first language acquisition - umass...

First LanguageAcquisition

SupplementaryReadings

LanguageAcquisition andRule Creation

FactorsComplicatingLanguageAcquisition

UniversalGrammar andLanguageAcquisition

Some Stages ofLanguageAcquisition

Summary

First Language Acquisition

Summary

Supplementary Readings

The following readings have been posted to the Moodlecourse site:

I Language Instinct: Chapter 9I Contemporary Linguistics: Chapter 10

(pp. 351-358, 367-374, 378-385)I Language Files: Chapter 8 (pp. 319-332)

Summary

The Big Picture, Once Again

The Fundamental Question:What are the rules and mental representations thatunderlie our ability to speak and understand a language?

Another Fundamental Question:How does a child learn this system of rules and mentalrepresentations?

A Key Insight (Noam Chomsky; 1950s):This is a deep mystery of human biological development

I Newborn baby can’t speak English / Six year old can.I How did the brain go from the first state (no language)

to the second (English)?

Summary

Language Acquisition and ‘Imitation’

The ‘Common Sense’ Answer: Imitation (duh)Kids learn language by imitating the people around them!

The Truth:I Although ‘imitation’ is involved in language acquisition...I There is a lot more to it than just imitation...

Summary

Language Acquisition is Not Just ‘Imitation’First Key Fact:Children say things that they’ve never heard before.

I Children make ‘mistakes’ all the time:‘goed’ [gowd]‘leafes’ [lif1z]

I These ‘mistakes’ are not random ‘sloppiness’.Rather, kids are over-applying a rule of the language:

I /-d/ as past-tense on ‘go’ (instead of ‘went’)I /-z/→ [-1z] / Cfricative (instead of ‘stridents’)

Conclusion:I Kids aren’t just ‘imitating’ the things they hear.I Instead, they are trying to figure out the rules

I Like linguists, they make a guess (sometimes wrong)I They adjust their hypothesized rules until they’re right.

Summary

Language Acquisition is Not Just ‘Imitation’First Key Fact:Children say things that they’ve never heard before.

I Children make ‘mistakes’ all the time:‘goed’ [gowd]‘leafes’ [lif1z]

I These ‘mistakes’ are not random ‘sloppiness’.Rather, kids are over-applying a rule of the language:

I /-d/ as past-tense on ‘go’ (instead of ‘went’)I /-z/→ [-1z] / Cfricative (instead of ‘stridents’)

Conclusion:I Kids aren’t just ‘imitating’ the things they hear.I Instead, they are trying to figure out the rules

I Like linguists, they make a guess (sometimes wrong)I They adjust their hypothesized rules until they’re right.

Summary

Language Acquisition is Not Just ‘Imitation’Second Key Fact: ‘Competence precedes Performance’

I Kids understand things long before they can say them.(Parents have known this for eons; can also be shown in the lab)

An Example from Phonology:Kids hear phonemic distinctions they can’t actually produce.

I Kids hear the difference b/t [S] and [s] before they can say it:

I Kid: Gimme fis! [fIs]I Dad: Is this your fis? [fIs]I Kid: No! It’s my FIS! [fIs]

An Example from Syntax and Morphology:

I Sometimes physical disabilities prevent kids from speaking.I When tested, these mute kids still show (essentially) normal

levels of comprehension (Stromswold 1994).

Summary

Language Acquisition and Rules

Major Conclusion:Language acquisition is a lot more than just ‘imitation’.

I Acquiring a first language involves the creation of rulesI Children hypothesize rulesI Over time, they adjust them to match adults.

I Kids acquire rules without actually using/practicing them.I Kids’ linguistic knowledge outpaces their speaking abilityI Mute children learn first language without ever using it

Summary

Factors Complicating Language Acquisition

I If it weren’t already amazing that kids below 4 do all this...

I Various factors make language acquisition really hard.

Summary

Factor One: Rules are Complex

First Complicating Factor:The rule system they’re trying to learn is incredibly complex.

I You’ve already seen some of the rules making up English...

I Syllabification AlgorithmI Allophonic Rules (e.g. Aspiration, V-length)I Morphophonemic Rules (e.g. /d/→ [t], etc.)I Morphological Rules

(Right Hand Head Rule; ‘Freakin’-Infixation)I Syntax Phrase Structure Rules

I But, these rules barely scratch the surface...

I No one has ever written a complete grammar of English.

I And, somehow, kids below 4 reliably figure out all the rules.

Summary

Factor One: Rules are Complex

First Complicating Factor:The rule system they’re trying to learn is incredibly complex.

I You’ve already seen some of the rules making up English...

I Syllabification AlgorithmI Allophonic Rules (e.g. Aspiration, V-length)I Morphophonemic Rules (e.g. /d/→ [t], etc.)I Morphological Rules

(Right Hand Head Rule; ‘Freakin’-Infixation)I Syntax Phrase Structure Rules

I But, these rules barely scratch the surface...

I No one has ever written a complete grammar of English.

I And, somehow, kids below 4 reliably figure out all the rules.

Summary

Factors 2 & 3: No Teaching or Correction

Second Complicating Factor:Kids have to learn the rule system passively.

I Kids don’t get explicit, easily-digestible grammar lessons

I Instead, they have to figure it out entirely on their own.

Third Complicating Factor:I Children’s errors aren’t reliably corrected.I And, when they are, they ignore it anyway (Lecture 2).I The Problem This Causes:

A crucial part of learning is feedback / correction.(How do kids know when they’ve made a mistake?)

Summary

Third Complicating Factor:I Children’s errors aren’t reliably corrected.I And, when they are, they ignore it anyway (Lecture 2).

I The Problem This Causes:A crucial part of learning is feedback / correction.(How do kids know when they’ve made a mistake?)

Summary

Third Complicating Factor:I Children’s errors aren’t reliably corrected.I And, when they are, they ignore it anyway (Lecture 2).I The Problem This Causes:

A crucial part of learning is feedback / correction.(How do kids know when they’ve made a mistake?)

Summary

Factor Four: No Word BoundariesFourth Complicating Factor:Natural speech does not have word boundaries.

I We perceive our language as broken up into words

I But there are no real phonetic breaks between words

I “Do you want a cookie” = [dujuwAnt@kUki]

I Problem This Causes:To figure out the rules of morphology and syntax, you first haveto know what the words are(How do kids know where the words are?)

Fun Fact:I Kids do make mistakes about word boundaries (Pinker 1995):

I Parent: We’re going to MiamiKid: I don’t want to go you your ami [æmi].

I Parent: Behave!Kid: I am have [hejv]

I But it’s a miracle how few such mistakes they make...

Summary

Factor Five: Finished by Age 4-6

Fifth Complicating Factor:This whole process must be complete by age 4-6

I Kids essentially have their 1st language down by 4-6

I So, however they’re doing it, it’s gotta be all wrapped up by then

UniversalGrammar andLanguageAcquisitionLanguage Instinct AidsAcquisition

Universal Grammar and theEvidence

Limits to Kids’ Mistakes

Limits to LanguageVariation

Summary

Language Acquisition and Language Instinct

The Burning Question:How does a child below 4 figure out all the rules of their 1st

language all by themselves (with no help or correction)?

Key Idea from the First Week:Human beings have an instinct to learn a first language.

I Learning a 1st language is ‘hard-wired’ into our DNA.

Key Consequence of This Idea:I If we have an instinct to learn language (like a bird does a song)

I Then, we must have in-born knowledge about what(human) language is like...

I Since language is a system of rules and representations...I Then, this knowledge must concern the rules and

representations a (human) language can have!

Summary

Language Instinct Aids Acquisition

The Exciting Answer:Children are born knowing what linguistic rules andrepresentations (generally) look like.

I So, part of the work of figuring them out is already done for us:

I Our brains come ‘preloaded’ with a kind of ‘template’ forlinguistic rules.

I To learn their language, kids just need to fill in theirpreloaded ‘template’

Summary

Language Instinct Aids Acquisition

The Exciting Answer:Children are born knowing what linguistic rules andrepresentations (generally) look like.

I So, part of the work of figuring them out is already done for us:

I Our brains come ‘preloaded’ with a kind of ‘template’ forlinguistic rules.

I To learn their language, kids just need to fill in theirpreloaded ‘template’

Summary

Learning Rules Without AssumptionsA Supporting Consideration:If kids really didn’t know anything about how linguistic ruleslook, then learning them is (basically) impossible.

Gold’s Theorem (Computational Learning Theory):A system cannot reliably learn a (human-like) language withoutany starting assumptions about what the rules look like.

I Without such starting assumptions, there are numerous ‘deadends’ you can fall into:

I Stating syntactic rules about specific words:(S→ the + dog + ran)

I Stating syntactic rules without using phrases:(‘Nouns can come before Vs’, ‘Vs can come before Ns’...)

I Listing the exact number of As an NP can have:(NP→ (D) (A) (A) (A) (A) ... N ...)

Summary

Main Conclusion:Given how fast and accurate 1st language acquisition is:

I Kids must have some innate assumptions about how linguisticrules look

I These assumptions serve as a guide, leading kids to the rightrules very quickly

Summary

Universal Grammar

Vocabulary: Universal Grammar (UG)The assumptions (knowledge) about linguistic rules thathumans are born with.(Noam Chomsky; 1960s)

Question: What’s with the name ‘Universal Grammar’?I It’s the facts about grammar (linguistic rules) that we are born

knowing.I Thus, this knowledge is universal to all human beings (and

languages).

Evidence for Universal Grammar:I It helps explain how language acquisition is possible.I There are limits to the kinds of mistakes kids make.I There are limits to the kinds of rules languages can have.

Summary

Universal Grammar

Question: What’s with the name ‘Universal Grammar’?

I It’s the facts about grammar (linguistic rules) that we are bornknowing.

I Thus, this knowledge is universal to all human beings (andlanguages).

Summary

Universal Grammar

languages).

Summary

Universal Grammar

languages).

Summary

Limits to Kids’ Mistakes, Example 1Morpheme Ordering Constraint (MOC):

I Derivational affixes can’t go on words that have inflectional ones

I The first word in a compound can’t have inflectional affixesI cookie-eater, *cookies-eaterI mouse-eater, mice-eater (‘mice’ does not have plural suffix)

Fun Fact: Kids below 3 never violate the MOC (Pinker 1995).I Experimenter’s Question:

‘What do you call a monster that eats mice?’I Kid’s Answer 1: ‘Mouse-eater’.I Kid’s Answer 2: ‘Mice-eater’

I Experimenter’s Question:‘What do you call a monster that eats cookies?’

I Kid’s Only Answer: ‘Cookie-eater’

I Key Fact: Kids never answer ‘cookies-eater’.

Conclusion:Kids (even those below 3) are aware of the MOC and obey it.

Summary

I Derivational affixes can’t go on words that have inflectional onesI The first word in a compound can’t have inflectional affixes

I cookie-eater, *cookies-eaterI mouse-eater, mice-eater (‘mice’ does not have plural suffix)

Summary

Limits to Kids’ Mistakes, Example 2Stromswold 1990:Many imaginable syntactic errors are never made by kids.

I Linguists drew up several dozen ‘plausible’ mistakes kids couldmake with English auxiliary verbs.

Adult Pattern Imaginable MistakeDoes he seem happy? *Does he be smiling?He did go / He didn’t go He did it / *He didn’t itHe likes going *He cans go.He is not happy *He ate not something.Is he happy? * Ate he something?

I Linguists examined 66,000 sentences of recorded child speechwhere these mistakes could happen.

I Virtually none of these mistakes occurred anywhere.

I Kids do make mistakes with auxiliary verbs.I But, they don’t make these kinds of mistakes.

I Their actual mistakes are limited, and commonacross kids...

Summary

Conclusion:I There are certain kinds of linguistic errors kids never make.

I Morpheme Ordering ConstraintI Stromswold’s Imaginable (but Unattested) Errors

I So, kids never hypothesize rules that would lead to these errors.I So, kids somehow know that such rules would be wrong.I So, kids seem to be born knowing how their rules should look...I And so, it seems that there is a ‘universal grammar’.

(assumptions about linguistic rules that humans are born with)

Summary

I So, kids never hypothesize rules that would lead to these errors.

I So, kids somehow know that such rules would be wrong.I So, kids seem to be born knowing how their rules should look...I And so, it seems that there is a ‘universal grammar’.

Summary

I So, kids never hypothesize rules that would lead to these errors.I So, kids somehow know that such rules would be wrong.

I So, kids seem to be born knowing how their rules should look...I And so, it seems that there is a ‘universal grammar’.

Summary

I So, kids never hypothesize rules that would lead to these errors.I So, kids somehow know that such rules would be wrong.I So, kids seem to be born knowing how their rules should look...

I And so, it seems that there is a ‘universal grammar’.(assumptions about linguistic rules that humans are born with)

Summary

I So, kids never hypothesize rules that would lead to these errors.I So, kids somehow know that such rules would be wrong.I So, kids seem to be born knowing how their rules should look...I And so, it seems that there is a ‘universal grammar’.

Summary

UG Predicts Limits to Language Variation

An Exciting Prediction:

I If we’re born with a ‘template’ for linguistic rules (UG),then all human languages must conform to it.

I If a language didn’t conform to the ‘template’, then kidscouldn’t learn it.

I So, all languages should show similarities in rules.

I So, there are some rules that no languages will have.

The Prediction is Accurate:I Human languages can be very different from one another.I But, there are some logically possible things you never find.I Also, there are certain things that all human languages share.

Summary

Limits to Language Variation, Example 1

Some Things No Language Does:I Many languages mark questions by altering word order

I Example From English:(“Dave is a nice guy”→ “Is Dave a nice guy?”)

I However, no language marks a question by:I Reversing the word-order of a sentence

(“Dave is a nice guy.”→ “Guy nice a is Dave?”)I Switching the first and last word of the sentence

(“Dave is a nice guy.”→ “Guy is a nice Dave?”)

Summary

Some Things No Language Does:I Many languages mark questions by altering word order

I Example From English:(“Dave is a nice guy”→ “Is Dave a nice guy?”)

I However, no language marks a question by:I Reversing the word-order of a sentence

(“Dave is a nice guy.”→ “Guy nice a is Dave?”)I Switching the first and last word of the sentence

(“Dave is a nice guy.”→ “Guy is a nice Dave?”)

Summary

Some Features Common to All Human Languages:

I Lexical Categories(All have Vs and Ns, though many lack As)

I The Morpheme Ordering Constraint(Some seem to violate the MOC, but it’s complicated)

I Word Order Universals

Summary

Word Order Universals in Human Language

I All languages follow certain rules about the ordering of:I Subjects (“Dave likes John”)I Verbs (“Dave likes John”)I Objects (“Dave likes John”)

I Those rules, in order of importance are:1. Subject (S) precedes object (O)2. O is next to the verb (V)3. O is not first in the sentence.

I These rules explain the frequency of word-orders acrossthe world’s languages:

I Most Common: SVO, SOV (satisfy all three rules)I 2nd Most Common: VSO (satisfies 2 rules, including #1)I 3rd Most Common: VOS (satisfies 2 rules, but not #1)I 4th Most Common: OVS (satisfies only 1 rule, #2)I 5th Most Common: OSV (satisfies no rules)

(essentially non-existent)

Summary

I Most Common: SVO, SOV (satisfy all three rules)

I 2nd Most Common: VSO (satisfies 2 rules, including #1)I 3rd Most Common: VOS (satisfies 2 rules, but not #1)I 4th Most Common: OVS (satisfies only 1 rule, #2)I 5th Most Common: OSV (satisfies no rules)

Summary

I Most Common: SVO, SOV (satisfy all three rules)I 2nd Most Common: VSO (satisfies 2 rules, including #1)

I 3rd Most Common: VOS (satisfies 2 rules, but not #1)I 4th Most Common: OVS (satisfies only 1 rule, #2)I 5th Most Common: OSV (satisfies no rules)

Summary

I Most Common: SVO, SOV (satisfy all three rules)I 2nd Most Common: VSO (satisfies 2 rules, including #1)I 3rd Most Common: VOS (satisfies 2 rules, but not #1)

I 4th Most Common: OVS (satisfies only 1 rule, #2)I 5th Most Common: OSV (satisfies no rules)

Summary

I Most Common: SVO, SOV (satisfy all three rules)I 2nd Most Common: VSO (satisfies 2 rules, including #1)I 3rd Most Common: VOS (satisfies 2 rules, but not #1)I 4th Most Common: OVS (satisfies only 1 rule, #2)

I 5th Most Common: OSV (satisfies no rules)(essentially non-existent)

Summary

Some Stages ofLanguageAcquisitionLanguage LearningIn-Utero

Stages of Babbling

Stages of LearningPhonemes

How Kids Learn Phonemes

Stages of LearningMorphology

Stages of Learning Syntax

How Kids Learn Rules

Summary

Stages of Language Acquisition

Key Idea from the First Week:Learning a first language is a kind of human instinct.

One Piece of Evidence for this Idea:First language acquisition follows a predicable series of‘milestones’ (correlated with age).

I Language acquisition is guided an inner, biological clock

I Thus, it’s more like ‘maturation’ than purely social learning(Chomsky)

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Language Learning in the WombClaim From First Week:First language acquisition actually begins prior to birth.

The Experimental Evidence: (Peter Jusczyk, 1970s)I Background Fact:

Infants suckle faster when they ‘like’ an auditory stimulus.I Technique:

I Developed a pacifier that could measure rate of suckingI Played recordings of both French and English to English

and French 4 day oldsI Results:

I French babies ‘liked’ French more than EnglishI English babies ‘liked’ English more than French

I Follow-Up Study:I Preference stayed when all they could hear was intonation.I Preference disappeared when intonation was taken out.

Overall Conclusion:I When kids are in the womb, they begin learning intonationI Since that’s all they can really hear in there, that makes sense

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Infants suckle faster when they ‘like’ an auditory stimulus.

I Technique:I Developed a pacifier that could measure rate of suckingI Played recordings of both French and English to English

Stages of Babbling

Summary

and French 4 day olds

I Results:I French babies ‘liked’ French more than EnglishI English babies ‘liked’ English more than French

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Stages of Babbling

Obvious Fact:Babies babble, and this is related to learning to talk.

Not-So Obvious Fact:I Babbling is not just a simple, uniform behaviorI There are stages, made up of different kinds of babblingI Kids go through these stages at roughly the same ages

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Obvious Fact:Babies babble, and this is related to learning to talk.

Not-So Obvious Fact:I Babbling is not just a simple, uniform behaviorI There are stages, made up of different kinds of babblingI Kids go through these stages at roughly the same ages

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Stages of BabblingStage 1: Cooing (4-6 Months Old)

I Very basic, isolated vocalizations (single phones)I Due to physiology, usually velar or palatal soundsI [u], [gu], [ju]

Stage 2: Canonical Babbling (7-10 Months Old)I Chains of identical syllables (usually CV)

[bAbAbAbAbAbA], [dududududu]

I Other names for this stage:“Reduplicative Babbling”, “Syllable Babbling”

Stage 3: Variegated Babbling (10-11 Months Old)I Different syllables chained together

[bugAbimownAni], [mApAfowsAm]

I Sounds like kid is speaking ‘alien language’I Other names for this stage:

“Jargon Babbling”, “Gibberish Babbling”

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Mystery of Babbling Stages:The order of the babbling stages makes sense, but...

I Why ‘canonical babbling’? (What does repeating syllables do?)

I Why do all kids hit the same stages at about the same age?

Key Idea: Babbling follows an in-born maturational schedule.

Some Evidence: (Eric Lenneberg; 1960s)

I Some infants need to have tubes put in their throatsI These tubes prevent babbling and other forms of vocalizationI Once the tubes are removed, the children rapidly catch upI Before long, they babble at the right level for their physical age!

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Mystery of Babbling Stages:The order of the babbling stages makes sense, but...

I Why ‘canonical babbling’? (What does repeating syllables do?)

I Why do all kids hit the same stages at about the same age?

Key Idea: Babbling follows an in-born maturational schedule.

Some Evidence: (Eric Lenneberg; 1960s)

I Some infants need to have tubes put in their throatsI These tubes prevent babbling and other forms of vocalizationI Once the tubes are removed, the children rapidly catch upI Before long, they babble at the right level for their physical age!

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Stages of Learning Phonemes

Key Fact About Learning PhomemesBabies acquiring English learn phonemes in a uniform order:

1. Labials ([p], [b], [m])

2. Alveolars ([t], [d], [n], [s], [z])

3. Velars ([k], [g], [N])

4. Alveopalatals ([S], [Z], [Ù] [Ã])

5. Dentals ([T], [D])

Question: Why this order?I It’s not just ‘front of the mouth’ to ‘back of the mouth’I It’s not just about how common the sounds are in English

([T], [D] are very common in English)I It’s not just about how ’difficult’ the sounds are....

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Stages of Learning Phonemes

Key Fact About Learning PhomemesBabies acquiring English learn phonemes in a uniform order:

1. Labials ([p], [b], [m])

2. Alveolars ([t], [d], [n], [s], [z])

3. Velars ([k], [g], [N])

Question: Why this order?I It’s not just ‘front of the mouth’ to ‘back of the mouth’I It’s not just about how common the sounds are in English

([T], [D] are very common in English)I It’s not just about how ’difficult’ the sounds are....

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Stages of Learning PhonemesOrder English Phonemes are Acquired

1. Labials ([p], [b], [m])

2. Alveolars ([t], [d], [n], [s], [z])

3. Velars ([k], [g], [N])

Fun Fact:This order matches how rare the sounds are in the world.

I Labials are the most common sound in the world’s langauges

I The second most common are alveolars

I The third most common are velars

I The fourth most common are alveopalatals

I The fifth most common are dental fricatives(rather rare in the world)

Stages of Babbling

Summary

1. Labials ([p], [b], [m])

2. Alveolars ([t], [d], [n], [s], [z])

3. Velars ([k], [g], [N])

Conclusion:The time it takes to learn to pronounce X correlates with howcommon X is in the world’s languages.

A Picture that Emerges:For every phone X, kids are born knowing how common X is inthe world.

I The more common the sound is in the world...

I The more confident the kid is their language has that sound...

I So, the more quickly they learn how to pronounce the sound...

Stages of Babbling

Summary

1. Labials ([p], [b], [m])

2. Alveolars ([t], [d], [n], [s], [z])

3. Velars ([k], [g], [N])

Conclusion:The time it takes to learn to pronounce X correlates with howcommon X is in the world’s languages.

A Picture that Emerges:For every phone X, kids are born knowing how common X is inthe world.

I The more common the sound is in the world...

I The more confident the kid is their language has that sound...

I So, the more quickly they learn how to pronounce the sound...

Stages of Babbling

Summary

How Do Kids Learn Phonemes?

Key Fact from Phonology Unit:Languages can differ in whether two phones are allophones ofthe same or different phonemes

I In English, [t] and [th] are allophones of the same phoneme (/t/).

I In Thai, [t] and [th] are allophones of the same phoneme.

Key Consequence:One thing kids have to learn is whether certain phones areallophones of the same (or different) phonemes.

Question:How do kids learn two phones are allophones of same /different phonemes?

Stages of Babbling

Summary

How Do Kids Learn Phonemes?

Key Fact from Phonology Unit:Languages can differ in whether two phones are allophones ofthe same or different phonemes

I In English, [t] and [th] are allophones of the same phoneme (/t/).

I In Thai, [t] and [th] are allophones of the same phoneme.

Key Consequence:One thing kids have to learn is whether certain phones areallophones of the same (or different) phonemes.

Question:How do kids learn two phones are allophones of same /different phonemes?

Stages of Babbling

Summary

How Do Kids Learn Phonemes?Question:How do kids learn two phones are allophones of same / differentphonemes?

One Way That Sounds PlausibleI Kids are born unable to hear any distinctions between phones

(e.g. [t] and [th])I When learning words, kids learn they must distinguish some

phones (the phonemes), but not others (the allophones).

I Thai kids learn to hear the difference between [t] and [th]I English kids don’t need to learn to hear the difference

(... and so they don’t; they are treated as allophones of /t/)

Surprising Fact:I This is not the way kids do it...I The way kids do it is exactly the opposite...

Stages of Babbling

Summary

phones (the phonemes), but not others (the allophones).I Thai kids learn to hear the difference between [t] and [th]I English kids don’t need to learn to hear the difference

Stages of Babbling

Summary

phones (the phonemes), but not others (the allophones).I Thai kids learn to hear the difference between [t] and [th]I English kids don’t need to learn to hear the difference

Stages of Babbling

Summary

How Kids Learn PhonemesQuestion:How do kids learn two phones are allophones of same / differentphonemes?

The Way Kids Seem to Do ItI Kids are born perceiving the differences between all phones

I Both English and Thai kids start off hearing the differencebetween [t] and [th]

I Kids learn to ignore the difference between some phonesI English kids learn to ignore the difference b/ [t] and [th]I Thai kids don’t; they continue hearing the difference.

I By learning to ignore the difference between X and Y, kids learnto see them as allophones of the same phoneme.

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

How Kids Learn PhonemesThe Experimental Evidence: (Peter Jusczyk, 1970s)

I Background Facts:I Infants suckle faster when they ‘like’ some soundI When infants hear the same sound over-and-over, they get

bored (sucking rate declines)I When infants hear a new sound, they get excited

(sucking rate increases)

I Experimental Technique:I Used a pacifier that could measure rate of suckingI Played infants a long series of the same allophone ([t])I Once they were bored, changed the sound to another

allophone ([th])I Results:

I Below 6 months, English kids suckle faster when [t] ischanged to [th]

I Above 6 months, English kids don’t react when [t] ischanged to [th]

I Conclusions:I Below 6 months, English kids perceive the difference

between [t] and [th]I Above 6 months, they don’t

Stages of Babbling

Summary

(sucking rate increases)I Experimental Technique:

I Used a pacifier that could measure rate of suckingI Played infants a long series of the same allophone ([t])I Once they were bored, changed the sound to another

allophone ([th])

I Results:I Below 6 months, English kids suckle faster when [t] is

changed to [th]I Above 6 months, English kids don’t react when [t] is

changed to [th]I Conclusions:

I Below 6 months, English kids perceive the differencebetween [t] and [th]

I Above 6 months, they don’t

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

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Stages of Babbling

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Major Conclusions:I Newborns can perceive all the possible phones a human

language can have (Universal Grammar)I Over time, kids learn to stop distinguishing some phones.I Kids give up distinctions their language doesn’t use

(If kids don’t use the distinction, they eventually lose it...)

One Final Question:How do English kids learn to stop distinguishing [t] and [th]?

The Surprising Answer:

I Well, they must figure out the rule that relates them to /t/.I But, the rule is that [th] appears in the onset of a syllable.I So, 6 month olds must be dividing words up into syllablesI So, 6 month olds already know the syllabification algorithm!

(Actually, that algorithm is probably innate...)

Stages of Babbling

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Stages of Babbling

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Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Stages of Learning MorphemesCurious Fact:English children learn inflectional morphemes in a set, uniform order:

1. Suffix /-iN/ (jumping, kicking)

2. Plural /-z/ (dogs, cats)

3. Possessive /-z/ (Daddy’s, Mommy’s)

4. Determiners ‘the’, ‘a’

5. Past Tense /-d/ (jumped, kicked)

6. Agreement /-z/ (jumps, kicks)

7. Auxiliary Verb ‘be’ (He is kicking)

Question: Why this order?I It’s not about how simple the pronunciation is

(2, 3, 6 are all homophones!)I It’s not about how often the kid hears the morpheme

(‘the’ and ‘a’ are most frequent; /-d/ least frequent)

Answer: It’s still kind of a mystery!I (see Contemporary Linguistics reading)

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Stages of Learning Syntax

Key Fact About Acquisition of SyntaxKids follow a uniform schedule in learning the rules of syntax.

First Stage: ‘One-Word Stage’ (12-18 Months)I Utterances are only single words.I But, many multi-word utterances can be understood.

Second Stage: ‘Two-Word Stage’ (A Few Months Later)I Utterances are only single words or two-word phrasesI But, many multi-word utterances can be understood.I Word-order is always correct (Brown 1973)

Subject Verb Object LocationDaddy jump

kick ballput table

doggy table

Stages of Babbling

Summary

kick ballput table

doggy table

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Second Stage: ‘Two-Word Stage’ (A Few Months Later)I Utterances are only single words or two-word phrasesI But, many multi-word utterances can be understood.

I Word-order is always correct (Brown 1973)

kick ballput table

doggy table

Stages of Babbling

Summary

kick ballput table

doggy table

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Interesting Fact:Even at the ‘One-Word’ and ‘Two-Word’ stage, childrenunderstand complex sentences.

Experimental Evidence: (Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff 1991)I Technique

I Introduce children to Big Bird and Cookie MonsterI Then, two videos played simultaneously:

I One where BB tickles CMI One where CM tickles BB

I Then, two audio recordings, played alternatelyI “Look at BB tickling CM!”I “Look at CM tickling BB!”

I Key Result:Even kids at One-Word Stage looked at the correct screen.

I Key Conclusion:Even at 1-Word Stage, kids know English word-order is ‘S-V-O’

Stages of Babbling

Summary

I Introduce children to Big Bird and Cookie Monster

I Then, two videos played simultaneously:I One where BB tickles CMI One where CM tickles BB

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Stages of Learning SyntaxThe Stages of Syntax Acquisition:

I One-Word StageI Two-Word StageI Three-Word Stage?

Third Stage: ‘Telegraphic Stage’ (A Few Months Later)I Utterances can be many words long (≥3)I However many ‘small’ words are dropped (e.g. ‘the’, ‘a’, ‘is’...)

(Thus, their speech looks like old-timey telegraphs)I Examples:

Daddy like book.Man ride bus today.Me wanna show Mommy.

Stages of Babbling

Summary

I One-Word StageI Two-Word StageI Three-Word Stage? NO!

Third Stage: ‘Telegraphic Stage’ (A Few Months Later)I Utterances can be many words long (≥3)I However many ‘small’ words are dropped (e.g. ‘the’, ‘a’, ‘is’...)

(Thus, their speech looks like old-timey telegraphs)I Examples:

Daddy like book.Man ride bus today.Me wanna show Mommy.

Stages of Babbling

Summary

I One-Word StageI Two-Word StageI Telegraphic Stage

Interesting Observation:There is no ‘Three-Word’ or ‘Four-Word’ stage. Why?

I At 2-Word Stage, kids know 2 words can go together in a phrase:[ A B ]

I At 2-Word Stage, kids don’t know phrases can go together withother words:* [ [ A B ] C ]

I Next, kids learn that phrases can go together with other words:[ [ A B ] C ]

I But, once they know that, they (of course) know they can makearbitrarily long structures:[ [ [ A B ] C ] D ]

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

How Kids Learn Linguistic RulesWell Known Fact of Child Psychology:Different kids have different learning ‘styles’ and ‘strategies’

I Some are ‘visual learners’, other ‘tactile learners’...

I Some need ‘structure’, others need to ‘figure it out themselves’...

First Language Acquisition is Different:

I With 1st language acquisition, all kids use the same strategy :I All kids aim to make ‘maximal generalizations’

The Universal Strategy in First Language Acquisition:I When kids see a pattern, they leap to as broad a rule as

possibleI They usually leap too far, and apply the rule in places where

they shouldn’tI Then they gradually ‘back off’ and restrict the rule properly.

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

‘Overgeneralization’ in Language Acquisition

Example: Plural Morphophonemics

I The Adult Rule: /-z/→ [-1z] / Strident

I Many kids temporarily use [-1z] before any fricative(‘bathes’ [bæT1z] ‘laughes’ [læf1z])

I The Kid Rule: /-z/→ [-1z] / FricativeI Over time, they restrict the environment for [-1z]

Example: Past Tense Suffix /-d/I The Adult Rule:

Past Tense = /-d/ except for: give, make, think, go...I All kids temporarily use /-d/ with every verb:

(‘goed’ [gowd], ‘maked’ [mejkt], ‘gived’ [gIvd], ...)I The Kid Rule: Past Tense = /-d/ No Exceptions

I Over time, they learn to restrict the words where /-d/ goes

Stages of Babbling

Summary

I The Adult Rule: /-z/→ [-1z] / StridentI Many kids temporarily use [-1z] before any fricative

(‘bathes’ [bæT1z] ‘laughes’ [læf1z])

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Past Tense = /-d/ except for: give, make, think, go...

I All kids temporarily use /-d/ with every verb:(‘goed’ [gowd], ‘maked’ [mejkt], ‘gived’ [gIvd], ...)

I The Kid Rule: Past Tense = /-d/ No ExceptionsI Over time, they learn to restrict the words where /-d/ goes

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Example: ‘Causative’ Use of VerbsI The Adult Rule:

A few verbs can be used according to the following pattern:

The ice melted I melted the ice (= I made the ice melt)The towel dried I dried the towel (= I made the towel dry)The dish broke I broke the dish (= I made the dish break)

I Many kids temporarily apply this pattern to all verbs:

I “Don’t giggle me!” (= ‘Don’t make me giggle’)I “You can drink my doll.” (= ‘You can make my doll drink’)

I Over time, they learn to restrict the verbs that follow this pattern

Stages of Babbling

Summary

Example: ‘Causative’ Use of VerbsI The Adult Rule:

A few verbs can be used according to the following pattern:

The ice melted I melted the ice (= I made the ice melt)The towel dried I dried the towel (= I made the towel dry)The dish broke I broke the dish (= I made the dish break)

I Many kids temporarily apply this pattern to all verbs:

I “Don’t giggle me!” (= ‘Don’t make me giggle’)I “You can drink my doll.” (= ‘You can make my doll drink’)

I Over time, they learn to restrict the verbs that follow this pattern

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Main Point:I In learning a first language, all kids employ a very bold strategy:

I They first apply a rule as broadly as possible.I Gradually, they ‘back off’, restrict where the rule applies

I That all kids do this suggests it’s ‘in-born’ in some way...

A Deep, Puzzling Question:How do kids learn not to apply a rule?(How do they learn not to say ‘goed’)

I After all, they aren’t told when they are wrong.

I It can’t be a simple matter of ‘if I don’t hear it, then it’s wrong’:

I There are lots of things people hardly ever say.I How would kids distinguish between ‘wrong’ and just ‘rare’?

Stages of Babbling

Summary

The Main Point:I In learning a first language, all kids employ a very bold strategy:

I They first apply a rule as broadly as possible.I Gradually, they ‘back off’, restrict where the rule applies

I That all kids do this suggests it’s ‘in-born’ in some way...

A Deep, Puzzling Question:How do kids learn not to apply a rule?(How do they learn not to say ‘goed’)

I After all, they aren’t told when they are wrong.

I It can’t be a simple matter of ‘if I don’t hear it, then it’s wrong’:

I There are lots of things people hardly ever say.I How would kids distinguish between ‘wrong’ and just ‘rare’?

Summary

SummaryAnother Fundamental Question:How does a child learn this system of rules and mentalrepresentations?

The Centrality of RulesI Kids don’t just ‘imitate’ the speech they hearI They actively hypothesize rulesI Gradually, they adjust the rules, to match the language they hear

The Difficulty of the Task:A number of factors make learning linguistic rules very difficult:

I The rules are extremely complex

I Kids don’t get explicit instruction or correction

I No word-boundaries in fluent speech

I Learning must be complete in 4-6 years!

I If nothing is known about how the rules look, it’s impossibleto find the right ones...

Summary

One Key Hypothesis: Universal GrammarLanguage acquisition happens so quickly and accuratelybecause we’re born knowing how linguistic rules look:

I This knowledge of how the rules look is universal grammar.

I With universal grammar, most of the work of figuring out therules is done for us!

Some Evidence for Universal Grammar:I There are certain kinds of errors kids never make.

(This suggests they know not to try those rules.)I There are certain kinds of rules languages never follow.

(This suggests we can’t learn those kinds of rules.)

Summary

One Key Hypothesis: Universal GrammarLanguage acquisition happens so quickly and accuratelybecause we’re born knowing how linguistic rules look:

I This knowledge of how the rules look is universal grammar.

I With universal grammar, most of the work of figuring out therules is done for us!

Some Evidence for Universal Grammar:I There are certain kinds of errors kids never make.

(This suggests they know not to try those rules.)I There are certain kinds of rules languages never follow.

(This suggests we can’t learn those kinds of rules.)

Summary

SummarySome Key Facts About the Way Kids Learn Language:

1. Kids begin learning language in the womb.I All they really learn is intonation.

(After all, that’s all they can hear!)

2. Many parts of language acquisition follow a setsequence of universal stages:

I Babbling (cooing, canonical babbling, variegated babbling)I Phonemes (labials, alveolars, velars, ...)I Morphemes (ing, plural, possessive, determiners...)I Syntax (one-word, two-word, telegraphic)

3. Kids learn phonemes by ‘forgetting’I We’re born distinguishing between all phones.I Over time, we learn to ignore certain distinctions:

(e.g. [t] and [th])

4. Kids adopt a bold strategy in learning rules.I Kids begin by applying a rule as broadly as possible.I Over time, they learn to restrict where the rule applies.

Summary

(e.g. [t] and [th])

Summary

(e.g. [t] and [th])

Summary

(e.g. [t] and [th])

first language acquisition - umass...

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