasabustintheUnitedStates,pannedbytheNewYorkTimesforunrealisticallydepictinga“verdant”junglewhere“mosquitoesneverbotheranyone.”19

Fordlandiadancehall,withmoviescreenonbackwall.

“Weintendputtingonagoodshow”:JohnRogge,secondfromleft,CurtisPringleinthemiddle,andJamesKennedywithcamera,filmingscenesoffamilylife.

FordlandiaalsoputonagoodshowforDearborn.Bythe1930s,HenryFordhadembracedcelluloidasawaytolinktogetherhisfar-flungempire.FilmcrewswoulddocumenthiscampingtripswithThomasEdison,HerbertHoover,andJohnBurroughs;aerialshotsofMexico;scenesofstreetlifeinBridgetown,Barbados;DiegoRiverapaintingtheDetroitInstituteofArts;surgeriesintheHenryFordHospital;Fordmines,mills,anddams;andeachandeverysubassemblyprocessthatwentintomakingaFordcar.Fordlandia,too,wasfilmed,asadecisionwasmadeearlyto“buildupacompletehistoryofourdevelopmentindetail,”for“areadyreferencetoanygivenoperation.”HenryFordspecificallyaskedtosee“action,pictures,etc.etc.”ofFordlandia’sgardenprogram.20

Johnstonsentrollafterrollofraw16mmfootagetoDearborn,tobescreenedforofficials,includingHenryandEdsel,sotheymightgetasenseoftheplantation’sprogressandeverydaylife.Thesereels

werelargelymadeupofrandom,uncaptionedimages:mensawingtreesandclearingjungle,Americansshootingcaimansandguttingmanatees,chunksofmeatdangledintherivertoprovokeapiranhafrenzy,lingeringheadshotsofworkers,whoseemedtohavebeenchosentoillustratetheregion’sracialdiversity,schoolchildrenlisteningcourteouslytotheirteacher,andworkerslininguptoreceivetheirpaychecks,undergoingamedicalexamination,orplayingsocceraswomenandchildrenlookedon.Manyoftheseimageswerefoldedintoin-housedocumentariesdetailingdifferentfacetsofFord’svastholdingsorintofilmsfocusedonlatex,suchasRedeemingaRubberEmpire.Inexchange,DearbornsentnewsanddocumentaryshortsdowntoFordlandia,familiarizingBrazilianworkerswithotherbranchesoftheFordfamily.NewRoadstoRoamandStreamlinesMakeHeadlinesintroducedthemtotheLincolnZephyr,aluxurycarmadebyacompanyFordpurchasedin1922,andletthemknowtheywerelivinginanew,aerodynamicage.MakingWoodenWheelsforAutosgavetheestate’sresidentsapictureoftheRouge’sstate-of-the-artmachinerythatmadethespokesandrimsthatwouldsoonbeframingtiresmadefromFordlandialatex.

Dearbornalsoprovidedfilmscapturingtheageofdiscovery,whichwaslargelymadepossiblebytherapidadvancesintransportationtechnology.FordlandiaworkersandmanagerswatchedBottomoftheWorld,aboutAdmiralRichardE.Byrd’sexpeditiontoAntarctica,a“rare,unbelievablerecordofthestrangestandqueerestthingsonearth”inwhich“notascene”wasstaged(Byrd,partlyfundedbyEdsel,namedamountainrangeafterhispatron).SomeWildAppetitesletthemenjoy“monkeys,alligators,tortoises,otters,opossumsdisportingthemselvesatfeedingtime.”AndHellBelowZerotookthemtocentralAfricaonanexpeditioncommissionedbytheMilwaukeeMuseuminsearchofthelegendaryMountainsoftheMoon,asnow-capped16,000-foot-highrangeseparatingwhatistodayUgandaandtheDemocraticRepublicofCongo.Deepinthesweatysea-levelAmazon,clackityfilmprojectorsbeamedontoanoutdoorscreenthe“fantasticsightofnativesshiveringbeforeacampfireonthemythicallineoftheEquator.”21

AwholesetoffilmsfeaturedtheheroismnotofexplorersbutofFord’scars,whichcouldputthemostremoteplaceswithintheimaginativereachofthecommonman.IncreasinglyafterWorldWarI,newspapersreportedonglobalexpeditionsthattestedtheenduranceoftheModelT.HowfarintotheAmazoncoulditpenetrate,howfarupMachuPicchucoulditclimb?FordNews,anin-housepaperforcompanyemployees,regularlyranstoriesabouttheadventuresoftheTalongtheIncaHighwayorintotheMayanjungle.IfFord’scarcouldmakeit,thenanyonecould,andsotheageofexplorationgavewaytotheageoftourism.InFordlandia,inadditiontodocumentariesaboutexpeditionstotheSouthPoleoruptheMountainsoftheMoon,theestatescreenedFord-producedfilmssuchasYellowstoneNationalParkandGlacierInternationalPark,promotingautomobileleisuretravelandintroducingplantationworkerstoAmerica’snaturalwonders,accessibleasneverbeforethankstoFord.

Mostofthecompany’shistoricfilmstockisstoredintheUnitedStatesNationalArchivesinWashington,D.C.,andjudgingfromthesharpjuxtapositionsofotherwiseunrelatedshots—footagedetailing,say,thesynchronousindustrialchoreographyoftheRougefollowedbyabucolicpanoramaoffarmlife,orscenesillustratingtheglacialpaceofrubbertappingprecedingimagesofdizzyingassemblylinesandconveyorbelts—Fordofficialsandmanagersseemedtorevelincontrastingtheprimitivewiththemodern,whichhighlightedtheirroleinspeedinguptheworld.Inearly1928,forexample,theFordNewsranastoryreportingonamomentousevent:theworld’sfirstin-flightmovie.Outfittedwithaprojectorandscreen,aFordTriMotor,thefirstmass-producedmetal-cladairplane,tookofffromaLosAngelesairfieldwithcurtainsdrawnaseight“theatricalpeople”settledintocomfortablewickerchairs.

Themovieselectedfortheoccasion,HaroldLloyd’sSpeedy,wasaslychoice.UnlikeCharlieChaplin’slaterModernTimes,whichofferedadarkcritiqueofDepression-eraindustrialspeedup,Lloyd’smovieisaJazzAgecelebrationofthevelocityofmodernlife.TheplotofthefilminvolvesLloyd’sfightingnottosaveManhattan’slasthorse-pulledtrambuttomakesureitsownergetsagoodpriceforsellinghisroutetoamotorizedtrolleymonopoly.AstheFordTriMotorcircledoverLosAngeles,itspassengersprobablylaughedattheopeningsceneofatouristguidepointingouta“vehiclethathasdefiedtherushofcivilizashun—thelasthorsecarinNewYork.”22

***

ONTHETAPAJÓS,JohnstonhadfinallysucceededinreplicatingashinyAmericantown,withneathouses,cleanstreets,shops,andatownsquare.Itwas,onetravelersaid,a“miniaturebutimprovedDearbornMichiganinthetropicalwilderness.”Heevenmanagedtore-createsomeofthesocialconventionsofMainStreetAmerica,atleastasFordimaginedthem,withweeklydances,movies,andotherformsofrecreation,includinggolfcourses,tenniscourts,swimmingpools,andgardeningclubs.Fordlandiapaidgoodwages,provideddecentbenefits,includinghealthcare,andtriedtocultivatevirtuousworkers.YetJohnstonwasstillfindingithardtousherinFord’svisionofmoderntimes.InDearborn,Ford’sfamedpaternalismwasdilutedbythediverseresourcesavailabletoworkersinanurban,industrializingsociety.ButintheAmazon,runningaremoteplantationwithimpoverishedlaborinahostileenvironment,Fordlandia’smanagersfoundthemselvespresidingoveranextremeversionofcradle-to-gravecapitalism—literally.23

HundredsofbabieswereborneachyearinFordlandia,creatingawholenewsetofproblemsforitsmanagers.Amazonresidentswereusedtogivingbirthathomeunderthecareofamidwife.Forddoctorsfrownedonthepractice,yetdidnotwanttotieuphospitalbedsforobstetrics.Sotheydidn’tpushtheissueuntilawomandiedinchildbirthinlate1931.Fromthenon,medicalandsanitationsquadsaddedanewresponsibilitytotheirevergrowinglist,astheycheckedwomenforpregnancyandmadesurenoillicitmidwiferywastakingplace.

Onceborn,childrenneededcare.Dr.McClurehadhopesthatDearbornchemistswouldsoonfinda“satisfactorysubstituteforcow’smilkwithsoybeanmilk”thatcouldbeusedtofeedinfantsandtoddlers.Butuntilthen,Fordlandia’shospitaldistributedBorden’sKlim,apowderedwholemilk,tonewmothers.Thestaffquicklylearnedthatutensilshadtobeprovidedaswell,sincemostworkersdidn’towndishes,or“evenaspoon,”topreparethepowderedmilk,usinginsteadtheirfingerstomixthepowderinemptycans.Beforelongtheplantation,oninstructionsfromEdsel,hadestablishedaday-carecenter,namedafterDarcyVargas,PresidentVargas’swife.Workingmotherscouldleavetheirchildreninthecareofcompanynurses,underthesupervisionofdoctorswhomadedailyvisits.Johnstoncomplainedthatthecenter“costconsiderablemoneytooperate.”Childrenalsoneededtobeeducated,andbeforelongthecompanywasrunningsevenschoolsintheAmazon,namedafterFord’ssonandgrandchildren,teachinghomeeconomicsforgirlsandvocationaltrainingforboys,andgardeningandballroomdancingforall.“ShadesofTarzan!”ranthecaptionunderaphotographofchildreninacompanybrochurecelebratingtheplantation.“You’dneverguessthesebright,happyhealthyschoolchildrenliveinajunglecitythatdidn’tevenexistafewyearsago!”24

Despitesuchcheerypublicity,childrenontheTapajós,includingmanywholivedinFordlandia,continuedtosuffer.Malnutritionremainedoneoftheplantation’smostobdurateproblems.“Thecemetery,”McClurereportedtoEdsel,“containschildren’sgravesfarinexcessofadults.”

AftertheDecemberriot,Dearbornattemptedtohiremoremarriedthansinglemen,withtheideathatmenwithfamilieswouldbelesstransientandmoredutiful.Butmarriedmenoftentrailedbehindthemnotjustawifeandafewchildrenbutanextendednetworkofrelatives,everindangerofbecomingwardsofFord’slargesse.“Thesecaboclos,”wroteJohnston,“allseemtohavealotofhangerson.”TodiscouragethemfromcomingtoFordlandia,hesuggestedthattheybeprovidedwithnothing“otherthanfood.”

Johnstonwasfindingitdifficulttoabidebyhisownjudgment.Hetriedtocutoffcommissarycredittothewifeofaninjuredworkerlaidupinthehospital,sinceshewasusingthefoodshepurchasedonthecredittofeedherextendedfamilyofthreecousinsandthreeniecesandtopreparemealsforsaletounmarriedworkers.ButwhenJohnstonwenttospeakwithher,shepleadedhardship.“Godonlyknowsmyworries,”shetoldtheengineer.The“poorwomanisprobablycorrect,”Johnstonadmitted,fearingthatifhecutheroffherimmediatefamilywouldgohungry.Herelented.“Itishardtoknowwheretostop,”hesaid.“Wetakecareofallcaseswhichactuallyneedhelp.”

Workerswerestilldying,leavingwidowsbehind.“WidowFranciscaMiranda”wasan“oldtimer”whohas“causedplentyoftrouble”forthestaff,insistingthatshehadtherighttotapFordlandia’swildrubbertrees.Johnstonconcludeditwasprobably“easier”justtogivehersomemoney.Andthereremainedtheissueofburials,whichthecompanystillpaidfor,thoughitdidtrytopassoffresponsibilityforthecemeterytoSantarém’sCatholicbishop.Butthebishop’spriestswerestretchedthinthroughouttheTapajósvalley,andhewasalreadyannoyedthatFordlandiarefusedtoplaceitsschoolsunderhisauthorityorpayfortheconstructionofaproperchurch.Sohedemurred,consentingonlytohavehisclericsoccasionallypassthroughtheplantationtosaymassandministerthesacraments.Withoutaresidentpriest,Fordlandiawouldhavetocontinuetoburyitsowndead.25

Allthesesocialproblems,though,wouldpalebesidetheoneloomingjustaheadwithnature.

CHAPTER19

ONLYGODCANGROWATREEHENRYFORDONCECALCULATED,ASPARTOFHISQUESTTOREDUCEthecomplexitiesoftheproductionprocesstotheirsimplestcomponents,thatittook7,882distincttaskstomakeaFordcar,andhedividedthenumberbythephysicalandmentalcapabilitiesofhisworkforce.“Strong,able-bodiedandpracticallyphysicallyperfectmen”wererequiredfor949jobs;670couldbedoneby“leglessmen,”2,637by“one-leggedmen,”2by“armlessmen,”715by“one-armedmen,”and10by“blindmen.”Theremainderrequiredable-bodiedworkers,butof“ordinaryphysicalandmentaldevelopment.”1

YettheAmazonwasaplacewhere7,882organismscouldbefoundonanygivenfivesquaremiles,themostdiverseecologicalsystemontheplanet,onethatdidnotmovetowardsimplicitybutstoodattheheightofcomplexity.Onetreealonecouldserveashometoadazzlingvarietyofinsects,alongwithanarrayofanimals,orchids,epiphytes,andbromeliads.About10percentoftheworld’sfivetotenmillionspeciesarefoundintheAmazon,andthereare,asoneobserverputsit,more“speciesoflichens,liverworts,mosses,andalgaegrowingontheuppersurfaceofasingleleafofanAmazonianpalmthanthereareontheentirecontinentofAntarctica.”Theregionishometo2,500kindsoffish,aboutanequalnumberofbirds,50,000plants,andanincalculablenumberofinvertebrates.In1913,ittookoneyeartoreducethetimeneededtomakeaModelTfromtwelvehoursandeightminutestoonehourandthirty-threeminutes.YetitisestimatedthathalfofalltheAmazon’sspeciesremainundiscovered,andaftercenturiesofobservationscientistsarestillnotexactlysurewhytheAmazon—unlikeotherforests,whereleavesturnbrownduringthedryseason—growsgreenandlushwhentherainstopsorhowthisreversedpatternofphotosynthesiscontributestothebroaderseasonaldistributionofwaterthroughouttheregion.TheslightestinterventioncouldproducechangesbeyondtheabilityofFord’sengineerstoforesee,muchlesscontrol:clearingtheforestforrubberremovedtheleafcoverthatshelteredthesmallcreeksrunningtotheriver,withtheaddedsunlightenrichingthealgae,whichinturnincreasedthesnailpopulation.Thesnailswerethevectorforthesmallparasiticwormthatcausesschistosomiasis,adiseasethataffectshumanbladdersandcolonsanddidn’texistanywhereintheBrazilianAmazonuntilitappearedinFordlandia.2

TheclashbetweenFord’sindustrialsystemandtheAmazon’secologicalone,Chaplinesqueinitsabsurditywhenittookplaceoverlogistics,labor,andpolitics,grewevensharperwhenitcametothenominalreasonforFordlandia’sfounding:togrowrubber.

EVENASARCHIEJohnstonstruggledthrough1931and1932tocomplywithDearborn’ssocialplanningdirectives,heneverlostsightofwhyhewassenttotheAmazon,andattheendofhisfirstyearatFordlandiahewrotetoCharlesSorensenabouthowtomoveforward.“EveryoneagreesthatagreatamountofworkhasbeendoneatBoaVista,andagreatdealofmoneyhasbeenspent,”Johnstonsaid,yet“verylittlehasbeendonealongthelinesofwhatwecameheretodo,namelyplantrubber.”Helamentedthat,havingplanted3,251acresafternearlyfouryearsofwork,“wehavemerelyscratchedthesurface.Wehaveprovidedcomfortsforthesick,thestaff,andthecaboclo,buthavedoneverylittletowardscreatinganearlyincomefortheCompanhiaFord.”3

Johnstonsharedthebeliefofhispredecessors—Blakeley,Oxholm,Perini,andRogge—thatthesaleofmilledwoodcouldpotentiallycovertheplantation’sexpensesuntilrubberwasreadytobetapped.Not

allofthetreesloggedcouldbeusedorsold.“WeareawarethatMr.Forddislikesverymuchtoburndowntimber,”hetoldSorensen,“butithastobedone.”Felledtreeseithertoosoftortoohardpiledup,“rottingintheskid-way.”Milledwood,unabletobeshippeduntiltherainyseasonswelledtheTapajósenoughtoallowanoceangoingcargoshiptogettotheplantation,warpedinthehumidclimate,infestedwithtermites.OnceagaincaughtbetweentheidealsofFordandtherealityoftheAmazon,Johnstonpleadedforpracticality:“Wedonotconsideritwrongtoburnthistimber,simplybecausewecannotsawit.Whenweconsiderthewholequestionlogicallyandseriously,itisjustaquestionofwhetherweburngoodAmericandollars(gasolinetogetthetimber)orburnthelumber.”

Johnstonbelievedthatifproperdryingandstoragefacilitieswerebuilttherewereenoughviabletreesontheplantationtoexportthreemillionboardfeetofmilled,kilnedhardwoodayear.“WethinktheUnitedStateswillbeasplendidmarket,”hesaid.“WehavelumberthatwilldelighttheeyeoftheAmericanarchitects.”Andtodemonstrate,JohnstonsentFordandSorensenthatcarved“littleniggerboy”madeoutofTapajóstrees.

Johnstonproposedaprogramofrapidexpansion:heplannedtorunloggingroadsthrough200,000acresoftheFordconcession,fellingasmanytreesasthemillcouldcutandthemarketwouldbear.Asthejunglegavewaytomachetes,broadaxes,andcrosssaws,hismenwouldburntheunderbrushandpreparethegroundtoplantrubber.Itwouldbeonlyafewyears,Johnstonthought,beforehehad100,000acresplantedwithover10,000,000trees,producing54,000tonsofrubberayear.Thatis,hehedged,“ifallthetreeswere100%.”

SorensenrespondedquicklytoJohnston’sletter,impressedwithitsdeterminationandclarity.Astohisplanned“clearingoflargeareasandburningofsame,”theheadoftheRougewrote,“youhaveoutlinedthisinamannerthatweallunderstand,andeverybodyhereisinaccordwithyourprogram.”4

Successseemedinreach.AftertheinitialtroublesadaptingMichigansawingtechniquestoAmazonianwood,Mulrooney,Rogge,andFordlandia’sotherUpperPeninsulalumbermenhadfinallymanagedtogetthesawmillandkilntoproduceenoughtimberfortheplantation’sbasicneeds.Andthoughthemillwouldhavetoberefittedtoproducelumberforexport,Johnstonwasconfidentthatallobstaclescouldbesurmounted.“Thelumberisthere,”hetoldSorensen,and“weknowthattheFordorganizationcanorderanyequipmentanddoanythingwithinthepowerofman.”Thoughhedidconcedethat“onlyGodcangrowatree.”5

ButitwastheGreatDepression,andDearbornwashavingtroublesellingcars,muchlessexoticveneers.ThecompanytriedtofindmillsandfurnituremanufacturersinMichigan,NorthCarolina,andNewEnglandinterestedinAmazonianhardwood.FordputoutaglossybrochurehighlightingthewidevarietyofwoodandveneeravailablefromFordlandia’smill.Sucupira,withits“unusualblendofcolors,”resembledfumedoak.Massarandubawasanunusuallystrongwood,goodforstructuralworkondocks,railroads,anddancefloors.Paud’arcowasattractivelydark,whileandiroba,amahogany,wouldbeperfectforradiocabinetsandcaskets.Spanishcedarlentitselftohandcarving,aswellastocabinetry,andthemottledandstripedmuiracoatiarawouldnicelyaccentwallpanelingwherevariationincolorwasdesired.6

Fordlandia’ssawmill,withlumberstackedandwaitingtobeshipped.

Therewerefewtakers,however.“Thebankingsystemisstillverymuchofamuddledstate”andtheRougewasrunningatreducedcapacity,wrotetheheadofthePurchasingDepartmenttoexplainwhyhehadn’tbeenfullydevotedtofindingamarketforhiswood.By1933,Dearbornworkedthenumbersandconcludedthat,assumingitfoundamarketandassumingthatthemillcouldproducefourmillionboardfeetoflumberayear,itwouldstilllose$12,000amonth.7

RUBBERWASANevenbiggerproblem.FromFordlandia’sinception,itwasassumedthatthecompanythathadperfectedmassindustrialproductionwouldgrowplantationrubber.ObserversofFordnoticedthathetreatedmachinesas“livingthings,”sointheAmazonitwastobeexpectedthathismenwouldtreatlivingthings—rubbertrees—asmachines.ThemodelnaturallywasaFordfactory,eitherHighlandParkortheRouge,withitsclose-croppedrowsofmachinery,whichcutdownwastedmovement,anditsenormouswindowsandglassskylights,throughwhichsunpouredin,savingelectricitybybathingthefactoryfloorincathedral-likeradiance.

“Youknow,”Fordoncesaid,“whenyouhavelotsoflight,youcanputthemachinesclosertogether.”8

JohnstonstrovetoapplythesamekindofregimentationtotheplantationthatForddidtothefactory,spacingthetreesclosetogetherandinsistingthatwiththerightdisciplinetwomencouldplantbetween160and200treesineighthours,at2½to3minutesperstump.Buthesoonadmittedthathehadtroublemakingthemathwork,asthepaceofplantingrubberwassubjecttomoreuncontrollableconditions—badweatherinparticular—thanwasthetempoofanassemblyline.9

ThereisareasonrubberintheAmazonisn’tplantedclosetogetherbutrathergrowswild,scatteredamongothertrees.HeveaisnativetotheAmericas,whichmeansthatitsnaturalpredators,includingitsmostdeadlyfoe,SouthAmericanleafblight,arealsonativetotheregion.ThusrubbertreesintheAmazongrowbestwhentheyarerelativelyfarremovedfromeachother,abouttwoorthreetotheacre,slowingthepropagationandspreadoffungiandbugsthatfeedofftheirleaves.Incontrast,inSoutheastAsia,freefromthepresenceofnativepredators,theycanbeplantedintight,well-orderedrows,hundredstotheacre.Inhisdrivetoplantasmuchacreageaspossibletomeetthetermsofthecontract,CaptainOxholmdidspaceoutthetreesofFordlandia’sfirstplantingsomewhatfartherthanwasthecustominSoutheastAsianplantations.ButthosetreescameupsicklyasaresultofBlakeley’sscorched

soilandOxholm’srelianceonhastilygatheredseedsandseedlingsofunprovenquality,plantedattheworstpossiblemoment,whentheairwasdryandtheheathigh.“Stuckinthegroundanyhow,”mostofOxholm’sfrail,sun-bakedplantingshadtobeplowedunder.10

ThismeantthatwhenJohnstontookovermanagementoftheestate,mostofitstreeswereyoung,alittleoverayearold,havingbeenplantedinearly1930,inthemonthsafterRoggereturnedfromuptheTapajós.Someofthetreesinthissecondplantingshowedsignsofblight.Astheircrownshadyettoformacanopy,though,therewasstillspaceenoughseparatingeachtreetoslowthespreadofthecontagion.Buttherewerealreadyotherconcerns.

DespitetheAmazon’srelativelyconsistentdryandwetseasons,thespecificratiobetweensunandraincanchangesignificantlyfromoneregiontothenext.Fordlandia’saveragerainfall,abouteighty-seveninchesperyear,waswellwithinrubber’stolerance.Yetwithinthisaverage,thereisconsiderablevariation.In1929,102.5inchesofrainfellinFordlandia.Thenextyearsawonly70inches.SuchfluctuationisanotherreasoninBrazilHeveathrivesinthewildbutsuffersinplantations:thedense,diverserootsystemsofjunglefoliageguardagainsterosionduringparticularlywetseasonsandregulatethedistributionofwaterduringdryones.Fordlandia’shillyterrainwasmadeupofflat-toppedplateaussurroundedbysteepdeclinesleadingtodeepundulatinghollowsandravines.Itwasfineforjunglerubberwhenitstoodalongsideothertreesbufferedinadenseforest.Butstrippedbare,itmagnifiedthepoweroftherainandsun.HilltopseedlingsprovedvulnerabletothestrongTapajóswind,andthesunbeatdownonthefieldslikeraysthroughtheglassplanesofFord’sfactories,scorchingexposedleavesanddesiccatingtheplateaus(1930wasanexceptionallydryyear).Clear-cutandfreeofroots,theinclines,withslopesthirtydegreesormore,losttheirtopsoiltotheerodingrains,exposingstonysterilesoil,whiletheravinesfloodedfrompoordrainage.11

Johnstontriedtocompensatebyterracingtheslopesandplantingcovercrops,mostlycalopogonium,bothtoholdthetopsoilandaddnutrients.Butthiswascostlyandultimatelywastedlabor.Terracingaddednearlyanextratwenty-fivedollarsofexpenseperacre,andgroundcoveroftendriedoutfromtoomuchsunandriskedcatchingfire.

InFordlandia,then,managerswereobsessedwiththevagariesofAmazonweather,toamuchgreaterdegreethanwerethetradersandmerchantswhoprofitedfromwildrubber,tuckedawayasitwasunderjunglecover.Duringhisneardecadetenure,JohnstonwouldissueasteadystreamofweatherreportstoDearborn:

“Theunusualdryweathercontinues...”

“Theunusualdroughtcontinues...”

“Cropisverydryanddangerousfromafirepoint...”

“Theplantationisexceedinglydry,covercropinmanyplacesburnedbrown...”

“Wehavenothadadropofrainin42days...”

“Duringthisperiodwehavehadanunusualamountofrain...”

“Everythingisbonedry,therehasbeennorainforapproximately120days...”

“Wehadthreesmallfires...butmanagedtogetthemout...”

“Theriverdrawsraincloudsfromtheplantation...”

“Duetomorerainthanusualforthisseasonoftheyear,wehavenotmadeasgoodprogressaswewouldhaveliked...”12

INEARLY1932,afterlessthanayearatFordlandia,Johnstonreassessedhisoptions.Hisbuildingprogramwasprogressingreasonablywell.YetthedifficultiesinvolvedinbothrubbergrowingandmanaginglaborrelationsledhimtorevisehisoriginalproposaltoSorensen.

Henowsuggestedthat,inplaceofrapidexpansionatFordlandia,allmajorplantingoperationsbemovedaboutfiftymilesupriver,toaflatterlocationthathe,JohnRogge,andCurtisPringlehadscoutedout.Johnstonrecommendedplantingonlyonlevellandthatdidn’tneedterracingandleavingthehills,streams,andravineswildtoabsorbtherainfall.ThelocationJohnstonandhismensurveyedofferedlongerstretchesofunbrokenplateauthandidFordlandia,withits“terriblecontours”thatmadethegradingandpavingofroadscostlyandprohibitedtheextensionoftherailroad,whichhadstalledatafewmiles.Itwouldbeeasy,saidJohnston,tobuildbridgesovertheigarapés,orstreams,thevalleysofwhichwouldbeleftwoodedassourcesoffirewood.13

Johnstonwassearchingnotonlyforflatterlandbutforawaytolessenthesocialburdenonthecompany.Sincetheproposedsitewasclosetoanalreadyestablishedtown,Itaituba,allthecompanyhadtodowasbuildasmallclinic,warehouse,office,andradiostation.Hisideawastooutsourcetheclearingofthejungletoalocalcontractor,withFord’smedicaldepartmentsupervisingthehousingandsanitaryconditionsattheworksite.Johnstoncouldarrangefora“firstclasshardwarestore”fromBelémtoprovidecutlasses,axes,saws,files,andgrindingstones,sothatFordwouldnothavetosupplythe“wantsofanycontractor.”

“Thismeans,”Johnstonsaid,thatthecompanywouldberelievedoftheresponsibilityofcaringforitsworkers,foroncethelandwasclearedthe“contractorwouldburndownhispalmhuts,fillinthetoilets,andleaveusaclearedarea.”Allthatwouldbeneededwasafewhundredhiredmentomaintaintheplantation,whowhileatworkwouldbe“subjecttoourpolicyineveryway.”YettheywouldresideinItaitubaand“beallowedtoliveintheBrazilianstylewhilenotatwork.”JohnstonconcludedhiscasetoSorensenbysayingthathisjobwouldbeto“lookafterthehealthofourmen,seethatwegeteighthoursworkeachdayandletsomeoneelselookaftertheirminorneeds.”

Sorensen,perhapsafterconsultingwithoneoftheFords,wouldhavenoneofit.HecurtlydismissedJohnston’sproposal,writinginitsmargin:“Idon’twanttoseethisdone.”14

JohnstonhadnochoicebuttotrytomakeFordlandiawork.Buthedidfinallyaskforhelp.Fornearlyfiveyears—fromearly1928through1932—despitetheoccasionalemployofTapajósrubbermen,Fordlandiahadproceededwithoutexpertcounsel.Evidencesuggeststhatitsmanagersspurnedtheuseofmateiros—nativenaturalistswhopossessedinvaluableknowledgeaboutthejungle.*Johnstonhimselfwasastructuralengineerandknewnothingoftheland.ButasaFordman,herepresentedacompanythatprideditselfonhavingrevolutionizedindustrialproductionthroughhands-onexperience.Hewasaquickstudy,fastaccumulatingastoreofrubberknowledge.Andhewaspractical,constantlytryingtodeflateHenryFord’s“utopianideas”byremindinghimoftherealityontheground.YethealsosufferedfromtheoccupationalhazardcommontoFordmen,akindofcrackpotrealismwheredecisionssupposedlyjustifiedbyobservationwerereallyshapedbyasenseofinfallibilitybornofsuccess,abeliefthatthecompanycould,asJohnstonputit,“doanythingwithinthepowerofman.”

CharlesLindbergh,Ford’sfriend,describedhisexperienceworkingfortheFordMotorCompany’s

aviationdivisionthus:“Oncetheygetanidea,theywanttostartinrightnowandgetactiontomorrow,ifnottoday.Theirpolicyistoactfirstandplanafterward,usuallyoverlookingcompletelyessentialdetails.Result:atremendousincreaseofcostandeffortunnecessarily.”AndindeedSorensenoncetoldLindbergh,“Don’tforget,whenyouwanttodosomething,themostimportantthingistogetitstarted.”Don’tlettheexperts,theheadofproductionattheRougeadvised,“keepitonthedraftingboard;they’llkeepondrawinglinesaslongasyou’lllet’em.”15

Itwasthis“edictengineering,”asonefrustratedmanagerdescribedFord’sdevelopmentpolicyattheRouge,thatexplainswhyittookfouryearsforsomeoneinDearborntoraiseaquestionthatshouldhavebeenaskedin1928.Wasit“fairtoassume,”Ford’saccountantW.E.CarnegieaskedArchieJohnstonin1932,“thatseedswhichgrewupinaforestwilldoaswellwhenplantedinatotallydenudedareaunderahottropicalsun?”16

ItalsoexplainsJohnston’sanswer.Startingwith“yes”andthenworkingbackwardfromthere,here’showSorensen’sprotégéjustifiedhisreasoning:

1)Whentheseedsoftherubbertreesthatnowexistinthejunglewerewasheddowninthefloodera,therewasprobablynojungleandtherubberplantswereprobablysubjecttothesameexposureasallothertrees.

2)Rubbertreesneverspringupinthejunglefromseedsdroppingfromtherubbertrees,asitistooshaded.

3)WeplantedseveralhundredthousandseedsintheshadefouryearsagoandlastyearwhenMr.Roggewenttheretocollectthemhefoundthattheywereinmostcasesasicklybunchofstumps.

4)Rubber,weareinformed,isplantedsuccessfullyintheEastunderthesameconditionsasours.

“Alloftheabovedeductionsarebyquestioningpeopleandobservations,”wroteJohnston.Therefore,inresponsetoCarnegie’squestion,hehad“everyreasontobelieveyes.”17

ReasoningbyobservationwasinfactcentraltothewaytheFordMotorCompany,andHenryFordhimself,operated.“Learningbydoing”wasthecoreofthepedagogyFordpromotedinthenumerousschoolshepatronizedintheUnitedStates,anditaccountedforthesuccessofthescientific“experts”hetrustedandadmired,menlikeThomasEdison,GeorgeWashingtonCarver,andLutherBurbank.

Ashiscompanyevolvedandgrew,however,exhortationstouse“commonsense”toachievesuccessbecamelessinstructivethaninspirational.AsAlbertWibel,headofFord’spurchasingdepartment,toldJohnston,“youaregoingaboutthisnewworkwithagoodcommonsenseideaofthedifficultiesyouhavetoovercome.Aboutthefinestassetonecanhavewheninchargeofajobsuchasyouhaveattherubberplantationisgoodhorse-senseandsoundjudgment.Theabilitytobecarefulandthinkthingsoverquietlybeforegoingoffhalf-cocked,tomymind,isawonderfulcharacteristicforanexecutivetohave.”18

HenryFordhimselfwasofteninvokedinlettersbetweenDearbornandFordlandia,hisoracularpronouncementsusednotjustforpublicconsumptionbuttoencourageintracompanystriving.Concernedaboutcostoverridesandtheslowpaceofprogress,WibelwrotetoJohnstononanotheroccasiontosay

thathewasgladthatfinally“thingsseemtobeshapingthemselvesverymuchforusinsteadoftheotherway.”But,theheadofpurchasingwenton,Dearbornwashard-pressedtounderstandwhythe“ventureiscostingussuchatremendousamountofmoney,withnoreturnwhateverforagreatnumberofyears.”Still,WibelassuredJohnston,thegeneralconsensuswasthathewasdoingverywell:“Mr.Fordstatesthatweonlyneedtodowhatisright,andtherestofthesituationwilltakecareofitself.”19

Oragain:“Mr.Fordisoptimisticastothefuture,andfeelsthatitisonlyamatteroftimeuntilbusinessconditionswillbenormalized.Hetellsusthatwhatwearegoingthroughisforthegoodofallpartiesconcerned.”

Johnstonsooncametobelieveheneededsomethingmorethanreassurance.ThisledhimtodowhatFordmenwereloathtodo:requestthehelpofanexpert.“Weareenteringagiganticproposition,”hewroteSorensen,and“wefeelthatitwouldbewelltohavetheopinionofthehighestexpertonrubberplanting.”

Hesooncametoruethismomentofweakness.

____________

*MateiroswereoftenPortuguese-speaking,eithermarriedtoIndiansorraisedinnativecommunities;tothisday,theyserveasguidestooutsiders,impartingotherwiseinaccessibleindigenousknowledgetothosehopingtounlockthesecretsoftheforesteitherforscienceorforcommerce(SusannaB.Hecht,“LastUnfinishedPageofGenesis:EuclidesdaCunhaandtheAmazon,”HistoricalGeography2:43–69,esp.p.56;DavidCampbell,LandofGhosts:TheBraidedLivesofPeopleandtheForestinFarWesternAmazonia,NewYork:HoughtonMifflin,2005,p.109).

CHAPTER20

STANDARDPRACTICESTHEPLANTPATHOLOGISTJAMESR.WEIRWASINSUMATRADIRECTingresearchataGoodyearTireCompanyplantationwhenhewasrecruitedbyEdselFord.PreviouslyWeirhadworkedwiththeDepartmentofAgriculture’sBureauofPlantIndustry,studyingfungiontreesinthewesternUnitedStates,aswellasonsugarcaneinCuba,Haiti,andtheDominicanRepublic.Bearded,tall,and,intheopinionofoneAmericandiplomat,conceitedandcranky,WeirknewtheAmazonwell,havingbeenpartofthesameDepartmentofCommercerubberexpeditionthatincludedcommercialattachéWilliamSchurzandthebotanistCarlLaRue.Fromresearchhedidonthattrip,WeirhadpublishedapamphletthatbecametheauthoritativereferenceonSouthAmericanleafblight,knowninBrazilasmal-das-folhasandinthetechnicaljournalsasDothidellauleiorMicrocyclusulei.

WeirarrivedatFordlandiainMarch1933andquicklyimpressedJohnstonwithwhatappearedtobeasoundassessmentoftheplantation’sproblemsandanaggressiveproposalforexpansionbasedonthemoderntechniquesusedonSoutheastAsianplantations.HetoldJohnstonthathehadwrittenamanualofstandardpracticesforGoodyearandthatoneshouldbepreparedforFordlandia.“AsrapidlyaspossibleaseriesofStandardPracticesonplantingandgeneralagricultureworkistobedrawnup,”Weirwroteinhispreliminaryreport,advisingthataftertheyhadbeenapprovedtheyshould“becomelaw.”HecounseledJohnstonthat“standardpracticesareasimportantinplantingworkasinthefactory.Theyinsureuniformityofresult.”

“Atleast,”Weirsaidwithjustahintofhesitation,“asfarasthisworkofplantingcanbeuniform.”1

PRIORTOWEIR’Sarrival,theFordMotorCompany,whichinMichiganprideditselfonstate-of-the-arteverything,wasusingplantingtechniques,asoneemployeeput,“asantiquatedastheModelT.”2

AfterRogge’sreturnfromhisupriverpursuit,FordlandiamanagersusedtheseedsgatheredbytheMundurucúinthesecondplantingaswellastocultivatea“motherseedbed.”Heveawasplantedinacircumscribedareaandtheseedsthrownofffromthese“mothertrees”weretransferredtotheplantationproper.Thiswasacumbersome,unpredictablesystem.Thebedwasnearlyninetymilesaway,isolatedfromthemainplantationandaccessibleonlybyboatuptheCuparyRiverandthenbymule.Thecompanyhadtomaintainacampofmenatthesite,bothtokeeptheundergrowthofthetreesclearandtohuntthewildboarsandotherjungleanimalsthatfedontheseeds.Morecritically,Johnstonandhismencouldnotknowiftheseedsusedtoplantthemotherbedwould,infact,producetreesthatwouldyieldhighvolumesoflatexorwouldresistblight—thetwocharacteristicsthatwouldmakeorbreakFordlandia—untiltheymaturedconsiderably.Thereweretoomanyvariablesatplay:plantationworkersbelievedthattheseedsgatheredbytheMundurucúattheheadwatersoftheTapajósweregenerallybetterthanthosearoundFordlandia.Butthequalityofanygivenseedwasunknown.Andevenifa“mothertree”couldbeidentifiedasapotentialhighyielderoflatexorastrongresisterofblight,thatdidn’tmeanthattheseedsitthrewoff—productsofpollinationandthuscomposedofthegeneticmaterialoftwotrees—wouldlikewisebeso.ManytreesgrownfromseedsgatheredfromFord’smotherbed,asWeirwarnedinhisreport,mightprovetobe“duds.”

Thealternativewasasexualreproduction.AsJohnstonassuredDearborn,onecouldsimplystickarubberbranchinthegroundanditwould“takerootalmostwithoutfail.”3Thatwasonewayofdoingit.

ButDutchbotanistsmorethanadecadeearlierhadpioneeredthetechniqueofbudgrafting,whichbytheearly1930shadbecometheexclusivemethodinuseonSoutheastAsianrubberplantations.Budgraftingentailedtakingaheartyrubberrootstockandgraftingontoitabudfromaselectedtree,orscion,withthedesiredproperties—inthiscasehighyieldandstrongresistance.Theresultisanamalgam,orclone,comprisingtwodistinctgeneticsystems:sturdyrootsandaresistant,high-yieldingtrunk.Afterthetissuesofthetwosystemsgraftedandthebudproducedanewshoot,theclonecouldbeuprootedandplantedasawholetreeorthegraftedbudcouldbeloppedoffandthestumprooted.Itwasanefficientmethodofproducingplantationstockbecausemostrubbertreeshadaserviceablerootsystem,andonceavaluedscion(highyielder,strongresister)wasidentified,itcouldprovidemultiplebudsreadytobegrafted.

ThiskindofgeneticworkwasbutastepremovedfromFordism’smappingofthesocialgenome,themanipulationofindividualmovementintoprecisemotionstoachievemaximumproductivity.AndDearbornwouldeventuallyembracebudgraftingwithenthusiasm.YetafewyearspriortoJohnston’sandWeir’scoming,whenacompanyofficialwrotetoFordlandiatoaskifanyonetherehadeverheardofthetechnique,Rogge,thelumberjackfromUpperMichigantheninchargeoftheestate,wrotebacksayingthat,whileheknewofthemethod,hedidn’t“considerbud-graftingnecessary.”4

Infact,Fordlandia’smanagersknewembarrassinglylittleaboutpollination,muchlessaboutasexualreproductionandbudgrafting.InOctober1932,thehumoristWillRogers,onatourofBrazilandhearingthatthingswerenotgoingwellforhisfriendHenryFord,gavehimagood-naturedribbingintheformofalettertotheNewYorkTimes:

TotheEditor:

Pará,Brazil,October24,1932.BraziloughttobelongtotheUnitedStates.Weliketobragabouteverythingbig.Webeenflyingupitscoastlineforfivesoliddaysandstillgotanotherday.

IfanyofyouseetheRockefellers,kiss’emforme.Thereisnotamosquitoupthiscoast.*IftheycanjusthearofonetryingtogetastartdownherethereistenRockefellerFoundationmengothimsingingthebluesbeforesundown.Nosir,yougottowaittillyougetto“God’scountry”togeteatupbyinsects.

RioJaneiroistheprettiestcityintheworldfromtheair.WearejustcirclingParawherewelandforthenight.It’srightatthemouthofthegreatAmazonRiver.

UpfromhereiswhereMr.Ford’srubberplantationisbutsomebodysoldhimallmaletreesandtheyarehavingalittletroublegetting’emtobear.Ibettheycouldn’tfoolhimoncarburetorsbuthedidn’tknowsexlifeintheforest.

Yours,

WillRogers

Itwasajoke:rubbertreesdidnotreproducebygender.Thehumor,though,waslostonRogge,whosentalettertotheUSDepartmentofAgricultureaskingifitwastruethatrubbertreesweredividedalongmaleandfemalelines.“Rubberdoesnothavemaleandfemaletrees,”someonefromthedepartmentwroteback,beforegivingthelumberjackafastlessonininsectcross-pollination.5

SoJohnstondecidedthatwithWeir’simpendingarrivalhebetterstudyup.InFordlandia’sofficehecameacrossareportonSoutheastAsianrubberproductiondetailingthetechniqueofbudgrafting

(Dearbornhadcommissionedthestudyin1928,thoughitseemsthatnooneontheestatehadbotheredtoconsultit).AsJohnstonwasreading,CurtisPringlecameintotheofficeandmentionedthatheknewhowtodotheprocedure.Johnstonwassurprisedtohearthatanex-sherifffromKalamazoohadeverbudgrafted,soheaskedforademonstration.Pringleproceededtodoexactlywhatthereport“saidmustbeavoided.”Whittlingtherootstockwherethebudwastobeattached,Pringlecutclearthroughthecambium,thethinlayerofgenerativetissuefoundbetweenthebarkandthewood,responsiblefortheproductionofsecondaryshoots.JohnstontoldDearbornthatthismightjusthavebeencarelessnessonPringle’spartbuthewasconvincedmorethaneverthatheneededan“expert’sopinionandadvice,onallourrubberoperationsandthisasearlyaspossible.”6

“Itmightbeinorder,”hesaid,“tohaveMr.JamesWeirgiveourpeopleacourseofinstruction.”7

WEIRDIDTEACHthestaffhowtobudgraftproperly.Buttherealproblem,thepathologistsaid,wasthatFordlandiahadnosurescionsfromwhichtograft.SoEdselFordagreedtoWeir’srequesttotraveltoSoutheastAsia,toSumatraandMalaysia,tofindtrustedstock.WeirsetoutinJune1933andquicklyobtained2,046buddedstumpsgraftedfromanassuredselectionofhigh-yieldingtrees.Packedinsterilizedsawdust,thecacheleftSingaporeattheendofDecember,sailingacrosstheIndianOceanandthroughtheSuezCanalinearly1934,thenoutintotheMediterranean,overtheAtlantic,anduptheAmazon.8

Thesestumpswere,asallSoutheastAsianrubberwas,thedirectdescendantsoftheseedsspiritedoutoftheAmazonmorethanfiftyyearsearlierbyHarryWickham.Indeed,Weir,whodidn’tsufferfromanexcessofmodesty,sawhismissionasabidtoreversehistory’scourseandrestoreBraziltoitsformerrubberglory.

InhislettersbacktoFordlandiaandDearborn,postedfromdifferentportsofcall,Weirmademuchofhisadventure.Hetoldofthe“breakbonefever”hecontractedinKualaLumpurandofsmugglingsomeseedsoutofMalaysiawithfalsecustomscertificates.HereportedontheincreasingrestrictionsplacedbytheDutchandBritishonrubberproduction,whichhepredictedwouldleadtoamarketshortagethatcouldbefilledby“tropicalAmerica,”withitsconstant,steadysupplyoflatex.HerepeatedlyforecastsuccessnotjustforFordlandiabutforallofBrazil.“Thechances,”Weirwrote,“ofmakingBrazilaverylargefactorintherubberworldaregood.”Withinayear,hetoldJohnston,thebudgraftingofjusteighteenofhismorethantwothousandstumpswouldproducethousandsofseedlings.Asecondroundofbudgraftingcould,conservativelycalculated,“breedupto120,000trees”more,whichinadecadewouldyield3,600,000poundsoflatex.9

JohnstonwasencouragednotjustbytheinformationWeirsenthimbutbecausethepathologist,whoseemedaloofatfirst,appearedtobelooseningupabit.FromhisSingaporehotelWeirwroteJohnstonaletterteasinghimabouthisScottishbrogueandreportingthathis“bloodbrothers”fromthe“LandoftheMountainsandtheFlood”werekickinguparacketonthefloorbelow.“Theclans,”hewrote,hisownbloodupfromthesuccessofhismission,“aremarchingunderthebannersoftheirchiefs,thepipesaresoundingtheirwildandthrillingmusic,theoldwarcriesmakethehoteltrembleandtheirtartaninfancyisstillsteepedinthebloodofthebrave.ViveleScott!”

ThenWeirdidaninexplicableabout-face.PriortodepartingforSingapore,hehadpraisedJohnston’smanagement.“Itisverygratifyingtoanagriculturalist,”hesaid,“toseetheamountofgoodworkthathasbeendoneatBoaVista.”Intime,hesaid,theplantationwouldnodoubtbe“averygreatsuccess,”

bringing“prestigeforAmericanbusinessandforthenameoftheorganizationbehindtheproject.”HedismissedconcernsthatFordlandiawastoohilly,pointingoutthatnumerousSoutheastAsianplantationswerejustasrolling.10

Butsuddenly,uponhisreturntowardthemiddleof1934,heurgedEdselto“abandon”Fordlandia,insistingthatitwouldneverbeprofitable.Hesuggestedthatthecompanymoveoperationsseventymilesdownriver,toBelterra,aflat150-foot-highplateauslightlydrierthanBoaVistabutwithrichersoilandbetterdrainage.

Weir’sproposalcaughtJohnstonoffguard.Justtwoyearsearlierhehimselfhadsuggestedmovingoperationsupriver,yetbythispointhehadbecomeinvestedinFordlandia.Hisoverhauloftheplantationwaslargelyfinished,andtherenowexistedtheorderlytownthathadlongbeenimagined.HebristledatWeir’scavalieruseofthewordabandontodiscussFordlandia’sfate.“Wedonotthink,”JohnstonwroteDearborn,“thatwordshouldhavebeenusedandifyoucouldseeFordlandiatodayyouwouldseenewshootsshowingeverywhere.”

ButWeirinsistedtoDearbornthathecouldmakeagoofthingsonlyatanewsite,especiallywiththeclonesheobtainedinSumatra.Havingspentsixyearsand$7milliononanenterprisethatnoonewouldtakeofftheirhands,theFordsnowdecidedtoheedtheadviceofanexpert,evenifitmeantstartinganew.InMay1934,theiragentsinBelémtradedalittleover500,000acresofFordlandia—fromasectionthathadyettobefullyexplored—foranequalamountinBelterra.TherubbergrovesatFordlandiaweretobemaintainedastheywere,withnofurtherexpansion,andtheestatewastobeusedprimarilyasWeir’sresearchstationand“toproducebudwood”forthenewplantation,whichtheFordsapparentlyresistedcallingEdselville,orEdselândia,asJorgeVillareshadoriginallyproposedwhenhemetwiththetwoFordsinDearborn.ThenewsettlementkeptitsoriginalBrazilianname,Belterra,whichmeansbeautifulland.11

JohnstonneverforgaveWeirhistreachery,andfortheremainderofWeir’sfouryearswiththeFordMotorCompany,heissuedasteadystreamofcriticismabouthimtoSorensenandtoanyothercompanyofficialwhowouldlisten.

Weirrefusedtoadmithismistakes,evenwhentheyledtoserioussetbacks.When“mitesandotherbugshadalmosttakencontrol”ofFordlandia’sbudwoodnurseryin1935,Weirrecommendedthattheyberepelledwith“sulphur,tobaccosmoke,andfinallysoap.”Butbecausethepathologisthadmisidentifiedthepeststhistreatmentdidn’tworkandthatyear’scultivationof“clonesandbudwoodwasshot.”12

Weirwasexpensive.“Todate,withsalaryandexpenses,trips,etc,”JohnstonwroteDearborn,“wehavepaidouttoMr.Weir$70,000andforthisamounthehasneverassumed,orhadtoassume,anyresponsibility.”Weircameandwentashepleased,accountabletonoone,Johnstonreported.ThatwaswhytheplantationhadhadsuchpoorluckwiththeSoutheastAsianclones,halfofwhichhaddied.“Mr.Weirwasherewhentheyarrived,andalthoughplantingisthemostimportantfunctioninplantationwork,Mr.Weirdidnotactuallyseeortakepartintheplantingofonestump.”Johnstonandahelperdidtheplanting.“Wedidourbest,”hesaid,butadmittedthat“itmightnothavebeengoodenough.”

Weirwashaughty,andhecouldn’tgetalongwiththerestofthestaff.HeclashedconstantlywithJohnston,buttherewas“oneemployeeinparticular”hereallydidn’tlike.ThatwasSheriffCurtisPringle.JohnstonhadputPringleinchargeofthenewplantation—theclearingofforestandconstructionofbuildingshavinggottenunderwayinearly1935—whereheandWeirwrangledovereveryaspectof

itsdevelopment,fromthelocationandsizeofthenurserytohowmuchpruningshouldbedoneofexistingwildrubbertrees,fromwhatkindofgroundcovertousetowhetheritwasbettertotransplantbuddedstumpsfromthenurserytothefield(Weir’sposition)ortograftdesiredbudsdirectlytorootstocksalreadyinthefield(Pringle’s).

Pringle,“liketherestofus,isbynomeansperfect,”JohnstonwrotetoDearborn,butifhe“nevertookacooperativeattitudewithMr.Weir”itwasbecausethepathologist“nevertookthisattitudewithMr.Pringle;onecannotassumethatallsuperiorairandcommandeitherattentionorrespect.”JohnsontriedtalkingtoWeirseveraltimes,tellinghimthathisattitudewasantagonizingtherestofthestaff.ButWeirshruggeditoff.“Atpresent,”JohnstontoldDearborn,Weir“canneitherworkinharmonywithPringlenorthewriter.”13

Weirwasaprimadonna.ThoughhepresumedtotellPringlehowtobuildBelterra,herefusedtospendanighttherebecausethesitewasstillunderconstructionandtherewasno“privacy”and“nogoodbathroom.”JohnstontriedtoorderWeirtomovetothenewplantation.ButWeirsaidhewouldn’tuntilaproperhousewasbuiltforhim.Untilthen,heinsistedonstayingatFordlandia,whereJohnstonorderedhimtobunkwithothersinglemenandworkinthe“engineeringoffice.”Weirbalked,adamantonremaininginoneofthewell-equippedhousesbuiltformarriedAmericanmanagers.JohnstonunsuccessfullytriedtogetDearborntobackhimup,writingthatifWeirwasallowedtoworkfromhometherewouldbenowaytomakesurehewasn’tslacking.“Wecannotcontrolamanifheisathome,”hesaid,since“hemightbeinbed.”

Weirtookcreditfortheaccomplishmentsofothers.“Thereislittleornothinginwhathewrites,nothingwedonotalreadyknow,nothingwearenotdoingorintendondoingintheproperseason,”Johnstoncomplained.“EverythinghewritesismeanttoconveytheideatoDearbornthatnoonehereknowsanythingaboutrubber.Thisconditiondoesnotexist,weknowwhatwearedoing.”Weirevenclaimedtobethefirsttoextractthepoisonrotenone,foundintherootsofthetimboplantandusedlocallytokillpiranhas,asaninsecticide.“Thetimbobusinessisouridea,”saidJohnston,whoclaimedtohavedevelopedthepesticidehimself.14

ButWeir’sworstvice,inJohnston’seyes,wasthathevaluedtheoryoverpractice.WeirneverstayedatFordlandiaforlongperiodsoftime,themanagersaid,alwaysfindingonereasonoranothertotraveltoBelémorRio,orevenbacktotheStates.Thereforehehadn’tactuallyobservedthecompleteTapajósannualplantingcycle.Thatdidn’tstophim,Johnstonsaid,frommakingsweepinggeneralizationsaboutFordlandia’splantingmethods.Weir,hetoldDearborn,“isnotacquaintedwiththeconditionsherethroughanentireseason,”makinghim“scarcelyqualifiedtotalkoncertainsubjects.”JohnstonheapedparticularscornonWeir’splantinginstructions,whichthecompanyhadadoptedas“law”shortlyafterEdselhadhiredhim.“HecontinuallyreferstohisGeneralLetters,andStandardProcedures,etc.,”Johnstongroused,accusingWeirofhavingimposedpracticescommononSoutheastAsianplantations“beforehehadanopportunitytoqualifyasanexpertaboutwhatshouldbeStandardPracticesinBrazil.”

Tosupporthiscause,Johnstonenlistedtheservicesofanotherexpert,WalterBangham.AformercolleagueofWeir’swhoworkedforGoodyearinCentralAmerica,BanghamsupportedJohnston’scontentionthattheycouldmakeagoofrubberatFordlandia.JohnstonaskedBanghamifWeirhadindeedwrittenGoodyear’s“StandardPractices,”asheclaimedhehad.“No,notone,”repliedBangham.Johnston’snewallyreportedthatWeir,havingtakentheFordjob,wrotehimseveraltimesaskingtobesentcopiesofGoodyear’splantationhandbook,whichhethenpassedofftoDearbornashisownwork.

BanghamalsoconfirmedJohnston’ssuspicionthatWeirwastreatingthewholeoperationmoreasanopportunitytoconductexperimentsthanasapracticalbusinessventure.Weir’s“StandardPracticesaswrittenarenotstandardpractices,butexperimentalpractices,”Banghamsaid,“andthewayyouhavedonethingshereismorepracticalthanwhatiswritten.”15

“Soitmakesyouwonder,”complainedJohnstontohisMichigansuperiors,“ifMr.Weirissincere,doesheknowwhatheistalkingabout?”16

WEIR,FORHISpart,sentDearbornaseriesofprogressivelygloomierreports,blamingtheplantation’slackofsuccessonacombinationofpestilenceandincompetence.Inearly1936,he“threwquiteabomb,”inhiswords,atDearbornofficials,recommendingthatFordlandiabescaledbackdramaticallyandthatplantinginBelterrabeextendedonlygradually.Contradictinghisowninitialenthusiasm,Weirdeclaredthat“norubbermanwouldhavegonetoBrazilinthefirstplacetobuildestates.”HavingalreadyconvincedthecompanytomovethewholeoperationdownrivertoBelterra—atthispointstillunderconstruction—thepathologistnowrecommendedtoDearbornthatitstartoverinCentralAmerica.17

TheremaybesometruthtoJohnston’sclaimthatWeirwastakingadvantageofhisemploymentwithFordtotestpettheories.NotonlyhadthepathologistmanagedtoconvinceDearborntoturnFordlandiaintohisownpersonalresearchlaboratory,WeirhimselfadmittedinhisoriginalsurveythatFord’soperationspresentedawonderfulopportunitytoresearchaquestionthathadlongpreoccupiedrubberspecialists:DidtheseedsgatheredbyHenryWickhamrepresentAmazon’sbestHevea,orcouldasturdierandmoreprofitablevarietybeidentified?Hewrote:

Itisacommonopinionamongthose,familiarwithrubbersoftheAmazonandtheEast,thatcertainverycharacteristicforms,knowntoexistinBrazil,arenotfoundinthepopulationoftreesoneasternplantations.Withthepossessionoftheeastern,tested,materialtoserveasstandardsandcomparison,BoaVistawouldhaveanunusualopportunitytoaccomplishwhateveryplantingCompanyintheEasthasplannedtodo,viz:investigategeneticallythewildrubbersoftheAmazonRiverdrainage.

“Everyeffort,”Weirsaid,“shouldbemadetostudytherubbersoftheAmazon,foritisnotunlikely,thatsomeofthefinestfamiliesoftreesescapedthefirstcollectionofseedsthatwenttotheEast.”

BygettingEdselFordtofinancehistriptoSumatra,Weirdidexactlythat,securingrepresentativesamplesofSoutheastAsianHeveatotestagainstBrazilianvarietiessoastoidentifyblight-resistantstrainsthatmightnothavebeenincludedinWickham’soriginalseedconsignment.Inretrospect,itisperplexingwhyWeir,oneoftheworld’sforemostexpertsonrubberblight,shouldhavedownplayeditsdangerashedidinhisfirstpositivereport,theonewherehepraisedallofJohnston’s“goodwork”andpredicteda“greatsuccess”forFordlandia.Inthatdocument,Weirrecommendednotonlythatrubberplantingbeexpandedbutthatthetreesbeplacedclosertogetherthantheysofarhadbeen.WhereOxholmandhissuccessorsspacedthemaboutahundredtoanacre,Johnston,actingonWeir’sadvice,doubledupin1934,plantingtwohundredtotheacre.ItcouldbethecasethatWeirwasactuallyhopingforanepidemicofSouthAmericanleafblightasawayofisolatingtrulyresistantstock,whichhebelievedexistedthroughouttheAmazonbasinbuthadyettobeidentified.SinceblightisnotaprobleminSoutheastAsia,noneofthecloneshebroughtbackwerespecificallybredtowithstandfungi;iftheyprovedtobesusceptible,whileother,locallygatheredseedsdemonstratedresistance,itwouldconfirmthatthereexistedintheAmazonawidervarietyofHeveathanthatcurrentlyavailabletoplantationsin

Asia.

Weir,despitehisworkwithGoodyearandothercorporations,wasatheartagovernmentagronomist,withalongandactiveaffiliationwiththeDepartmentofAgriculture.JustasStateDepartmentdiplomatstendedtocultivateabroader,stableinvestmentclimateratherthanadvancetheimmediateinterestsofspecificcompanies(asdidCommerceDepartmentattachés),WeirseemedconcernedlesswithmakingFordlandia,orBelterra,workthanwithfiguringouthowtogrowplantationrubberintheAmazon,evenifitmeantthatacompanyotherthanFord’swouldbenefit.

SoJohnstoncontinuedtofume.Weir,hesaid,hasneverbeenheldaccountableforhisactions.Havingleft“otherstocarryonwhatheproposed,”he“returnsandcriticizeswhathasbeendone.”JohnstonbeggedDearborntoputWeirinchargeofplantingandinsectcontrol,lettinghimrun“matterstosuithimself.”Thiswouldatleastmakehimresponsibleforresults.Givehima“definitejob,”hebegged,“otherwisehewillcarryonasinthepast.”18

CaughtupinhisfeudwithWeirandpressedintonotjustrunningoneplantationbutbuildingasecond,Johnstonprobablymissedtheironyofwhatbylate1935hadbecomehismainlineofcriticismaboutWeir,thatthescientisthadrepeatedlyadvisedtheplantationtoadoptmethodsnotappropriatetothespecificconditionsoftheTapajós.“Onedoesnothavetobeanexpert,”Johnstonsaid,“toknowthatastandardpracticeinonecountrycanbedetrimentaltogoodpracticeinanother.”19

____________

*TheRockefellerFoundationhadlaunchedamosquito-eradicationprograminBrazilafewyearsearlier.

CHAPTER21

BONFIREOFTHECATERPILLARSASWEIRANDJOHNSTONBICKERED,THEFOLIAGEOFFORDLANDIA’Smaturingtreesbegantoclose,formingabridgeoverwhichSouthAmericanleafblightcouldmarch.Plantationmanagershadnoticedthefungi,whichfeedoffandspreadamongrubberleaves,fromthemomentthefirsttreesbegantobloom.ButtheTapajós’slongdryseasonallowedworkerstoslowitsspreadthroughconstantpruningandleafwashing.Thenin1935,thecrownsofmostofFordlandia’streesbegantotouchoneanother,andwhatwastroublesometurnedcatastrophic.

Thesporeshittheoldergrovesthehardest.“Practicallyallthebranchesofthetreesthroughouttheestate,”WeirwroteinareporttoDearborn,“terminateinnakedstems.Eachsuccessiveelongationoftheshootbecomessmallerandsmaller.”Thefungidon’tkilltreesstraightout.Butastheyfighttorefoliate,theygrowsuccessivelyweaker,eitherproducingdwarfshootsordyingbackaltogether.Sporesalsoattackedtheestate’snurseries,includingthenewbudwoodbed.NoneofWeir’sDutchcolonialclones,whichheldthehopeofsomany,provedresistanttotheblight—expectedlysosinceSouthAmericanleafblightdoesn’texistinSoutheastAsiaandthereforeplanterstherehadnoreasontoselectforresistance.1

Fordlandiarubberplanting.

UponarrivingatFordlandiatwoyearsearlier,Weirhadminimizedthethreatofblightandthevalley’serraticraindistributionandurgedJohnstontoplantevencloserrows.Yethenowdeclaredunequivocallythatthediseasehadassumed“epidemicproportionswitheverychangeofhumidity.”Fordlandia’sproximitytotheTapajósacceleratedthedisease,asthemorningfognurturedthefungi,whichwerenow“spreadingdirectlyfromtreetotree,withoutsomeintermittentcontrollablestage”andcouldnot“becombatedatFordlandiasuccessfullyoreconomically.”TheFordMotorCompany,withtheendorsementofawell-respectedpathologistwithexperienceonthreecontinents,hadineffectcreatedanincubator.

SOUTHAMERICANLEAFblightwaswellknowntotropicalbotanistsandplantersatthetimeofFordlandia’sfounding.Bytheearly1910s,pathologistshadidentifieddifferentmanifestationsofblightthathadoccurredthroughouttheAmazonbasinasvariationsofasingledisease.Theblightisspreadbyairbornesporesthatmovefromleaftoleaf,enteringtheirepidermisandreproducingbetweentheircells.

Thefungiattackseedlingsandmaturetreesalike,aswellasavarietyoflatex-producingtrees,notjustHeveabrasiliensis.Newleavesturnblackandwither,whilematureonesbecomepockmarked,withtheinfectedtissueturninggreenishblackbeforerottingawaycompletely.

Heveaiswhatbotanistscallaclimaxplant,meaningthatitdevelopedinanecosystem—inthiscasetheAmazon—thatwasattheapexofitscomplexity.Unlikerelativelynewpioneercropslikewheat,corn,orrice,whichgrowrapidlyandthrowoffmanyfertileseedsandflourishinavarietyofhabitats,includinglargeplantations,Heveaisnotsoadaptable.Itsgeneticcompositionisasoldandevolvedasthejunglethatsurroundsit.Touseametaphorassociatedwithhumanbehavior,Heveaissetinitsways.Itgrowsslowly,itsgirthisthick,itsseedsneedcoaxing,anditlikestohidefrompredatorsbymixingwithotherjungletrees.Yetdespitethesesurvivalstrategies,rubber,likemanyothertropicalplants,canbeasuccessfulcommercialcropwhencompletelyremovedfromitshomeenvironment,freedfromthepestsandplaguesthatevolvedandadaptedwithit.WhileSoutheastAsiawassimilarenoughinclimatetotheAmazon,itsnativeinsects,parasites,andsporesignoredSouthAmericanrubberandsotreescouldbeplantedincloserows.Intheiroriginalcontext,ontheotherhand,rubbertreesgrownnearoneanotherprovedsusceptibletopestilence,asWeirputit,with“everychangeofhumidity.”

SouthAmericanleafblightappearedinepidemicformin1915alongtheCaribbeancoast,inSuriname,BritishGuyana,andtheislandofTrinidad,whereplantersfirsttriedtogrowestaterubber.InSuriname,ittookjustoneyeartodecimateatwo-year-oldplantationoftwentythousandtrees.Heveacansurvivebysheddingitsleavestoshakeoffaninfestation.Butgroupingtreesinclose-croppedrowsmadethemvulnerabletonotjustoneboutofblightbutanendlessbarrage:evenasaninfectedtreedropsitsleavesfromthefirstassault,sporesamassedonaneighboringtreeattackagainafteranewbloom,thenagainandagain.

Thisiswhybythelate1910sestaterubberproductionhadlargelybeenabandonedintheAmericas—untilHenryFordcamealong.

Johnstontriedtofumigatewithantifungalpesticides,butHeveagrowstall,uptothirtymetersinheight,andrequiresspecialwater-poweredsprayersthat,sincerubberwasnotaplantationcropintheAmazon,Belémmerchantsdidn’thaveinstock.Dearbornshippedsomedown,buttheplantation’shillyterrainmadetheiruseatime-consuming,costly,andultimatelyineffectiveresponse.Bymid-1936,Fordlandiastoodpatchyandragged,justatthemomentitshouldhavebegunproducinglatexforexport.WeircondemnedlargeswathsoftheplantationandJohnstoncouldn’targue.

TheconstructionofBelterrawasjustaboutfinished.Workershadbuiltacitycenterandresidentialhousesandclearedandplantedthousandsofacreswithrubber.Soadecisionwasfinallymadetoswitchthebulkofoperationstothenewsite,withFordlandiaconvertedintoaresearchcenter,bud-graftingschool,andnurseryforhybridclonestobeplantedatthenewestate.ThetrainstoppedrunningalongFordlandia’sthree-milestretch,asworkerspackedupthelocomotiveandcarsandshippedthembacktoDetroit.Afewstafffamiliesremained,rattlingaroundtheAmericanneighborhood,asdidaskeletoncrewofBrazilianlaborers.Someofthemlearnedhowtobudgraft,whileotherskeptupthenurseries,survivingrubbergroves,andtheHenryFordHospital,aswellastheirownlawns,gardens,andsidewalks.

“ThegrowthoftherubberonFordlandiaisinstrikingcontrast,”WalterBanghamsaidafteravisitin1936,“totheexcellenttownsiteandindustrialbuildingsthathavebeenerectedontheFordlandiaestate.”Butsoonthetown,too,begantotakeonaghostlycast.Afewyearslater,avisitorreportedthatthe

“junglewasbeginningtocreepbackoveritandblotoutthesignsandlinesofasupercivilizationwhichmenhadtransportedandtransplantedatthecostofincredibleeffort,money,andhumanlife.”2

WHENHENRYFORDapprovedWeir’sproposaltoacquireBelterra,itprovidedanopportunityforWeirandJohnstontofindatleastanarrowslipofcommonground,asbothmenthoughtasuccessfulrubberplantationdidnotneedaconcentratedcompanytownalongthelinesofFordlandia.Johnstonwastiredofcaringforworkersandtheirfamiliesfromcradletograve,whileWeirbelieved“decentralizationofthefieldforce...wouldsavemuchtimeingoingtoandfromdistantpartsoftheestate.”Rubbertappinghadtobeginatdawn,whensapflowedthefreest.SoWeirsuggestedthatwhenthetimecametotaplatexatBelterrathecompanygiveplotsoflandtoworkerswheretheycouldbuildahouse,closetoadesignatedgrovetheywouldberesponsibleformaintainingandharvesting—inotherwords,heproposedalaborsystemprettymuchlikewhatexistedintheTapajósbeforetheestablishmentofFordlandia.

Forddisagreed,andonceheauthorizedtheswapofapieceofhisoriginalconcessionforlandfartherdowntheTapajós,hesentinstructionstobuildanewtown,centeredonacitysquare,completewithachurch,arecreationroom,anoutdoormovietheater,agolfcourse,aswimmingpool,awatertower,andevenwindmillstoproduceelectricity.Fordhadoncetoldavillagereporter,morethanadecadeearlier,whenhewasjustgettingstartedpromotingdecentralized“villageindustries,”thathewasstrictlyopposedtotheideaofbuilding“modeltowns”fromscratch.“I’magainstthatsortofthing,”heinsisted,sayingthathewouldinsteadlocatehisfactoriesandmillsinalreadyestablishedcommunitieslikePequaming,whichhepurchasedin1923.Butthroughoutthelate1920sand1930s,ashisvillageindustryprojectsbecamelessarealisticremedyforthedislocationsofboom-and-bustcapitalismandmoreasymptomofhisintensifyingobsessions,hedidexactly“thatsortofthing”—intheUpperPeninsulawithhisloggingcamps,inDearbornwithGreenfieldVillage,andintheAmazonwithFordlandia.AtnearlytheprecisemomenthewastellingJohnstontoproceedwiththebuildingofBelterra,Ford,upondrivingthroughanUpperPeninsulaforesthefoundespeciallypretty,sentaworkcrewtodigamilllakeandraiseaprimtwelve-bungalowtownsurroundingavillagegreen.NamedbyFordafterthedaughterofthemanagerofhisUPoperations,Albertabecamethenewestadditiontohisvillageindustryprogram,itsworkersexpectedtodividetheirtimelumbering,milling,andfarming.3

Overthenextcoupleofyears,AlbertaandBelterraproceededonsimilarlines,withthecompanypromotingwholesomelivinginboth,throughgardening,education,healthcare,andrecreation.Eventheclapboardbungalowsofthetwotownslookedalike.Whitewithgreentrim,theywereCapeCodstyle,withsteeproofsandfrontgables.Alberta,whichtodaystandsintactandisrunbyMichiganTechnicalUniversityasaforestresearchstationandtouristattraction,wouldprovetobemarginallymoresuccessfulthanBelterra—itprovidedasteady,ifinconsequential,amountofmilledtimbertobekilnedinIronMountain.ButitwasultimatelyasunsustainableasFord’sAmazonianventure.Overthenextdecade,companyexecutiveswereforevertryingtoquietlyclosethemoney-drainingtown,onlytobecountermandedbyHenryFordhimself.“GetitrunningbyMonday,”hetoldhisUpperPeninsulamanageronThursday,uponlearningthatthemillhadbeenshutdown.4

BACKINBRAZILatBelterra,hundredsofboysdressedinshorts,shirts,andcapsandgirlsinwhiteblousesanddarkskirtsbeganattendingschoolsnamedafterHenry’ssonandgrandchildren:Edsel,HenryII,andBenson.Belterrawasindeedflat,whichwasgoodnotjustforplantingrubberbutforlayingoutlevel,symmetricalstreets.EvenmorethanFordlandia,whichmadesomeconcessionstotheupsanddowns,backsandforthsofrivertopography,Belterralookedlikeasquaredmidwesterntown.ModelTs

andAsrolleddownitsstraightstreets,whichwerelinedwithfirehydrants,sidewalks,streetlamps,andwhite-and-greenworkerbungalows,withneatlawnsandfrontgardens.

Belterraschoolchildren.

CapeCodtraditionalI:Alberta.

CapeCodtraditionalII:Belterra.

Anewhospital,dubbedthe“MayoClinicoftheAmazon,”wasevenmoremodernthanFordlandia’sHenryFordHospital,completewithX-raymachinesandbloodtransfusionequipment.Thehospitalservicedtheworkforceandthesurroundingarea,whichwasmorepopulatedthanFordlandia;itsstaffreceivedthelatestmedicaljournalswiththemail,whicharriveddailyfromSantarémbyhorse—muchquickerthanthechugginglyslowriverboatsneededtoreachFordlandia.DoctorsperformedmoreinnovativeoperationsthantheydidatFordlandia,suchastheremovalofcataracts,aneyeconditionprevalentintheAmazonowingtothestrongequatorialsun.Belterramedicalpersonnel,chemists,andlabtechniciansmadeimportantadvancesintreatingparasiticaldiseasesandotherinfectionsthatinlateryearswouldhelpotherenterprisesmaintainalargeforceinthejungle.“Intheinterestofscience,”allofFordlandia’sBrazilianemployeeshadtosignawaiverallowingthehospitaltoperformautopsiesiftheypassedawayontheestate.5

Thesanitationsquadcontinuedtohuntwilddogs,drainswampyareasandcoverthemwithoilsothatmosquitoescouldn’tbreed,andinspectcompanyhousestomakesurekitchensandbathroomswerecleanandlaundrywashungtodryonlines.Still,Belterrarepresentedalesseningofthefeudalcontrolthatthecompanyinstituted,oratleasttriedtoinstitute,atFordlandia,morecloselyapproximatingmodernlaborrelationsbasedonwagesandbenefits—ofthekindoftenextolledbyFordevenashewasundercuttingthemwithhissocialengineeringandpaternalisticmanipulation.Thetownwassetbackfromtheriverafewmiles,providingitwithanaturalbufferfromtheriverboatliquortrade;thecompanydidn’thavetoenforceProhibitionasstrictlyasitdidupriver,whichhelpedreduceconflict.ThesettlementwaswithinrelativelyeasyreachofSantarém,soBelterraworkersenjoyedsomeleverageindealingwiththecompany:atFordlandia,accessibleonlybyriver,workersoftenfelttrappedandutterlydependentontheplantation,especiallyaftertherazingofPaud’Aguaandothershantytownsdidawaywithpotentialrefugesforthosewhowantedtoquit.AtBelterratheycouldjustwalkaway.Atthesametime,proximitytoSantarémlightenedthesocialburdenoftheplantationmanagement.Thoughtheystillshowedmoviesandprovidedotherformsofrecreation,findingsomethingtoalleviateworkerboredomwasnolongerapressingconcernoftheAmericanstaff.

Oppositepage:ThehousesatBelterraweremoreself-consciouslytraditionalthantheonesatFordlandia,asifmirroringFord’sincreasedculturalconservatism.ThebungalowsbuiltbyArchieJohnstonatFordlandiainthewakeofthe1930riot,thoughinappropriatefortheclimate,sportedsimple,clean,andfunctionallines.Incontrast,Belterra’sresidencesseemmannered,withgabledroofs,shutters,andpaintedtrim.Theywerealso,exceptforwantofchimneys,indistinguishablefromthehousesFordhadbuiltinAlberta,inMichigan’sUpperPeninsula,aroundthesametime.

FortheAmericans,too,lifefeltalittlelessisolatedatBelterrathanitdidatFordlandia.Themail,includingAmericannewspapersandmagazines,gottherequickeranditwaseasiertogettoSantarémorevenBelémforavisit.Theylivedincomfortabledwellingsalongashadythoroughfare,notaspicturesqueasFordlandiabutmorefamiliar,level,likeaproper“Americansuburb.”TheywereattendedtobyBarbadianservantsandplayedgolfona“completelyflat9hole,par38course.”AndtheycelebratedChristmas,NewYear’s,andJulyFourthwithpartiesanddances.6

WiththeswitchfromFordlandiatoBelterra,ArchieJohnstonbegantosuperviseoperationsfromBelém,leavingCurtisPringleandJohnRoggetooverseetheconstructionofthenewtownandplantation.

SettingasidehisirritationwithWeir,SheriffPringle,namedgeneralsupervisorofBelterra,turnedouttobereasonableandpragmatic.Hefaithfullybuiltthenewtowncenter,alongwithhousesforlaborersandstaff,buthetemperedthepuritanismthatnearlywreckedFordlandia,goingeasyonattemptstoregulatethesociallifeandeatinghabitsoftheplantation’sworkforce.AsareporterforHarper’sputitafteravisit,“Mr.FordandBrazilarestillsomewhatindisagreementinmattersofdoors,screening,andheightsofceiling,buttheex-sheriffhasprovedhimselfanexcellentarbiter.Hedoesnotinsistuponsquare-dancingorwholesomeDetroit-stylecooking.”7

Themedicalstaff,too,learnedtoaccommodate.Afterfirsttryingtoenforceabanagainstmidwifery,thehospitalrelentedandallowedforhomebirths.“Therewassomuchresistancethathalfthepeopledidn’tobeyit,”recalledEmerickSzilagyi,asurgeonfromDetroit’sHenryFordHospitalwhodidatourofdutyonthenewplantation,“soIliftedtheruleandmadeitvoluntary.”8

Asaresultofthisnewfoundwillingnesstoadaptratherthanimpose,laborproblemsweremuchlessacuteatBelterrathanatFordlandia.TherewerenomorekitchenriotsandnighttimeevacuationsoftheAmericans,nomoreurgenttelegramstoJuanTrippeaskingforPanAmhydroplanestoshuttleindetachmentsofsoldiersanddispersearmedcrowdsbyflyinginlowovertheirheads.

Nature,though,refusedtobesubdued.

INLATE1936,Belterra’splantationseemedtobeinrelativelyfineshape.Pringlehadcultivatedanurserywithover5,000,000seedlingstoserveasrootstock,clearedandblockedoutagoodpartoftheestate,andplanted700,000trees.ThesetreescamefromamixofthesurvivingSoutheastAsianstock,clonesfromFordlandiatreesthathadweatheredtheepidemicrelativelyunscathed(thusindicatingthattheyhadsomeimmunitytoblight),stumpsobtainedinPanama,andseedsgatheredfromtreesaroundthemouthoftheAmazon,mostlyfromMarajóIsland,thatshowedstrongresistance.BlightbegantomakeanappearanceontheleavesofBelterra’syoungtrees,yetitseemedlikeworkerswouldhaveabetterchanceatcontrollingitthantheydidonFord’sfirstplantation.ThenewestatehadgoodsoilandwasmuchflatterthanFordlandia’srollinghills,whichmadeiteasiertofumigateandprune.Setbackfromtheriver,itexperiencedlessmorningfogthanFordlandia,andthewindsweredrier,whichalsoslowedthegrowthoffungi.

ThemainthreattoBelterra’srubber,atleastatfirst,wasnotblightbutbugs.Thecompanyhadgreatsuccessineradicatingmosquitoesandfliesbydrainingandoilingwetareaswheretheycouldbreedandmaintainingarapid-responseteamofswatters.Butaswithblight,theconcentrationofHeveaacceleratedthereproductionofinsectsthatfedoffrubber,leadingtowaveafterwaveofinfestations.“Thebugshaveneverbeenseenbeforeinsuchquantities,”wroteJohnstonofanearlymiteepidemic,“thereasonbeingtherehasneverbeenaRubberEstatebeforewithsuchlargenurseries.”9

Thelacebugwasrubber’sworstpredator.Innormaljungleconditions,thenaturalfoodchainkeptthepopulationlowandthethreatcontained.ButastheentomologistCharlesTownsend,broughtinonmorethanoneoccasiontorespondtoanoutbreak,observed,the“extensiveplantingofrubber...hascreatedagreatlyincreasedfoodsupplyandthebugstookadvantageofittomultiplyinproportion.”

DustingnurseryatBelterraagainstleaffungiandinsects.

Dearbornofficialsreceivedacrashcourseintropicalentomology,havingaskedTownsendtocompilean“insectcensus”forFordlandia.Townsendstartedwithlacebugs,notingthattheydepositedtheir“eggsontheundersideoftherubbertreesandthesehatchintosmallspinylarvae,whichpiercetheleafepidermiswithasharpproboscisandsuckthejuicesoftheleaves,thusgreatlyweakeningtheseedlings.”10

Hewentontoregisterscoresofotherproblempests.Redmitessuckedthesapfromleaves,asdidthewhiteflies,whichfedonavarietyofplantsbutpreferredrubber.They“flyfreely”about,Townsendobserved,and“itisonlyamatteroftime”beforethey“extendoverthewholeplantation.”Theflieswere“attended”toby“smallblackants,”whichlikewisedrainedsapfromtherubberleaf.Thentherewerethewhiteweevils,tenmillimeterslongwithlightbluelegs,bluishtopinkishleafhoppers,treehopperswithbroadbodiesandtwoshort,sharphorns,spanworms,mandarovamoths,greenroachesandgreengrasshoppers,largelocusts,andgenericbroadandflat“plantbugs.”Asimilarmulticolorpaletteofscaleinsects—green,white,andblack—attachedtheirlongstyletstoleaves,drainingthemoftheirvigorandleavingabrownorblackcrustwhentheyweredone.

Caterpillarsareespeciallyharmfultorubber,andtheythrivedonFord’sestates.Therewerepalecaterpillarsandsmallyellowishtogreenishcaterpillarswitherectpointeddorsaltuberclessportingstinginghairs.Andtherewereplentyoftussockcaterpillars,slugcaterpillars,sphinxcaterpillars,andhairycaterpillarswith“slendertuftsofblackhairnearthehead.”Forabriefperiod,fireandsuavaants,whichswarmfromSeptembertoNovember,atecaterpillars,butlikethewhitefliestheycametopreferrubber.Thiscavalcadeofinsectsattackednotjustrubberbutmachineryaswell.“Nocturnalspiders,”forinstance,would“spinwebsfromwiretogroundduringwetweather,”causingthetelegraphequipmenttoshort-circuit.11

Theprotocoltofightsuchanarrayofthreatswasexhaustiveandincludedplacingastandingbountyonthe“head”ofa“mole-typeanimalthateatsstumps.”ReportsbacktoDearbornextensivelydetailedtheactivityof“antmenmakingtheirregularrounds,”teamsofwomenwhopulledweedsandpickedinsects,newexperimentaltechniquestodealwithlacebugs,andweeklyinspectionsoftreesforFomeslignosus,arootfungus,andDiplodiadieback,anotherfungusdistinctfromleafblight.

ThecompanymobilizedBelterra’swholepopulationtorespondtooutbreaks.Duringoneearlycaterpillarassaultonablockofthefirsttreestobeplantedontheestate,“everyavailableperson,man

andwomen,waslineduptodoaneffectivehandpicking.”Infivehours,theycollectedanestimated250,000caterpillars,fillingfiftyone-galloncontainers.Whennomorecaterpillarscouldbefound,theyemptiedthecontainersintoapile,threwgasolineonit,andtorchedthepyre.

Beyondbountyhuntingandbonfires,Belterrachemistsdidcomeupwithinnovativeinsecticides.Theyextractedpoisonfromtimboandcassava,concoctedafishoilwashlacedwithkerosene,mixedacompoundofnicotinesulfateandarsenate,andboileda“poisonedsyrup”thatwaseffectiveagainstfireants,“designedtokillthewholenestincludingthequeen.”Thefightagainstinsectsaddedevenmoreexpensetowhatitwouldcostthecompanytoproduceapoundoflatex.

EffectsofSouthAmericanleafblightonrubbertree.

BUTWORKERSWEREholdingtheinsectsatbay,andBelterrawasprogressing.Thekeytosuccess,asalways,wastofindstockthatbothyieldedprofitableamountsoflatexandhadstrongimmunitytofungiandpests.Pringleandothersinvolvedinplantingthenewestatehadidentifiedhighyielders(mostlyfromstrainsfoundattheheadwatersoftheTapajós,aswellasontheupperAmazonRiver,aroundAcre)andstrongresisters(manyfromMarajóIsland,atthemouthoftheAmazon).ButthestaffsooncametorealizethatthesetwotraitstendedtobemutuallyexclusiveinwildHevea:highyieldershadlowimmunity,whilestrongresistersproducedtoolittlelatex.

Itwasostensiblytosearchforaneverelusivestrainofhigh-yieldingandhardyHeveathatJamesWeir,inlate1937,organizedyetanotherseed-gatheringexpeditiontothestateofAcre.Butthepathologisthadnointentionofreturning.“ThisismylastdayontheTapajós,”hewroteaconfidant.“IdidnottellanyoneatFordlandiathatIdidnotplantoreturnafterIfinishwiththeUpperAmazon.IwilldropyoualinefromGodknowswhere.”PerhapsWeirhaddecidedtoquittheplantationbecausetheappearanceofblighthadconvincedhimofthefutilityoftryingtogrowestaterubberintheAmazon.OrmaybeheleftbecausehewaspeevedthatDearborndeniedhimpermissiontomakeasecondtriptoSoutheastAsia.Whateverthecase,inkeepingwithhisaversiontoteamwork,hesaidnotawordtoanyoneatFordlandiaorBelterra.12

Johnstonwasgladtoberidofhim.OnceitwasclearthatWeirwasnotreturningtoFordlandia,JohnstontoldDearbornhewouldwelcomeareplacement,solongashedidn’thavepreviousexperience

inAsiaandthuswasn’tsteepedinassumptionsthat“mightnotapply”inBrazil.“SomeyoungHarvardgraduateinBotanyandGenetics,onethatcamefromtheWestwithafarmbackground,”washisideaofasuitablecandidate.“Bringhimhere,”hesaid,and“lethimlearnplantationpractices,andthroughtimehewilldevelopintothemanyouwant.”Actually,Johnstondidn’thavetolookfar,fortwoindividualswiththequalitieshedescribed,shortofaHarvardpedigree,werealreadyontheplantation.

EdwardandCharlesTownsend—sonsoftheentomologist—hadbeenWeir’sassistants,andnowtheytookoverresearch.Theyfocusedonselectionandcontrolledcross-fertilizationtotrytoproducehybridsthathadbothdesirabletraits.Theymadesomeprogress,particularlyusingbeesaspollinators.Yettheyhadtroublefindingjusttherightcombination.Onehybridprovedresistanttoblightandahighyielder,butitsleaveswerethinandunusuallyvulnerabletolacebug.Another,withthickerleaves,ranunimpressiveamountsofsap.13

Evenastheyworkedtocultivatehybrids,theTownsendbrothersbeganexperimentingwithcrown,ortop,grafting,atechniquethathadbeendevelopedinSoutheastAsiatocontrolleafmildewbutneverputtolarge-scalecommercialuse.Onceatreecreatedbygraftingahigh-yieldingstrainofHeveatoahealthyrootstockattainedaheightofsevenfeet,planterswouldperformasecondgrafthigheronthetrunk,thisonefromHeveathathaddemonstratedstrongresistance.Afterthissplicetook,theoldcrownwouldbeloppedoffandtheresultwouldbeatreeformedofthreedistinctgeneticcompositions:durableroots,ahigh-yieldtrunk,andafull,verdantcrownofblight-andbug-resistantleaves.14

ToJohnston’sdelight,theexperimentwasworking.Thegraftswereholding,evenagainsttheTapajós’sstrongwinds,andthecircumferenceoftwice-graftedtreesgrewatthesamerateasdidanunsplicedtree’s.Theprocedurewastime-consumingandcostlyandentailedbuildingbulkyscaffoldinginthefieldtoperformtheoperationandtosupportthegraftuntilthetissuefused.Andsinceonlyabouteveryothergrafttook,theprocesshadtobeperformedtwiceorsometimesthreetimesuntilthegraftbonded.Butuntilasuitablehybridcouldbecreatedandmultipliedinsufficientquantities,crown-graftedrubberwastheonlypotentiallycompetitivealternativetomass-producedSoutheastAsianlatex.AnditheldenoughpromisethatUSagriculturalscientists—who,withJapanonthemarchthroughChinaandGermanygearingupitsmilitaryandmunitionsindustry,hadonceagainbeenmobilizedbyWashingtontofindasecuresourceof“warrubber”—begantocopythemethodinexperimentalstationsinCostaRicaandthePanamaCanalZone.

AfterWeir’sdeparture,JohnstonsteppedupplantingatBelterra.Overthenextcoupleofyears,workcrewsclearedovertwentythousandacresandplantedclosetotwomilliontrees,aboutathirdofthemtopgrafted.Theplantationcontinuedtosufferfromchronicinsectinvasions,yetBelterrafinallybegantolooklikeatruecommercialestate,withitslevelgrovesblockedoutintwenty-square-acresectionsinanorderlyfashionanditstechnicianskeepingpreciserecordsofwheretheyplantedwhichseeds,seedlings,andbudgrafts,soastocontrolforanddevelopbetterstrainsofHevea.

ButthenJohnstonlosthistwobestmen.Inlate1937,asJohnRoggewastravelingtoFordlandiatodeliverapayroll,hisboatwastippedbyalateafternoonTapajósstorm,thekindthatcancomeoutofnowhereandcallupoceanlikewaves.Roggefelloverboardanddrowned.Ayearlater,Pringle,whohadsurvivedhisfightwithWeirrelativelyunscathed,hadanervousbreakdown.HehadbeenintheAmazonforadecade,havingtakenverylittleofhisassignedvacationtime.Hebecameentangledinaseriesofpettyfightswithfellowstaffmembersandstartedtosufferfrominsomnia,aggravatedbydrinkingcupaftercupofcoffee“dayandnight,andthroughthenight,”andchain-smokingstrongBraziliancigarettes.

Belterra’sdoctordiagnosedhimashavingallthesymptomsofa“verynervouscondition.”Hishandsgrewcolddespitetheheat,“denoting,”thedoctorsaid,a“generalletdown.”Thesheriff’swifealsobegantoletherselfgo,ignoringatoothabscessuntiltheinfectionspreadtoherjaw.

“SomuchforthePringles,”wrotethedoctortoofficialsinDearborn,whoorderedthecoupletoreturntoMichiganattheendof1938.15

MEANWHILE,OPINIONMAKERSinRioandSãoPaulocontinuedtoclamorforavisitfromHenryFord.AstheyheardreportsthathisAmazonenterprisehadsolvedmanyofitssocialproblemsonlytobebesetbynaturalones,itseemedallthemoreimportantthathecometoseehisnamesakeplantation.Brazil’sChamberofCommerceandIndustrypublishedanopenletterinaRionewspaperadvisinghimtogainfirsthandknowledgeofthetownthatborehisname:

Everythinginlifehasitsrightandleftside,itsgoodandbadturn.WiththewonderfulenterprisingspiritcharacteristicofHenryFord,whichmakeshimoneofthegreatestmenofourtimes,heisreadytodoeverythinginordertodevelophislargerubberplantation....Unluckily,however,therewasoneprincipalelementlackingforthesuccessofhisenterprise:personalknowledgeoftheregion....ItwouldbeveryadvantageousifFord,whoisalreadyinvitedofficiallytovisitBrazil,wouldvisittheTapajós,andgiveinstructionstohisrepresentativespersonally,instructionswhichwouldbecapableofguaranteeingthesuccessoftheoperationsbeingundertakeninPará.

Theinvitationskeptarriving.ThepresidentofasmallcollegeinSãoPauloinvitedhimtodoaradiointerview:

YourbookshavebeenwidelyreadinBrazil,andasidefromyourcommercialinterestsinthecountry,throughtheautomobilethatbearsyourname,oryourpropertiesatFordlandia,whatyousayandwriteisalwaysreadwithverygreatinterest.Ithaslongbeenhopedthatyouwouldvisitthecountrysomeday.Theleastthatcouldbedonetobringyouindirectcontactwiththepeoplewouldbeashortfifteenminuteinterviewovertheradio,whereyourvoicewouldbeheard,expressingyourownideasonsubjectsofmutualinteresttoyouandtheBrazilians.

“Ithink,”thepresidentconcludedhisinvitation,“thisoffersyouarealopportunitytoinsomewayestablishalittlemorepersonalcontactwiththeBrazilianpeople.”

ButasFordadvancedinyears,themanwhoclaimedtohaveinventedthemodernworldbegantodevelopamildcaseoftechnophobia.Despitehispromotionofairflight—PRforhiscompany’saviationdivision—hedidn’treallylikeairplanes,sohislong-promisedarrivalonCharlesLindbergh’sSpiritofSt.Louiswasoutofthequestion.Aswas,apparently,aradiointerview.

Ford’ssecretarycabledthecollegepresident,simplysaying,“SorryMr.Fordunabletocomplywithyourrequest.Doesnotbroadcast.”16

CHAPTER22

FALLENEMPIREOFRUBBERTHEFINALYEARSOFFORDLANDIAANDBELTERRAMIRROREDTHEfinalstrugglesofFord’slife;onecanreadinthelettersandreportsArchieJohnstonsentbacktoDearbornthehistoryoftheFordMotorCompanyduringtheGreatDepression—particularlythebattlesfoughtagainstunionsandthegrowingreachofthefederalgovernmentintoitseconomicaffairs.ThoughaprotégéofCharlesSorensen,whocompetedwithHarryBennettforFord’sfavor,JohnstonwassympathetictoBennett,writinghimletterscomplainingofhisgrayinghairandthejungleheatandsendinghimjaguarskins,hammocks,andotherAmazoniancurios.Bennett,whokeptanumberoftigersandlionsaspetsathis“castle”—ashishouseonGeddesRoadinAnnArborwascalled—wasgrateful,andhekeptJohnstonupdatedonhiseffortstobeatbackunionismattheRouge.

Fordwasnotaloneinhisoppositiontocollectivebargaining.WhenCongresspassedtheWagnerActin1935,levelingtheplayingfieldsomewhatinthefightbetweencapitalandlaborbyprotectingworkersengagedinorganizingfromarbitrarydismissal,Detroit’sBigThreeallstatedtheirresolvetoremainunionfree.TheUnitedAutomobileWorkers,foundedin1935andledbyWalterandVictorReuther,wassmallandpracticallypenniless.Butitsmembersfoundapowerfulweaponinthesit-downstrike,haltingproductionnotbypicketingontheoutsidebutbyrefusingtoleavetheirworkstations,amovethatstoppedownersfromhiringscabs.GMfellin1936,signingacontractwiththeUAW,followedshortlybyChrysler.ThatleftonlyFord.1

TheRougewentintolockdown.HarryBennettaddedmorementotheranksofhisalreadybloatedServiceDepartment.Hisgunselssteppeduptheirsurveillance,searchinglockersandlunchpailsforUAWliterature,followingworkersintobathroomstomakesurenouniontalkoccurred,andbreakingupgatheringsoftwoormoreemployees.Fordwouldn’tletinstrumentsofwarbeexhibitedinhismuseum.YetheletBennettplacemachinegunsatoptheRougeplant.ThecampaignagainsttheUAWcreatedasiegementalityamongFord’smanagers,andBennettusedhisfreereintogoafternotjustlabororganizersorpotentialunionsupportersbutanyoneshowinganysignofdisloyalty.Bennett’smenwentundercoverinthebars,markets,andchurchesthatFordworkersfrequented,reportingbackonunionsympathyandgeneralgrousing.In1937,Bennettmadefront-pagenationalheadlines—justashehadfiveyearsearlierwiththe“DearbornMassacre”—whenphotographerscapturedhimandaboutfortyofhismenattackingWalterReutherandotherUAWmembersastheyhandedoutunionliteratureoutsidethefactory’sGate4.ThethugsbeatReutherbloodyandthenthrewhimdownasetofstonesteps.Theystompedonotherorganizersandbrokethebackofaminister.Onewomanvomitedbloodafterbeingkickedinthestomach.TheassaulttookplaceoutsidethesamegatewhereBennettandhismenmurderedthehungermarchers.

Edsel,whonotonlybelievedunionizationtobeinevitablebutwasbroadlysympathetictotheNewDealasasteptowardcorporaterationalization,triedtointervenetolimitBennett’spower.ButHenryFord,nowseventy-fourandinfailinghealth—hewouldsufferastrokein1938—repeatedlyreaffirmedBennett’sauthorityoverlaborissues.“Hehasmyfullconfidence,”hetoldhisson.“TheFordMotorCompanywouldbecarriedaway,”Henrysaid,“therewouldn’tbeanythingleft,ifitwasn’tforHarry.”2

ArchieJohnstonwatchedthesedevelopmentsfromafar,andhereadhisownongoingbattleswithlaborandtheBraziliangovernmentintothem.HecertainlywasmorepartialtoBennettthanwasEdsel,whomheequatedwithJamesWeir.“FDR’sactions,”hewrotetoCharlesSorensenfollowingGM’sand

Chrysler’ssurrender,are“pitifullyweak.”HereportedhissuccessfuldefeatofFordlandia’s“firstsitdownstrike”inJune1937,whenaboutseventy-onemenwhocutwoodfortheboilersoccupiedthepowerhouse.JohnstonsettleditinBennett-likefashion,deprivingthestrikersoffoodandwateruntiltheyvacatedthebuilding.“Nowallisinorder,”hewrote.3

ButJohnstoninthejungle—stymiedbyachroniclaborshortagedespitetheglobaldepression—foundhimselfmuchmorevulnerablethanBennettattheRouge.LikeFDR,Brazil’spresident,GetúlioVargas,presidedoveraprocessofeconomicandpoliticalmodernization,challengingtheextremepoweroflandedelitesandprovincialpoliticians—powerroughlyanalogoustotheautonomyofstatesintheUnitedStatespriortotheNewDeal.*JohnstonhadwelcomedRio’sinterventionwhenitwasusedtoreininthelocalAmazonianelite,whohadmadelifedifficultforthecompany.Now,though,Riohadbecomepartoftheproblem.

Vargas’sgovernmentpromotednewlaborlawsthatmadeiteasierforworkerstounionizeandrequiredcompaniestoprovidepaidvacations,severancepay,andpensions.Takingadvantageofthenewsituation,workersatbothBelterraandFordlandiaorganizedaunioninearly1937andbegantofileagrowingnumberofcomplaints—mostlyrelatedtodisputesoverwhatunionleadersdescribedasarbitraryfiringsoreffortstoclaimnewlymandatedbenefits—infederallaborcourt.Asaresult,governmentinspectorswereregularlyshowingupattheplantationstodemandaccesstocompanyrecordsandtaketestimonyfromemployees.AfterajudgeruledthatthecompanywassubjecttothejurisdictionoftheMinistryofLabor—andnottheMinistryofAgriculture,asFordlawyerstriedtoargueasawaytoexemptFordfromanewlaborcode—activistshadbecomeincreasingly“bold,”asJohnstonwroteDearborn,intheirdemands.BelterrawaseasilyaccessibletotheBrazilianpress,sohehadtoactwithcircumspectionindealingswithorganizers.AtthemoreremoteFordlandia,though,Johnstonfiredanumberofthemostvocal,includingthepresidentandvicepresidentoftheunion.Buttheycontinuedtheiractivities,simplymovingoffshoretosetuptheir“headquartersonanislandintheriver.”4

ThiswasnottheIslandoftheInnocentsthatheldthebrothelsandbarsbutratherFranciscoFranco’sUrucurituba,whichbecamearefugeforFordlandia’slaborleaders.Ingeneralterms,Vargas’sprolaborlegislation,aspartofhisbroaderpoliticalandsocialagenda,wasdesignedtoundercutthelocalpowerofruralpotentateslikeFranco.ItwasaVargasappointeewhointheweeksaftertheDecember1930riotnotonlyforcedFrancotosellPaud’AguatoFordforapittancebutalsoremovedhimfromhispositionasmayorofthenearbymunicipalityofAveiros.ButtheseactionshadoneconsequencethatFordlandiamanagerscouldnothaveforeseen:inretaliation,FrancobegantosupportFordlandia’slabororganizers,creatinganunlikelyalliancebetweenthemodernizingthrustofunionsandthefeudalreactionofaprovincialdon.5

AsdidhiscounterpartsattheRouge,Johnstontriedtokeeptheunionatbay.“TheCompany,”hewarnedhisworkers,“willnottoleratelabororganizations.”ButafterRogge’sdeathandPringle’scollapse,Johnstonfoundhimselfshorthanded.ThereplacementsDearbornsentdownlackedhands-onexperienceinrunningaplantationlaborforce,leavingJohnstoninBelémtorelyonateamofuntestedmanagers.Andthelawwasagainsthim.Johnstonhadnochoicebuttoyieldwhenalocaljudgeruledin1939thatFord’srubberplantationswereindeedsubjecttoVargas’snewfederallaborlawguaranteeingworkerstherighttoorganize;thatsameyearafederaljudgeintheUnitedStatesfoundtheFordMotorCompanyguiltyofviolatingtheWagnerAct.

YearsbeforetheRiverRougewasforcedtonegotiateacontractwiththeUnitedAutomobileWorkers,

FordlandiaandBelterrahadaunion.

VARGASREMAINEDAPPRECIATIVEofFord,despitethesupporthisadministrationgavetotheplantation’sworkers.LikeFord,theBrazilianpresidentconsideredhimselfamodernizer.Duringhisadministration,Brazil’sroadnetworkdoubledinsizeandthenumberofairportsincreasedfrom31to512.Inanycase,onceitwasestablishedthatFord’splantationsweresubjecttonewlaborandsocialwelfarelegislation,governmentarbitersusuallydismissedmostofthespecificcomplaintsbroughtagainstthecompanybyemployees.Dependentonthegoodwillofapresidentwhobytheendofthe1930shadassumeddictatorialpowers,EdselFord,uponlearningthatVargasintendedtotournorthernBrazilinlate1940topromotethedevelopmentoftheregion,senthimatelegraminvitinghimtoreviewBelterra.SinceArchieJohnstonwasoutofthecountryonvacation,heaskedHarryBraunstein,executivemanagerofFord’sRioassemblyplant,toreceiveVargasinhisandhisfather’sname.6

VargasarrivedatBelterraonOctober8inahydroplane,circlingoverheadafewtimestosurveythetownandplantingfieldsbeforelanding.Astheplanepulleduptothedockandthepresidentsteppedout,BraunsteingavethesignaltothebandtostrikeupBrazil’snationalanthem,sungbyseveralhundredchildrenfromtheHenryFordandEdselFordschools,“properlydressedinuniforms.”WhenVargasandhisstaffclimbedintoawaitingLincolntodrivethetenmilestotheplateauwhereBelterrawaslocated,anumberofmeninthecrowdaskedthatthemotorbeturnedoffandtheybeallowedtopullthepresidenttotheplantation,“signifyinginthatwaytheirhappinessandjoy.”Braunsteinprevailedonthemtoabandontheideaasimpractical,suggestinginsteadthatsixtyorsobicyclistsformanescort.Alongtheway,cheeredbycrowdsofonlookers,Vargascommentedontheneatnessofthechildren’sdressandthe“excellenceoftheroad,”notingthatBrazil“certainlyneededmoresuchroads.”Hisaide-de-campremarkedthathehimselfwasfromnorthernBrazilandhehadneverseen“ashealthyagroupofmenasgreetedthePresident”anywhereintheregion.OnceinBelterra,Vargasfoundmuchelsetopraise—thehospital,thedentist’soffice,schoolsthatsuppliedbooks,pencils,anduniformsfreeofchargetothestudents,aspaciousdancehallandotherrecreationfacilities,andclean,tidyhouseswithcolorfulfrontgardens.Thepresidentialentouragewentona“mosquitohunt”inanumberoftheplantation’sscreenedbuildingsandfoundnotaone.7

Thatafternoon,VargasgaveaspeechinBelterra’snewpark,tellingFord’sworkersthatthemainobjectiveofhisgovernmentwasto“createsociallawswhichwouldservetoestablishsocialharmonyamongall,toestablishfrankandsincerecollaborationandco-operationbetweenemployerandemployee,withallworkingtowardthesameend.”Ofcourse,hesaid,iftherewere“moremenlikeMr.Fordinthisworldnosociallegislationwouldbenecessary.”HethenledaroundofcheersforHenryandEdselFord.Thatnightatdinner,BraunsteinapologizedthatthetwoFordscouldn’tbethereinpersontowelcomehimbutpresentedVargaswiththeirsignedphotographs.Heraisedhisglasstothepresident’scommitmenttoprogressandtoadvancingthewell-beingofworkers.“Mr.Ford,”Braunsteinsaid,wasthe“firstindustrialistintheworldwhorevolutionizedtherelationsbetweenworkerandemployerbygivingthemthatwhichcontributedtoalifeofcomfortandequality,andwearedoingeverythingwithinourpowertofollowinhisfootstepsinthetreatmentofthosewhowork,produce,andco-operateinthisproject.”Oneday,hesaid,admittingthatthelong-promisedrecoveryofthelatextradehadsofarremainedelusive,it“maypossiblymeanthere-birthoftheAmazonValley,”therevivalofthe“fallenEmpireofRubber.”

Vargasrosetosharehisimpressionsoftheplantation,expressing“greatsatisfaction”thatFordwasdoingsomuchto“plant”notjustrubberbut“health,comfortandhappiness.”EchoingBraunstein’sadmissionthatsofartheprojecthadprovedviablemoreinhumanitariantermsthanineconomicones,he

emphasizedthecarmaker’sgenerosity:Fordhadnot“asyetreceivedanymaterialcompensation”despitehisconsiderableexpenditure.Therestoftheeveningandthenextdayinvolvedmoremutualexpressionsofadmiration.Therewas,though,onepieceofbusinessBraunsteinwantedtobringupwiththepresident.JustbeforeVargasleft,Braunstein,speakinginthenameofHenryFord,requestedthathetransferBelterraandFordlandiaoutofthejurisdictionoftheMinistryofLaborandplacethemunderthesupervisionoftheMinistryofAgriculture—whichwouldineffectmakethecompanyimmunetolaborlaw.VargassaidhewouldconsidertherequestbutpromisednothingasheboardedhisplanetoflytoManaus.

There,VargasgaveaspeechthatisconsideredbyhistorianstomarkthebeginningofalongcampaignbyBrazil’sfederalgovernmenttopopulateandindustrializetheAmazon.TheaddressechoedFord’stechnologicaloptimismandadvocacyoflarge-scaledevelopmentprojects.YetperhapsinfluencedbyhisvisittoBelterra,wherehewitnessedthefailureofFord’smillionstorevivetherubbereconomy,Vargasseemedtorepudiatethekindofrural/industrialholism,drivenbyarespectfornature,thecarmakerbelievedhecouldachieveintheUpperPeninsula,MuscleShoals,theTapajós,andelsewhere.Knownasthe“MarchtotheWest,”Vargas’sspeechgavenaturenoquarter.“Thehighesttaskofcivilizingman,”theBrazilianpresidentsaid,wastoconqueranddominatethevalleysofthegreatequatorialtorrents,”transformingtheirblindforceandtheextraordinaryfertilityintodisciplinedenergy.TheAmazon...shallbecomeachapterinthehistoryofcivilization.”8

FollowingVargas,oneadministrationafteranotherestablishedgovernmentagenciesandannouncednewschemestorapidlymodernizetheregion,toachieve“fiftyyearsinfive,”asoneofVargas’ssuccessorsputit,ortosend“peoplewithoutland”toa“landwithoutpeople,”asthemilitarygovernmentofthe1960sdescribeditscolonizationplan.Mostoftheseeffortswouldfailontheirownterms—thatis,theydidnotbringsustainable,humanedevelopmenttotheregion.Theydid,however,acceleraterapiddeforestation,beginningwhatWilliamWoodsworthmighthavecalleda“rashassault”onthelargestintacttropicalrainforestleftontheplanet.

INDEARBORN,SOCIALrelationsweredecidedlylessharmoniousthaneitherBraunsteinorVargashadpaintedthemthatnightinBelterra.TheUAWhadgrownrapidlyattheRiverRougeandotherFordplantssinceitsfoundingin1935.HavingforcedGMandChryslertothetable,organizerscouldharnesstheunion’sresourcesintheirfightagainsttheloneholdoutoftheBigThree.Inearly1941,activistsshutdowntheRougeinprotestoverthewidespreadfiringoflaboractivists.ItwasthefirststrikeevercalledagainstHenryFordandunionleaderswerenotsurehowhisemployeeswouldrespond.OnlyathirdoftheRouge’sworkforcehadbythensignedwiththeUAW—Bennett’s“terrorism,”astheNationalLaborRelationsBoarddescribedhisreign,haditseffects.9

AsthestrikespreadthroughouttheRouge’smanydivisions,Bennettfirsttriedtolabelitcommunistic,anactoftreasonsincetheFordMotorCompanyhadjustsignedanagreementwiththeRooseveltadministrationtobeginwarproduction.Workersansweredbycarryingpicketsemblazonedwithswastikas,equatingFordwithHitler.Why,onesignasked,did“FordgetaNazimedal?”—areferencetotheGrandCrossoftheGermanEaglebestowedbytheGermanconsulonFordthreeyearsearlieronhisseventy-fifthbirthday.Unabletored-bait,Bennettnexttriedtorace-bait.HehopedtocapitalizeontheloyaltysomeAfricanAmericanworkershadforFordbasedonhisequalopportunityhiring(aswellastheirdistrustofanall-whiteunionleadership)toconvincethemtogobacktowork.This,too,failed.Mostworkers,includingmanyAfricanAmericanworkers,refusedtoreturntotheirjobs.10

Fordthreatenedtoshuttheplantdownratherthanbargaincollectivelywithhisworkers.Yetwithina

fewweeks,inoneofthegreatestabout-facesinUSlaborhistory,henotonlyagreedtorecognizetheresultsofaunionelectionbut,aftertheUAWwonthatelectionwithanoverwhelmingmajority,signedacontractthatgavetheunioneverythingitwanted,includingjobsecurity,thehighestwagesintheindustry,andbackpaytomorethanfourthousandwrongfullyfiredworkers.HistoriansdebatewhatledFord,whooncemovedawholefactoryfromNewEnglandtoMichigantothwartauniondrive,torelent.SomepointtoEdsel’spleading,backedupwithClaraFord’sthreattoleaveHenryifhedidn’tsettle.Whateverthespecificcombinationofmotivesthatdrovehimtothebargainingtable,whenFordfinallymetwithWalterReuthertocongratulatehimonhisvictory,hespunhissurrenderinthesameconspiratorialwebheusedtoexplainmostthingsinlife.“You’vebeenfightingGeneralMotorsandtheWallStreetcrowd,”hesaid,now“wefightGeneralMotorsandWallStreettogether,eh?”11

Thedealalsoincludedastrongandbindinggrievanceprocedurethat,consideringwhathistoriansPeterCollierandDavidHorowitzcallthe“bizarrecombinationoffeudallawsandnakedpower”thatarbitrarilygovernedFord’sfactoryfloor,wastheindustrialequivalentofenforcingdueprocessonthedivinerightofkings.Fordoftensaidhiscompanywasrevolutionary,yetittookmilitantlabororganizerstomakeitso.12

BACKINTHEAmazon,Johnstonwashavingnobetterluckwithrubberthanhehadholdingofftheunion.BythetimeofVargas’svisit,plantationworkersatBelterrahadclearednearlythirtythousandacresandplantedclosetothreemilliontrees.Aboutathirdofthemweretopgrafted,stilltooyoungtogivelatexbutshowingpromisingvigorandfortitude.Theninlate1940,leafblight,alwayspresentyetcontainedatBelterra,turnedepidemic.Johnston,backfromvacation,respondedbyorderinghiscrewtoquicklytopgraftalltaintedtrees.Butbythefollowingyear,blighthadinfected70percentoftheblockswithclosedcanopies,killingmostoftheestate’strees.13

AftertheentryoftheUnitedStatesintoWorldWarIIin1941,JohnstonwasrecalledtoDearborn,wherehejoinedFord’saviationdivisionasitconvertedtotheproductionofbombersandotherwartimeplanes.ButheremainedtheprincipaladministratorofFord’sAmazonplantationsandenjoyedtalkingwithreportersandotherFordworkersabouthistenyearsinthejungle.“Nowhiteman,”helikedtosay,“canliveinthatcountry.”Healsoremainedcommittedtotheexpansionofrubberproductionandcontinuedtoholdouthopethattopgrafting,giventime,couldovercomeblight,pest,andscales.Partialvindicationcameearlierthenextyearwhen,despitetwoyearsofepidemicblight,Belterrayielded750tonsoflatex.Itwasn’thigh-qualityrubber,anditwasafarcryfromFord’sannualconsumptionoffiftymillionpounds.ButJohnstonthoughtitastart.14

Then,onareturntriptoBrazilinOctober1942,Johnstonwitnessedwhathecalled“thegreatestswarmofcaterpillarsthathaseverbeenseeninthisarea.”Foryears,Fordlandia’scaterpillarbattalionshadperformedextensiveandrelentlesshandpickingtocontainthepests.Nowanewgenerationofmothshadevolvedandadaptedtothethreatbylayingtheireggs“onlyonthenewshootsatthetopofthetrees.”Atthatheight,pickerscouldn’tseethehatchedcaterpillarsuntilitwastoolate,untiltheyhadswarmed“downthetreeeatingallbeforethem.”15Thetreesrecoveredsomewhat,puttingoutanothershootofleaves.ButinwhatseemedtoJohnstontobeacoordinatedfollow-up,theleaveswerethenassaultedbyleafblight—the“mostsevereattackinthehistoryoftheplantation.”Thistimetherewasnorallying.“Inmanycases[thetrees]hadnotstrengthtoputoutathirdflushoffoliate.Withtheexcessivedryweatherthetreesstartedtodieback.Somehavediedhalfwaydownthetrunkandmaydiecompletely.”16

“Someareas,”JohnstonreportedtoDearborn,“arenowasbareasbeanpoles.”

____________

*TheNewDeal’smostradicalproposalscameearly,inaburstoflawsRooseveltshepherdedthroughCongresssoonafterhis1933inauguration,onlytobedilutedastimeworeon;Vargas,incontrast,movedslowly,proposingonlymoderatechangesupontakingpowerin1930.Butasoppositionemerged,Vargasandhissupporters,aftersuppressingarebellionstagedbySãoPauloelitesopposedtohiseffortstoconcentratefederalpowerinRio,becamemoreaggressive.Theyadoptedanewcentralizingconstitutionin1934andthenthreeyearslaterdeclaredtheEstadoNovo,orNewState,bestthoughtofasafusionofMussolini-stylecorporatismandNewDealsocialwelfare.

CHAPTER23

TOMORROWLAND“MYDEARHARVEY,”EDSELFORDWROTETOTHENAMESAKESONOFhisfather’soldfriendHarveyFirestoneshortlyaftertheUnitedStateshadenteredWorldWarII,“IthinkImentionedtoyouoncesomethingaboutsellingourrubberplantationpropertyontheTapajósRiverinBrazil.Ifyouwouldconsiderbuyingit,orhaveanythinglikethatinmind,wouldyoucaretodiscussthematterwithme?”Firestone,whohadtakenoverhisdeceasedfather’scompany,hadnothinglikethatinmind.HewasalreadygettingabouttenthousandtonsoflatexayearfromhisplantationinLiberia.Thetiremakerpolitelydeclinedtheoffer.

Bythispoint,FordlandiaandBelterrahadpracticallybecomeasubsidiaryoftheUSgovernment.Throughouthislife,FordhadsteadfastlyopposedthefusionofbusinessandgovernmentevenasotherAmericanindustrialists,particularlyduringtheGreatDepression,embracedit.Butnowinhislateseventieshecoulddolittlebutwatchthemarriagegoforward.

TheJapaneseoccupationofSoutheastAsiaanditsrubberfieldsledtoarenewedinterestamongWashingtonofficials,notjustintheDepartmentsofCommerceandAgriculturebutinthePentagonaswell,tofindnewsourcesof“warrubber.”Therehadbeenadvancesoverthelastdecadeintheproductionofsyntheticrubber,yetitsproductionuseduptoomuchpetroleum,anequallyscarceresource.Afterwarbrokeout,theRooseveltadministrationsignedtreatieswithsixteenLatinAmericancountriestopromoterubberproduction,promisinggovernmentandprivateinvestmentandguaranteeinghighpricesfortheirlatex.Vargas,whoflirtedwithfascismbutquicklylinedupwiththeAllies,signedon.1

TheBrazilianAmazon,despitethemillionsofdollarsinvestedbyFord,wassupplyinglessthan1percentoftheworld’slatex.Inexchangefora$100millionloan,whichincluded$5milliontoinvestinAmazonrubber,Vargaspromisedtosellallofhiscountry’sexportablerubbertotheUnitedStatesatafixedpriceuntilDecember1946.RiobegantoworkcloselywithUSgovernmentagenciessuchastheRubberDevelopmentCorporation,theBoardofEconomicWarfare,andtheOfficeofInter-AmericanAffairs—headedbytheperipateticNelsonRockefeller,whobecauseofhisdeepbusinesstiesintheregionbecameFDR’smostinfluentialenvoytoLatinAmerica.TheideawastoencouragethemigrationoftensofthousandsoflaborerstotheAmazoninthehopeofjump-startingrubberproduction.These“rubbersoldiers”werepromisedcreditandtools,decenthousing,clothing,medicalattention,beefed-uplaborprotectionagainstlocalrubberbosses,andafixed,honest,andlivablepricefortheirlatex—inshort,aNewDeal–styleguaranteetoprotectthemagainstallthosemiseriescatalogedsovividlyinCarlLaRue’s1927report,miseriesthatthecomingofHenryFordtotheAmazonwassupposedtohaveended.

ArchieJohnstonbytemperamentandtrainingwasill-disposedtowelcometheattentionsofthefederalgovernment—betheyRio’sorWashington’s—intoFordlandia’saffairs,andhestillresentedhavingbeenforcedtorecognizetheplantationworker’sunion.Yethavingjustwitnessedthelast,consumingblightinfestationandcaterpillarinvasionatBelterra,hehadrunoutofideasabouthowtomoveforwardinBrazil.HetoldEdselthatpartnershipwiththegovernmentcouldperhapsfinallymakeFord’srubberestatesprofitableandthatWashington’spromisetopayanabove-marketpriceforlatexcouldoffsettheestate’scostoverruns.Healsothoughtthehyped“warforrubber”mightprovidemuchneededlabor.

SoatthesametimethatFordMotorsintheUnitedStateswassuspendingproductionofcivilian

vehiclestomeettheexclusiveneedsofitsnowsinglecustomer—buildingjeeps,planes,andtanksandallowingfederalrepresentativestomonitorproduction—Fordlandia,too,wasopeneduptoWashington.BotanistsfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturesetupshopinFordlandiaandBelterratostudyFord’stop-graftingandcross-fertilizationtechniques.Federalscientistswatchedworkersfuriouslybudgrafttreesinanattempttooutrunleafdiseaseandcaterpillarinfestations,andtheytooksamplesoftheplantation’srubberstockbackwiththemtoUSgovernmenttropicalresearchstationsinthePanamaCanalZone.InMay1942,EdselwrotealettertoJohnston,certainlynotvettedbyhisfather,sayinghehad“noobjection”totheDepartmentofAgriculture’sdistributingFordlandiaclonestootherLatinAmericancountries.2

ASTHEAMERICANpressgeareditselftowardpromotingthewareffort,Ford’sAmazonplantationsassumedtheirfinalincarnation:usefulembassiesofFDR’swartimeGoodNeighborPolicy,staginggroundsforNewDealdiplomacyintheAmazon.Aspartofthewareffort,Johnstonorderedplantationmanagerstopushforwardonafranticprogramofexpansion.BytheendofMarch1943,fieldworkershadtopgraftedmorethan820,000treesandperformedabout60,000handpollinationstobreedhigh-yielding,disease-resistantstock.Thenurseryhadproducedenoughclonestografthundredsofthousandsofcrownsontotreesalreadyplantedinthefield,andforastretchof1944,workerswereperformingtensofthousandsoftopgraftsamonth.“Mr.Johnstonandassistantsaresoberlyconfident,”wroteonejournalist,“butwithoutoverflowingenthusiasm.TheyhavebattledAmazoniatoolongforthat.ThesuccessfultreesIsaw,theirleavesglisteningandgreenastheyshouldbe,confronttheAmazonianjungleasforerunnersofmillionsofscionsbeingpreparedforotheradvancebases.SomeoneclosetothedevelopmentofplantationrubberintheAmazonBasintoldmethatanyoneexceptHenryFordwouldhavesurrenderedlongago.”Admittedly,Ford’srubberoutputmightbebuta“dropinthebucket,”butitwasenoughto“helpplugtheseriousleakinourstockpile.”Anditwould“increasegeometricallyyearafteryear.”Aslateas1945,onewriterwasforecastingthatFordlandiawouldbeproducingfivehundredtonsoflatexby1950.3

Buttheblightandthebugscontinuedtoundermineallefforts.ThoughBelterraandFordlandiawerefinallyproducingsomelatex,theiroperatingcostwasmuchhigherthanwhatrubberwastradingforontheinternationalmarket,despitethewar.Withlargeblocksofrubbertreesravagedbyleafblight,Belterraworkerswerecollectingonlyabout165poundsoflatexperacre,awoefullylowyieldconsideringtheamountofcapitalthathadbeeninvested.PeasantsinSumatrainthe1930s,incontrast,tappedabouttwicethatamountinthesameacreage.4

Yetwhilethetwoplantationswereeconomicfailures,theirwell-orderedtownsstoodasshiningexamplesoftheAmericandream.TravelwriterspouredintoLatinAmericatoreportonthestateofthewartimeGoodNeighborAlliance,andforthosetravelingthroughtheAmazon,FordlandiaandBelterrabecameobligatorylayovers,placeswheretheygladlytradedthepromiseofagoodstoryforagoodbed.AfteraroughtimeuptheTapajós,HenryAlbertPhillipswashappytofindatBelterraa“guesthousethatmighthavebeeninDearborn,Michigan,oreveninParadise,afterwhatIhadcomethroughtogetthere.Hotshower,frozenfreshfooddinner,electricfans,BeautyRestMattress,andthefirstsleepinweeksthatwasnotlikeasteambath.”Ford’sfirstAmazonplantationmighthavebeena“multiple-million-dollarfailure,”PhillipswroteinabookcalledBrazil:BulwarkofInter-AmericanRelations,butinBelterrahefoundthe“livingimageoftheghostlyFordlandia,”aplacewhere“Fordlandia’sbrightestdreamswerebeingsubstantiated.”

WaltDisneyvisitedFordlandiain1941onatourorganizedbyNelsonRockefeller’sOfficeofInter-AmericanAffairs,aspartoftheagency’smissiontopromotethecommercial,cultural,andscientificintegrationoftheAmericas.Threeyearslater,usingfilmfootagesuppliedbytheFordMotorCompany,DisneyreleasedadocumentaryundertheauspicesofRockefeller’sagencycalledTheAmazonAwakens,whichcelebratedtheFordtownasoneoftheAmazon’sfourgreatcities,alongwithIquitos,Manaus,andBelém.Thefilm,typicalofothersmadeduringthewartohighlightpan-Americangoodwill,includedimagesofAmericansplayinggolfonacoursethatlookedlikeitcouldhavebeenlocatedinCalifornia,rightwhereDisneyafterthewarwouldbuildhisownnamesakemodeltown.LikeFordlandia,whichpromisedtowrenchtheAmazonintomodernitywhilesimultaneouslyorganizingsquaredancesandpastoralpoetryreadingsforitsworkers,Disneyland’sthemedparkswouldmixandmatchdifferentexperiencesoftime:thestagecoaches,river-boats,andrailroadsofFrontierland,alongwithMainStreetUSA,modeledonDisney’shometownofMarceline,Missouri,capturedabygoneAmerica,whileTomorrowlandpointedtothefuture.AdventurelandfeaturedajunglerivercruiseonaboatcalledtheAmazonBelle.5

Fordlandia’sandBelterra’slaboratoriesandhospitalswereputtouseasfederalexperimentalstations,inanefforttoimprovethehealthandnutritionalconditionsoftheAmazonandsupportlarge-scalemigration.PlantationdoctorscooperatedcloselywiththeOfficeofInter-AmericanAffairs,whichinsupportofthewarforrubberwascarryingoutalarge-scalecampaigntoeliminatethediseasesthatstoodinthewayofmaintainingalarge,concentratedlaborforceinthejungle.Theysharedtheirresearchwithgovernmentpublichealthreformersonhowtofightmalaria,hookworm,andotherinfectiousdiseases.JohnstonevenorderedanewbuildingconstructedtohouseacorpsofBraziliannurseswhowouldworkundertheauspicesofRockefeller’shealthprogram.6

In1942,airforceofficialsrequestedthattheFordMotorCompanybuildarunwayinBelterratoconcealastashofplanes.GermanU-boatshadbeentargetingAlliedshipsoffBrazil’scoasts,andtheairforcewasnervousthatBelém’sairport—consideredoneofthemostcriticalalongtheUS–LatinAmerican–Africanroute—wasvulnerable.AfterconsultingwithEdsel,Johnstonagreed.Buthehopedatleasttogetsomelaborinexchangeforthiscooperation.“Youofcourseareaware,”hewrotetoLieutenantColonelCharlesWooley,“thatthereisagreatshortageoflabor,andtheentireprojectisonlypossibleifmoremenareobtainable.”Butnohelpwasforthcoming,andhehadtobuildtheairstripwiththeplantationworkershehadonhand.7

FordlandiaandBelterrawereineffectnationalized,bothpractically—theirclonesdistributedtootherplantationstosupportthewareffort,theirdoctorsandtechniciansplacedunderthecommandofRockefeller’sgovernmenthealthcampaign,andtheirlandandlaborputtotheserviceoftheUSmilitary—andsymbolically.HenryFordofcourseintendedFordlandiatobeanexampleofhisparticularAmericandream,ofhowFord-stylecapitalism—highwages,humanebenefits,andmoralimprovement—couldbringprosperitytoabenightedland,freeofgovernmentmeddling.Yetbytheearly1940s,Fordlandia’seconomicfailureactuallystrengthenedthehandofthosewhoadvocatedforincreasedgovernmentinvestmentin,andregulationof,therubberindustry,whileitscleanstreets,functioningutilities,andimpressiverecordinhygieneandhealthcaremadeitaneffectivesymbolofwhattheNewDeal–stylepoliticalandeconomiccooperationcouldaccomplishabroad,eveninaplaceasremoteandunderdevelopedastheAmazon.

Thoughnothingcameofit,JamesG.McDonald,headofFDR’sAdvisoryCommitteeonPolitical

Refugees,evensecuredHenryFord’stentativepermissiontoresettleEuropeanJewishrefugeesatFordlandia.McDonaldmetwithFordatDearbornonApril1,1941,alongwithHarryBennett,ArchieJohnston,andAlbertKahn,todiscussthematter.TheNazishadoverrunEasternEuropeandinvadedNorthAfrica,butPearlHarborwasstillafewmonthsinthefuture,sotheRiverRougehadyettobeturnedovertowartimeproduction.AsMcDonaldlaidouthisproposal,Bennettkeptinterruptingtheconferencetotakephonecalls.Asitturnedout,themeetingwastakingplaceontheverydaytheUAWlauncheditsstrikeofRiverRouge,andBennettwasissuingaseriesofurgentordersinanefforttocontainthesituation.Fordhimselfdidn’tlookwell,McDonaldthought.Hehad“agedmarkedly”sincethelasttimethetwohadmet.Hewas“vague”inhisresponsesandseemeddistracted,driftingoffontangents.“Weareonthisearthtoworkandfornothingelse,”hesaid;lazinesswasthecauseofmostoftheworld’sills,includingthewar.ArchieJohnstonrelatedthehistoryofFordlandiatoFDR’semissaryandsaidthathewasn’toptimisticaboutsettlinglargenumbersofEuropeanJewsontheplantation,since“forthemtoworkthelandwouldbetolosecastebecausealmostallofthelaborerstodayarecolorednatives.”JohnstonthoughtitwouldbebettertosendthemtosouthernBrazil,aroundSãoPaulo.Threetimesintheconversation,FordletMcDonaldknowthathethoughtsyntheticrubberwouldreplacenaturallatexandthathisBrazilianplantationswouldbebetterusedforthelarge-scalerelocationofsmallfarmers.HeagreedinprincipletosettleJewishexilesonthem,thoughherefusedtocommittoaspecificplanforaction.Andatanumberofpoints,bothBennettandFordinterruptedthediscussiontodeclare“theywerenotinterestedinthisschemeinanysenseasameansofeasingcriticismatMr.Ford’sallegedanti-Semitism.”8

EDSELDIEDIN1943,andforadangerouslylongmomentHarryBennetttotteredontheedgeoftakingcompletecontroloftheFordMotorCompany.AfterthefirstUAWcontractwassignedin1941,BennetthadmanagedtoretainandeventightenhisholdovertheincreasinglysenileFord.HeevendubiouslyclaimedthatHenryaddedacodiciltohiswillputtinghiminchargeofthecompanyuponhisdeath—which,afterFord’spassing,Bennettclaimedtohaveburned.YettherecognitionoftheUAWandtheestablishmentofagrievanceprocedurebegantoerodeBennett’spower,whosechiefsourceofauthority—theabilitytoterrorizeworkers—wastakenawayfromhim.Afteranother,thistimemajorstroke,Henry,againurgedonbyhiswife,Clara,turnedoverthecompanytohisgrandson.Inthis,shehadalittlehelpfromtheRooseveltadministration.Alarmedthatthecompanyitdependedonforwarmatérielwasbeingcrippledbyinfightingandmismanagement,theWhiteHousehadarrangedtheearlyreleaseoftheyoungHenryfromthenavy,hopingthathemightbeabletobringsomesanitytohisgrandfather’scompany.

HenryFordIItookoverabusinessworthoverabilliondollarsandemployingmorethan130,000workers—75,000ofthemintheRougealone.Yetithadnosystemofoversight(afewyearsearlier,HenryFordhadabolishedtheAccountingDepartmentwhenhelearnedthatEdselhad,withoutconsultinghim,orderedtheconstructionofanewofficebuilding)savetheremnantsofBennett’svastspynetwork,anditwaswrackedbyyearsofcorruptionandpilfering.MillionsofdollarsofmaterialwerestolenyearlyfromFordplants.Bennetthimselfsiphonedasubstantialcutfromnumerouscontracts.With“nocostcontrol,nomechanismforestablishingorcheckingplans,”theFordMotorCompanywasnotjustametaphoricallabyrinth.Itactuallyhadsecretlairswheremidlevelthugsenjoyedillicitpleasures.HenryIIbustedoneuppersonally,usinganironclubtobreakdownthedoor.TheinternaldisasteroftheFordMotorCompanyactuallymadeFordlandialooklikeamodelofefficiencyandtransparency.Andthecompanyhadn’tmadeacivilianvehicleinoverthreeyears.9

SoconsideringthepressureonHenryIItorebuildthecompanyandgetitreadyforpostwarproduction,hisdecisiontoselloffhisgrandfather’smanymoney-losingvillageindustries,includingholdingsintheUpperPeninsula,didn’ttakemuchthought.TheeconomicboomthattookplaceinthedecadesafterWorldWarIIwould“decentralize”Americanlife,butinitsownway—throughthegrowthoftheinterstatehighwaysystem,suburbandevelopment,andthemigrationofindustryfromtheNortheastandMidwesttotheSouth,theSouthwest,andthenabroad.Anditwouldn’tbepropelled,asFordoncepredicted,by“littlefactoriesalongthelittlestreams”orpoweredbywaterwheels,steam,orbeetjuice.

TheFordMotorCompany’sboardofdirectorsnamedHenryFordIIpresidentonSeptember21,1945.Oneofhisfirstacts,inearlyOctober,wastofireHarryBennett.Then,onNovember5,heturnedFordlandiaandBelterra,valuedatnearly$8million,with$20millioninvestedinthem,overtotheBraziliangovernmentfor$244,200—whichcoveredtheamountthecompanyoweditsplantationworkersunderVargas’slawsguaranteeingseverancepay.

HENRYFORDTOOKEdsel’sdeathhard.Thecarmakerhadtauntedhissonduringhislastyears,ashewastedawayfromwhatisnowcalledZollinger-Ellisonsyndrome,stomachtumorsthatoverproducecorrodingacid.FordtoldEdselthathissymptomswerecausedbyhisGrossePointe“highliving,”bywhatheate,ordidn’teat,howhechewed,whathedrank,andwhenheexercised.ShortlyafterEdseldied,Fordtoldthewifeofanemployee,astheywanderedaroundGreenfieldVillage,thatheknewthat“inlife,heandEdselhadnotalwaysunderstoodeachotherandattimescouldnotseeeyetoeye.”ButFord,theperfecterofmechanicalreproduction,believedinspiritualreproduction,thatis,reincarnation,andhehopedthat“beforetoolong,heandEdselwouldbetogetheragain”andthat“therewouldbebetterunderstandingandtheycouldcontinueworkingtogether.”10

RuinsofthesawmillatIronMountainintheUpperPeninsula.

Ford’shealthdeclinedrapidly.HespentmoreandmoretimeinGreenfieldVillage,aswellasinsomeoftheothertownsandmillsheownedthroughoutMichigan.ButevenbeforeHenryIIbegantounloadFord’svillageindustries,companyofficials,tryingtoconsolidateoperationstomakewartimeproductionmoreefficient,hadquietlyclosedtwoofhisfavorites.Bothwerelocatednearhissummerhome,ontheshoreofLakeSuperiorinMichigan’sUpperPeninsula:Pequaming,whichHenrypurchasedin1923,andAlberta,whichhehadconstructedfromscratchin1936,aroundthetimethatheandEdselapprovedthe

creationofBelterra.

Thoughthecompanyincreasinglydistanceditselffromitscontroversialfounder—formorethanhalfacentury,FordMotorswouldrarelymentionHenryinitsadvertising—manyintheUpperPeninsulacontinuedtoinvokeFord’sname.“Everybodyiscallingourvillageaghosttown,”saidonePequamingresidentin1942,afterthecompanybegantoremoveequipmentfromitsmill.Yetitsresidentsstillheldouthope.“Aslongasthere’saHenryFord,Pequamingwillstillbehere.”11

ForddidvisitPequamingoncemore,inthesummerafterEdsel’spassing.Nooneinthecompanytoldhimthatthemillhadbeenshutdown,sohewassaddenedtolearnthatthetown’sclapboardhouseshadbeenboardedupanditssawstilled.Fordwalkedaroundthevillageandtalkedwithafewofitsremainingfamilies.JustafewyearsearliermorethanfourhundredpeoplecalledPequaminghome.Nowonlyahandfulofitsseventy-fourhouseswereoccupied.ItsschoolhadbeenaspecialsourceofprideforFord,reminiscentofhisownboyhoodsingle-roomschoolhouse.Butthatdayallhesawwasa“shellofwallsandfloors,”itsdeskssoldoffanditsdoorspadlocked.Thetown’scaretakeraskedifhewantedtogoin.Fordsaidno.He“preferredtorememberitasitwaswiththesoundofchildren’svoices.”

RuinsofPequamingsawmill.

ThePequamingmillwhistleblewonelasttimein1947,anold-timerthinkssheremembers,tomarkFord’sdeath.

EPILOGUE

STILLWAITINGFORHENRYFORDWHENTHEFORDMOTORCOMPANYABANDONEDITSAMAZONholdingsinNovember1945,manyofitsworkersdidn’tknowtheAmericanswereleavinguntilthedaytheyboardedshipandembarkeddowntheTapajós.“Goodbye,we’regoingbacktoMichigan,”saidthewifeofFordlandia’slastmanagertohernanny,AméricaLobato.“Theydidn’ttakeanythingwiththem,theyjustleft,likethat,”Lobatorecalled.

InBelterra,thedeparturewasjustasquick.Workersfromtherubbernurseries,someofwhomhadlearnedbud-graftingtechniquesfromJamesWeir,wereassembledandtoldthatbothplantationswerebeingturnedovertotheBraziliangovernment’sInstitutoAgronômicodoNorte,headedbyFelisbertoCamargo.Aprogressiveagronomist,Camargobelievedthattherationalapplicationofscience,technology,andhygienecouldbringaboutapeaceful,satisfiedworld—aviewobviouslyrelatedtoHenryFord’searliertechnologicaloptimism.YethenceforththeagentofthatapplicationwouldbenotanindividualoraprivatecorporationbutagovernmentorganizationofthekindCamargoworkedfor.

InFordlandia,Camargopulledupmostoftherubbertreesclosesttothetown,insteadplantingjute,cacao,andotherexperimentalcropsandgrazinghumpbacked,floppy-earedcattleimportedfromIndia.Fordlandia,hesaidinareporttotheUnitedNations,wasan“utterfailure”dueto“blankignorance”andtherefusalto“testitstheoriesbyexperiment.”ButCamargodidcreditFordlandiawithbeingthe“truecradleofthetechniqueofdoublegrafting,”which,whileunabletosavetheplantation,hadbenefitedothers.“Aboveall,”theBrazilianagronomistsaid,theplacewasan“objectlessoninappliedscienceandaproofofhumancapacityinthefaceofademandingandill-understoodtaskonthelargestscale.”InBelterra,bythetimethecompanyleft,Fordworkershadplantedthirtythousandacresoflandwithabouttwomillionrubbertreesthatwerecrowngraftedandthus,finally,resistanttoleafblight.CamargoforecastthatthisoneplantationwouldsoonyieldannuallyaboutathirdasmuchrubberasalltheAmazondidattheheightoftheboom.HealsohopedthatitslargestocksofclonesandhybridscouldbesoldtoGoodyearandFirestoneplantations,withtheprofitsinvestedbackintoprojectstodeveloptheregion.1

ButthoughBelterra’stwice-graftedtreeswererunningsap,theycouldn’tcompetewiththelow-costlatexthatwasfloodingtheworldmarketfollowingJapan’sdefeatinthewar.America’srevivedautoindustrywaseitherbuyingitsrubberfromrecapturedMalaysian,Indonesian,andVietnameseplantationsorsynthesizingitfrompetroleum,nowaffordableasaresultofFranklinDelanoRoosevelt’s1945dealwithKingAbdulAzizofSaudiArabia,whotradedmilitaryprotectionforthecheapoilthatfueledAmerica’spostwareconomicexpansion.Yetitwasn’tjustlow-costorsyntheticlatexthatfoiledCamargo’splanstocontinuetheworkstartedbyFord.

Camargo,anappointeeofGetúlioVargas,understooditashistasktoincreasetheAmazon’sagriculturaloutputaswellastooverturnits“semi-feudal”socialstructure.Heproposedthatthegovernmentsupportthecreationoftappercooperativesandhelpthemselltheirlatexontheinternationalmarket,thusbypassingparasiticalmiddlemenandendingonceandforallthe“mostirrationalexploitationofmanandnaturalresources”—theverysystemthatFordsomanyyearsagohadpromisedtodoawaywith.Butoncethewarwasover,Vargas’sconservativeopponentsstagedacoupandremovedhimfrompower.IntheAmazon,old-guardmerchantsandtraders,havingwaitedoutFord,Vargas,andWorldWarII,regroupedandwentontheoffensive.TheylobbiedRiotostopsubsidizingplantationrubberand

reduceitsassistanceforhealthcare,education,andothersocialservicesthatthreatenedtounderminetheirpower.Claimingthereweremillionsofuntappedwildrubbertreesthroughoutthejungle,theysaidthatthebestwaytorevivethelatexeconomywastogobacktothewaythingsusedtobe,toforgetaboutcultivatingHeveaandpayingwagesandreturntoarelianceon“independent”—thatis,indebted—tappers.NotcontentwithhavingoutlastedHenryFord,therubberbaronswantedBelterratobebrokenupintosmalllotsandsoldoff.2

Belterraremainedintactforthetimebeing,yettherubbermerchantsandtradersgotmuchofwhattheywanted.CamargowaseventuallytransferredoutoftheAmazontoapostinRioandthefederalgovernmentshifteditssubsidiesdirectlytorubbermerchants,ineffectrevivingtheolddebtsystemthathadruledtheregionduringtheboom.ButhavingwontheskirmishagainstCamargo,theregion’soldrubberoligarchylostalargerwar.InMay1951,thefirstlatexshipmentfromSingaporearrivedintheBrazilianportofSantos,producedfromtreesthatwerethedirectdescendantsoftheseedsHenryWickhamsenttoKewGardensexactlyseventy-fiveyearsearlier.Brazilhaseversincereliedonimportedlatextomeetitsrubberneeds.3

Inthe1950s,FordlandiaandBelterrawereabandonedasecondtime,passedfromonegovernmentagencytoanother,eachinturnlesscommittedtotheirmanagementandupkeep.Somefamiliesmovedout,othersmovedin.Camargo’s“objectlesson”inlarge-scale,industrialagriculturalsciencerevertedtoanarchipelagoofsmall,dispersedhamletswherepeasants,manyofthemformerFordworkers,cultivatedplotsoflandamongthederelictrubberstands,thensellingthefruits,vegetables,andotherforestproductsinlocalmarkets.

ITWOULDBEtemptingtoreadthestoryofFordlandiaandBelterraasaparableofarrogance,justoneinalonglineoffailedbidstopressman’swillonthestoriedAmazon.Buttheparableisnotquiteright.Otherwould-bejungleconquerorstendedtobemotivatedbythesublimevastnessoftheAmazonitself,entrancedwiththeideaoftamingitswildness.The“sociologistmanufacturer,”though,hadhissightsonamoreformidablechallenge.Ford,themanwhointheearly1910shelpedunleashthepowerofindustrialismtorevolutionizehumanrelations,spentmostoftherestofhislifetryingtoputthegeniebackintothebottle,tocontainthedisruptionhehimselfletloose,onlytobecontinually,inevitablythwarted.Bornmorefrompoliticalfrustrationathomethanfromtheneedtoacquirecontroloveryetanotherrawmaterialabroad,FordlandiarepresentsincrystallineformtheutopianismthatpoweredFordism—andbyextensionAmericanism.Itrevealsthefaiththatadrivetowardgreaterefficiencycouldbecontrolledandmanagedinsuchawayastobringbalancetotheworldandthattechnologyitself,withouttheneedforgovernmentplanning,couldsolvewhateversocialproblemsarosefromprogress’sadvance.Fordlandiaisindeedaparableofarrogance.Thearrogance,though,isnotthatHenryFordthoughthecouldtametheAmazonbutthathebelievedthattheforcesofcapitalism,oncereleased,couldstillbecontained.

RuinsofFordlandia’spowerhouse.

ThoseunfetteredforcesaremostvisibleinManaus,aboutthreehundredmileswestofSantarém.Oncethegildedepitomeofarubber-boomexcess,Manausafterthebustbecamea“cityofthepast,”astheWashingtonPostobserved,withthedropinlatexprices“actingmoreslowlybutassurelyastheashesofVesuviusinPompeii.”4Thecityrevivedonlyinthelate1960s,whenBrazil’smilitaryregimedecreeditafree-tradezone.Exemptfromimporttariffs,ManausbecameBrazil’snationalemporium.CargoshipsarrivedatitsdeepwaterportfromtheUnitedStates,Europe,andAsiatounloadconsumergoods.In1969,theNewYorkTimeswasreportingthata“feverishprosperity”hadreturned,asBraziliansfromRio,SãoPaulo,andotherpointssouthtookadvantageofimproved,subsidizedairflight,flyingintothecitytopurchaseduty-freetoys,fans,radios,airconditioners,andtelevisionsets.Atthesametime,themilitarygovernmentprovidedsubsidiesandreducedexporttaxestostimulateindustry,turningthecityintooneoftheworld’sfirstbrand-nameassemblyzones—similartotheMexicanmaquilasthatwerethenbeginningtopressagainstthethesouthernborderoftheUnitedStates.Today,Manaus’sindustrialparksarehometoaboutahundredcorporateplants,includingHonda,Yamaha,Sony,Nokia,Philips,Kodak,Samsung,andSanyo.In1999,Harley-Davidsonopeneditsfirstoffshorefactoryinthecity.GillettehasitslargestSouthAmericanfacilityhere.WhenaconsumerinLatinAmericapurchasesaDVDplayer,cellphone,TV,bicycle,ormotorcycle,thereisagoodchanceitwasassembledinthemiddleoftheworld’slargesttropicalforest.5*

WiththehighestpopulationgrowthrateinBrazil,Manaushasgonefromlessthan200,000peopleinthemid-1960stonearly3,000,000residentstoday.ThecityburstsoutoftheAmazonlikeaperverseOz,steadilyeatingawaythesurroundingemeraldfoliage.LikemanyotherThirdWorldcities,Manausisplaguedbyrisingpovertyandcrime,childprostitution,gridlockedtraffic,pollution,andpoorhealthcare.Thereisnosewageplantinthecity,anditswasteflowsuntreatedintotheRioNegro.Manausaccountsfor6percentofBrazil’stotalmanufacturing,andprovidesaboutahundredthousandjobs.Yetnomatterhowdynamicitsexportsector,thecitycan’tpossiblygiveemploymenttoallthemigrantswhotravelfromtheruralAmazonandbeyond,desperateforwork.Onflightsin,visitorscanseetheluxurycondominiumsthatrisehighalongtheriver’ssandybanksand,pressedupagainstthem,low-lyingslumsbuiltonwobblystiltstoprotectagainstriverflooding,adramaticlandscapeofinequalityinoneofthemostunequalcountriesintheworld.ItmakesthedistancethatseparatedthehomesofAmericanmanagersfromthoseofBraziliansinFordlandianegligibleincomparison.6

CitieslikeManaus,basedontheassemblyofcorporatebrand-nameproducts,arethetrueheirsofFord’slegacy.TheireconomiesaremadepossiblebyaprocessifnotstartedthanatleastperfectedbyFord’sfactorylines,thatis,bythebreakingupofindustrialproductionintoaseriesofreducible,routinized,andreproducibleparts.Ford,ofcourse,imaginedhisindustrialmethodasleadingtogreatersocialcohesion.Inhismoreutopianmoments,heenvisionedaworldinwhichindustryandagriculturecouldexistinharmony,withfactoriesprovidingseasonallaborforfarmersandindustrialmarketsforagriculturalproductslikesoybeans.It’saneasyvisiontomock,especiallyconsideringthebrutalityanddehumanizingdisciplinethatreignedattheRiverRouge.YetactualFordismatitsmostvigorousalbeitshort-livedstagedidresultinakindofholism,wheretheextractionandprocessingofrawmaterials,integratedassemblylines,working-classpopulations,andconsumermarketscreatedvibranteconomiesandrobustmiddleclasses.Anchoringitallwasabeliefthatdecentpaywouldleadtoincreasedsales.YetevenasFordwaspreachinghisgospelof“highwagestocreatelargemarkets,”Fordismasanindustrialmethodwasmakingthebalanced,wholeworldFordlongedforimpossibletoachieve.

Today,thelinkbetweenproductionandconsumption,andbetweengoodpayandbigmarkets,hasbeenbroken,invalidatedbytheglobalextensionofthelogicoftheassemblyline.Harley-Davidson,forinstance,doesnotmakemotorcyclesfromstarttofinishinManausbutratherassemblesbikesfrompartsmanufacturedelsewhere,whichitthensellsintheBrazilianmarket.Sonylikewiseusesfree-tradezones(notjustManausbutColóninPanama,UshuaiainsouthernArgentina,andIquiqueinnorthernChile)aslow-taxentrepôtsintonationalmarkets.Thefinalconfectionoftheproductinthesecitiesisaformality,donetoexempttheproductfromimporttaxes.InManaus,SonyputstogetherTVs(overamillionayear)andaudioequipmentfromcomponentpartsmadeincountrieswithevenlowerlaborcostsandcertainlylesslaborprotectionthaninBrazil.

Inotherwords,thereisnorelationshipbetweenthewagesHarley-Davidsonpaystomakeitsproductsandtheprofitsitreceivesfromsellingthem.InsteadofFord’svirtuouscircuitofhighwagesanddecentbenefitsgeneratingexpandingmarkets,aviciousonenowrules:profitsarederivednotfromwell-paidworkersaffluentenoughtobuywhattheyhavemadebutfromdrivingpricesaslowastheycango;thisinturnrendersgoodpayandhumanebenefitsnotonlyunnecessaryforkeepingtheeconomygoingbutimpossibletomaintain,sincethebest,andattimestheonly,placetocutproductioncostsislabor.Theresultisaracetothebottom,asystemofperpetualdeindustrializationwherebycorporations—including,mostdramatically,theFordMotorCompanyitself—bowbeforeaglobaleconomythattheyoncemastered,movingmanufacturingabroadinordertoreducelaborcostsjusttosurvive.

Ford’sRiverRougeemployeeswereoncesomeofthehighest-paidindustrialworkersintheworld.Buttheynowmakeafractionofwhattheydidthreedecadesagoand,withFord’scontinuedexistenceasacompanyhangingbyaslenderthread,arecontinuallyaskedforbiggerandbiggergivebacks.In2007,theUAW,inanefforttoconvinceFordtomakeitsnew“worldmarket”modelFiestaintheUnitedStates,offeredtocutstartingwagesbyhalf,tolessthanfifteendollarsanhour.Itdidn’twork.InJune2008,thecompanyannouncedthatitwouldsetupproductioninMexico,wheretheunionthereagreedtocutwagesfornewhirestohalfoftheprevailingsalaryof$4.50anhour.InordertostaycompetitivewithChina,somefactorieshavecuthourlywagestoaslowas$1.50anhour.Povertyisnotjustaconsequencebutanecessarycomponentofthisnewsystemofpermanentausterity.InFord’sday,highwages,asidefromtheirroleincreatingconsumermarkets,wereneededtobuildareliablelaborforce.Today,miseryplaysthatrole.“Iguaranteeyouthatifweadvertisefor2,000workers,”admitsJuanJoséSosaArreola,theMexicanunionleaderwhohelpednegotiatewagecutsinordertoconvinceFordtomaketheFiestainMexico,“10,000peoplearegoingtoshowup.”Everyyear,thesamekindofdesperationpushestensof

thousandsofmigrantsintoManaus—andmillionsintocitieslikeitacrosstheglobe.Inthe1920s,Fordthoughtthatthe“flow”ofhistorywasmovingawayfromcities.Butin2008,morethanhalfoftheearth’sinhabitantswerereportedtobelivingincities,abillionofthem—asixthoftheworld’spopulation—inslums.7

InthelowerAmazon,then,alongaboutathree-hundred-mileaxis,runsthehistoryofmoderncapitalism.OnoneendisFordlandia,amonumenttothepromisethatwasearly-twentieth-centuryindustrialization.“Fordbuiltusahospital;hepaidhisworkerswellandgavethemgoodhouses,”aFordlandiaresidenttoldaLosAngelesTimesreporterin1993.“Itwouldbeniceifthecompanywouldcomeback.”OntheotherisManaus,acityplaguedbythekindofurbanproblemsFordthoughthecouldtranscendbutwhoseveryexistenceowesmuchtothesystemhepioneered.TryingtoreproduceAmericaintheAmazonhasyieldedtooutsourcingAmericatotheAmazon.8

ASMANAUSCONTINUESitsoutwardsprawl,Fordlandia,too,hasexperiencedaninfluxofnewmigrants.Theylargelycomenotfromthenortheast,asFord’smendideightyyearsago,butfromthesouth,fromtheAmazonstateofMatoGrosso,arrivingalonganeleven-hundred-miledirthighwaythatisanimpassiblemudtrenchformuchoftherainyseason.ManyofFordlandia’srecentsettlersraisedcattleinMatoGrosso,atradetheybroughtwiththemtotheirnewhome.Ford’sopinionthatcowswerethecrudest,mostinefficientmachinesintheworldisnotunjustifiedconsideringtheamountoflandandenergyittakestokeeponealive.Between2000and2005,cattleranchingaccountedfor60percentofdeforestation,andtodayBrazilistheworld’slargestexporterofcows,withits180,000,000-headherdequalingthesizeofitspopulation.AtleastathousandofthemcanbefoundatFordlandia,grazingalongtheriverbankandonwhatwasFordlandia’sgolfcourse.Thetown’stenniscourthasyieldedtocattlestalls.Butmostlythecowsroamandruminateonthehillsidespreviouslyplantedwithrubber,nowconvertedtopastureland.9

RatherthanmarkingarevivalofFordlandia,thenewsettlerssignalafreshwaveofdespoliation,partofalargershiftinthebalanceofpowerbetweenmanandnature.ManyhaveobservedtheironiesinvolvedinFord’svariedeffortstoharmonizeindustryandagriculture,beitinthewoodsoftheUpperPeninsula,alongthewaterwaysofsouthernMichigan,orinAppalachia’sTennesseeValley.ButthemostprofoundironyiscurrentlyondisplayattheverysiteofFord’smostambitiousattempttorealizehispastoralistvision.IntheTapajósvalley,threeprominentelementsofFord’svision—lumber,whichhehopedtoprofitfromwhileatthesametimefindingwaystoconservenature;roads,whichhebelievedwouldknitsmalltownstogetherandcreatesustainablemarkets;andsoybeans,inwhichheinvestedmillions,hopingthattheindustrialcropwouldreviverurallife—havebecometheprimaryagentsoftheAmazon’sruin,notjustofitsfloraandfaunabutofmanyofitscommunities.

There’sanewcommercialsawmillinoperationatFordlandia,andthoughitstechnologyisnotmuchimprovedfromwhatJohnRoggeandMattMulrooneyhadavailableeightyyearsago,it’shadmuchmoresuccessatexportingwoodthanForddid.Themill’sowner,RaymundoDonato,isamusedwhenaskedifhefacesthekindsofproblemsthatsovexedFord,fromtermitesandwoodthatistoohardortoosofttothevalley’swarp-inducinghumidity.Thereareusesnowforsoftwoodthatdidn’texistbackthen,hesays.ThekapokceibaisoneoftheTapajós’stallesttrees,risinghighabovetheforestcanopy,butFordlandia’ssawyersconsidereditswoodtobeworthlesspulp.Today,though,themajestictreecanbeshreddedandthenpressedignoblyintoparticleboard.ManyofFord’sotherproblemshadtodowiththefactthathiswoodsatattheplantationforweeks,oftenmonths,vulnerabletotheweatheruntilabig

enoughlotcouldbeassembledtomakeashipmentbacktotheUnitedStatesworththecostoftransportation.DonatoonlyhastosendbatchesoflumberafewhourstothetownofItaituba,wheretheboardsaredrykilned,strappedwithmetalbandstopreventwarping,andthenfloateddownrivertobesoldtooneofthebigtimbermultinationals.

Donatoemploysabout125localresidentsandproducesgradedtimberforexporttotheUnitedStates,Canada,Europe,andAsia.Hispermitsareallinorder,heinsists,andhestrictlyfollowsenvironmentallaw,usingtechniquesofselectivetimberingthatallowtheforesttoreproduce.Mostofthethousandsofsmallmillsthatexistthroughouttheforest,however,operateillegally,andloggingisresponsibleforabout6percentofdeforestation.Inearly2008,satelliteimageryshowedashockingincreaseintherateofrainforestclear-cutting.“Neverbeforehavewedetectedsuchahighdeforestationrate,”saidGilbertoCâmara,headoftheNationalInstituteforSpaceResearch.Theworldwasremindedthatithadalreadylost20percentoftheAmazon’s1.6millionsquaremiles,andifthepacecontinued,40percentofwhatwasleftwouldbegoneby2050.Inresponse,thefederalgovernmentlaunchedanoperationtocrackdownonillegallogging.Woefullyunderstaffedinrelationtothesizeoftheterritorytobecovered,governmentagentsdecidedtofocusonkeytownsorcitieswherecontrabandwoodcomesinfromthejungletobe“laundered”andtransformed,bybriberyorfakedpaperwork,intolegitimateexportcargo,soldtomultinationalslikeJapan’sEidaiCorporation,China’sTianjinFortuneTimber,andtheNewOrleans–basedRobinsonLumberCompany,whichenjoythepatinaoflegitimacyeventhoughtheyoperateatjustadegreeofseparationfromthelawlessnessthatplaguesmuchoftheAmazon’slumberindustry.10

Tailândia,afast-growingcityofsixty-fivethousandpeoplelocatedtwohourssouthofBelém,isonesuchpotentialchokepoint,hometodozensofsmallmillsandtheofficesofanumberoflargetimbermultinationals.Logging,legalornot,providesneededincometomanyinthestateofPará,andinTailândiaanestimated70percentofthecity’spopulationmaketheirlivingoffwood.SowheninspectorsarrivedintowninFebruary2008,theyweremetbythousandsofprotesters,whoburnedtires,erectedbarricades,andtookanumberofgovernmentofficialshostage.Riosentinreinforcements,hundredsofheavilyarmedpolice,toretakethetown.Theyrestoredorder,confiscatingfivehundredtruckloadsofwoodvaluedat$1.5millionandclosingdowndozensofunlicensedmills.Federalagentsalsodestroyedhundredsofillegalovensusedtomakebootlegcharcoal,whichisshippedtosouthernBrazil,whereitisusedtofireblastfurnacesthatsmeltpigiron.ThisaspectoftheillegallumberindustryisparticularlydevastatingtotheAmazon’sfuturesincethesecharcoalovensburnyoungtreestoosmalltobemilled—theforest’smostreproductivelyhealthyandactivegeneration.Tailândia’sovensaloneconsumetensofthousandsofsaplingsamonth.11

Thecharcoalindustryalsohashorrifichumanconsequences.InDecember2006,aBloombergNewsinvestigationfoundthatmuchAmazoniancharcoalwasmadebystarving,disease-riddenslaves.Luredtotheregionwithpromisesofgood-payingwork,wholefamilieswereheldcaptiveincampsdeepinthejungle,givenpolluted,parasite-riddenwatertodrinkandmiserablefoodtoeatandforcedtosleepinwindowlesscorrugatedtinshacks,unbearablyhotontheirownbutevenmoresoowingtotheirclosenesstothekilns.Childrenwerelefttoplayinthemud,livingwithmalaria,dyingfromtuberculosisandotherillnesses.TheAmazonistodayhometoanestimatedtwentythousandmodernslaves,“peoplewhohaveabsolutelynoeconomicvalueexceptascheaplaborunderthemostinhumaneconditionsimaginable,”saysMarceloCampos,anofficialwiththeBrazilianMinistryofLabor.Thecharcoalisusedtomakepigiron,whichisexportedtotheUnitedStatestobeturnedintosteelforconsumerproductsmanufacturedbysomeoftheworld’sbiggestcorporations,includingtheFordMotorCompany.Thismodernformofjungle

slaveryis,asCampospointsout,a“keypartoftheglobalized,export-orientedeconomyBrazilthriveson.”12*

Bysomeestimates,loggingisatwo-billion-dollar-a-yearindustryinPará,withwoodgoingfor$275acubicmeter,orabout$1,300atree.It’sahigh-stakesbusiness,andviolencehasbecomeanelementalpartofthetrade.In2005ineasternPará,gunmenhiredbyloggerskilledSisterDorothyStang,aMaryknollnunfromtheUnitedStateswhohadbeenworkingwithlocalruralcommunitiestoopposeillicitlogging.Inearly2008,justsoutheastofwhereStangwasmurdered,EmivalBarbosaMachadowasshottodeathashewasleavinghishouse,probablyforprovidinginformationtoofficialsaboutcriminallogging.Afewyearsago,gangsofarmedloggersmaraudedthroughlandsclaimedbytheRioPardoIndians,chasingthemaway,sackingvaluabletrees,andleavingdesolationintheirwake.Between1971and2004,772activistsworkingtoeitherdefendhumanrightsorslowdeforestationhavebeenexecutedinPará.Onlythreecaseshavebeenbroughttotrial.

ROADS,TOO,WHICHFordpromoted,haveacceleratedthedevastationoftheAmazon.WiththeannouncementthattheFordMotorCompanyplannedtoestablisharubberplantationinthelargelyroadlessjunglecamemuchspeculationinthelocalpressthatitwouldbuildmajorhighwayslinkinginteriorareaslikeMatoGrossotoportsandmarkets.Suchprojectsnevermaterialized,thoughplantationworkersinbothFordlandiaandBelterralaidoutdozensofmilesofroadbed,bothtoopenuptheestates’hinterlandsforplantingandloggingandtoallowstaffmemberstogoonshortcartripstoescapeboredom.ButintheyearssinceGetúlioVargastraveledfromBelterratoManaustogivehis“MarchtotheWest”speech,roadconstructionhasincreasedrapidly.Inthe1960s,thegovernmentbuilta1,200-milehighwayconnectingBelémtothenewcapitalofBrasilia,andthe3,000-mileTrans-AmazonianHighwaywasinauguratedin1972,withthehopeofpromotingmigrationoutofthedrought-plaguednortheastintothelesspopulatedrainforest.

RoadbuildingintheAmazonhascreatedwhatsocialecologistshavedescribedasadestructive“feedbackcycle.”Migrantsmoveinandlandvaluesrise.Often,theconstructionoftheroadandthearrivaloffarmers,ranchers,loggers,speculators,andsettlersbringdiseaseto,andsparkconfrontationwith,indigenouspeoples.Always,theadvanceofroadsputssuddenandrapidpressureonthelocalecology.Forestiscleared,cattlearegrazed,andcropsareplanted.Suchactivityfragmentsecosystems—whosebiologicaldiversitydependsonmaintaininganextensive,uninterruptedmassofforest—intosmallerandsmallersections,propellingtheextinctionoffloraandfaunaandincreasingtheriskofforestfires.Theprofitsgeneratedfromtheincreasedeconomicactivityleadtoadditionalroadbuilding,mostofitillegal.Dirtspursshootoffthemainspineofthehighway,creatinga“fishboneeffect”startlinglyvisiblefromtheair.Meanwhile,poorsettlerfarmers,enticedbytheprospectofcheap,abundantland,quicklyfindthat,oncestrippedoftrees,theAmazon’ssoilbecomesexhausted.Sotheypushfartherintotheforest.Andtheprocessbeginsalloveragain.TherearecurrentlymorethanahundredthousandmilesoflegalandillegalroadscuttingthroughtheAmazon,eachatonetimepromisingtobringprosperityanddevelopmentbutmostoftendeliveringbloodshed,displacement,impoverishment,andclear-cutting.

TheroadthatbringsMatoGrossomigrantstoFordlandia,BR-163,continuesnortheast,eventuallyreachingitsterminusinSantarém.Formuchoftheway,totheleftonthenorthwestsideofthehighway,standstheTapajósNationalForest,whichincludesagoodportionoftheoriginalFordlandiaconcession.It’soneoftheAmazon’sfirstprotectedareas,overamillionacresofrelativelyintactforestandhometoanumberofindigenouscommunities.Itwasherethat,startingin2000,DanielNepstad,ascientistaffiliatedwiththeWoodsHoleResearchCenterinMassachusetts,covered2.2acresoflandwithaclearplastic

tarpforfiveyearstosimulateaprolongeddryperiod.TheresultsoftheexperimentsuggestedthatthekindofmultiyeardroughtsthattheAmazonhaswitnessedoflate,alongwithageneraldecreaseinprecipitationduringtherainyseason—whichmanyidentifyasaneffectofthedeforestation—willgreatlyhinderthejungle’sabilitytoreproduce.Sometreesshowedastubbornresilience,drawingwaterfrommorethanfortyfeetinthesoil.Butthesoileventuallydriedout,andafterfouryearsthedeathrateoflargecanopytrees,thosethatreachupto150feetintotheopensun,jumpedfrom1percentto9percent.Alltreesdemonstratedasignificantslowingofgrowth,whichmeansthatifthedryingtrendcontinues,notonlywilltheforestbeshorterandstuntedbutitsabilitytoabsorbcarbon,whichplaysanimportantroleincoolingtheearth’stemperature,willbecurtailed.“Thisexperimentprovidesresearcherswithapeekintothefutureofthismajesticforest,”Nepstadsays.13

THEFUTURECANbeseenquiteclearlyontheothersideofBR-163.PushingagainsttheroadiswhatenvironmentalistscalltheAmazon’s“soyfrontier,”openlandclear-cutforpasturesorplantations,dottedwithtuftsoftreesandtheoccasionalramshacklehamlet.Fordspentmillionsofdollarstryingtofindnewusesforsoy,andhisdreamhasbeenmorethanrealized:today’scorporateagribusinessisFord’s“chemurgy”onsteroids.Soycannowbefoundinanarrayofmass-producedproducts,fromanimalfeed,petfood,andbabyformulatofastfoodandbiofuels.Overthelasttwodecades,industryscientistshavegonebeyondanythingthatGreen-fieldVillagechemistscouldhaveimagined,asgeneticallymodifiedsoycanbefoundinabout60percentofallprocessedfoods,mostoftenasoilorfiller.Asaresult,growingEuropean,Asian,andUSdemandhasturnedBrazilintothesecond-largestproducerofsoy.14

SoyisoneoftheAmazon’sleadingcausesofdeforestation.Inoneyearalone,betweenAugust2003andAugust2004,plantersclearedover10,000squaremilesoftheAmazon,roughlythesizeofBelgium.MostofthisplantingisinthesouthernscrublandsoftheAmazonbasin,inthestateofMatoGrosso.Butinrecentyears,soyhascreptnorthtotheTapajós,andasitdoes,itdisruptsmanymorelivesatamuchquickerpacethandoeslogging,notwithstandingallthecrueltyandcoercionthataccompaniesthattrade.Whereloggingdisplacessettlementsinscattershotfashion,soydevourscommunitiesmoreinexorably,displacingfarmingandranchingfamilieswithasmuchdisregardasitfellstrees.Becausethecropiscultivatedonlarge-scale,mechanizedplantations,itdoesn’tprovidemuchemploymentforthoseuprootedbyitsmarch.Atthesametime,theextensionofmonoculturesqueezesouttheplantingofvegetablesandfruitsproducedforlocaluse,aslandismoreprofitablyusedtogrowsoythan,say,papayaandsodramaticallyraisesthepriceofwhatcrops—moreandmoreimportedfromoutsidetheregion—dogettomarket.

In2002,themultinationalagroindustrygiantCargill,hopingtoinducethefederalgovernmenttopaveBR-163—andtherebymakeiteasierforthecompanytoexportitsMatoGrossoharvest—spent$20milliontobuildagranarywarehouseandportinSantarém,withaprotrudingconveyorrunningtothreedeepwaterchutesdesignedtofilltheholdsofthelargestcargoshipswithsoybeans.*SantarémhaduntilrecentlylargelyremainedasleepyprovincialtownnotthatdifferentfromwhenthepoetElizabethBishopwroteabouther“goldenevening”ontheTapajós.ThatchangedafterCargillbuiltitsterminal.Speculatorsanddevelopersmovedin,andthepriceofahectare(2.47acres)oflandskyrocketed,from$25in2000tomorethan$500eightyearslater.Manypoorfarmersorrancherswereunabletoresistsuchapayoff.Sellingtheirland,theymovedintoSantarémproper,whoseinfrastructurewasunpreparedtohandletheinflux.Thismigrationlednotjusttoshantysprawlbuttoadramaticincreaseinthecostofbasicgrains,fruits,vegetables,andmeat.Withoverthreehundredsquaremilesofsurroundingfarmlandnowusedforsoy,there’smuchlessroom,andconsiderablylessfinancialincentive,togroworanges,

pineapples,manioc,andgreensortograzecowsandpigs.15

HenryFordplacedgreathopeinsoybeans,projectingthatthecropwouldprovideamuchneededfinanciallifelinetofarmingcommunitiesstrugglingtosurviveasindustrializationpushedagriculturalpriceslowerandlower.Hispromotionofsoywaspartofhiseffortstobalancefarmandfactorysothatmechanizationwouldnotdestroycommunitybutfulfillit.ButinBelterra—Ford’slastsustainedefforttostrikesuchabalance—soyhaswipedoffthemapthedozensofsmallvillagesthathadspreadoutfromthecenterofthetownoverthelastcoupleofdecadesand,alongwiththem,theschools,churches,andfamilynetworksthataretheheartofanycommunity.

BelterrastandsjustoffBR-163,aboutanhoursouthofSantarém,onaflatplateauperfectformechanizedsoybeancultivation.In2001,hardlyanysoywasgrowninitsboundaries.Today,tensofthousandsofBelterra’sflatlandhectaresareplantedwithsoy.Itisexpensivetocutdownvirginjungle.TheformerpresidentofCargill’sBrazilianoperationstoldmethatitcostsabout$1,500toclearonehectare,whichmeansthataplantationof,say,fivehundredhectareswouldtakeyearstoreapaprofit,evenconsideringthehighpriceofsoy.Thisexpenseiswhygrowersliketomoveintolandalreadyclearedforcattlepasturesandsmallfarms(oftenpushingfarmersandrancherstoinitiateanothercycleofdeforestation).ItisalsowhatmakesBelterra,inadditiontoitslevelsoil,soattractive.Ford’smenalreadydidmostofthework.*

Thesoyfrontier:Belterra.

Untilrecently,storiestoldabouttheAmazontendedtoemphasizethejungle’sunconquerableenormity,itsimmenseindifferencetoman’spunyambitions,aplotlinethatcaptureswellthehistoryofFordlandia.Thathaschanged,ofcourse.It’stheforestthatnowappearsfrail,asBelterravividlydemonstrates.Nearlyeightdecadesago,Ford’smenslippedandslidinthemudintheirfour-cylinder,20-horsepowerModelFtractorsor27-horsepowerModelNs—“ironmules”theywerecalled—topreparethelandtoplantrubbertrees.Today,developersuseCaterpillarD-9sorD-11s,orKomatsuD275s,treadedbehemothsweighingasmuchasahundredtonsandrunningonupto900horsepowertoplowdownthosesametrees.Theyareoutfittedwithspecialcuttingbladesangledtopushthefelledwoodtotherightasthemachineadvances.Theprotrudingpartofthebladeisspiked,lettingoperatorsstabandtwistthetrunksofobstinatetrees.Attherearofthedozersaremounted“rippers,”multishankhydraulicplowstopulluptrunksandbreakrocks.Oncethedownedtreesaregatheredinapilewithabackhoe,thesamegroundis

passedoveronceagain,thistimebytwotractorstetheredtogetherbyaheavychainweigheddownbyarollingsteelballthatyanksoutrootsystemsasitisdraggedforward.Soyitselfdoesitspartinforcingthejungletoyield.DomesticatedintemperateAsia,thebeanisnotnativetoBrazil,muchlessisitsuitedtothehotandhumidAmazon.Butadvancesininsecticides,pesticides,fungicides,andphosphate-heavyfertilizer,alongwiththecreationofcrossbred“tropicalsoy,”haveallowedAmazongrowersnotjustonecropbuttwoayear.AndBrazilhasjustpermittedfarmerstousegeneticallyengineeredseeds—alogicalextensionofFordismintothecellularstructure—makingpossiblethespreadofsoyeverdeeperintotherainforest.

SomeBelterraresidentstriedtoholdout.Buttheyfoundthemselves,asdescribedinareportinNationalGeographic,“encircledbyanencroachingwasteland,aswhiningchainsawsandragingfiresconsumedthetreesrightuptotheedgeoftheirland.Theiryardswereoverrunwithvipers,bees,androdentsescapingtheapocalypse,andwhentractorsbegansprayingtheclearedfields,toxiccloudsofpesticidesdriftedintotheirhomes.”Theiranimalsdied.Familymembersbecameill.JoãodeSousahasraisedcattleforoverfourdecadesonhissmallranch.Hislandisnowanislandinaseaofsoy,asallofhisformerneighborshavesoldtheirfarmsandmovedout.“Theyneverputadykeup,”Sousacomplainedofthenewsoyplanters.“Chemicalswentintothebrookwherethecowsdrank.”He’slost88ofhis120-headcowherdasaresult.“OncewhenIwasbythefieldandtheywerespraying,IstartedtofeeloddandIcollapsedonthetrack.”Elsewhere,inwhatitsformerresidentsnowdescribeasthe“ghostvillage”ofGlebaPacoval,somefamiliesatfirstrefusedtoselltheirland.Buthiredgunmensetfiretotheirhomes,drivingthemout.Unionactiviststriedtoorganizeagainstintimidation,onlytobebarragedbydeaththreats.16

SPAREDTHEDESTRUCTIONsufferedbysurroundingvillages,Belterra’stowncenterstilllooksmuchthewayitdidwhenArchieJohnstonandCurtisPringlebuiltit,withwhite-and-greenCapeCodbungalowssetbackfromstraightstreets,theirfrontyardsplantedwithneatflowergardens.AndjustasFord,buffetedbythechangesthatswirledaroundhim,lookedtothepastforsolace,Belterra’smunicipalauthorities,practicallyswallowedupbysoy,haveturnedtohistoryforrelief.Inrecentyears,theyhavetriedtopromotetheirtownasatouristattraction,puttingoutabrochurerecountingitsuniqueroleasoneofHenryFord’smostremoteoutposts,whosearchitecture“remindsoneofasmallAmericantownintheMidwestinthe1920s.”“Thelocalpeople,”itreads,“stillpreservethecustomofhavinggardensaroundtheirhouses,”becausethe“FordCompanygaveprizesforthebestgarden.”Thebrochurealsocallsattentiontothewell-maintained“HouseNumberOne,”aspacioushomewithlargeroomsandaprivilegedviewfromthebalcony.This“houseofdreams”was“designedespeciallyforthecreatoroftheProject:HenryFord.”TheindustrialistwasallsettotraveltoBelterra,theguidebooksays,butfortydaysbeforetheplannedvisitEdseldied.Thetripwascanceled,and“localswonderifHenryFordhadcome,thenperhapshewouldneverhaveabandonedBelterra.”

BackuptheTapajósatFordlandia,removedfornowfromsoy’sonslaught,palpableneglectblanketsthetown,despiteitsrecentbustle.Contrastedwiththebroad,well-keptstreetsondisplayinoldphotographsoftheplacefoundintheFordArchives,manyofitsroadsaretodaycrowdedbyscrubandspindlytrees,theirbranchesoverhangingpotholedmacadam.Inonephoto,concretecrosseslinethesettlement’scemeteryinneatrows,withshornhillsandopenskiesinthebackground.Nowtheburialgroundisoverrunbyforestandweeds,itscrucifixesoff-kilter.Aclutchoffallencrosses,mostdatingfromthe1930s,theirinscriptionslongwornoff,havebeengatheredupandproppedagainstatreeinthecenterofthegraveyard.AtAlbertKahn’sdecrepithospital,thefloorisstrewnwithpatientrecordsfrom

1945,theyearFordturnedthetownovertotheBraziliangovernment,thoughthebuildinghasbeenusedasaclinicperiodicallyoverthelastcoupleofdecades.

AméricaLobatoinfrontofherpaintingsofrubbertreesandthewatertower.

Someresidentshavetriedtokeepupappearances.AsinBelterra,infrontofmanyofthestillinhabitedbungalows,neatpatchesofrosebushes,tangerineandpeachtrees,alongwithSpanishplumsandpalmfruits,accentthetown’selegiacquality.Andinevitablyatsomepointinanyconversation,residentswillpointoutthatFordnevervisitedFordlandia,eventhoughhekeptpromisingthathewould.“Fordlandiawasbornanddiedexpectingavisitfromitspatron,”writesyetanotherBraziliantravelguide.Itsinhabitants,theguidesays,keep“oneoftheroomsofthebesthouseintheAmericanneighborhoodinapermanentstateofpreparation.”

Giventhewaste,slavery,andruinationvisitedonmuchoftheAmazontodaytheirlongingisunderstandable.HenryFord’svisionofanEmersonianarcadiarisingfromthejunglecanopy,thoughpreposterous,nowseemsrelativelybenign.ThedreamlingersinthesightsandsoundsofFord’scidadesfantasmas,ghostcities,hauntingremindersoftheearlytwentiethcentury’spromiseofhumanedevelopment.InBelterra,inthebuildingwhereHenryFordneverslept,thetownhasrecentlyinstalleda“HenryFord”libraryandorganizeda“HenryFord”children’schoir.Andthefactorywhistlestillblowsfourtimesaday,summoningworkerswhonolongerlivetheretoaplantationthathaslongbeenshuttered.17

TheresidentsofFordlandiaandBelterraarestillwaitingforHenryFord.

*Manausiscalledafree-tradezone,butthereislittle“freetrade”aboutit,atleastinthewaythattermimpliesminimalgovernmentinterventioninthemarket.Withitsremotejunglelocationdeepinthecontinent’sheartland,thecityasamanufacturingcentercouldnotsurvivewithoutsignificantgovernmentsubsidies,neededtooffsetthehighcostoftransportation.

*Whenitopened,theRiverRougenotonlymadeitsownpigironinfurnacesheatedwithcoalcokebutrecycledcokegastomakechemicalbyproducts,oredusttomakemachineborings,andslagtomakecement;today,theFordMotorCompanynolongermoltsitsownpigiron,havinglongagosoldoffitsfamedRiverRougefoundrytoaRussiancompany.

*BR-163remainsunpavedforlittlemorethanhalfitsrunfromCuiabá,thecapitalofMatoGrosso—wheremostofBrazil’ssoyisgrown—toSantarém.Andinitscurrentdirtandmudstate,evenduringthedryseason,it’stooroughformajorcorporationslikeCargill,ArcherDanielsMidland,Bunge,andtheBrazilian-ownedMaggiGrouptouse.Theyinsteadshiptheirsoyoverlandabout1,200milessouthtooneofBrazil’stwomajorAtlanticportsortruckitabout500milesnorthwestonapavedtwo-lanehighwaytoPortoVelho,loaditonbarges,andfloatitdowntheMadeiraandAmazonrivers.Onceblacktopped,thehighwaywillbeaquickandcheapwayforlandlockedMatoGrossoplanterstogettheirproducttoSantarém’sdeepwaterharbor,whereitcanbeloadedoncargoshipsandsentonitsway.Butenvironmentalistsfearthatanasphaltroadwillhastenthespreadofsoy,aswellasloggingandcattleranching,deeperintotheAmazonandquickenitsdestruction.

*BelterraneversentmuchrubberbacktoDetroit,butsoonitssoywillbemakingitswayintoFordcars.InJuly2008,CargillstartedconstructioninChicagoonastate-of-the-artfactorydesignedtoproducemassquantitiesofindustrial-qualityplasticmadefromsoybeans,includingsoyshippedfromthecompany’sSantarémport.OneofCargill’scustomersistheFordMotorCompany,whichplanstousetheplasticinits2009FordEscape(“CargillBuildsFirstFull-ScaleBiOHPolyolsManufacturingPlant,”Cargillpressrelease,July8,2008,www.cargill.com/news/news_releases/080708_biohplant.htm).

NOTESIntroduction:NothingIsWrongwithAnything

1.“PoliceProtectFordandEdisonatN.Y.AutoShow,”AtlantaConstitution,January11,1928.

2.AllanNevinsandFrankErnestHill,Ford:ExpansionandChallenge,1915–1933,NewYork:CharlesScribner’sSons,1957,pp.437–59;“Remarks,”Time,January16,1928.

3.“No‘PriceWar’forHisConcern,Mr.FordInsists,”ChristianScienceMonitor,January9,1928;“HenryFordComingToday,”NewYorkTimes,January9,1928;“Remarks,”Time,January16,1928.

4.“FordPlansPlaneTriptoBrazilRubberTract,”WashingtonPost,January10,1928;“FordPlansBrazilFlight,”LosAngelesTimes,January10,1928;“HenryFord’sVoyage,”WashingtonPost,January11,1928;“FordMetMarshallHere,”NewYorkTimes,January16,1928;“Dr.WiseProposesInquiryonJews,”NewYorkTimes,January9,1928.

5.“FordtoContinueEfforttoProduceAeroatCarPrice,”WashingtonPost,March4,1928.

6.“FordSeesHoovertheNextPresident,”NewYorkTimes,January10,1928;“FordGetsBigAreatoGrowRubber,”NewYorkTimes,October12,1927.

7.WilliamN.McNairnandMarjorieMcNairn,QuotationsfromtheUnusualHenryFord,RedondoBeach,Calif.:QuotamusPress,1978,p.101.

8.ArnoldHöllriegel,“FordinBrazil,”LivingAge,May1932,p.221,reprintedfromtheBerlinerTageblatt;ElaineLourenço,“Americanosecaboclos:EncontrosedesencontrosemFordlândiaeBelterra-PA,”master’sthesis,UniversidaddeSãoPaulo,1999,p.38;DavidGrann,“TheLostCityofZ,”NewYorker,September19,2005.

9.“FordRubber,”Time,October24,1927;“Fordlandia,Brazil,”WashingtonPost,August12,1931.

10.SeeP.H.Fawcett,LostTrails,LostCities,NewYork:FunkandWagnalls,1953,p.267;BrianFawcett,RuinsintheSky,London:Hutchinson,1958;andPeterFleming,BrazilianAdventure,NewYork:Scribner’sSons,1933.

11.AubreyStuart,trans.,HowHenryFordIsRegardedinBrazil;ArticlesbyMonteiroLobato,RiodeJaneiro,1926(availableinYale’sSterlingLibrary);ThomasSkid-more,“Brazil’sAmericanIllusions:FromDomPedroIItotheCoupof1964,”Luso-BrazilianReview23(Winter1986):77.

12.TheodoreRoosevelt,ThroughtheBrazilianWilderness,NewYork:CooperSquarePress,2000,p.217.SeealsoCandiceMillard,“TheRiverofDoubt:”TheodoreRoosevelt’sDarkestJourney,NewYork:Doubleday,2005;FrancisGowSmith,“TheKingoftheXingu,”AtlantaConstitution,December16,1928.

13.JohnHemming,TreeofRivers:TheStoryoftheAmazon,London:ThamesandHudson,2008,p.203;CandaceSlater,EntangledEdens:VisionsoftheAmazon,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2002,p.46;SusannaB.Hecht,“TheLastUnfinishedPageofGenesis:EuclidesdaCunhaandtheAmazon,”HistoricalGeography32(2004):43–69.

14.BurdenofDreams,documentary,dir.LiessBlank,FlowerFilms,1982.

15.JonathanNortonLeonard,TheTragedyofHenryFord,NewYork:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1932,p.108;“SoberThoughtsonThingsandKings,”NewYorkTimes,April27,1930;“LifeinFordlandia!”IronMountainDailyNews,May18,1932.

16.WashingtonPost,September5,1928.

17.KennethGrubb,AmazonandtheAndes,NewYork:DialPress,1930,p.14;A.OgdenPierrot,“AVisittoFordlandia,”RubberAge,April10,1932.

18.http://www.cremesp.org.br/?siteAcao=Revista=247(accessedMay8,2008).

19.FrederickUphamAdams,ConquestoftheTropics:TheStoryoftheCreativeEnterprisesConductedbytheUnitedFruitCompany,NewYork:Doubleday,Page,andCo.,1914,pp.9,114.

20.PerryMiller,ErrandintotheWilderness,Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1975,pp.1–15;HarryBernstein,“SomeInter-AmericanAspectsoftheEnlightenment,”LatinAmericaandtheEnlightenment,ed.ArthurWhitaker,Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1961,pp.53–55.

21.“FordTirePlantsPlannedinBrazil,”NewYorkTimes,November16,1928;“TheFordShutdown,”WashingtonPost,September18,1922.

22.NationalArchives,microfilm1472,roll40,RG59,832.6176/58,DrewtoState,February14,1930.

23.DouglasBrinkley,WheelsfortheWorld:HenryFord,HisCompany,andaCenturyofProgress,1903–2003,NewYork:Viking,2003,p.232.

Chapter1:UnderanAmericanFlag

1.“ChurchillDefendsRubberRestrictions,”NewYorkTimes,March13,1923;“ChurchillSarcasticoverDebtPolicy,”NewYorkTimes,July20,1924;CharlesR.Whittlesey,GovernmentControlofCrudeRubber:TheStevensonPlan,Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1931;AustinCoates,TheCommerceinRubber:TheFirst250Years,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1987,pp.205–64;BarryMachado,“FarquharandFordinBrazil:StudiesinBusinessExpansionandForeignPolicy,”PhDdissertation,NorthwesternUniversity,1975,p.274.

2.“HooverContrastsWheatandRubber,”NewYorkTimes,December30,1925;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.205.

3.“RubberManufacturersDiscussSupplyQuestion,”WallStreetJournal,February28,1923;“RubberMenRecordProtesttoBritain,”NewYorkTimes,February28,1923;Coates,TheCommerceinRubber,pp.233,232;AlfredLief,HarveyFirestone:FreeManofEnterprise,NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1951,pp.228,231.

4.Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.245.

5.Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.201;NevinsandHill,Ford,pp.396–97;RoyalDavis,“CyclesintheAutomobilePneumaticTireRenewalMarketintheUnitedStates,”JournaloftheAmericanStatisticalAssociation,vol.26,no.173,Supplement:ProceedingsoftheAmericanStatisticalAssociation(March1931),pp.10–19.

6.FordBryan,Friends,Families,andForays:ScenesfromtheLifeandTimesofHenryFord,Detroit:WayneStateUniversityPress,2002,p.247.

7.BensonFordResearchCenter(BFRC),accession65,Reminiscences,E.G.Liebold,ch.10.

8.Lief,HarveyFirestone,p.51.

9.BFRC,accession285,box545,June8,1926,RaskobtoFord;BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,E.G.Liebold,ch.10.

10.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,E.G.Liebold,ch.10.

11.WarrenDean,BrazilandtheStruggleforRubber:AStudyinEnvironmentalHistory,NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987,p.4.

12.E.BradfordBurns,“1910:PortraitofaBoomTown,”JournalofInter-AmericanStudies7(July1965):410;“AThousandMilesUptheAmazon,”FrankLeslie’sPopularMonthly,March1897;“ValleyoftheAmazon,”NewYorkTimes,July23,1899;BrianLewis,“TheQueerLifeandAfterlifeofRogerCasement,”JournaloftheHistoryofSexuality14(October2005):371;“ParaandManos,”LosAngelesTimes,June18,1899.

13.Hemming,TreeofRivers,p.202.

14.JoséMariaFerreiradeCastro,ASelva,Lisbon:GuimaraesEditores,1991(firstpublishedin1930);Hemming,TreeofRivers,pp.203–5;Hecht,“TheLastUnfinishedPageofGenesis.”

15.RobertF.Murphy,“TheRubberTradeandtheMundurucúIndians,”PhDdissertation,ColumbiaUniversity,1954,71.

16.Murphy,“TheRubberTrade,”p.8.

17.JoeJackson,TheThiefattheEndoftheWorld:Rubber,Power,andtheSeedsofEmpire,NewYork:Viking,2008.

18.J.T.Baldwin,“DavidB.RikerandHeveabrasiliensis:TheTakingofRubberSeedsOutoftheAmazon,”EconomicBotany22(October–December1968):383;Dean,StruggleforRubber,pp.7,13–28,90,177–80.

19.Hemming,TreeofRivers,pp.96–97.

Chapter2:TheCowMustGo

1.Roosevelt,ThroughtheBrazilianWilderness,p.195.

2.Leonard,TheTragedyofHenryFord,p.120.

3.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.141;DavidA.Hounshell,FromtheAmericanSystemtoMassProduction,1800–1932:TheDevelopmentofManufacturingTechnologyintheUnitedStates,Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1984,pp.10,217–62.

4.RobertLacey,Ford:TheMenandtheMachine,Boston:Little,Brown,1986,p.109.

5.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.155;JulianStreet,AbroadatHome,NewYork:Century,1914,pp.93–94.

6.KeithSward,TheLegendofHenryFord,NewYork:Rinehart,1948,p.37.

7.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,pp.159,373;McNairnandMcNairn,Quotations,p.47.

8.Lacey,Ford,p.120;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.174.

9.Lacey,Ford,pp.123–24.

10.NeilBaldwin,HenryFordandtheJews:TheMassProductionofHate,NewYork:PublicAffairs,2001,p.39.

11.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,pp.157–58,275–78;Baldwin,HenryFordandtheJews,pp.41–42.

12.StephenMeyerIII,TheFiveDollarDay:LaborManagementandSocialControlintheFordMotorCompany,1908–1921,Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1981,pp.154–55;Lacey,Ford,pp.129–31.

13.Leonard,TheTragedyofHenryFord,p.108.

14.NevinsandHill,Ford,p.604.

15.DavidL.Lewis,ThePublicImageofHenryFord:AnAmericanFolkHeroandHisCompany,Detroit:WayneStateUniversity,1976,p.213.

16.PeterCollierandDavidHorowitz,TheFords:AnAmericanEpic,SanFrancisco:EncounterBooks,2002,p.49;Lewis,ThePublicImageofHenryFord,p.475.

17.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.49.

18.BFRC,Reminiscences,A.M.Wibel,pp.1–7;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.283.

19.CharlesA.Lindbergh,TheWartimeJournalsofCharlesA.Lindbergh,NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1970,p.712;SamuelMarquis,HenryFord:AnInterpretation,Boston:Little,Brown,1923,p.153.

20.T.E.Lawrence,SevenPillarsofWisdom,London:JonathanCape,1935,p.6;Lacey,Ford,p.127;DavidE.Nye,HenryFord,“IgnorantIdealist,”PortWashington;N.Y.:KennikatPress,1979,p.71.

Chapter3:AbsoluteAmericanisms

1.Lacey,Ford,p.323;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,pp.275–92;NevinsandHill,Ford,pp.279–99.

2.“CommercialismMadeThisWar,”NewYorkTimes,April11,1915;AnnJardim,TheFirstHenryFord:AStudyinPersonalityandBusinessLeadership,Cambridge:MITPress,1970,p.131,“HenryFordStillThinksSoldiersAreMurderers,”NewYorkTimes,July16,1919;BFRC,Reminiscences,IrvingBacon,p.26.

3.NewYorkWorld,July18,1919;“CommercialismMadeThisWar,”NewYorkTimes,April11,1915.

4.NevinsandHill,Ford,p.610.

5.BarbaraS.Kraft,ThePeaceShip,NewYork:Macmillan,1978,pp.49–52.

6.PhilipSheldonFoner,HistoryoftheLaborMovementintheUnitedStates,NewYork:InternationalPublishers,1994,p.8;“‘Mr.Zero’Befriends‘ShornLaborLambs,’”NewYork

Times,September5,1921;“PoliceClubsBreakMobsofIdle,”NewYorkTimes,September20,1921.Ledouxwouldlatergoontohelporganizethe1932“BonusArmy”marchonWashington,duringtheGreatDepression.See“BonusArmyDigsIn,”NewYorkTimes,July18,1932.

7.Millard,TheRiverofDoubt,p.337;TheodoreRoosevelttoHenryFord,November30,1914,inTheDaysofArmageddon:1914–1919,vol.8ofTheLettersofTheodoreRoosevelt,Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1954,p.851.

8.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.190;“RooseveltUrgesUnityinAmerica,”NewYorkTimes,May20,1916.

9.TheodoreRoosevelt,TheWinningoftheWest,vol.3,NewYork:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1894,p.45;TheodoreRoosevelt,“TheStrenuousLife,”inLewisCopelandetal.,eds.,TheWorld’sGreatSpeeches,NewYork:CourierDoverPublications,1999,p.345;T.J.JacksonLears,NoPlaceofGrace:AntimoderismandtheTransformationofAmericanCulture,1880–1920,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1981,p.134;HowardK.Beale,TheodoreRooseveltandtheRiseofAmericatoWorldPower,Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsPress,1956,pp.37–38;JohnJudis,TheFollyofEmpire:WhatGeorgeW.BushCouldLearnfromTheodoreRooseveltandWoodrowWilson,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2006;DavidNasaw,AndrewCarnegie,NewYork:Penguin,2006,p.650.

10.BFRC,accession1,box135,“Pacifism”;“FordLeadsSt.LouisPoll:RooseveltSecondinStrawVoteandPresidentWilsonFifth,”WashingtonPost,May28,1916.

11.ReynoldM.Wik,HenryFordandGrass-RootsAmerica,AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1972,p.167.

12.TheodoreRoosevelttoHenryFord,February9,1916,inTheDaysofArmageddon:1914–1919,p.1022.

13.“RooseveltUrgesUnityinDefense,”NewYorkTimes,December6,1915;“RoosevelttoVisitDetroit,”NewYorkTimes,May14,1916;“RooseveltUrgesUnityinAmerica,”NewYorkTimes,May20,1916;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,pp.230–31;CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.87.

14.KathleenDalton,TheodoreRoosevelt:AStrenuousLife,NewYork:Knopf,2002,p.448;TheodoreRoosevelt,RighteousPeacethroughNationalPreparedness:SpeechofTheodoreRooseveltatDetroit,May19,1916,Whitefish,Mont.:KessingerPublishing,2006,p.19.

15.“ColonelAloof,FordToo,”ChicagoTribune,May20,1916;“FordAnswersRoosevelt,”NewYorkTimes,May21,1916.

16.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.233.

17.“RooseveltBitterinBeginningWaronthePresident,”NewYorkTimes,October29,1918.

18.“OsbornAttacksFord,”NewYorkTimes,June15,1918;“ToMichigan:NotFord,”ChicagoTribune,June27,1918;TheodoreRoosevelt,“TheManWhoPaysandtheManWhoProfits,”WashingtonPost,August11,1918.SeealsoTheodoreRoosevelt,“TestWilsonbyHisOwnTests,”ChicagoTribune,June26,1918,and“RooseveltBitterinBeginningWaronthePresident,”NewYorkTimes,October29,1918.

19.BFRC,accession65,OralHistory,IrvingBacon,p.45.

20.Leonard,TheTragedyofHenryFord,pp.48–49.

Chapter4:That’sWhereWeSureCanGetGold

1.Leonard,TheTragedyofHenryFord,p.170;“HenryFordStillThinksSoldiersAreMurderers,”NewYorkTimes,July16,1919.

2.Baldwin,HenryFordandtheJews,p.17;Fordwasquoting“LocksleyHall”aslateasNovember1941.SeeCharlesA.Lindbergh,TheWartimeJournalsofCharlesA.Lindbergh,p.555.FortheVictorHugoquote,seeAlbertSchinz,“VictorHugo,leGrandPoèteHumanitaire;ChampiondelaCausedelaPaixUniverselle;Promoteurdel’IdéedesÉtats-Unisd’Europe,”FrenchReview9(November,1935):11–25.

3.BFRC,Reminiscences,A.M.Wibel.

4.BFRC,accession1,box12,folder8;Marquis,HenryFord,p.58.

5.NevinsandHill,Ford,p.605;MaryDempsey,“HenryFord’sAmazonianSuburbia,”Américas,March1996,p.44;LeoMarx,TheMachineintheGarden:TechnologyandthePastoralIdealinAmerica,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1964,pp.18,241.

6.HowardP.Segal’sRecastingtheMachineAge:HenryFord’sVillageIndustries,Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,2005,isthemostcomprehensivestudyofFord’svillageindustries.SeealsoWik,HenryFordandGrass-RootsAmerica,p.159;Ney,HenryFord,p.80.

7.“SoyBeans,”EdisonInstituteofTechnologyBulletin,April1935;FarmChemurgicCouncil,“ProceedingsoftheSecondDearbornConferenceofAgriculture,Industry,andScience,Dearborn,Michigan,May12–14,1936.”

8.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.106;WilliamAdamsSimonds,HenryFordandGreenfieldVillage,NewYork:FrederickA.Stokes,1938,p.235;Ney,HenryFord,p.79.

9.BrianCleven,“HenryFord:LifeandLogging,”MichiganHistory,January–February1999;FordR.Bryan,BeyondtheModelT:TheOtherVenturesofHenryFord,Detroit:WayneStateUniversityPress,1990,pp.118–29;WilliamStidger,HenryFord:TheManandHisMotives,NewYork:GeorgeH.Doran,1923,p.161.

10.Bryan,BeyondtheModelT,pp.45–58.

11.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,JosephFrancois.

12.TomMcCarthy,“HenryFord,IndustrialConservationist?Take-Back,WasteReduction,andRecyclingattheRouge,”ProgressinIndustrialEcology:AnInternationalJournal3,no.4(2006):305;FordComestoIronMountain:TheBirthofKingsford,np,nd(locatedinIronMountainPublicLibrary).

13.DavidL.Lewis,“TheRiseandFallofOldHenry’sNorthernEmpire,”CarsandParts,December1973,p.92.

14.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,OscarG.Olsen.

15.Cleven,“LifeandLogging,”p.20;BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,AlfredJohnson;Bryan,BeyondtheModelT,p.119.

16.NevinsandHill,Ford,p.219;BFRC,verticalfile,VillageIndustries,General,1920s,“HenryFordSaysFarmer-WorkmenWillBuildAutomobileoftheFuture,”publishedinAutomotiveAge,August28,1924;BFRC,verticalfile,VillageIndustries,General,“OneFootinIndustryandOneFootintheSoil.”

17.“FordPlansaNewYorkforAlabama,”ChicagoDefender,May20,1922;“CityAllMainstreet,”LiteraryDigest,April8,1922;LittleeMcClung,“TheSeventy-Five-MileCity,”ScientificAmerican,September1922.

18.“RushforMuscleShoals,”NewYorkTimes,Febuary12,1922;“TheTruthaboutMuscleShoals,”AtlantaConstitution,March26,1922.

19.SamuelCrowther,“MuscleShoals,”McClure’sMagazine,January1923;“FordDeterminedtoSecureShoals,”AtlantaConstitution,March18,1922;Nye,HenryFord,pp.32,84.

20.“FordDeterminedtoSecureShoals”;Nye,HenryFord,p.93.

21.Lacey,Ford,pp.128–29;Leonard,TheTragedyofHenryFord,p.26;Louis-FerdinandCéline,JourneytotheEndoftheNight,trans.RalphManheim,NewYork:NewDirections,2006,p.194.

22.Segal,RecastingtheMachineAge,p.76;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.394;Lacey,Ford,pp.368–70.

23.Sward,TheLegendofHenryFord,p.314;Segal,RecastingtheMachineAge,p.76.

24.PhillipBonosky,BrotherBillMcKie:BuildingtheUnionatFord,NewYork:InternationalPublishers,2000,p.56.

25.Brinkley,Ford,p.260.

26.ThebookwaspublishedinEnglishasTheCrowd:AStudyofthePopularMindbyE.Bennin1896,butFordcitedtheexacttranslationofitsoriginalFrenchtitle,publishedin1895.Seep.xviiforthequote.

27.BFRC,verticalfile,VillageIndustries,General,1920s,“HenryFordSaysFarmer-WorkmenWillBuildAutomobileoftheFuture.”

28.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.123;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.426;NevinsandHill,Ford,p.536.

29.HenryFord,FordIdeals:BeingaSelectionfrom“Mr.Ford’sPage”intheDearbornIndependent,Dearborn:DearbornPublishing,1922,pp.357–60.

30.FortheSundayEveningHour,seeLewis,ThePublicImageofHenryFord,p.453;“Farewell,Ford,”Time,February1942;NevinsandHill,Ford,p.598.

31.Nye,HenryFord,p.82.

32.Wik,HenryFordandGrass-RootsAmerica,p.120;Sward,TheLegendofHenryFord,p.129;AlvinRosenbaum,Usonia:FrankLloydWright’sDesignforAmerica,Washington,D.C.:PreservationPress,1993,pp.60–62.

Chapter5:Fordville

1.JoséCustódioAlvesdeLima,Recordaçõesdehomensecousasdomeutempo,RiodeJaneiro,1926,pp.373–77;BFRC,accession38,box61,“HistoryoftheCompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasilsinceItsInception”;BFRC,accession285,box420,deLimatoFord,September29,1925.

2.Meyer,TheFiveDollarDay,p.40;NevinsandHill,Ford,p.600;ClaytonSinyai,SchoolsofDemocracy:APoliticalHistoryoftheAmericanLaborMovement,Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,2006,p.66.

3.NevinsandHill,Ford,pp.485,600;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.250.

4.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.202;seealsoMiraWilkinsandFrankErnestHill,AmericanBusinessAbroad:FordonSixContinents,Detroit:WayneStateUniversityPress,1964;RichardDowns,“AutosoverRails:HowUSBusinessSupplantedtheBritishinBrazil,1910–28,”JournalofLatinAmericanStudies24(October1992):551–83.

5.BarbaraWeinstein,ForSocialPeaceinBrazil:IndustrialistsandtheRemakingoftheWorkingClassinSãoPaulo,1920–1964,ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1997;Downs,“AutosoverRails”;JoelWolfe,AutosandProgress:TheBrazilianSearchforModernity,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009,ch.3.

6.PaulHoffman,WingsofMadness:AlbertoSantos-DumontandtheInventionofFlight,NewYork:Hyperion,2006.

7.NationalArchives,RG59,decimalfile121.5632/6,MorgantoSecretaryofState,May25,1926;WilliamLytleSchurz,Brazil:TheInfiniteCountry,NewYork:E.P.Dutton,1961,p.64;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.262;JoanHoff,AmericanBusinessandForeignPolicy,1920–1933,Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky,1971,p.278,n.33;JosephTulchin,AftermathofWarandUSPolicytowardLatinAmerica,NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,1971,p.112;HerbertHoover,Memoirs,NewYork:Macmillan,1952,vol.2,p.79.

8.“U.S.AppointsCommissiontoStudySouthAmericanRubber,”AtlantaConstitution,August5,1923;BFRC,accession74,box17,“AllegedScandalaboutOurConcession”;NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm519,roll32,832.52/22,“StateofParáOffersGratuitous370,000-AcreConcessionsofRubber-ProducingLandsinDevelopmentProject,”November13,1925;NationalArchives,RG59,micro-film0519,roll43,832.6176F75/1,MintertoState,July5,1927;RG59,Micro-film0519,roll43,832.6176F75/2,MintertoState,July11,1927;BFRC,Reminiscences,O.Z.Ide;Machado,“FordandFarquhar,”pp.284–96.

9.BFRC,accession285,box20,letterfromSchurztoLiebold,July21,1925;BFRC,accession74,box13,letterfromSchurztoHenryFord,September12,1925;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”pp.260–61.SeealsoHoff,AmericanBusinessandForeignPolicy,pp.206–7,forsimilarpracticesbyattachésinAsia.

10.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/1,MintertoState,July5,1927,enclosure2.

11.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/1,MintertoState,July5,1927,enclosure4,NationalArchives,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/3,MintertoState,July22,1927;Machado,“FordandFarquhar,”p.306;NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/1,MintertoState,July5,1927,enclosure1.

12.BFRC,accession74,box17,VillarestoGreite,August14,1926.

13.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/1,MintertoState,July5,1927,enclosure4.

Chapter6:TheyWillAllDie

1.Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.225;BFRC,accession285,box696,HenryFordOffice;Dean,StruggleforRubber,pp.72,75.

2.BFRC,verticalfile,“AReportoftheExplorationoftheTapajósValleybyCarlD.LaRue,”April19,1927.

3.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.368.

4.LeonJacobs,“HookwormDisease,”AmericanJournalofNursing,November1940,pp.1191–96.

5.BarbaraWeinstein,TheAmazonRubberBoom,1850–1920,PaloAlto:StanfordUniversityPress,1983,pp.75,250–60.

6.JohnR.Lee,“TheSo-CalledProfitSharingSystemintheFordPlant,”AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialSciences65(May1916):305;Meyer,TheFiveDollarDay.

7.NevinsandHill,Ford,p.614.

8.MichaelEdwardStanfield,RedRubber,BleedingTrees:Violence,Slavery,andEmpireinNorthwestAmazonia,1850–1933,Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1998.

9.Hounshell,FromtheAmericanSystem,p.276;DavidHalberstam,TheReckoning,NewYork:WilliamMorrow,1986,p.90;Baldwin,HenryFordandtheJews,p.231.

10.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.362;Segal,RecastingtheMachineAge,p.30.

11.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.99;Halberstam,TheReckoning,p.94.

12.Marquis,HenryFord:AnInterpretation,p.76.

13.“Mr.Ford’sOpportunity,”NewYorkTimes,March20,1927.

14.Lacy,Ford,p.217;Baldwin,HenryFordandtheJews,pp.222,237.

15.Baldwin,HenryFordandtheJews,p.237.

Chapter7:EverythingJake

1.RoyalDavis,“CyclesintheAutomobilePneumaticTireRenewalMarketintheUnitedStates,”JournaloftheAmericanStatisticalAssociation26,Supplement:ProceedingsoftheAmericanStatisticalAssociation(March1931):10–19.

2.RoyNash,TheConquestofBrazil(1926),NewYork:BibloandTannen,1998,p.200.

3.SeanDennisCashman,AmericaintheTwentiesandThirties:TheOlympianAgeofFranklinDelanoRoosevelt,NewYork:NYUPress,1989,p.19.

4.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,pp.122–23,133;ThomasBonsall,“Edsel:TheForgottenFord,”AutomobileQuarterly,Fall1991,p.21,citedinBrinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.401.

5.“LifewithHenry,”TimeMagazine,October8,1951.

6.BFRC,“DiaryKeptbyJudgeO.Z.IdeduringSouthAmericanTriptoInvestigatePossibleSitesforRubberPlantation,June–November1927”;BFRC,Reminiscences,O.Z.Ide.

7.FerreiradeCastro,ASelva,p.10;ThomasOrum,“TheWomenoftheOpenDoor:JewsintheBelleEpoqueAmazonianDemimonde,1890–1920,”Shofar:AnInterdisciplinaryJournalofJewishStudies19(2001):86–99.

8.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/4,MintertoState,July22,1927.

9.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/5,StatetoMinter,nd;NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/3,MintertoState,July23,1927;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.310.

10.BFRC,Reminiscences,O.Z.Ide;NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/5,StatetoMinter,nd;NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/3,MintertoState,July23,1927;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.310.

11.BFRC,Reminiscences,O.Z.Ide.

12.WilkinsandHill,AmericanBusinessAbroad,p.169;BFRC,Reminiscences,O.Z.Ide.

13.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/3,MintertoState,July23,1927;BFRC,“DiaryKeptbyJudgeO.Z.IdeduringSouthAmericanTrip.”

14.Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.311.

15.Firstmentionof“Fordlandia”incompanyrecordsisintheFordNews,November1,1928;BFRC,accession74,box13,“RubberProduction.”

16.BFRC,accession196,“O.Z.IdeFordlandia”;BFRC,accession301,box2.

Chapter8:WhenFordComes

1.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/3,MintertoState,July23,1927.

2.IronMountainNews,February11,1930.

3.BFRC,Reminiscences,E.G.Liebold,p.630.

4.DavidCleary,“‘LostAltogethertotheCivilisedWorld’:RaceandtheCabanageminNorthernBrazil,1750–1850,”ComparativeStudiesinSocietyandHistory40(January1998):109–35;Hemming,TreeofRivers,p.122.

5.Hemming,TreeofRivers,p.122;Cleary,“‘LostAltogethertotheCivilisedWorld,’”p.131.

6.Weinstein,TheAmazonRubberBoom,p.42.

7.GeorgeWashingtonSears,ForestRunes,ForestandStreamPublishingCompany,1887,pp.157–58;Hecht,“TheLastUnfinishedPageofGenesis,”p.61.

8.Author’sinterviewwithDiogoFranco,March14,2008.

9.HenryAlbertPhillips,Brazil:BulwarkofInter-AmericanRelations,NewYork:Hastings

House,1945,p.63;JamesOrton,TheAndesandtheAmazon,NewYork:HarperandBrothers,1870,p.200;DavidRiker,“TheLastSouthernSeed,”unpublishedmanuscript.

10.BFRC,verticalfile,RubberPlantations,Correspondence;FordR.Bryan,“Henry’sSo-CalledRubberPlantationinFlorida”;“FordPlansRubberGrove,”NewYorkTimes,February17,1925,p.10;WilliamsJohnsCummings,ed.,FromKingsford:TheTownFordBuiltinDickinsonCountry,Michigan(scrapbookofnewspaperclippingsinIronMountain’spubliclibrary).

11.EimarFranco,OTapajósqueeuvi(memórias),Santarém:InstitutoCulturalBoanergesSena,1998,p.39;author’sinterviewwithEimarFranco,March16,2008.

12.AubreyStuart,trans.,HowHenryFordIsRegardedinBrazil:ArticlesbyMonteiroLobato,RiodeJaneiro,1926(availableinYale’sSterlingLibrary);ThomasSkid-more,“Brazil’sAmericanIllusions:FromDomPedroIItotheCoupof1964,”Luso-BrazilianReview23(Winter1986):77;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.311;Lourenço,“Americanosecaboclos,”p.38;EdwardTomlinson,“JungleGold,”Collier’sWeekly,December12,1936.

13.Tomlinson,“JungleGold.”

14.JohnP.Harrison,“ScienceandPolitics:OriginsandObjectivesofMid-NineteenthCenturyGovernmentExpeditionstoLatinAmerica,”HispanicAmericanHistoricalReview35(May1955):189;JohnHomerGaley,“ThePoliticsofDevelopmentintheBrazilianAmazon,1940–1950,”PhDdissertation,StanfordUniversity,1977,p.2.

15.FolhadoNorte,March2,1929.

16.BFRC,accession74,box14,“BlackBook:StrictlyConfidential.”GazetadeNoticiaspublishedSouzaCastro’sattacksthroughoutMay1928.

17.OJornal,February19,1928;AssisChateaubriand,Asnuvensquevêm:Discoursesparlamentares,RiodeJaneiro:EdiçõesCruzeiro,1963,pp.360–62.

18.OJornal,February19,1928;AssisChateaubriand,Asnuvensquevêm,pp.360–62;Lourenço,“Americanosecaboclos,”pp.35,38.

19.BFRC,accession285,box420,LieboldtodeLima,October28,1925;deLima,Recordaçõesdehomensecousasdomeutempo,pp.373–77.

Chapter9:TwoRivers

1.BFRC,accession74,box13,“RubberProductioninAmazonValley.”

2.McCarthy,“HenryFord,IndustrialConservationist?”;“FordMayUseWasteFire,”LosAngelesTimes,April11,1928.

3.Bryan,BeyondtheModelT,pp.140–50,155;NevinsandHill,Ford,p.610.

4.FordNews,March15,1928;August1,1928.

5.“FordRubberPlantationShipLeavesDetroit,”NewYorkTimes,July27,1928;“FordExpeditionStartstoExploitRubberTract,”WashingtonPost,July27,1928;“FordVoyagers,”DetroitNews,July28,1928;FordNews,August19,1928.

6.BFRC,Reminiscences,ErnestLiebold.

7.“CityThatLostChanceOfferedItbyFord,”NewYorkTimes,March2,1930;HowardWolfandRalphWolf,Rubber:AStoryofGloryandGreed,NewYork:CoviciFriede,1936,p.239.

8.“FordSendsPartytoStartRubberCultureinBrazil,”ChristianScienceMonitor,July27,1928;“FordVoyagers,”DetroitNews,July28,1928.

9.DetroitNews,July25,1928;July26,1928;July29,1928.

10.“HenryFord,65,PledgesSpeed,”DetroitTimes,July30,1928;BFRC,accession1,box11.

11.BFRC,accession38,box61,“HistoryoftheCompanhiaFordIndustrialDoBrasilsinceItsInception.”

12.BFRC,accession74,box17,OxholmtoSorensen,September28,1928;“FordPlanArousesAcclaiminBrazil,”NewYorkTimes,November25,1928.

13.BrettC.Millier,ElizabethBishop:LifeandtheMemoryofIt,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1995,p.309.

14.Nash,TheConquestofBrazil,p.201.

15.HughRaffles,InAmazonia:ANaturalHistory,Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2002,p.25;BFRC,accession6,box74,“TheFordRubberPlantations.”

16.BFRC,accession74,box2,“ReportonvisitofW.E.Carnegie,1929.”

17.“WithFordontheAmazon:ThestoryoftheFordPlantation,anEye-Witness,”Planter,January1931,inBFRC,verticalfile,“RubberPlantations”;BFRC,accession285,box748;BFRC,accession74,box13,“BlackBinder.”

18.Lourenço,“Americanosecaboclos,”p.40;“WithFordontheAmazon”;BFRC,accession38,box61,OxholmtoSorensen,January19,1929.

Chapter10:SmokeandAsh

1.BFRC,accession74,box13;NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/3,MintertoState,July23,1927.

2.BFRC,accession74,box13.

3.Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.319;BFRC,accession74,box13;BFRC,accession301,box2;BFRC,accession74,box2,“ReportonVisitofW.E.Carnegie.”

4.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.189.

5.Phillips,Brazil,p.56.

6.Franco,OTapajós,p.81;author’sinterview,EimarFranco,March16,2008.

7.Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.318;BFRC,accession74,box17,“AllegedScandalaboutOurConcession”;NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/14,MintertoState,November25,1927.

8.Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.318;BFRC,“AllegedScandalaboutOurConcession”;MintertoState,November25,1927;BFRC,accession38,box113;BFRC,accession74,box1,Roberge,November23,1934;BFRC,accession301,box2,“NotesofRubberCompanyMatters”;BFRC,accession38,box113,LongleytoSorensen,July2,1928.

9.BFRC,accession74,box17,“InterplantCorrespondence.”

10.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/2,MintertoState,July11,1927;832.6176F75/29,DrewtoState,April22,1929;BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoWibel,October9,1933;“FordHandicappedbyLaborScarcity,”NewYorkTimes,October20,1929;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”pp.317,358–63;BFRC,“AllegedScandalaboutourConcession.”

11.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/22,DrewtoState,December15,1928;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.343.

12.Hoffman,WingsofMadness,p.279.

13.“HenryFordStillThinksSoldiersAreMurderers,”NewYorkTimes,July16,1919;Wik,HenryFordandGrass-RootsAmerica,p.253.

14.Hoffman,WingsofMadness,p.302.

15.Hoffman,WingsofMadness,p.300;DavidOmissi,AirPowerandColonialControl:TheRoyalAirForce,1919–1939,Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,1990.

16.“AirCrashKills14inRio,”NewYorkTimes,December4,1928.

17.Hoffman,WingsofMadness,p.310;SamuelGuyInman,LatinAmerica:ItsPlaceinWorldLife,Freeport,N.Y.:Ayer,1972,pp.223–25;MatthewHughes,“LogisticsoftheChacoWar,1932–1935,”JournalofMilitaryHistory69(2005):411–37.

18.Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.344.

19.Dean,StruggleforRubber,pp.73–74.

20.BFRC,accession74,Box14,“BlackBook:StrictlyConfidential.”

21.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/22,DrewtoState,December15,1928;832.6176F75/29,DrewtoState,April22,1929;832.6176F75/32,Memo,DivisionofLatinAmericanAffairs,May3,1929;BFRC,accession301,box21,CarnegietoCraig,March27,1931;BFRC,accession74,box13,“ReportonVisittoCompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasil,”December2,1930;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.348.

22.FolhadoNorte,March2,1929,andMarch3,1929.

23.BFRC,accession74,box2,“PersonnelFile1930;”FolhadoNorte,May8,1930.

24.BFRC,“BlackBook:StrictlyConfidential.”

Chapter11:ProphesiedSubjection

1.McNairnandMcNairn,Quotations,p.51.

2.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.102;BFRC,Reminiscences,A.M.Wibel,pp.168–69.

3.BFRC,accession38,box61,SorensentoOxholm,July5,1929.

4.BFRC,accession74,box13,“InterplantCorrespondence.”

5.WilkinsandHill,AmericanBusinessAbroad,p.172.

6.“BrazilSendingArmstoFord’sPlantation,”WashingtonPost,January3,1929.

7.BFRC,accession74,box17,OxholmtoSorensen,September28,1928.

8.Hemming,TreeofRivers,p.17;RogerD.Stone,DreamsofAmazonia,NewYork:Penguin,1989,p.47;BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,VictorJ.Perini(astoldbyConstancePerini);Reminiscences,MattMulrooney.

9.Phillips,Brazil,pp.68–69;J.T.BaldwinJr.,“DavidB.RikerandHeveabrasiliensis,”EconomicBotany22(1968):383–84.

10.BFRC,accession74,box14,“BlackBook:StrictlyConfidential.”

11.BFRC,accession74,box6,MiscellaneousLetters.

12.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoWibel,June5,1934.

13.BFRC,accession74,box9,JohnstontoStallard,April15,1940.

14.EdvigesMartaIoris,“AForestofDisputes:StrugglesoverSpaces,Resources,andSocialIdentitiesinAmazonia,”PhDdissertation,UniversityofFlorida,2005.

15.BFRC,accession74,box6,“IndianLabor.”

16.BFRC,Reminiscences,CarlLaRue;BFRC,accession74,box2,“Riot1930”;BFRC,accession74,box2,“ReportonVisitofW.E.Carnegie.”

17.Franco,OTapajós,pp.82–83;BFRC,accession74,box13,“ReportonVisit,”December2,1930.Seealsothebinderinaccession74,box9,thatcontainsareportonthelandtitlesheldwithintheboundariesofFordlandia;“ArmedBraziliansRaidFordRubberPlantation,”NewYorkTimes,December25,1930;“EnjoinFordInterests,”NewYorkTimes,December27,1930;Segal,RecastingtheMachineAge,p.24.

18.IronMountainNews,January26,1925;August3,1925.

19.BFRC,Reminiscences,ErnestLiebold.

20.BFRC,accession38,box64,SorensentoVictorPerini,February28,1930.

21.Author’sinterviewwithEimarFranco,March16,2008.

22.FolhadoNorte,December23,1930.

23.BFRC,accession74,box7,Oxholm’smonthlyprogressreportstoSorensen.

24.BFRC,“ReportonVisitofW.E.Carnegie.”

25.Grubb,AmazonandtheAndes,p.19.

26.BFRC,accession38,box61,“RubberPlantVisit1929.”

Chapter12:TheFordWayofThinking

1.BFRC,accession38,box61,“HistoryoftheCompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasilsinceItsInception”;BFRC,accession74,box13,“CompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasil”;BFRC,accession88,box2,MiraWilkinsResearchPapers,InterviewwithWilliamCowling.

2.Machado,“FarquharandFord,”pp.349–53.

3.BFRC,accession38,box61,SorensentoOxholm,July5,1929;BFRC,accession74,box17,

“CowlingtoFord,etal.,”August20,August23,andSeptember9,1929.

4.ForBennett’sroleinFord’ssubsequentfiringofCowling,seeBennett,WeNeverCalledHimHenry,NewYork:GoldMedalBooks,1951,p.61.

5.“CowlingtoFord,etal.,”August20,August23,andSeptember9,1929.

6.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm0519,roll43,832.6176F75/55,DrewtoState,October1,1929;Machado,“FarquharandFord,”p.361.

7.“GoldenJubilee,”Time,May27,1929;WarrenSloat,1929:AmericabeforetheCrash,NewYork:CooperSquarePress,2004(1979).

8.KajOstenfeld,“TheFamilywiththeRedRoses,”unpublishedmanuscriptondepositinNewYorkPublicLibrary,APV(Ostenfeld)93-2371.

9.“WithFordontheAmazon:TheStoryoftheFordPlantation,anEye-Witness,”Planter,January1931,inBFRC,VerticalFile,“RubberPlantations.”

10.Ibid.

11.WilkinsandMill,AmericanBusinessAbroad,p.171.

12.BFRC,accession285,box755.

13.BFRC,accession6,box74;BFRC,accession74,box10.

14.“ArmedBraziliansRaidFordRubberPlantation,”NewYorkTimes,December25,1930;“OppositiontoFordDroppedinBrazil,”NewYorkTimes,May3,1931;IsabelVincent,“Fordlandia:TheAmazonTownThatHenryFordBuilt,”GlobeandMail,March20,1993.

15.“BrazilSendingArmstoFord’sPlantation,”NewYorkTimes,January3,1929.

16.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoWibel,December31,1932.

17.BFRC,accession38,box61,Oxholm,October17,1929.

18.JohnGaley,“IndustrialistintheWilderness:HenryFord’sAmazonVenture,”JournalofInteramericanStudiesandWorldAffairs21(1979):271;author’sinterviewwithEinarOxholm’ssonEinar,February12,2008.

19.“FordEnvoyLeavesBrazil,”NewYorkTimes,October4,1929;BFRC,accession301,box2l,W.E.CarnegietoB.J.Craig;BFRC,accession74,box13,“ReportonVisittoCompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasil,”December2,1930.

20.BFRC,interviewwithWilliamCowling.

21.Dean,StruggleforRubber,p.73.

Chapter13:WhatWouldYouGiveforaGoodJob?

1.NevinsandHill,Ford,pp.17,536.

2.Ibid.,pp.14–15.

3.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,VictorJ.Perini(astoldbyConstancePerini).

4.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,MattMulrooney.

5.BFRC,accession74,box7,MonthlyReports,December1930.

6.JoséMariaFerreiradeCastro,TheJungle,trans.CharlesDuff,Viking,1935,p.65;Nash,ConquestofBrazil,p.201.

7.BFRC,accession74,box7,ProgressReport.

8.BFRC,accession74,box1,“TentativeSchemeofSouthAmericanPlantationOrganization”;BFRC,accession74,box2,“ReportonVisitofW.ECarnegie,1929”;“ReportonVisitofMessrsW.E.CarnegieandV.J.Perini,February1931”;BFRC,accession75,box13,“GeneralPlanofOperationfor1930and1931”;BFRC,accession301,box2,“CompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasil”;BFRC,accession38,box61,“ReportontheSecondVisitofW.E.Carnegie,1930”;BFRC,accession74,box7,monthlyprogressreports.

9.BFRC,accession75,box13,“GeneralPlanofOperationfor1930and1931.”

10.IsabelVincent,“Fordlandia:TheAmazonTownThatHenryFordBuilt,”GlobeandMail,March20,1993.

11.HenriqueVeltman,“OsHebraicosdaAmazônia,”unpublishedmanuscript,2005,p.55;Baldwin,“DavidB.Riker”;BFRC,accession47,box13,“ReportonVisit”;DavidRiker,“TheLastSouthernSeed,”unpublishedmanuscript;author’sinterviewwithDavidRiker’sgrandson,DavidRiker,July28,2007.

12.EarlParkerHanson,JourneytoManaos,NewYork:ReynalandHitchcock,1938,p.73;KajOstenfeld,“TheFamilywiththeRedRoses,”unpublishedmanuscriptondepositinNewYorkPublicLibrary,APV(Ostenfeld)93–2371.

13.Ostenfeld,“TheFamilywiththeRedRoses.”

14.Hanson,JourneytoManaos,pp.74–76.

15.Author’sinterviewwithEimarFranco;Franco,OTapajós,p.79;VeraKelsey,SevenKeystoBrazil,NewYork:FunkandWagnalls,1940,pp222–23.

16.Vincent,“Fordlandia.”

17.Author’sinterviewwithLeanorWeeks,August2,2007;author’sinterviewwithCharlesTownsend,June20,2008.

18.BFRC,accession74,box5,JohnstontoUSMarines,September19,1942.

19.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,MattMulrooney;AllisonMcCracken,“‘God’sGifttoUsGirls’:Crooning,Gender,andtheRe-CreationofAmericanPopularSong,1928–1933,”AmericanMusic17(1999):365–95.

20.BFRC,accession74,box18,miscellaneousreportsandtelegrams;BFRC,accession74,box16,“Gardens,”McCluretoEdselFord,August3,1939;BFRC,accession74,box14,Roberge,May5,1939.

21.WilliamCronon,Nature’sMetropolis:ChicagoandtheGreatWest,NewYork:Norton,1992,p.202.

Chapter14:Let’sWanderOutYonder

1.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,JohnR.Rogge.

2.ElizabethEsch,“Fordtown:ManagingRaceandNationintheAmericanEmpire,1925–1945,”PhDdissertation,NewYorkUniversity,2003,p.97;BFRC,accession285,box1275.

3.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,MattMulrooney.

4.BFRC,accession301,box2,“CompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasil.”

5.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,MattMulrooney;BFRC,Reminiscences,JohnR.Rogge.Alsosee“FordPlantChieftoLeaveHereTomorrowforProjectinBrazil,”IronMountainNews,February11,1930,whichsummarizesaletterRoggewrotehomeabouthisuprivertrip.

6.InformationonJohnRogge’slifeandactivitiesatFordlandiacomesfromaninterviewwithhisnephew,RogerRogge,July17,2007.

7.Raffles,InAmazonia,p.138.

8.Weinstein,TheAmazonRubberBoom,pp.53,73,126,169,185–87,189,237,291;WilliamLewisHerndonandLardnerGibben,ExplorationoftheValleyoftheAmazonMadeunderDirectionoftheNavyDepartment,Washington,D.C.:RobertArmstrong,1854,pp.308,311.

9.Roosevelt,ThroughtheBrazilianWilderness,p.360;HerndonandGibben,ExplorationoftheValleyoftheAmazon,p.309.

10.ForaphotographofBaretto’shouse,seeDevonRecordOffice,Exeter,UK,CharlesLuxmoore,521M–1/SS/9.

11.McCracken,“‘God’sGifttoUsGirls,’”p.379.

12.DydiaDelyser,RamonaMemories:TourismandtheShapingofSouthernCalifornia,Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2005;“TheRightWomanintheRightPlace,”WashingtonPost,March26,1883;HelenHuntJackson,Ramona:AStory,NewYork:Little,Brown,1914,pp.39,46,83.

13.HenriCoudreau,VoyageauTapajoz,Paris,1897,pp.38–40;Cleary,“‘LostAltogethertotheCivilisedWorld’:RaceandtheCabanageminNorthernBrazil,1750–1850”:JohnHemming,AmazonFrontier:TheDefeatoftheBrazilianIndians,Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1987,p.236;Sears,ForestRunes,p.157;RobertF.Murphy,Headhunter’sHeritage:SocialandEconomicChangeamongtheMundurucúIndians,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1960,p.1;YolandaMurphyandRobertF.Murphy,WomenoftheForest,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2004,p.105;forashortinterviewwithaMundurucúleaderwhohelpedputdowntheCabanagemRevolt,seeHerndonandGibben,ExplorationoftheValleyoftheAmazon,p.311.

14.RobertF.Murphy,MundurucúReligion,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1958,p.8.

15.S.BrianBurkhalterandRobertF.Murphy,“TappersandSappers:Rubber,Gold,andMoneyamongtheMundurucú,”AmericanEthnologist16(1989):105,114;Murphy,MundurucúReligion,p.10.

16.“FordTirePlantsPlannedinBrazil,”NewYorkTimes,November16,1928.

Chapter15:KillAlltheAmericans

1.A.OgdenPierrot,“AVisittoFordlandia,”RubberAge,April10,1932.

2.Esch,“Fordtown,”p.115;BFRC,accession74,box2;author’sinterviewwithEimarFranco,March16,2008.

3.ForRiker’sopinion,asinterpretedbythetravelerHenryAlbertPhillips,seeBrazil:BulwarkofInter-AmericanRelations,pp.68–69;seealsoBaldwin,“DavidB.RikerandHeveabrasiliensis,”pp.383–84.

4.Author’sinterviewwithLeanorWeeks;Phillips,Brazil,p.63;BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,MattMulrooney.

5.BFRC,accession74,box2,“ReportonVisitofW.E.Carnegie.”

6.HenryFord,TodayandTomorrow,NewYork:Doubleday,p.101;MarkSeltzer,BodiesandMachines,NewYork:Routledge,1992,p.157;Esch,“Fordtown,”p.48;CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.11.

7.“TheClocksPutBack,”ChicagoDailyTribune,September19,1885;“TheProposedUniversalDay,”ScientificAmerican,May20,1899;“ABelatedReform,”WashingtonPost,February13,1898;“NewsoftheWeek,”MichiganFarmer,November17,1900.

8.EstadodoPará,December27,1930.

9.BFRC,accession74,box13,“ReportonVisittoCompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasil,”December2,1930.

10.BFRC,accession74,Box2,“Riot1930.”

11.EstadodoPará,December31,1930.

12.Author’sinterviewswithLeonorWeeksandDavidBowmanRiker(DavidRiker’sgrandson).

13.“ArmedBraziliansRaidFordRubberPlantation,”NewYorkTimes,December25,1930;“EnjoinFordInterests,”NewYorkTimes,December27,1930.

14.Forthewheatbreadandricecomplaint,seeBFRC,accession75,box17,“InterplantCorrespondence,”KennedytoDearborn,December24,1930.FortheDearborncompanystore,seeNevinsandHill,Ford,p.347.

15.EstadodoPará,December26,1930.

16.EstadodoPará,December27,1930.

17.Franco,OTapajós,p.82.

18.FolhadoNorte,December28,1930;“ReportFordEndingParaRubberWork,”NewYorkTimes,February2,1931.

Chapter16:AmericanPastoral

1.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.102;Sward,TheLegendofHenryFord,p.223;RichardT.Ortquist,“UnemploymentandRelief:Michigan’sResponsetotheDepressionduringtheHooverYears,”MichiganHistory57(1975):209–36;T.H.Watkins,TheHungryYears,NewYork:Macmillan,2000;JoyceShawPeterson,AmericanAutomobileWorkers,1900–1933,Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1987,p.135.

2.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,pp.380–88.

3.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,pp.102–3;Sward,TheLegendofHenryFord,pp.224–25;“TimesGood,NotBad,FordSays:SeestheDawnofaBrightFuture,”NewYorkTimes,February1,1933.

4.BarrieA.Wigmore,TheCrashandItsAftermath:AHistoryofSecuritiesMarketsintheUnitedStates,1929–1933,Westport,Conn.:Greenwood,1985,p.444;Lacey,Ford,pp.327–40;ThomasJ.Ticknor,“MotorCity:TheImpactoftheAutomobileIndustryuponDetroit,1900–1975,”PhDdissertation,UniversityofMichigan,1978.

5.Baldwin,HenryFordandtheJews,p.303;DavidAllanLevine,InternalCombustion:TheRacesinDetroit,1915–1926,Westport:Greenwood,1976,pp.161–64.SeealsoFromKingsford:TheTownFordBuiltinDickinsonCountry,Michigan.

6.“TheDespotofDearborn,”Scribner’sMagazine,July1931;Halberstam,TheReckoning,p.65.

7.“TheLittleManinHenryFord’sBasement,”AmericanMercury,May1940;Bonosky,BrotherBillMcKie,p.79.

8.DesmondRochfort,MexicanMuralists:Orozco,Rivera,Siqueiros,SanFrancisco:ChronicleBooks,1998,p.126.

9.FordR.Bryan,Henry’sLieutenants,Detroit:WayneStateUniversityPress,1993,p.284;Hounshell,FromtheAmericanSystem,pp.187,288.

10.DiegoRivera,MyArt,MyLife,Mineola,N.Y.:CourierDoverPublications,1991,pp.111–22;McNairnandMcNairn,Quotations,p.76.

11.LewAndrews,StoryandSpaceinRenaissanceArt:TheRebirthofContinuousNarrative,Cambridge,U.K.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998,p.5.

12.StevenWatts,People’sTycoon:HenryFordandtheAmericanCentury,NewYork:Knopf,2005,pp.320–21;RalphWaldoTrine,ThePowerThatWins,Indianapolis:Bobbs-Merrill,1928,p.77.

13.Watts,People’sTycoon,p.422;GeoffreyC.Upward,AHomeforOurHeritage:TheBuildingandGrowthofGreenfieldVillageandHenryFordMuseum,1929–1979,Dearborn:HenryFordMuseumPress,p.2;StevenConn,MuseumsandAmericanIntellectualLife,1876–1926,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1998,p.156.

14.Conn,MuseumsandAmericanIntellectualLife,p.159;“FordBuildsaUniqueMuseum,”NewYorkTimes,April5,1931.

15.Upward,AHomeforOurHeritage,p.26.

16.Simonds,HenryFordandGreenfieldVillage,p.134.

17.Lacey,Ford,p.244;Watts,People’sTycoon,pp.407–9,422.

18.NewYorkTimes,January12,1936.

19.Rivera,MyArt,MyLife,p.112.

20.NevinsandHill,Ford,p.605;Dempsey,“HenryFord’sAmazonianSuburbia,”p.44;Marx,The

MachineintheGarden,pp.18,165.

21.NevinsandHill,Ford,pp.598,610.

22.JoséOrtegayGasset,TheRevoltoftheMasses,NewYork:NewAmericanLibrary,1950,p.59.

23.Lindbergh,TheWartimeJournals,p.712.

24.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.422.

25.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,pp.121,164.

26.Upward,AHomeforOurHeritage,p.22;RichardBak,HenryandEdsel:TheCreationoftheFordEmpire,NewYork:Wiley,2003.

27.Wright,OnArchitecture,pp.145–46.

Chapter17:GoodLines,StraightandTrue

1.BFRC,accession74,box2,“ReportonVisitofMessrs.W.E.CarnegieandV.J.Perini,”February1931;“OppositiontoFordDroppedinBrazil,”NewYorkTimes,May3,1931;“FordPlansaTownonBrazilianTract,”NewYorkTimes,February7,1931.

2.“ReportFordEndingParaRubberWork,”NewYorkTimes,February2,1931;“FordMenDenyPlantoDropRubberWork,”NewYorkTimes,February3,1931;“EdisontoStayonJobTillHeMakesRubber,”NewYorkTimes,March18,1930;IndiaRubberJournal,May23,1931,p.671.

3.Segal,RecastingtheMachineAge,p.13;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.380.

4.“OppositiontoFordDroppedinBrazil”;“FordPlansaTownonBrazilianTract”;“Fordlandia,Brazil,”WashingtonPost,August12,1931;“ModernCityRisesinJungle,”ChicagoTribune,March30,1932.

5.“Fordlandia,Brazil”;“NoBusinessDepressionHere,”NewYorkTimes,December27,1931;“LifeinFordlandia!”IronMountainDailyNews,May18,1932.

6.WashingtonPost,February15,1942;“SoberSecondThoughtsonThingsandKings,”NewYorkTimes,April27,1930.

7.NationalArchives,RG59,microfilm1472,roll40,832.6176/58,DrewtoState,February14,1930.

8.BFRC,accession23,box17,“RubberPlantation,”“FordSummerHour,”Sunday,August24,1941.

9.BFRC,accession38,box68,February1931.

10.BFRC,verticalfile,“RubberPlantation;BrazilCorrespondence,”LettertoH.G.Moore,September26,1934.

11.Meyer,TheFiveDollarDay,p.176;NevinsandHill,Ford,p.537;“ReportonVisitofMessrs.W.E.CarnegieandV.J.Perini.”

12.Esch,“Fordtown,”p.120;“FordVoyagers,”DetroitNews,July28,1928.

13.FolhadoNorte,September16,1934.

14.“ReportonVisitofMessrs.W.E.CarnegieandV.J.Perini.”

15.“ReportonVisitofMessrs.W.E.CarnegieandV.J.Perini”;BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoWibel,October9,1933.

16.BFRC,accession74,box13,“BlackBinder,”“BrazilRubberPlantation”;Levine,InternalCombustion,pp.16–18;NevinsandHill,Ford,p.348;JoyceShawPeterson,“BlackAutomobileWorkersinDetroit,1910–1930,”JournalofNegroHistory64(Summer1979).

17.BFRC,accession74,box14,JohnstontoCarnegie,May25,1932;JohnstontoCarnegie,August25,1932;box16,JohnstontoRoberge,May5,1939.

18.BFRC,Reminiscences,E.G.Liebold,p.626;CharlesMorrowWilson,“Mr.FordintheJungle,”Harper’s,July1941.

19.“Ford’sDreamLiesinDecay,”LosAngelesTimes,March9,1992;Wilson,“Mr.FordintheJungle”;BrianKellyandMarkLondon,Amazon,NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1983,p.287.

Chapter18:MountainsoftheMoon

1.BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,VictorJ.Perini(astoldbyConstancePerini).

2.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.218;BFRC,verticalfile,VillageIndustries,General,“OneFootinIndustryandOneFootinSoil”(FordMotorCo.Program).

3.BFRC,accession74,box16,StallardtoJohnston,January13,1940.

4.BFRC,accession74,box16,JohnstontoRoberge,October23,1930.

5.MorganSchmidt,“FarmingandPatternsofAgrobiodiversityontheAmazonFloodplan,”MSthesis,UniversityofFlorida,2003.

6.Ioris,“AForestofDisputes.”

7.Ioris,“AForestofDisputes”;Schmidt,“FarmingandPatternsofAgrobiodiversity”;BFRC,accession74,box16,GrothtoJohnston,April27,1940.

8.BFRC,accession74,box16,“TotheMembersoftheBelterraGardenClub.”

9.BFRC,accession74,box17,“InterplantCorrespondence.”

10.Ibid.

11.BFRC,accession74,box16,McCluretoEdsel,August3,1939.

12.Ibid.

13.“GolfasMolderofMen,”DearbornIndependent,August2,1924.

14.BFRC,accession390,box83.

15.BFRC,accession74,box14,JohnstontoRoberge,March14,1939.

16.Wik,HenryFordandGrass-RootsAmerica,p.224;CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.86;BFRC,accession65,Reminiscences,OscarG.Olsen.

17.DearbornIndependent,August6,1921.

18.Watts,People’sTycoon,p.421;NevinsandHill,Ford,p.605;Dempsey,“HenryFord’sAmazonianSuburbia,”p.44;Marx,TheMachineintheGarden,p.18.

19.BFRC,accession74,box14,RobergetoJohnston,May5,1939;BFRC,accession74,box17,“FilmandProjectors,”JohnstontoRoberge,March29,1937;EdwardTomlinson,“JungleGold,”Collier’sWeekly,December12,1936.

20.BFRC,accession74,box16,PringletoJohnston,November16,1937.FordlandiafootagecanbefoundintheNationalArchives,SpecialMediaArchivesServicesDivision,CollegePark,Md.;BFRC,accession74,box16,JohnstontoRoberge,October23,1930.

21.NewYorkTimes,June27,1931.

22.FordNews,June1,1928.

23.Phillips,Brazil,p.54.

24.BFRC,accession74,box16,McCluretoEdselFord,August3,1939;JohnstontoRoberge,August10,1939;box15,JohnstontoBlack,September18,1941;Esch,“Fordtown,”p.119.

25.BFRC,accession74,box13,“BlackBinder,”MeadowcrofttoRogge,March17,1931.

Chapter19:OnlyGodCanGrowaTree

1.HenryFord,withSamuelCrowther,MyLifeandWork,NewYork:Doubleday,Page,1922,p.108.

2.DavidCampbell,LandofGhosts:TheBraidedLivesofPeopleandtheForestinFarWesternAmazonia,NewYork:HoughtonMifflin,2005,p.12;Stone,DreamsofAmazonia,p.28;HaraldSioli,“MyLifeintheAmazon,”Biotropica11(1979):244–45.

3.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoSorensen,November17,1931.

4.BFRC,accession390,box86,SorensentoJohnston,December17,1931.

5.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoHeller,October22,1932.

6.BFRC,accession38,box61,“DistinctiveBrazilianHardwoods.”

7.BFRC,accession390,box86,WibeltoJohnston,March13,1933;WilkinsandHill,AmericanBusinessAbroad,p.176.

8.NevinsandHill,Ford,p.614;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.138.

9.BFRC,accession74,box14,JohnstontoSorensen,October18,1937.

10.“WithFordontheAmazon:TheStoryoftheFordPlantation,anEye-Witness,”Planter,January1931,inBFRC,verticalfile,“RubberPlantations.”

11.JosephA.Russell,“FordlandiaandBelterra,RubberPlantationsontheTapajósRiver,Brazil,”EconomicGeography18(1942):127;JosephA.Russell,“AlternativeSourcesofRubber,”EconomicGeography17(1941):399–408.

12.BFRC,accession74,box6.

13.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoSorensen,February2,1932.

14.BFRC,accession390,box86,CarnegietoJohnston,February16,1932.

15.Lindbergh,TheWartimeJournals,p.710.

16.Nevins,Ford,p.447,for“edictengineering.”

17.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoSorensen,February2,1932.

18.BFRC,accession390,box83,WibeltoJohnston,July17,1934.

19.BFRC,accession390,box83,WibeltoJohnston,May21,1931.

Chapter20:StandardPractices

1.BFRC,accession390,box86,WeirtoJohnston,March31,1933.

2.BFRC,accession1514,box1,RobergetoWeir,July29,1937.

3.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoCarnegie,September16,1932,inDean,StruggleforRubber,p.75.

4.Dean,StruggleforRubber,p.64;BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoWibel,December31,1932.

5.BFRC,accession38,box71,DepartmentofAgriculturetoRogge,November8,1932.

6.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoWibel,March13,1933.

7.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoWibel,December31,1932.

8.BFRC,accession1514,box1,JohnstontoWeir,May9,1933.

9.BFRC,accession1514,box1,lettersin“1928–1933.”

10.BFRC,accession390,box86,WeirtoJohnston,March31,1933.

11.Dean,StruggleforRubber,pp.76–77;BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoRoberge,September6,1937.

12.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoRoberge,September6,1937.

13.BFRC,accession390,box83,JohnstontoWibel,September6,1937.

14.BFRC,accession74,box14,JohnstontoRoberge,October16,1936.

15.BFRC,accession390,box83,JohnstontoWibel,September6,1937;BFRC,accession74,box1,JohnstontoRoberge,July1,1936.

16.BFRC,accession74,box1,JohnstontoRoberge,July1,1936.

17.Dean,StruggleforRubber,p.78.

18.BFRC,accession74,box14,JohnstontoWibel,September6,1937;JohnstontoRoberge,September28,1936,andOctober16,1936.

19.BFRC,accession390,box83,JohnstontoWibel,September6,1937.

Chapter21:BonfireoftheCaterpillars

1.Dean,StruggleforRubber,pp.53–62,78.

2.Phillips,Brazil,p.54.

3.BFRC,verticalfile,VillageIndustries,General,1920s,“HenryFordSays,Farmer-WorkmenWillBuildAutomobileoftheFuture,”publishedinAutomotiveIndustry,August28,1924.

4.BrianE.Cleven,“PequamingandAlberta:HenryFord’sModelTowns,”master’sthesis,DepartmentofSocialSciences,MichiganTechnologicalUniversity,1997,p.131.

5.GastãoCruls,“ImpressõesdeUmaVisitaaCompanhiaFordIndustrialdoBrasil,”RevistaBrasileiradeGeografia,October1939,pp.3–25.

6.“Fourteen-YearEfforttoProducePlantationRubberinBrazilIsShowingProgress,”WashingtonPost,January31,1943.

7.KellyandLondon,Amazon,p.290;Wilson,“Mr.FordintheJungle.”

8.Dempsey,“HenryFord’sAmazonianSuburbia.”

9.BFRC,accession390,box86,JohnstontoWibel,March4,1935.

10.BFRC,accession390,box83,“InsectCensusofFordlandia,”March29,1935.

11.Galey,“IndustrialistintheWilderness,”p.275;BFRC,accession74,box13,“RubberProductioninAmazonValley.”

12.BFRC,accession74,box1,citedinJohnstontoRoberge,April23,1937.

13.Author’sinterviewwithCharlesTownsend,grandsonoftheentomologistandsonofCharlesTownsend,JamesWeir’sassistant,June20,2008.

14.BFRC,accession390,box83,JohnstontoWibel,February10,1937.

15.BFRC,accession74,box14,JohnstontoRoberge,November30,1938;BFRC,accession38,box91.

16.BFRC,accession74,box5,clipping;BFRC,HenryFordOffice,accession285,box2155,“Hun-Hunt.”

Chapter22:FallenEmpireofRubber

1.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.426.

2.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.129;Nye,HenryFord,p.93.

3.BFRC,accession390,box83,JohnstontoWibel,June8,1937.

4.BFRC,accession74,box12,correspondence.

5.BFRC,accession390,box83,AugustReport,JohnstontoSorensen;Franco,OTapajós,p.84;author’sinterviewwithEimarFranco,March16,2008.

6.AndrewRevkin,TheBurningSeason:TheMurderofChicoMendesandtheFightfortheAmazonRainForest,Washington,D.C.:IslandPress,2004,p.88.

7.BFRC,accession74,box12;Galey,“IndustrialistintheWilderness,”p.282.

8.AlexanderCockburnandSuzannaHecht,TheFateoftheForest:Developers,Destroyers,andDefendersoftheAmazon,London:Verso,1989,p.105.

9.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.430.

10.Baldwin,HenryFordandtheJews,p.284.

11.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.433.

12.CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.201.

13.H.G.Sorensen,“CrownBuddingforHealthyHevea,”AgricultureintheAmericas,October1942.

14.“FordPlantationsaChapterinRomanceofRubber,”ChristianScienceMonitor,February5,1942;WilkinsandHill,AmericanBusinessAbroad,pp.181–82.

15.BFRC,accession74,box6,“PlantationReport.”

16.Ibid.;WilkinsandHill,AmericanBusinessAbroad,p.182.

Chapter23:TomorrowLand

1.SethGarfield,“TappingMasculinity:LaborRecruitmenttotheBrazilianAmazonduringWorldWarII,”HispanicAmericanHistoricalReview86(2006):275–308;PedroMartinello,A“BatalhadaBorracha”naSegundaGuerraMundialesuasconsequênciasparaovaleamazônico,RioBranco:UniversidadeFederaldoAcre,1988;FrankD.McCann,TheBrazilian-AmericanAlliance,1937–1945,Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1974.

2.Dean,StruggleforRubber,p.97;BFRC,accession6,box74,May13,1942;CharlesH.T.Townsend,“ProgressinDevelopingSuperiorHeveaClonesinBrazil,”EconomicBotany14(1958):189–96.

3.RolandHallSharp,SouthAmericaUncensored:JunglesofFascism,GenuineGood-Neighborliness,PortraitofaContinent,inSearchofFrontiers,NewYork:Longmans,Green,1945,p.270;Phillips,Brazil,p.57;KarlBrandt,ReconstructionofWorldAgriculture,NewYork:Longmans,Green,1945.

4.Dean,StruggleforRubber,p.97;BFRC,accession134,box4,CamargotoStallard,December1,1944;BFRC,accession74,box12,PlantationReports,January1942–December1943;BFRC,accession7,box5,BelterraMonthlyProgressReports,1941to1945.Seealsothereportsinaccession74,box13,relatedtoBelterra.

5.SteveMannheim,WaltDisneyandtheQuestforCommunity,NewYork:AshgatePublishing,1983,p.26;BarbaraWeinstein,“Modernidadetropical:VisõesnorteamericanasdaAmazônianasvésperasdaGuerraFria,”RevistadoIEB45,September2007,pp.153–76;“FilmtoCiteRichesofSouthAmerica,”NewYorkTimes,December30,1941.

6.BFRC,accession285,box2629.

7.AndréLuizVieiradeCampos,“InternationalHealthPoliciesinBrazil:TheServiçoEspecialdeSaúdePública,1942–1960,”PhDdissertation,UniversityofTexas,Austin,1997,p.75;BFRC,accession6,box74,JohnstontoWooley,October26,1942.

8.ColumbiaUniversity,RareBooksandManuscriptsCollection,“JamesG.McDonald,”“ConfidentialmemorandumofMcDonald-FordNegotiationsinDearborn,”April1,1941.

9.Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.501;CollierandHorowitz,TheFords,p.161.

10.Bennett,WeNeverCalledHimHenry,p.285;Brinkley,WheelsfortheWorld,p.478.

11.HowardSegal,“WhatBillFordIsLearningfromGreat-Grandpa,”HistoryNewsNetwork,http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/20940.html,January23,2006;EarlL.DoyleandRuthMacFarlane,TheHistoryofPequaming,Ontonagon,Mich.:OntonagonCountyHistoricalSociety,2002,p.167;Cleven,“PequamingandAlberta,”p.109.

Epilogue:StillWaitingforHenryFord

1.“Amazonia—AGranaryOutoftheJungle,”NewYorkTimes,July31,1949;FelisbertoCamargo,“ReportontheAmazonRegion,”ProblemsofHumidTropicalRegions,Paris:UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization,1958,pp.11–22;“WaitfortheWeepingWood,”Time,July26,1948.

2.Dean,StruggleforRubber,pp.102,115.

3.Ibid.,p.115.

4.“Brazil’sFamousCityofFolly,”WashingtonPost,February15,1914.

5.“Brazil’sFamousCityofFolly”;JosephNovitsky,“Boom,Bust,andNowBoomAgaininAmazonTown,”NewYorkTimes,July1,1969.

6.“JungleTradeZoneTriestoSurvive,FarfromMarketsinaChangingWorld,”AssociatedPress,July5,2005;“Brazil’sResurgentAmazonPowerhouse,”BBCNews,August29,2006.

7.“RacetotheBottom:MexicoLowersWagestoSnagInternationalAutoProduction,”InternationalHeraldTribune,June8,2008;“HalfofWorld’sPopulationWillLiveinCitiesNextYear,UNReportSays,”InternationalHeraldTribune,June27,2007.

8.JebBlount,“Ford’sDreamLiesinDecay,”LosAngelesTimes,March9,1993.

9.RhettA.Butler,“DeforestationintheAmazon,”http://www.mongabay.com/brazil.html#cattle(accessedMay8,2008).

10.“Amazon’sRescueReversed,”Guardian,January25,2008;AlexeiBarrionuevo,“WithGunsandFines,BrazilTakesonLoggers,”NewYorkTimes,April19,2008.

11.MonteReel,“BrazilPursuesCrackdownonLoggers,”WashingtonPost,March21,2008;TimHirsch,“BrazilianTownatCentreofCrackdown,”Telegraph,March3,2008.

12.MichaelSmithandDavidVoreacos,“TheSecretWorldofModernSlavery,”Bloomberg.com,December2006,http://www.bloomberg.com/news/marketsmag/modern_slavery1.html(accessedMay12,2008).

13.WoodsHoleResearchCenterPressRelease,“World’sLargestRainforestDryingExperimentCompletesFirstPhase,”http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-03/whrc-wlr032105.php.

14.HeidiSopinka,“SpillingtheBeansonSoy,”http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/10/26/4832/.

15.AlexBellos,“BloodCrop,”Telegraph,October13,2007,http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml?xml/earth/2007/10/13/sm_soya.xml&page=1(accessedMay12,2008).

16.ScottWallace,“LastoftheAmazon,”NationalGeographic,January2007,p.70;Bellos,“BloodCrop”;IndiraLakshmanan,“AmazonHighwayIsRoutetoStrifeinBrazil,”Boston

Globe,December27,2005.

17.http://cps.aena.br/cps_arquivos/fg/provasanteriores_arquivos/provadiscursivaturismo.pdf(accessedMay8,2008).

ILLUSTRATIONCREDITSGratefulacknowledgementismadetothefollowingindividualsandinstitutionsforpermissiontopublishimagesfromtheircollections:StephanieLucas,CarolWhittaker,andJimOrroftheBensonFordResearchCenteratTheHenryFord(Dearborn,Michigan);MelanieBaziloftheHenryFordHospital;SilviaInwoodoftheDetroitInstituteofArts;MatthewWesterbyofTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt;KarenHassofTheLaneCollectionoftheMuseumofFineArts,Boston;JillSlaightofTheNew-YorkHistoricalSociety;JimDetlefsenattheHerbertHooverPresidentialLibraryandMuseum;JamesDompieratBaragaCountyHistoricalSociety(Michigan);JohnBruntonoftheDevonCountyCouncilDevonRecordOffice(UK);andLeonardoF.Freitas.

Thematerialappearsonthefollowingpages:

FromthecollectionofTheHenryFord:36,59,129,137,139,141,154,172,174,184,187,190,195,197,200,207,221,224,231,255,270,271,273,274–75,281,282,283,284,287,288,297,317,321,322,326

ConradR.LamArchives&HistoricalCollectionsoftheHenryFordHospital:297

DanielSchoepf,GeorgeHuebner1862–1935:UnPhotographeàManaus:27,29

CollectionoftheTheNew-YorkHistoricalSociety:67

DevonRecordOffice(reproducedbypermissionoftheownersoftheLuxmoorepapers[D.5121M]):91,131,215

TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,withpermissionfromtheLaneCollection:248

DiegoRivera,DetroitIndustry,NorthWall(detail,1932–1933);GiftofEdselB.Ford,photograph©2001,TheDetroitInstituteofArts:250

JamesR.Weir,PathologicalSurveyoftheParaRubberTree:328

BaragaCountyHistoricalSociety:352

LeonardoF.Freitas:368

HerbertHooverPresidentialLibraryandMuseum:24

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSFirstthanksgotoSaraBershtel,asruthlessarationalizerofwordsasHenryFordhimselfofmovement.It’saprivilege,andenormousfun,toworkwithher.I’malsogratefultoRivaHochermanforhelpingtomakealltherightdecisionsandtoRoslynSchlossforherimpressivecopyeditingskills.MeganQuirkwaswonderfulshepherdingthebookthrougheditingandproduction.IwanttothankBarbaraWeinstein,TomRogers,JoelWolfe,SethGarfield,BryanMcCann,KarlJacoby,TomMcCarthy,KarenRobert,BetsyEsch,andJoeJacksonforhelpfuldiscussions,leads,corrections,andsuggestions.MichelleChase,RosalindLeveridge,DanielRodríguez,andLindseyGishassistedwithkeyresearch.SusanRabinerhelpedgiveshapetotheprojectatitsearlystagesandhasbeensupportivethroughout.ThanksalsotothechildrenofFordlandia,aswellasotherswhohavememoriesoftheproject,fortakingtimetosharethemwithme,includingCharlesTownsend,LeanorWeeks,EinarOxholm,RaymundoMiranda,DiogoFranco,EimarFranco,RogerRogge,DouglasRiker,andDavidRiker.GilSeriqueprovidedindispensiblehelpnavigatingaroundtheTapajós,andforsharingthehistoryofhisfamily.I’mthankfulforthesupportlibrariansandarchivistsgavemealongtheway,includingCarolWhittakeroftheBensonFordResearchCenter,MelanieBaziloftheHenryFordHospital,andJamieMyleroftheFordMotorCompanyArchives.Muchappreciationalsotofriendsandcolleagues,includingMarilynYoung,SinclairThompson,JackWilson,AdaFerrer,BobWheeler,SteveFraser,MollyNolan,CoreyRobin,MaureenLinker,ScottSaul,RobertPerkinson,JolieOlcott,LauraBrahm,DeborahLevenson,LizOglesby,GilJoseph,HarryHarootunian,KristinRoss,KiekoMatteson,CarlotaMcAllister,LindaGordon,MarkWeisbrot,DianeNelson,DiPaton,FrankGoldman,PeterBrown,GordonLafer,MattHausmann,RachelKirtner,DebbiePoole,GerardoRénique,ToshiGoswami,andTanniaGoswami,forsupportindifferentways.AndManu,whodeservesthanksforthisandeverything.I’dliketodedicatethebooktoEmiliaViottidaCosta,whocontinuestobeawonderfulteacher.

ABOUTTHEAUTHORGREGGRANDINistheauthorofEmpire’sWorkshop,TheLastColonialMassacre,andtheaward-winningTheBloodofGuatemala.AprofessorofhistoryatNewYorkUniversityandaGuggenheimfellow,GrandinhasservedontheUnitedNationsTruthCommissioninvestigatingtheGuatemalancivilwarandhaswrittenfortheLosAngelesTimes,TheNation,TheNewStatesman,TheLondonReviewofBooks,Harper’s,andTheNewYorkTimes.