CHAPTER NO. 11CHAPTER NO. 11

DIRECT RESPONSE DIRECT RESPONSE ATTITUDEATTITUDE SCALES AND SCALES AND

MEASURES OF MEASURES OF

EMOTIONSEMOTIONS

Attitude

Attitude is defined as an overall evaluation that enables one to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object or alternative.

Attitudes depend on the information consumers have about a product.

RATING SCALESRATING SCALES

•Rating scales can focus on :Rating scales can focus on :

•(1) overall attitude toward an (1) overall attitude toward an object, such as object, such as Pepsi FreePepsi Free ; ;

•(2) the degree to which an (2) the degree to which an object contains a particular object contains a particular attribute, such as sweetness; attribute, such as sweetness;

•(3) one's feelings toward an (3) one's feelings toward an attribute, as in . liking the attribute, as in . liking the taste ,taste ,

•(4) the importance attached (4) the importance attached to an attribute, such as the to an attribute, such as the absence of caffeine.absence of caffeine.

Ratings ScaleRatings Scale

•Since individuals' evaluations Since individuals' evaluations of of specific specific product attributes product attributes are influenced by the band's are influenced by the band's reputation, measures of reputation, measures of specific functional attributes, specific functional attributes, such as taste, are generally such as taste, are generally performed with the brand performed with the brand name removed. Such tests or name removed. Such tests or comparisons are referred to comparisons are referred to as as blind blind tests.tests.

Limitations of Scaling Limitations of Scaling ProceduresProcedures

• It is difficult to measure multidimensional stimuli.It is difficult to measure multidimensional stimuli.

• Inability to test individual buyer behavior in terms Inability to test individual buyer behavior in terms of empirical findings from psychological and of empirical findings from psychological and sociological studies.sociological studies.

• Predictions from attitude scales still need to be Predictions from attitude scales still need to be transformed into measures of more direct interest transformed into measures of more direct interest to the marketer.to the marketer.

Accuracy of Altitude Measurement

• Sensitivity: Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are

able to discriminate between the respondents who

differ with respect to the construct being measured

• Relevancy: Relevance = reliability * validity

Comparative ScalingComparative Scaling

Some Key ConceptsSome Key Concepts

• MeasurementMeasurement– Assigning numbers or other symbols to Assigning numbers or other symbols to

characteristics of objects being measured, characteristics of objects being measured, according to predetermined rules.according to predetermined rules.

• Concept (or Construct)Concept (or Construct)– A generalized idea about a class of objects, A generalized idea about a class of objects,

attributes, occurrences, or processes.attributes, occurrences, or processes.•Relatively concrete constructsRelatively concrete constructs

– Age, gender, number of children, education, incomeAge, gender, number of children, education, income

•Relatively abstract constructsRelatively abstract constructs– Brand loyalty, personality, channel power, Brand loyalty, personality, channel power,

satisfactionsatisfaction

• ScalingScaling– The generation of a continuum upon which The generation of a continuum upon which

measured objects are located.measured objects are located.

• ScaleScale– A quantifying measure – a combination of A quantifying measure – a combination of

items that is progressively arranged items that is progressively arranged according to value or magnitude.according to value or magnitude.

– Purpose is to quantitatively represent an Purpose is to quantitatively represent an item’s, person’s, or event’s place in the item’s, person’s, or event’s place in the scaling continuum.scaling continuum.

Some Key ConceptsSome Key Concepts

Primary Scales

Nominal Scale

Ordinal Scale

RatioScale

IntervalScale

Primary Scales of Primary Scales of MeasurementMeasurement

•NominalNominal– A scale in which the numbers or A scale in which the numbers or

letters assigned to objects serve as letters assigned to objects serve as labels for identification or labels for identification or classification.classification.

•OrdinalOrdinal– A scale that arranges objects or A scale that arranges objects or

alternatives according to their alternatives according to their magnitude in an ordered magnitude in an ordered relationship.relationship.

Primary Scales of Primary Scales of MeasurementMeasurement

•IntervalInterval– A scale that both arranges objects A scale that both arranges objects

according to their magnitudes andaccording to their magnitudes and– Distinguishes the ordered Distinguishes the ordered

arrangement in units of equal arrangement in units of equal intervalsintervals

– I.e., indicate order and measure I.e., indicate order and measure order (or distance) in units of order (or distance) in units of equal intervalsequal intervals

Primary Scales of Primary Scales of MeasurementMeasurement

•RatioRatio–A scale that has absolute A scale that has absolute rather than relative quantities rather than relative quantities and an absolute zero where a and an absolute zero where a given attribute is absent.given attribute is absent.

–Money & weight are good Money & weight are good examples of attributes that examples of attributes that possess absolute zeros and possess absolute zeros and interval properties.interval properties.

Primary Scales of Primary Scales of MeasurementMeasurement

Scale

Nominal Numbers Assigned 1 31 8 to Drivers/Cars

Ordinal Rank Order Third Second First of race finishers Place Place Place

Interval Championship Points earned 170 175 185

Ratio Time to Finish, behind winner 5.1 2.3 0.0

Primary Scales of Primary Scales of MeasurementMeasurement

•Comparative ScalesComparative Scales–Involve the direct Involve the direct comparison of two or more comparison of two or more objectsobjects

•Noncomparative ScalesNoncomparative Scales–Objects or stimuli are scaled Objects or stimuli are scaled independently of each other.independently of each other.

Classifying Scaling Classifying Scaling TechniquesTechniques

ScalingTechniques

ComparativeScales

PairedComparison

ConstantSum

RankOrder

NoncomparativeScales

ItemizedRating Scales

Continuous Rating Scales

Likert

Semantic Differential

Stapel

Classifying Scaling Classifying Scaling TechniquesTechniques

• Respondent is presented with two objects Respondent is presented with two objects at a timeat a time

• Then asked to select one object in the pair Then asked to select one object in the pair according to some criterionaccording to some criterion

• Data obtained are ordinal in natureData obtained are ordinal in nature– Arranged or ranked in order of magnitudeArranged or ranked in order of magnitude

• Easy to do if only a few items are Easy to do if only a few items are compared.compared.

• If number of comparisons is too large, If number of comparisons is too large, respondents may become fatigued and no respondents may become fatigued and no longer carefully discriminate among them.longer carefully discriminate among them.

Paired Comparison ScalingPaired Comparison Scaling

Paired Comparison Scaling: Paired Comparison Scaling: ExampleExample

CunninghaCunninghamm

DayDay ParkerParker ThomasThomas

CunninghaCunninghamm

00 00 00

DayDay 11 11 00

ParkerParker 11 00 00

ThomasThomas 11 11 11 00

# of # of times times preferrpreferreded

33 11 22 00

For each pair of professors, please indicate the professor from whom you prefer to take classes with a 1.

•Respondents are presented with Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneouslyseveral objects simultaneously

•Then asked to order or rank Then asked to order or rank them according to some them according to some criterion.criterion.

•Data obtained are ordinal in Data obtained are ordinal in naturenature– Arranged or ranked in order of Arranged or ranked in order of

magnitudemagnitude

Rank Order ScalingRank Order Scaling

•Commonly used to measure Commonly used to measure preferences among brands preferences among brands and brand attributesand brand attributes

Rank Order ScalingRank Order Scaling

InstructorInstructor RankingRanking

CunninghamCunningham 11

DayDay 33

ParkerParker 22

ThomasThomas 44

Please rank the instructors listed below in order of preference. For the instructor you prefer the most, assign a “1”, assign a “2” to the instructor you prefer the 2nd most, assign a “3” to the instructor that you prefer 3rd most, and assign a “4” to the instructor that you prefer the least.

•Respondents are asked to allocate a Respondents are asked to allocate a constant sum of units among a set constant sum of units among a set of stimulus objects with respect to of stimulus objects with respect to some criterionsome criterion

•Units allocated represent the Units allocated represent the importance attached to the objects.importance attached to the objects.

•Data obtained are interval in natureData obtained are interval in nature

•Allows for fine discrimination among Allows for fine discrimination among alternativesalternatives

Constant Sum ScalingConstant Sum Scaling

Constant Sum ScalingConstant Sum Scaling

InstructorInstructor AvailabilityAvailability FairnessFairness Easy TestsEasy Tests

CunninghamCunningham 3030 3535 2525

DayDay 3030 2525 2525

ParkerParker 2525 2525 2525

ThomasThomas 1515 1515 2525

Sum TotalSum Total 100100 100100 100100

Listed below are 4 marketing professors, as well as 3 aspects that students typically find important. For each aspect, please assign a number that reflects how well you believe each instructor performs on the aspect. Higher numbers represent higher scores. The total of all the instructors’ scores on an aspect should equal 100.

Consistent PreferenceConsistent PreferenceDiscrimination testDiscrimination test

• Another approach to measuring dis- Another approach to measuring dis- crimination and preference crimination and preference simultaneously is known as simultaneously is known as consistent preference discrimination consistent preference discrimination testing.testing.

• This technique requires the subject This technique requires the subject to repeat the paired comparison task to repeat the paired comparison task several (generally 4 to 8) times. several (generally 4 to 8) times.

• If a person cannot discriminate If a person cannot discriminate between the two, a series of 8 paired between the two, a series of 8 paired comparisons will generally result in comparisons will generally result in each brand "winning" approximately each brand "winning" approximately half the time. half the time.

• A person who can discriminate A person who can discriminate between the brands shouldbetween the brands shouldconsistently prefer one over the consistently prefer one over the other. other.

Triangle Discrimination and Triangle Discrimination and Triangle Preference TestsTriangle Preference Tests

• The The triangle discrimination test triangle discrimination test and and the the triangle preference test triangle preference test are are conducted in the same manner as conducted in the same manner as the paired-comparison test except the paired-comparison test except that the respondent has two samples that the respondent has two samples of one product and one of the other. of one product and one of the other.

Response LatencyResponse Latency

• Response latency, the time delay Response latency, the time delay before a respondent answers a before a respondent answers a question, indicates the question, indicates the respondent's certainty or respondent's certainty or confidence in the answer.confidence in the answer.

• It has been found to be a useful It has been found to be a useful indicator of "guessing" indicator of "guessing" responses to factual questions. responses to factual questions.

• When used in conjunction with a When used in conjunction with a paired-comparison preference paired-comparison preference test, the faster the choice is test, the faster the choice is made, the stronger is the made, the stronger is the preference for the chosen preference for the chosen brand .brand .

• Response latency preference Response latency preference measures are particularly useful measures are particularly useful in telephone surveys sincein telephone surveys since

• (1) they are unobtrusive,(1) they are unobtrusive,

• (2) automated equipment can (2) automated equipment can make the measurements, make the measurements,

• 3) more complex scales such as 3) more complex scales such as rank order and constant sum are rank order and constant sum are difficult to administer via difficult to administer via telephone.telephone.

• These advantages led duPont's These advantages led duPont's marketing research department marketing research department to use response latency in a to use response latency in a major corporate image telephone major corporate image telephone survey.survey.

• Response latency times and Response latency times and brand selections can be brand selections can be converted into a scale known as converted into a scale known as the affective value distance the affective value distance (AVD) scale. (AVD) scale.

• This indicates the degree to This indicates the degree to which one brand or product which one brand or product version is preferred over version is preferred over another.another.

Simulated-Purchase Chip Simulated-Purchase Chip TestingTesting

• Simulated-purchase chip testing is a Simulated-purchase chip testing is a version of the constant sum used by version of the constant sum used by Coca-Cola Company and other firms Coca-Cola Company and other firms in international markets where in international markets where respondents are not comfortable with respondents are not comfortable with more sophisticated methods. more sophisticated methods.

Non-Comparative Non-Comparative ScalingScaling

Noncomparative Rating Scales

ContinuousRating Scales

ItemizedRating Scales

SemanticDifferential

Stapel Likert

Classifying Noncomparative Scaling Classifying Noncomparative Scaling TechniquesTechniques

Continuous Rating Scale Continuous Rating Scale ExampleExample

VeryPoor

VeryGood

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

X

Method of Summated Ratings: Method of Summated Ratings: The Likert ScaleThe Likert Scale•Extremely popular means for measuring Extremely popular means for measuring

attitudes.attitudes.

•Respondents indicate their own Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they attitudes by checking how strongly they agree/disagree with statements. agree/disagree with statements.

•Response alternatives: Response alternatives: – ““strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”, strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”,

“disagree”, and “strongly disagree”.“disagree”, and “strongly disagree”.

•Generally use either a 5- or 7-point Generally use either a 5- or 7-point scalescale

Semantic Differential ScalesSemantic Differential Scales

•A series of numbered (usually A series of numbered (usually seven-point) bipolar rating scales. seven-point) bipolar rating scales.

•Bipolar adjectives (for example, Bipolar adjectives (for example, “good” and “bad”), anchor both “good” and “bad”), anchor both ends (or poles) of the scale.ends (or poles) of the scale.

•A weight is assigned to each A weight is assigned to each position on the rating scale. position on the rating scale. – Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3,

2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.

Semantic Differential Scales for Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring Attitudes Toward Measuring Attitudes Toward TennisTennis

Exciting Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm

Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : DullInteresting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull

SimpleSimple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex

PassivePassive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

Stapel ScalesStapel Scales

•Modern versions of the Stapel scale Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a place a single adjectivesingle adjective as a as a substitute for the semantic substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.create pairs of bipolar adjectives.

•The advantage and disadvantages The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as well as the of a Stapel scale, as well as the results, are very similar to those for results, are very similar to those for a semantic differential. a semantic differential.

•However, the Stapel scale tends However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier to conduct and to be easier to conduct and administer.administer.

A Stapel Scale A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Imagefor Measuring a Store’s Image

DepartmentDepartment

Store NameStore Name

+3+3

+2+2

+1+1

Wide SelectionWide Selection

-1-1

-2-2

-3-3

Graphic Rating ScalesGraphic Rating Scales

A graphic rating scale presents A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic respondents with a graphic continuum.continuum.

Graphic Rating Graphic Rating ScalesScales

A Ladder A Ladder ScaleScale

• A measure of attitude that A measure of attitude that allows respondents to rate an allows respondents to rate an object by choosing any point object by choosing any point along a graphic continuum.along a graphic continuum.

•Advantage:Advantage: flexibility to choose flexibility to choose any interval desired for scoring any interval desired for scoring purposes.purposes.

•Disadvantage:Disadvantage: there are no there are no standard answers.standard answers.

Graphic Rating Scale Graphic Rating Scale Stressing Pictorial Visual Stressing Pictorial Visual CommunicationsCommunications

3 2 1Very VeryGood Poor

Surfing the Internet is

____ Extremely Good

____ Very Good

____ Good

____ Bad

____ Very Bad

____ Extremely Bad

Surfing the Internet is

____ Extremely Good

____ Very Good

____ Good

____ Somewhat Good

____ Bad

____ Very Bad

Balanced Scale Unbalanced Scale

Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

ScaleScale Basic Basic CharacterisCharacteristicstics

ExamplesExamples AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantaDisadvantagesges

Continuous Continuous Rating ScaleRating Scale

Place a mark Place a mark on a on a continuous linecontinuous line

Reaction to TV Reaction to TV commercialscommercials

Easy to Easy to constructconstruct

Cumbersome Cumbersome scoring unless scoring unless computerizedcomputerized

Itemized Rating ScalesItemized Rating Scales

Likert ScaleLikert Scale Degree of Degree of agreement on agreement on a numbered a numbered scalescale

Measurement Measurement of attitudes, of attitudes, perceptionsperceptions

Easy to Easy to construct, construct, administer, & administer, & understandunderstand

More time More time consumingconsuming

Semantic Semantic DifferentialDifferential

Numbered Numbered scale with scale with bipolar labelsbipolar labels

Brand, Brand, product, & product, & company company imagesimages

VersatileVersatile Difficult to Difficult to construct construct appropriate appropriate bipolar bipolar adjectivesadjectives

Stapel ScaleStapel Scale Unipolar Unipolar numbered numbered scale, no scale, no neutral pointneutral point

Measurement Measurement of attitudes & of attitudes & imagesimages

Easy to Easy to construct, can construct, can administer administer over telephoneover telephone

Confusing Confusing difficult to difficult to applyapply

Basic Noncomparative Basic Noncomparative ScalesScales

Summary of Itemized Rating Scale Decisions

1. Number of categories While there is no single, optimal number, traditional guidelines

suggest that there should be between five and nine categories.

2. Balanced vs. unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain objective data.

3. Odd or even number of If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible for

categories at least some of the respondents, an odd number of categories

should be used.

Summary of Itemized Rating Scale Decisions (continued)

4. Forced versus nonforced In situations where the respondents are expected

to have no opinion, the accuracy of data may be

improved by a nonforced scale.

5. Verbal description An argument can be made for labeling all or many

scale categories. The category descriptions should

be located as close to the response categories as

possible.

6. Physical form A number of options should be tried and the best

one selected.

Scale Evaluation

Scale Evaluation

Reliability Validity

Test-RetestInternal

ConsistencyAlternative Forms Construct

Criterion

Content

Convergent Validity

Discriminant Validity Nomological

Validity

ReliabilityReliability

• Extent to which a scale produces Extent to which a scale produces consistent resultsconsistent results

• Test-retest ReliabilityTest-retest Reliability– Respondents are administered scales at 2 Respondents are administered scales at 2

different times under nearly equivalent different times under nearly equivalent conditionsconditions

• Alternative-form ReliabilityAlternative-form Reliability– 2 equivalent forms of a scale are 2 equivalent forms of a scale are

constructed, then tested with the same constructed, then tested with the same respondents at 2 different timesrespondents at 2 different times

ReliabilityReliability

• Internal Consistency ReliabilityInternal Consistency Reliability– The consistency with which each item The consistency with which each item

represents the construct of interestrepresents the construct of interest– Used to assess the reliability of a summated Used to assess the reliability of a summated

scalescale– Split-half ReliabilitySplit-half Reliability

• Items constituting the scale divided into 2 halves, Items constituting the scale divided into 2 halves, and resulting half scores are correlatedand resulting half scores are correlated

– Coefficient alpha (most common test of Coefficient alpha (most common test of reliability)reliability)•Average of all possible split-half coefficients Average of all possible split-half coefficients

resulting from different splittings of the scale itemsresulting from different splittings of the scale items

ValidityValidity

• Extent to which true differences among the Extent to which true differences among the objects are reflected on the characteristic being objects are reflected on the characteristic being measuredmeasured

• Content ValidityContent Validity– A.k.a., face validityA.k.a., face validity– Subjective, but systematic evaluation of the Subjective, but systematic evaluation of the

representativeness of the content of a scale for the representativeness of the content of a scale for the measuring task at handmeasuring task at hand

• Criterion ValidityCriterion Validity– Examines whether measurement scale performs as Examines whether measurement scale performs as

expected in relation to other variables selected as expected in relation to other variables selected as meaningful criteriameaningful criteria

– I.e., predicted and actual behavior should be similarI.e., predicted and actual behavior should be similar

Construct ValidityConstruct Validity

• Addresses the question of what construct or Addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the scale is actually measuringcharacteristic the scale is actually measuring

• Convergent ValidityConvergent Validity– Extent to which scale correlates positively with Extent to which scale correlates positively with

other measures of the same constructother measures of the same construct

• Discriminant ValidityDiscriminant Validity– Extent to which a measure does not correlate with Extent to which a measure does not correlate with

other constructs from which it is supposed to differother constructs from which it is supposed to differ

• Nomological ValidityNomological Validity– Extent to which scale correlates in theoretically Extent to which scale correlates in theoretically

predicted ways with measures of different but predicted ways with measures of different but related constructsrelated constructs

Relationship Between Relationship Between Reliability and ValidityReliability and Validity

•A scale can be reliable, but not A scale can be reliable, but not validvalid

•In order for a scale to valid, it In order for a scale to valid, it must also be reliable.must also be reliable.

•In other words,In other words,–Reliability is a necessary but Reliability is a necessary but insufficient condition for Validity.insufficient condition for Validity.

Reliability and Validity on Reliability and Validity on TargetTarget

Old Rifle New Rifle New Rifle SunglareLow Reliability High Reliability Reliable but Not

Valid(Target A) (Target B) (Target C)

Measuring Behavioral Measuring Behavioral Intention(s)Intention(s)• Behavioral DifferentialBehavioral Differential

– Measures the behavioral intentions of subjects Measures the behavioral intentions of subjects towards any object or category of objects.towards any object or category of objects.

– A description of the object to be judged is A description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions toward this indicate their behavioral intentions toward this object on a series of scales.object on a series of scales.

• Example:Example: A 25 year-old woman sales representative A 25 year-old woman sales representativeWould ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would Would ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would NotNot ask this person for advice. ask this person for advice.

MEASURING MEASURING EMOTIONSEMOTIONS• Marketers have always been Marketers have always been

interested in the affective, like-interested in the affective, like-dislike, component of attitudes. dislike, component of attitudes.

• Emotions are strong, relatively Emotions are strong, relatively uncontrolled feelings that affect uncontrolled feelings that affect our behaviorour behavior..

•Emotions are generally Emotions are generally triggered by environmental triggered by environmental events, are accompanied by events, are accompanied by physiological changes, physiological changes, often often cause cause cognitive thoughts, cognitive thoughts, have have associated behaviors, associated behaviors, and, most importantly, and, most importantly, involve involve subjective feelingssubjective feelings..

• Marketers need to measure Marketers need to measure emotions, particularly the emotions, particularly the subjective feelings aspect, as subjective feelings aspect, as emotional arousal or reduction is emotional arousal or reduction is often an important product benefit often an important product benefit and advertisements that arouse and advertisements that arouse appropriate emotions are often appropriate emotions are often more effective than those that do more effective than those that do not. not.

•Semantic differentials, Semantic differentials, Stapel scales, and Stapel scales, and Likert scales are Likert scales are commonly used to commonly used to measure emotions.measure emotions.

•BBDO, a major ad agency, BBDO, a major ad agency, has a list of 26 emotions they has a list of 26 emotions they believe can be triggered by believe can be triggered by advertising .advertising .

•To measure the emotions To measure the emotions triggered by an ad, they triggered by an ad, they developed the Emotional developed the Emotional Measurement System. Measurement System.

• Starting with 1,800 pictures Starting with 1,800 pictures of six actors portraying of six actors portraying various emotions, the firm various emotions, the firm used extensive research to used extensive research to narrow the list to 53 that narrow the list to 53 that reflect the 26 emotions of reflect the 26 emotions of interest.interest.

Pictures used in BBDO's Pictures used in BBDO's Emotional Measurement Emotional Measurement SystemSystem

•The percent of The percent of respondents selecting respondents selecting particular pictures particular pictures provides a profile of the provides a profile of the emotional response to the emotional response to the commercial.commercial.

•The system has been used The system has been used for such companies as for such companies as Gillette, Pepsi-Cola, Gillette, Pepsi-Cola, Polaroid, and Wrigley. Polaroid, and Wrigley.

•The Gillette commercial-The Gillette commercial-(The Best a Man Can Get)- (The Best a Man Can Get)- arouses feelings of "pride" arouses feelings of "pride" and "confidence" among and "confidence" among men and "happiness" and men and "happiness" and "joyfulness" among "joyfulness" among women.women.

THE ENDTHE END