They provide the energy that helps theprocess of development. We can callthem development workers, or animators.All the potential is within the peoplethat make up the community. No-onefrom outside can give them thatpotential – they already have it. Butcaring development workers can givecommunities the confidence to changethings for the better. Often the bestdevelopment workers belong to thecommunity where they are serving.

In this issue we look at the work ofsuch people. Traditionally they werecalled extension workers – but thisimplies that they bring ideas fromoutside which are thought of assuperior and must be extended intoother areas. Instead we will use thename animators in this issue: peoplewho provide encouragement, supportand new life in their communities.They are people who take time to seethe potential ofcommunities, to

IN THIS ISSUE• Animators – the link people

• Letters

• Sharing a skill

• Visual aids for training

• Case Studiesfrom West Africa

• Resources

• Steps in development

• A comprehensive ruralhealth project

• Pictures in training

FOOTSTEPSTRAININGNo.22 MARCH 1995

AS THE MEMBERS of a newlyformed community group – theKyanja Chicken Project – mettogether in a village nearKampala, Uganda, a visitorshowed them a simple picture.‘What is happening here?’ heasked.People chatted among themselves.Joe’s drawing wasn’t a work of art butthe answer was obvious – a chick washatching out of an egg. But was thevisitor wanting something more?‘What is causing this to happen?’ Joeasked again.

Mary spoke up. ‘The egg contains alive embryo. As the hen broods theegg for three weeks, the embryo orbaby chick grows inside. When itgrows too big for the egg, it begins tocrack open the shell and the chickhatches out.’

Joe agreed. He went on to explain thatcommunities can be thought of justlike an egg. In every community andin every person there is real potentialhidden inside. Each of us is made inthe image of God with all thepossibilities and gifts he provides.However, for people and communitiesto grow and develop to their fullpotential, something else is needed,just like the warmth and care themother hen provides for the egg.

There are people around who seem toact like a source of warmth or energy.

understand their ways, and to shareappropriate ideas and knowledge. Ofcourse, what we call such people doesnot really matter – what does matter istheir attitude towards thecommunities they work with.

Trainingin partnership

FROM THE EDITOR

FOOTSTEPSISSN 0962-2861

Footsteps is a quarterly paper, linking healthand development workers worldwide. TearFund, publisher of Footsteps, hopes that it willprovide the stimulus of new ideas and enthus-iasm. It is a way of encouraging Christians ofall nations as they work together towardscreating wholeness in our communities.

Footsteps is free of charge to individualsworking to promote health and development.It is available in English, French, Portugueseand Spanish. Donations are welcomed.

Readers are invited to contribute views,articles, letters and photos.

Editor: Isabel Carter83 Market Place, South Cave, Brough,N Humberside, HU15 2AS, UK.Tel/Fax (0)1430 422065

Language Editor: Sheila Melot

Editorial Committee:Jerry Adams, Dr Ann Ashworth, MikeCarter, Jennie Collins, Bill Crooks, RichardFranceys, Sue Hanley, Suleiman Jakonda, DrTed Lankester, Sandra Michie, Nigel Poole,Jim Rowland, José Smith, Mike WebbIllustrator: Rod Mill

Design: Wingfinger Graphics, Leeds

Translation:Ray Cawston, Dr Jorge Cruz, Totoya Dew,Nicole Edwards, Gerard Godon, João Martinezda Cruz, Maria Leake, Olivier Martin, NicoleMauriange, Jean Perry, Jean-DanielPeterschmitt, Catherine Sample

Mailing List:Write, giving brief details of your work andstating preferred language, to: FootstepsMailing List, Tear Fund, 100 Church Road,Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 8QE, UK.Tel: (0)181 977 9144

Articles and illustrations from Footsteps may beadapted for use in training materialsencouraging health and rural developmentprovided the materials are distributed free ofcharge and that credit is given to Footsteps,Tear Fund. Permission should be obtainedbefore reprinting Footsteps material.

Published by Tear Fund. A company limitedby guarantee. Regd in England No 994339.Regd Charity No 265464.

TRAINING

2 FOOTSTEPS NO.22

AN ANIMATOR may be seenas a kind of bridge – a linkbetween the community andoutside groups such asgovernment, research stations,universities and developmentagencies.They may also be a link betweengroups wanting to help bring aboutchange or development – such as theChurch, donor agencies, government –and the community. The animator actsas an interpreter, helping these groupscommunicate with each other aboutneeds, problems, information andskills required. (See diagram below.)

The animator is often the link personin sharing skills or training. It is notthe animator’s job always to have theanswers to problems. Researchstations and universities may havesome of the answers. Rural peoplehave rich resources of wisdom,knowledge and skills accumulatedover centuries. The animator is abridge by which problems andanswers can move between the two.Learning always needs to be a two-way process.

The role of the animator• communicator • motivator• teacher • administrator• enabler • activist• educator • leader• organiser • provider• facilitator • intermediary

• listener • friend• catalyst

These words (and you may be able tothink of others) all suggest a person in akey role, meeting with people atdifferent levels and needing skills inteaching and communication,management and leadership, helping,encouraging and just being a truefriend. It is not an easy calling to be theman or woman ‘in the middle’. It needsa person who is trained, gifted, highlymotivated and who is compelled by reallove to serve the needs of others.

We see from the gospels that Jesus usedmany different methods tocommunicate with people. Each methodwas appropriate to the audienceconcerned. Often he used teaching aids,such as parables or real objects, to makehis meaning clear and to help peopleremember his message. We see himacting quite differently with largecrowds, with the small group of hisdisciples and with individuals in need.(Read Matthew 13:3–4, Mark 9:30–31,John 4:7.)

The animator’s work intrainingThe animator’s role is much more thansimply passing on information. Ananimator is concerned with helpingpeople learn – gaining knowledge, newskills and changing attitudes. Soanimators are also called to be trainers.They need to understand the learningprocess and be able to train others.

What do we mean by training?

■ Training aims to prepare the learnersfor a particular task or job. It will alwayshave clear, specific objectives.

■ It involves both learning theory andcarrying it out in practice.

■ It involves changes in people – inparticular, in their knowledge, skillsand attitudes. Changes in attitudeusually come slowly.

by Ian Wallace

CENTRES OFLEARNING

research

universities

government

extension services

ANIMATOR(THE BRIDGE)

CHANGEAGENCIES

government

church

donor agencies

projects

RURALPEOPLE

farmers

women’s groups

families

communities

ANIMATORST H E L I N K P E O P L E

3

TRAINING

FOOTSTEPS NO.22

2 Participatory MethodsThese methods are learner-centred. Learnersare encouraged to participate, so there is a two-way flow of information between trainer andlearners. Adult learners have much experienceand knowledge; with participatory methods thisis respected. Each person is encouraged toshare their experiences and to listen to andlearn from others. The role of the animator is toset up training situations where open discussionof issues can take place. Participation helps tomotivate learners. Motivation is a key require-ment for effective learning. Greater involvementmeans that changes in attitudes and skills aremore easily achieved.

There is communication in all directions –between trainer and learner and among thelearners themselves.

EXAMPLES: group discussions, seminars, meet-ings, role plays

■ It involves balanced human develop-ment – bringing about mental, physicaland spiritual changes. In other words,real human development will involvemind, body and soul. Training shouldalso be balanced, focusing on all threetypes of change, not just on one or two.

■ It involves improving existing skills.Usually trainees already have someskills but want to learn more – to buildup the skills they have. The animatorcan encourage this process.

■ Training involves the transfer oflearning. New knowledge, skills andattitudes must be transferred to every-day life. Can the things learned in the‘training environment’ be put intopractice in real life situations? Alltraining must lead to action. This is themost important test of effectivetraining.

1 Presentation MethodsThese are methods where the trainer presentsnew ideas or information, or shows the learnerhow to do things. These methods are some-times called ‘trainer-centred’. The flow of com-munication is mainly in one direction – from thetrainer to the learners. Presentation methodsare important for getting across ideas and arevery widely used. (Speaking may be varied byusing diagrams, posters, poems, etc. to holdpeople’s attention). However, trainers need torecognise the limitations of these methods andcombine them with other methods involvingmore learner participation.

Information flows in one direction only –from trainer to learners.

EXAMPLES: lectures, videos, demonstrations,radio programmes.

Exploratory Methods require a facilitatorand organiser.

GROUP EXERCISE Plan training ona particular subject. List all thepreparations and materials needed tolead three training sessions aboutthis subject – the first usingpresentation methods; the second,participatory methods; and the thirdsession using exploratory methods.

With thanks to RURCON for permissionto use material from The Link Person(reviewed on page 12). Ian Wallace hasmany years of experience in agriculturaltraining. He is a lecturer in theAgricultural Extension and RuralDevelopment Department, ReadingUniversity, 3 Earley Gate, WhiteknightsRoad, Reading, RG6 2AL, UK.

Choosing a methodThe methods used by trainers can bedivided into three main groups (seebox). For effective learning to takeplace, trainers need to use acombination of different methods.People learn better when the‘message’ is repeated in various ways.Presentations of new ideas and skillscan be followed by participatory andexploratory sessions.

In order to use a variety of methods,trainers need to be well trained. Theyneed to understand that their role willchange with different trainingmethods:

Presentation Methods require a skilledteacher.

Participatory Methods require a trainerwho is also a willing learner.

3 Exploratory MethodsThese methods use the important principle of‘learning by discovery’. In this situation thetrainer is truly a facilitator who provides materialand sets tasks, leaving the learners to find outfor themselves. The trainer is still in control andneeds to check on the learner’s progress fromtime to time. At the end, new learning needs tobe demonstrated to the trainer. This can takemany forms – demonstration of new skills,exhibitions of work done, presentations.

Exploratory methods can take a lot of time.They usually result in deeper, more permanentlearning changes. Learners enjoy the challengeof finding out for themselves.

The trainer provides material or informationand helps the learners to work together todiscover things for themselves.

EXAMPLES: exhibitions, case studies, projects,workshops, reading assignments

Three approaches to training…

market where their products can bepurchased at fair prices.

Today, in many sub-Saharan Africancountries it is hard to find banks thatwill finance agricultural activities.How can one start up an activity whenborrowing money is so expensive?Even good seed and other basicmaterials can be very expensive. Iwould hope that soon the granting ofbank loans to finance agriculturalactivities will once again be possible incountries such as the Ivory Coast.Loans could be made in the form ofmaterials rather than in cash. Thiswould reduce the number of trickscarried out by non-farmers.

The return to the land must becomereality. Let’s finish all politicalspeeches and take practical actioninstead. The key to success lies withthe land and it will be a lasting successbecause it will come from the grass-roots.

Advice from Pas à Pas as well as thefinancial and material means willresult in an agro-pastoral success.

Justin Tchete03 BP 3129 Abidjan 03Ivory CoastW Africa

AIDS educationI WAS VERY INTERESTED to readPas à Pas 19 on TB and AIDS. I wouldlike to make a few points regardingAIDS and fidelity.

In some ethnic groups, couples abstainafter a birth for fear of another

LETTERS

4 FOOTSTEPS NO.22

In defence of farmersWORKING THE LAND can beinteresting for two reasons. Firstly, toprove to both government officialsand peasants that working the land isnot just done by ignorant peoplebecause they have nothing else to do.Farming is of great value in itself andcan be chosen with enjoyment like anyother profession.

Secondly, it is interesting to prove tothe same people that if the land isworked well, bringing in new ideas, itcan be just as profitable as any otherprofession. However, working theland successfully often means that thefarmer may need to have the financialmeans to purchase essentialrequirements: tools, materials to buildan underground water source, ormaybe a tractor to carry out activities.Thanks to the teaching provided byPas à Pas, farmers can use compost,manure or green manures which areeasy to produce and save money,instead of buying fertilisers.

In a country such as the Ivory Coast,agricultural success will only becomereal, firstly, when farmers are able toborrow funds needed for equipment.Secondly, they need an encouraging

pregnancy. Often this leads tounfaithfulness on the side of thehusband.

To help couples remain faithful, theMinistry of Health in Cameroon hascombined a campaign on AIDSawareness with information ondifferent methods of family planning.People are informed wherever theymeet – after church, in women’sgroups, after the Friday prayer timefor Muslims – together with theleaders of these groups. Couples areinvited to visit their local healthcentres for more information in a morediscreet place.

Another problem that needs to bedealt with is the migration of menfrom the villages, leaving behind theirwives and children. Can they abstainfrom having any kind of sexualrelationship with occasional partners?In this part of northern Cameroon,people are now talking about AIDS,but often they don’t really understandwhat it’s all about. They do not fullyrealise the risks they may be taking.

Helen MüllerEglise EvangéliqueBP 82KoussériCameroon

Water dowsingGREETINGS from the Kingdom ofSwaziland. I always read Footstepswith pleasure and find many usefularticles in it for extension workers andfor community development.However, in your recent issue No.20 Iwas very surprised to read aboutwater dowsing. In the Old Testamentin Deuteronomy 18:10 and 2 Kings17:17 we read that divination is evil.

I am sure that water dowsing worksand does help people to find water,but surely the important question iswhether we are following God’s wordin the scriptures. Although we can’texplain how water dowsing works,there are forces at work and accordingto the scriptures we should notpractise such things.

Willen R KaassenRural MinistriesPO Box 387, VeniSwaziland

THE EDITORFOOTSTEPS83 MARKET PLACE

SOUTH CAVEBROUGHN. HUMBERSIDE

HU15 2AS

5

LETTERS

FOOTSTEPS NO.22

I WAS SURPRISED to find the letteron dowsing in the recent issue ofFootsteps. I know of other Christianslike Mr Hume who practise waterdowsing. However, the subject isvery troublesome to me. We shouldnot overlook the fact that it is alsocalled ‘water divining’.

As a scientist, I find it hard to believethat there is a natural effect or a forcecreated by God for our use which no-one has yet been able to detect andmeasure. People with little trainingare apparently able to detect water,electric cables etc, with a great varietyof materials – hazel sticks, copperrods, bent coat hangers, etc. Is thiseither magic or just the imaginationof the dowser?

When I was responsible for a largewater programme in Ethiopia Iforbade the use of water dowsing.The local people were very familiarwith witchcraft (and also with waterdowsing) and the church there hadworked hard to oppose it. Whendigging wells, local people were veryanxious that a goat be sacrificed toincrease the chance of finding water. Irefused, saying that if water wasthere, we would find it, whether ornot we sacrificed a goat. Had wedone this, we would have reinforcedtheir belief in the magic of sacrifice.

Would it not be better for Christiansto avoid any association with ‘specialknowledge’ gained through suchdoubtful methods? God has given uslimited understanding of naturallaws and expects us to use theknowledge we already have. He isalso pleased to direct us throughprayer to meet our own needs andthose of others. If we are justified inseeking supernatural help, we mustmake sure we are seeking it at theright source.

Don StilwellSIMPO Box 7900Charlotte, NC 28241USA

EDITOR:Water dowsing is an issue that dividesChristians. There is no clear answer and eachperson must think through the issues andmake up their own mind.

There are two key points being raised in theseletters: firstly, is water dowsing divination(through supernatural forces)? – in which case,as Christians we should not use it – or is it aresponse to natural forces as yet not fullyunderstood? Don’t forget that long agoChristians believed that surgery and black-smithing were also of the Devil.

The second key point concerns the traditionalbeliefs and customs of local people. If localpeople see water dowsing as witchcraft, then itshould not be carried out. It should only bedone in full agreement with local churchleaders and with clear explanation to localpeople that witchcraft is not involved.

I’VE JUST RETURNED from two conferences on solar cooking. People inKenya were saying that people would never give up their fires for solarcookers, because in the evenings they like to sit and watch the flames.

In the hotel where I stayed they used simple fuel savers to keep the foodwarm. They were just small tins filled with sand and meths. Not only didthey keep the food warm, but they also provided lovely yellow flames.One tin lasted for two to three hours.

Next day we tried this with a debe cooker (shown in Footsteps 21). Itworked wonderfully well. You can’t see the flames, of course, until it isdark. Remember to insulate the cooker on top to stop all the heat beinglost.

Fill a small tin half full of ordinary sand.Stand the tin in a metal bowl or a hollow inthe ground. Then pour methylated spiritinto the tin until there is a shallow pool ofmeths on top. To light, simply put a lighted match into the meths. Thedebe or pot can stand on a grid or on a metal stand just above the flame.

You will find meths makes no smoke or dirty soot. Put it out by simplycovering the flame. For extra light, trystanding the burner on a tin lid orsomething shiny.

Anna PearceBox Aid11 Hill Top LaneSaffron WaldenEssexCB11 4ASUK

Free seedsGREETINGS from far away Poland.I’d like to tell Footsteps readersabout a very special man I have methere. His name is Roman Plaskota.He is a plant breeder who collectsrare and vanishing species ofplants, herbs and spices. For thepast 20 years he has devotedhimself to developing manyvarieties of plants that can survivein difficult conditions. His one wishis to share his seeds of wild herbsand flowers with plant loverselsewhere. He is happy to sendseeds to Footsteps readers living incolder climates. Please write to:

Roman Plaskota and Ronald McGerityPL-95-200 PabianicePO Box 6Poland

Saving fuel

WE CAN ALL remember timeswhen we were taught skills.Sometimes a difficult skill wasmade easy with clear training,and has remained with us eversince. At other times trainingwas confused; an easy skill wasmade difficult and we stillcannot do that skill.What is the difference between goodand bad training? Sharing a skill isitself, a skill that can be learnt.Thinking about the following pointsmay help you become a better trainer.

■ Know who you areinstructingTake time to consider who the learnersare. Their background will greatlyaffect the style, manner and content ofinstruction.

TRAINING

6 FOOTSTEPS NO.22

■ Set your objectivesToo much training is based on whatthe trainer wants to teach, rather thanwhat the learner needs and wants tolearn. Skill sharing needs to belearner-centred rather than trainer-centred. So an objective needs to startwith a phrase like, ‘By the end of thisinstruction, the learner will be ableto…’

A good objective answers thequestions…

• What will the learner do?• How will they do it? With what?

Where?• To what standard will the skill be

done?

Many objectives are too vague. At theend of the instruction it is difficult totell whether the objective has beenachieved or not. A good objective isclear and measurable.

All instruction must be completed in alimited time, so it is important thatobjectives are realistic, both in terms ofwhat the learner can achieve, and interms of the time available.

Group work

If you are holding a group discussion onskills sharing, try this role play. Ask fourparticipants to act out two differentsituations. In each, an instructor is teachinga learner how to make a pot of tea. Don’ttell the other participants about the rolesbeing played.

■ An army sergeant instructing a newrecruit

■ A mother instructing a 6 year old child

Afterwards discuss the role play. Can otherparticipants guess the roles that werebeing played? What were the differencesbetween the two situations – even thoughboth were about the same skill? How didthey differ in manner, in the words used, inspeed, in the assumptions made, in bodylanguage?

Group work

Think of a training situation that groupmembers may face in the future; perhapswith a farmer’s group, a group of com-munity health workers, or a group of schoolchildren. What information do they, astrainers, need to have about the learnergroup to help plan the training? List theinformation needed.

Group work

Discuss the following objectives. Are theygood or bad? Why? Do they satisfy thepoints made above?

1 To teach the group about welding.

2 To change the front wheel on a tractor.

3 The learners will be able to take thetemperature of a child.

4 To show the trainees how to bud-graftcitrus seedlings using the T method.

5 The learners will be able to prick outeggplant seedlings from seedbed intotrays, at a rate of 45 a minute with 9 outof 10 seedlings surviving.

The learners’…• gender• age• interests and needs• previous experience• related skills• related knowledge• abilities/disabilities• literacy/numeracy level• language and mother tongue

…will affect the trainer’s…• manner• speed• vocabulary• starting point• teaching method• assumptions• lesson content• language of instruction.

■ Identify learning stagesand key pointsAll but the simplest skills can be dividedinto learning stages. The learner needs tobe able to do each stage before moving tothe next. At each stage there will be keypoints to emphasize:

• important things to look out for• common errors that people make• safety or legal points that must be

noted.Keep the number of key points to aminimum. Don’t make the skill moredifficult than it is!

■ Preparing yourpresentationIt is useful to write a Skills TrainingPlan, perhaps similar to the example onthe next page.

by Mike Carter

Sharing askill

Mike Carter works in the InternationalDepartment at Bishop Burton College,Beverley, N Humberside, UK, withexperience in Kenya, Papua NewGuinea and Nigeria.

1. Choosing a rope ■ A rope 2 metres minimum in length, and 7mm to 10mm diameter.■ The rope must not be too thin or it will rub painfully on the animal.

2. Tie the end loop ■ Make the loop as small and as near the end as possible.

3. Tie the inner loop ■ The correct distance between the loops varies with the size of animal;about 120mm for a small sheep or goat; 150–180mm for large calves.

4. Complete the halter ■ Thread the other end of the rope through the end loop first, thenthrough the inner loop.

5. Understand the ■ The rope between the loop knots is called the ‘fixed band’; it cannotparts of the halter lengthen or shorten.

■ The rope with which you can lead the animal is called the ‘lead rein’.

6. Understand how ■ The ‘fixed band’ must go over the nose, not under the jaw. If it goes the halter fits on under the jaw, breathing may be constricted.the animal ■ From the ‘lead rein’, the rope first goes under the jaw, not over

the skull. The halter is then less likely to slip.■ The handler generally stands to the left of the animal, so the‘lead rein’ must come from the left.

7

TRAINING

FOOTSTEPS NO.22

5 min

30 min

Skill:

Objective:

Learner group:

Where and when?

Equipment needed:

INTRODUCTION

DEMONSTRATION

LEARNING STAGES KEY POINTS

Making a halter

Trainees will learn to tie a temporary halter for sheep, goat or calf.

Bagamoyo Farmers’ Group, 8 farmers expected.

Bagamoyo – Mr Ali’s farm, 4/5/95 10am – 12 noon.

8 lengths of rope, 2 metres long, 7–10mm in diameter. 8 sheep or goats.

Very useful for examining young animals, when vaccinating,giving treatment or when taking young animals to market.

Demonstrate twice.

TRAINEE PRACTICE

ASSESSMENT

CONCLUSION

Group work

Ask each participant to write their own Skills Training Plan on any skill they want to share. Such skillscan be on any subject – health, agriculture, forestry, building, craft work, etc. Let each person instructanother group member in this skill. After each instruction, discuss as a group both the good points andanything that could be improved.

The introduction is very important. How will youmotivate the trainees? Set the scene; the skillthey are learning today may link back to other

skills they can do already. Why is the skill worthlearning? State clearly your objectives. Create a

friendly learning atmosphere.

Plan the main part of the instruction. With some skillsit is a good idea to demonstrate the whole skill quickly,

then repeat it – this time slowly, stage by stage –allowing the trainees to do the skill at the same time.

Allow plenty of time for trainee practice. We learn by doinga skill, more than by hearing and seeing others doing it.

NOTEThe halter shown in this example is only fortemporary use. After a while the knots willrub sores on the animal’s head. A personskilled at knots (splicing) could make asimilar permanent halter without big knots.

A larger halter can be used on adult cattle,but the animal will need to be halter-trainedfrom a young age.

70 min

5 min

10 min

Group work in pairs, each farmer to practise in turn.

Check each halter when completed.

Farmers should repeat the learning stages and key points.Remind the trainees that this halter is only for temporary use.

Worked example:making atemporary halter

The end loop

The inner loop

The finished halter

Conclude by repeating the main points. Mention relatedskills that the trainees may be learning in the future.

Plan how you will assess at the end whetherthe trainees have acquired the new skill.

SKILLS TRAINING PLAN

PR

EPA

RA

TIO

NP

RE

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NTA

TIO

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EaselsHere are twoideas for makingsupports forboards (easels)…

RESOURCES

8 FOOTSTEPS NO.22

FlipchartsFlipcharts are series of posters used toteach small groups about a particularsubject. Each main idea is shown on aposter. Their use makes teaching mucheasier, as each poster reminds the trainerof all the important points. Posters shouldbe made on good quality paper so that theywill last a long time. Sheets of colouredplastic (such as the yellow plastic oftenused to dry coffee) can be cut up. This willallow trainees to copy posters to make uptheir own flipcharts.

Sets of posters should be bound together.Strengthen the top with heavy tape ifpossible. Punch holes in the tape and bindthe posters together with either ringbinders, string or strips of wood.

ChalkboardsThe chalkboard (or blackboard) is widely used asaid. It is very useful for drawing diagrams or pictemphasizing key words or points. Coloured chalcheaply available and can improve the interest omaterial and diagrams.

Practise drawing and using the chalkboard beforsessions. Use a clean board cleaner that removproperly. It is a good idea to have some materiathe board before trainees arrive. Avoid writing otoo much – and don’t talk to the board! Traineesbored watching your back.

Repaint old, worn chalkboards. You can make pechalkboards simply by plastering a smooth surfawall. A good size is 1 metre x 1.5 metres. Mix afour parts sand and one part cement. When the almost set, smooth carefully with a trowel. Covewith damp sacking or plastic to allow it to dry slopreventing cracking. Leave for several days to completely before painting.

Portable chalkboards can be made from pieces Sand the wood well before painting.

PaintYou can buy special blackboard paint. You can ayour own – two recipes are given below. Apply acoats of paint. Before using the chalkboard, rub with a cloth covered in chalk dust to condition it

With thanks toNeighbours anfor some of thi

■ Nail together a woodenframe and attach a board. Usea hinge to attach a back leg.Tie rope or wire through thethree legs to prevent the easelfalling over. To make a flipchart, attach hooks or nails atthe top of the board to hangthe poster sets.

■ Tie togetherthree strongpoles of wood,using the stumpsof side branchesto support theboard.

Visual Aidsfor Training

Recipe 1

• 1 part lamp black

• 1 part varnish

• 11/2 parts kerosene

Mix varnish and kerosene well. Then addlampblack and mix thoroughly.

will make it easy to transport on abicycle. Paint one side to use as achalkboard. Cover with cloth whenusing as a flannelgraph. Attach a smallpiece of wood to the back and use a stickto prop up the board. Or attach string toone end so it can be hung up.

A portable boardA chalkboard can be combined with aflannelgraph. Cut a piece of wood intotwo halves and hinge them together(using either metal hinges or a strip ofstrong cloth glued to both halves). This

9FOOTSTEPS NO.22

s a teachingtures, forks aref written

re traininges chalkl already onn the boardwill get

ermanentace onto a

mortar ofplaster isr the wallowly,dry

of plywood.

also makeat least twothe board

Cloth boardsAlso known as flannelgraphs, these are simply boards covered with rough cloth orflannel. Figures and pictures can be quickly added, easily moved about or removedfrom the board. They are very useful for telling stories or describing situations thatkeep changing. Used well, they will encourage interest and stimulate discussion ofissues. They are particularly useful if you will be sharing the same information manytimes with different groups.

Preparing pictures to use on flannelgraphs takes time but, with care, they will last formany years. Use pictures that are appropriate for the local culture. Draw pictures orcut them out of magazines. Certain words and signs, such as arrows, may be useful.Mount the pictures on thin card. Glue small pieces of sandpaper on the back of thepictures so they will stick to the cloth. Alternatively, apply glue or a paste of flour andwater, and sprinkle with sand or rice chaff. Make sure the pictures are large enough tosee well.

Making figures and training materials would be a very useful group exercise fortrainees. Flannel boards are ideal for training sessions in schools and marketsbecause they attract and hold people’s attention.

Look after pictures withcare and keep themarranged in the rightorder, ready to use again.Flannelgraphs can simplybe a piece of flannel orblanket pinned up on awall and rolled up whennot in use. Makepermanent boards bystretching cloth or flannelover a board and nailingor glueing it in position.

o Worldnd AHRTAGs information.

Recipe 2

Use a tin of dark coloured matt (notgloss) paint – black, dark green orbrown, for the first coat. To add abrasiveto the final coat of paint, take two old kilnfired bricks and grind them together tomake a fine powder. Sift the powderthrough a coarse cloth to remove lumps.Add 1 part of powder to 10 parts ofpaint. Mix together well.

TRAINING

10 FOOTSTEPS NO.22

The AAILDapproachTHE AAILD (Association for theSupport of Local DevelopmentInitiatives) is a non-profit makingorganisation in Burkina Faso, WestAfrica, with over 200 members.AAILD works to encourage andsupport local initiatives indevelopment.

Their main objectives are…

• reinforcing united action in theprovinces

• bringing awareness to thepopulation about developmentproblems

• helping projects to consider social,economic and cultural matters

• making sure that programmesinclude and encourage women andyoung people

• distributing magazines anddevelopment newspapers

• encouraging saving and creditschemes

• protecting the environment.

The association does not belong to anypolitical or religious denomination. Itworks in close co-operation withvillage groups, developmentorganisations, village committees andvarious non-government organisationsin Burkina Faso. It also has links withvarious publishing groups throughwhich it publishes and distributesnewsletters.

Power to the farmersThe main point regarding the AAILD’sapproach to development is itsdetermination to make the farmersbecome master of their owndevelopment. It does this by carryingout awareness sessions and bytraining. It helps farmers to achieveresults that bring increases in yield andimprovements to their quality of life.

This approach is based on theunderstanding that the solutions liewith the farmers. Farmers are helpedto understand their situation and theirproblems better. AAILD helps them torealise that ready-made solutionscannot be found anywhere else.Solutions will come through the workof their own hands. Farmers can andmust change their situation in theirown local environment. This is whenresponsible commitment starts, andthis explains the success of AAILD.

Support where it countsWith their success in training andproject support, membership ofAAILD has increased. So too have thenumber of needs and wishes of themembers. AAILD chooses where toplace support, taking into accountthese factors…

• The farmers themselves must firstidentify their problems. Only thenwill they be likely to work out theirown solutions.

• The success rate of similar activities

THE ANIMATOR is the person in themiddle – God’s go-between. Here is anexample of some of the people God hasused in the past as go-betweens.

Read 2 Kings 5:1–14. We hear of three‘servants in the middle’ in this story.

First there is the little maid who servedNaaman’s wife (verse 3). Her com-passion and faith were the first steps toNaaman’s final healing.

Next there is Elisha’s servant who wassent out as a messenger (verse 10). ‘Go,wash yourself seven times in the riverJordan’. For full healing to take place,he had to pass on this message faith-fully and accurately.

Thirdly there are Naaman’s servants inverse 13. They were brave enough toapproach Naaman in his anger. Theircare and reasonable attitude led toNaaman’s final healing.

All these examples teach us that to bethe man or woman in the middle isnever easy. It involves hard work andcourage and can often lead to beingmisunderstood. In addition to soundtechnical knowledge and training skills,it requires determination, love, com-passion and tact. Above all, it is God’sspecial calling and needs the power ofhis Holy Spirit.

The model of a Christian animator isJesus himself, for he stood in themiddle:• between God and man• between Light and Darkness• between Life and Death.

Pray for those in your community whoact as go-betweens – animators, com-munity health workers, teachers,pastors, etc. Discuss how you cansupport them better and show moreunderstanding of their difficult role.

BIBLE STUDY

The story ofElisha and Naamanby Ian Wallace

CaseStudiesfromWestAfrica

11FOOTSTEPS NO.22

TRAINING

Diobass Projectby Nohoune Lèye

I HAVE BEEN WORKING in a ruralarea for nearly 20 years. Diobass is thename of an area containing 20 villagesjust south of Thies in Senegal. We firstbegan using methods aimed atrestoring the relation betweentechnicians and farmers in this area.Instead of technicians bringing atechnical package to the farmers,farmers themselves become involvedin the research. In this way they gainin understanding the potential of theirland. We began using the name‘Diobass Education’ to describe ourmethods of working. Our hopes wereto make the best possible use of theresources of the area and the localcapabilities of the farmers. Thefarmers’ knowledge is valued.

The name ‘Diobass Education’ nowdescribes our approach to training inall rural areas. We need to understandthe facts before putting forwardsolutions. A local proverb – ‘to learnto know the wind before fighting it’ –explains our first priority. Participantsare asked to make an analysis of theircommunity and area.

Learning with modelsWe use training techniques whichbring together groups from differentbackgrounds, abilities and socialclasses. Trainees are encouraged tomake a ‘model’ involving all the

Trainer, Nohoune Lèye, shows the finishedmodel made by a group of women. Many

women came together to share informationand ideas on the common problem which

they share – trees are disappearing, there isa shortage of wood, gathering fuel takes

longer and longer but cooking must still bedone. The group came to the conclusion that

they could economise on wood by using animproved oven called the ‘banak suif’.

participants. They bring together alltheir observations, their ideas and anyconclusions which they have made. Aleader helps them to carry out thisprocess. A model helps to show on asmall scale what can be seen in real life.For example, a hedge or a windbreakcan be represented by some smallbranches planted close together. Adeep ravine can be shown by a smallchannel.

Models also help farmers tounderstand what may happen. Forexample, in order to show how rainwater can wash away soil and plantnutrients, the leader makes a model toshow what happens when it rains. Amodel of a sloping field with a trenchat one end is made. The leader thentakes a watering can and pours waterat the top of the field. The water runsdown the field into the trench. Thefarmers examine the water in thetrench to see how much soil it contains.

The understanding eyeWe believe that whatever subject isbeing discussed should be in view. Wemove from one place to another!Models and practical demonstrations

already carried out by villagerswith AAILD’s help is an indicationof their ability to carry out futureimprovements and activities.

• The mobilisation level of thevillagers in past actions should behigh.

Through providing training andsupervision of the villagers throughtheir leaders, good results areachieved at the level of village offices.To be convinced of the effectiveness ofthese methods, one has simply to bepresent at a meeting where

stimulate discussion between theparticipants. They help people to thinkof imaginative ways of findingsolutions to the problems. Their useintroduces new elements into theteaching method. This method oflearning helps farmers to think aboutpractical ways of putting theirknowledge into action when theyreturn to their villages.

In the farmers’ own words, ‘Wefarmers do not understand very wellwith our ears. We understand betterwith our eyes!’ Our training aims toadd words to the actions carried outby farmers themselves in the training.

Nohoune Lèye is the Director of theDiobass Project, BP 10, Khombole, RegionThies, Senegal, W Africa. His work hasbeen written about in other documents aswell, such as IIED Notes No.45 –September 1993.

preparations are planned for specificactivities.

PartnershipAAILD is committed to partnership atall levels. The idea of partnershipincludes all political, economic orprivate relations. The AAILD iscommitted to building up partnerlinks for the following actions…

• contact with many outsideorganisations (often throughprojects)

• involvement and participation at

various meetings.They would welcome hearing fromother groups in Burkina Faso orneighbouring countries.

Awareness and training play animportant part in the projects whichAAILD works with. Their care aboutthe farmers they work with is a keypoint for their success.

AAILD, 01 BP 3368, Ouagadougou,Burkina Faso

12 FOOTSTEPS NO.22

RESOURCES

Rural Extension Bulletin No.6University of Reading AERDD Dept

This bulletin looks at the theme ofparticipatory training and has severalinteresting articles about trainingapproaches used in different projectsaround the world. Interested readersshould write to:

AERDD – Reading University3 Earley GateWhiteknights RoadReadingRG6 2ALUK.

Participacion Comunal para elDesarrollo IntegralUn manual para facilitadores

Published by CONSEDE

This is a two part manual forfacilitators of community participationin development. It is based on theChristian principle of holisticdevelopment – development mustinvolve body, mind and spirit.

Livestock for a Small Earthby Jerry Aaker

Published by Heifer Project International

This book looks at the role of animalsin sustainable development. Itconcentrates on small scale farmers,giving much attention to the benefitslivestock bring on a small farm. Itlooks at Heifer Project’s work inproviding inputs to encouragedevelopment – usually as youngfemale animals – including a varietyof case studies. Practical informationon record keeping, nutrition andtraining is also included.

The book costs $10 from:

Heifer Project International1015 S Louisiana StreetLittle RockAR 72202USA.

The manuals were developed andtested during a series of workshops.Part 1 contains chapters onparticipation, selecting communities,participatory evaluation and planning.Part 2 contains information ontraining, management andorganisation within the community,follow up and evaluation. There arelots of illustrations, case studies anduseful questions for discussion ofissues. These are practical manualswhich would be very helpful foranyone involved in similar work.

The two manuals are available only inSpanish from:

CONSEDEApdo 1478TegucigalpaHondurasCentral America.

Candles of HopeThe AIDS Programme of the ThaiRed Cross Societyby Werasit Sittitrai and Glen Williams

This is No.9 in the Strategies for Hopeseries about AIDS management andprevention. This is the first title in theseries which describes AIDS work inAsia. The booklet describes how theThai Red Cross helps people with HIVinfection to cope with their health andsocial problems. It includes ten casestudies of HIV infected people andgives details of the efforts of the ThaiGovernment to respond positively tothe AIDS pandemic. The Thai RedCross Society has lit a candle of hopefor many thousands of people withHIV and AIDS. It has also translatedthat hope into practical action.

The booklet costs £2, includingpostage and packing. Free copies areavailable to readers in Asia from:

Thai Red Cross Society1871 Rama IV RoadBangkok 10330Thailand.

Training the Link Personby Ian Wallace

Published by RURCON

This manual was the result of aworkshop on Christian extensionwork. It provides a straightforwardexplanation of the topic and containschapters on the meaning of extensionwork, the work of the extensionworker, extension methods, skillstraining, management of training anddemonstrations, awareness of socialinfluences and evaluation. A lengthyappendix gives details of a variety oflessons and demonstrations. Pages 2and 3 of this issue are based on partsof this manual.

It costs £5.50, including postage (£4.50in UK), and is available from:

RURCON4 ChurchfieldWincantonSomersetBA9 9AJUK.

Basic Concepts in InternationalHealthPublished by CUCHIDISBN 0-9698445-0-6

This is a set of modules giving veryfull details of how to plan and managea ten day workshop integrating healthand development. Each session hasbackground reading materialprovided from a variety of sources.Information on how to run eachsession is practical and detailed. Withover 200 pages packed withinformation and illustrations, thisbook would be very helpful foranyone leading training at nationallevel. Though aimed at healthpersonnel, much of the material couldeasily be adapted for other subjects.

The book costs $25, including postageand packing. Order from:

CUCHID170 Laurier Avenue WestSuite 902OttawaCanadaK1P 5V5.

13FOOTSTEPS NO.22

TRAINING

Steps inDevelopment

accurately reflect the commentspeople make in your community.Here are some to begin with:

• We have to die sometime.

• I would like to take the children to theclinic but it is too far.

• I know the cattle need more fodder, butI don’t have enough land.

• Beans are too expensive to buy in themarket.

• I drank this water, and my father didthe same before me and we have livedlong lives.

• It is a lot of work for a littleimprovement.

• If we were all to collect stones it willonly take two days to have all we need.

• I could leave my children with theneighbour so that I could go to the clinic.

• My grandparents and parents alwaysplanted maize this way.

• The trees we planted grew so well we haveenough for our own needs and are able tosell some timber.

Write these and any other commentsyou can think of on pieces of paper.Read a few examples out and togetherdecide which step each comment wouldbest fit. Divide the remaining commentsbetween the participants and let themtry to match them with the appropriatestep. (See box below.)

When all the statements have beenmatched, read through them together tocheck if any are in the wrong place.(Sometimes it can be difficult to decideexactly which step they belong to – don’tspend too long deciding between stepsthat are close together).

During discussion ask:

• Which statements show that peopleare not willing to do anything?

• Which statements show that peopleare ready and willing to dosomething?

• At which end of the scale are most ofthe comments? Why?

• How will understanding people’sattitudes help plan suitable training?

THE ANIMATOR needs tounderstand how people in thecommunity see their problems.Here is a very simple exercisewhich helps participants toappreciate that we all see andinterpret things differently. Sit four volunteers around a table andplace on the table a large sheet withthe number 3 drawn on it. Ask thevolunteers what they can see. Eachwill see something different – one willsee a 3, another a M, another a W andthe last, an E. A useful discussion canfollow, using these questions:

• What is happening?• Why is it that each person sees

something different?• How does a person get a certain

viewpoint?Can you think of examples in real lifewhere people look at the samesituation in different ways?

Changes in attitudesHow do our attitudes to problemsaffect what we do? Here is an exercisewhich helps participants to identifydifferent attitudes and place them on ascale which goes from ‘noaction’ to ‘action’ (see box).

With the group, think upsome imaginarystatements that

Adapted fromThe Facilitators Resource Manual

Part II – Skills for the Trainer – by UgandaCBHCA, PO Box 325, Entebbe, Uganda.

The Action Scale

Step 1 There is no problem.

Step 2 There is a problem but it’s notmy responsibility.

Step 3 There is a problem but I havedoubts – about myself, aboutother people, about change…

Step 4 There is a problem but I’mafraid of the risk.

Step 5 I want to find possiblesolutions to the problem.

Step 6 I believe that we can do it.

Step 7 We can do it and we willovercome any problems thatdevelop.

Step 8 We were successful and nowwant to share and teach theresults with others.

14 FOOTSTEPS NO.22

HEALTH

A comprehensiverural health project

Assessing the situationBefore beginning medical services wecarried out surveys. We foundmalnutrition in under-fives andpregnant mothers and a need forfamily planning. We found certainchronic illnesses – tuberculosis,leprosy and blindness, for example. So

BEFORE STARTING any medicalwork, we spent 6–8 months meetingpeople and making contacts. Toensure genuine communityparticipation, enough time must bespent with the community so thatpeople are informed and clear aboutwhat is needed to improve theirhealth.

When you spend time with people,you realise they are much moreconcerned about food and water thanhealth. Instead of beginning to set upmedical services, we first helped withimproving people’s agriculture andwater supply. People want to ensuretheir livelihood. Communityparticipation can only be ensuredwhen people are organised aroundsomething that is vital to them. Wecould not have organised peoplearound health. We could not askpeople to come, saying ‘Let’s have atalk on how to clean your teeth.’Nobody would come. But if you say‘Look, over a third of your childrenare malnourished. Let us teach youhow to boost your agriculture’, peoplewill want to come.

The real cause of ill health is povertyand the lack of resources to provide alivelihood.

these were the problems. We basedour curative health care on theseresults. If you are caring for apregnant mother – what problemsmay she have? She may bleed, soblood transfusion services are needed.She may need a caesarean section, soyou need a simple operating theatreand someone to give anaesthetics. Ifjust one woman out of the many beingcared for by the primary health teamneeds a caesarean section, but there isno facility for referring her, then thewhole ante-natal programme suffers.

Primary health care will be successfulif you have a proper referral service.The number of patients actuallyreferred will be small but their needsmust be met, or the whole healthprogramme suffers.

Local abilitiesAt first we depended on nurses toliaise between villagers and the CRHPservices and to help with socialchanges. But we were soondisappointed. The nurses were nothappy living alone in remote villagesand there remained a barrier betweenthem and the villagers because of theireducation.

The first important change in ourthinking came when the villagerssuggested that we train villagewomen to be health workers. At thattime we believed that only doctorsshould be treating illnesses. However,as the villagers began to trust theirown abilities, they asked if we couldteach them to deliver babies. Wetaught them and they became verygood at it. Then we taught them aboutfamily planning and they became verygood at this too. This was when ourwhole idea about the capabilities ofilliterate village people began tochange. We changed our approachand began training village women ashealth workers.

Social changeThe result has been a catalyst forsocial change. At first, social issueslike the status of women and the castesystem were new to us. Wedeliberately chose to work with thepoor, the lower castes and withwomen. We made sure, for example,that the ‘Food for Work’ programme

In Jamkhed, local village women have beentrained as health workers.

When Drs Rajanikant and Mabelle Arole graduated from medical schoolthey were both concerned about the medical care of the rural population ofIndia. They went to work in a rural hospital. After five years they realisedthat despite all their hard work in caring for hospital patients, the generalhealth of the community around had not improved. They realised their needfor training in public health and returned to college for further study.

In 1970 they began working in the village of Jamkhed, Maharastra State,India. Jamkhed was officially classified as ‘backward’. There was a huge needfor medical care. The economy is based on agriculture, with women makingup 70% of the labour force. About 60% of the population are poor, landlessfarmers. The caste system is very strong in the area and about 20% of thepopulation are ‘untouchables’. The doctors continue their story themselves…

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HEALTH

was managed by the poor people. Forcenturies the ‘untouchables’ had neverhad an opportunity to take part indecision-making. Now they might bein charge of programmes with up to2,000 people. Never before had theyhad such decision-making power! Thelocal elite were not happy at all. Theonly reason we survived was becausewe were skilled as doctors and theelite knew they would lose gooddoctors!

Health and the castesystemSiting wells to provide drinking waterwas another interesting situation.Where do you place the tube well?The higher castes wanted the wells intheir area, but then lower castes wouldbe unable to draw water. So we askedthe geologist to go around the wholevillage testing, but always to makesure the well was eventually sited inthe ‘untouchables’ area! Over severalmonths we put in 140 wells. Only laterdid the high caste people realise whathad happened. We now realise socialchange plays a major role in changingthe health of the people.

At first, caste problems preventedparticipation in the health training.The higher caste women refused to sitwith low caste women. So we madethem cook together. We had themsleep on the floor on a big carpet andcovered them with a single blanket.We asked them ‘Haven’t we all got thesame kind of blood?’ ‘Don’t we allhave the same kind of heart?’ Changecame slowly.

Jamkhed training centreAt first we provided informal training.As time passed we were asked to domore training for other healthorganisations and for the government.Last year we established aninternational training centre forPrimary Health Care. Most healthtraining is theoretical. But here wegive practical training involving thecommunity. Half of our time is spenton technical teaching but the otherhalf is spent on developing values.This is where the Christian messagecomes in. Development without theright values and motivation ismeaningless.

The Jamkhed values are…

Love – Love is fundamental and it islove that serves. Service is a greatsocial power to change communities.

Humility – We need humility in order toaccept and serve the unlovely, thepoor and the deprived.

Hope – in the transformation ofindividuals and communitiesencourages us to persevere inworking with difficult people indifficult situations.

Faith – in God helps to share God’sgoodness with all his children.

The whole concept of communityhealth care is not about providing‘things’ but about changing attitudes.The development of the humanperson must come first – health andagriculture come second. Otherorganisations which try to imitate theJamkhed training often fail becausethese organisations themselves do nothave the right attitudes to the poor.

Training course detailsThe courses in Jamkhed are made upof three parts…

• initial three month training

• six month supervised work practice

• final one week assessment.

During the first three months, traineesdevelop a realistic Action Plan to becarried out in their own area. Coursetutors visit all trainees at least onceduring their six months of workpractice to assess how their ActionPlan is working out. During the finalweek, participants make apresentation about their work.

Certificates are presented at the end ofthe whole course.

The proportion of time spent onstudying health and development isequally divided. Training is learner-centred and participatory. Groupwork is encouraged. Participants areencouraged to apply theory topractice at all times. Field visits,attachments to health workers, casestudies, role play and time forreflection are all important.

The course is divided into fivemodules…

Community Based Health and Development

Skills Development – includingcounselling, communicating,leadership, facilitating groups andtime management

Management – organisation, teambuilding, monitoring and evaluation

Information Systems – including datacollection and analysis

Finance and Budgeting – fund raising andwriting project proposals.

Our objective is to produce leaderswho will enable communities to takecare of their own health. Emphasis ison providing skills in good leadershipand on developing the right attitudeswithin the trainees to enable them tohelp communities bring about change.

With thanks to Contact, published by CMC –Churches Action for Health, WCC forpermission to include information from theirMay 1993 issue. Drs R & M Arole work atCRHP, Jamkhed – 413201, DistrictAhmednagar, India.

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Pictures for trainingby Veronika Scherbaum

CERTAIN SUBJECTS, such as diarrhoea, AIDS and familyplanning, can cause embarrassment both for trainers andlearners. Trainers need to develop a good group atmosphere sothat these subjects can be talked about openly and withoutprejudice. Audience participation is a major goal.The use of pictures can be a very helpful aid to training (particularly whensuch embarrassing subjects are discussed!). Working with the Oromo peoplein Western Ethiopia, we developed a series of pictures for use whenteaching about diarrhoea. Each picture has a title for the benefit of thetrainer. However, the pictures are not usually explained. Instead, the groupare asked to work out the ‘message’ of the picture themselves. The trainermust stress the main points and summarize. In addition, different regionsand cultures may raise their own particular concerns. Here are just a few ofthe pictures we developed forteaching about diarrhoea andrehydration (ORT). They mayprovide ideas for groups who coulddevelop their own teaching series ona whole variety of subjects.

TRAINING

Published by

100 Church Road, Teddington, TW11 8QE, UK

Editor: Isabel Carter, 83 Market Place, SouthCave, Brough, N Humberside, HU15 2AS, UK

■ Have you everseen a child like this?

■ Do you knowsome signs of thisdisease?

■ What will happenif lost fluid is notreplaced?

Dehydration caneasily be preventedby offering drinks orfood as soon as theattacks of diarrhoeabegin.

1

■ What is this woman cooking?

■ What kind of flour do you usein your porridge?

■ Have you used fermentedflour to prepare porridge?

Any kind of flour can beused – preferably

fermented flour.

2

3 ■ Do you know the recipefor porridge that can beused for rehydration?

4

■ How much salt should be added tothe rehydration porridge?

One level teaspoon or a 3 finger pinchof salt are needed. Taste the porridge –it should not be more salty than tears.

5

■ Why is adding fresh fruit to theporridge a good idea?

Fresh fruit should be added after theporridge is cooked. Mash a banana,papaya or mango or add the juice of anorange or lemon. The fruit providesvitamins to help the child recover.

6

■ How often do you give a child withwatery diarrhoea this porridge?

After every diarrhoea attack the childshould drink one glass of this porridge.An adult should drink two glasses aftereach attack.

3 cups of any kind of flour are cooked with10 cups of clean water.

Veronika Scherbaum is nowteaching nutrition at the GermanInstitute Of Medical Mission. Heraddress is: Dorfstrasse 36, 72074Tübingen, Germany.

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