Master Thesis

MSc in Marketing Author: Svetoslava Stefanova

Academic Supervisor: Jessica Aschemann-Witzel

Qualitative study of women’s dietary habits and nutritional preferences in the pre- and

postpregnancy period

Aarhus School of Business – Aarhus UniversityJune 2011

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Table of contents

I. Abstract___________________________________________________________________3

II. Introduction______________________________________________________________4

III. Literature Review_________________________________________________________6

1. Intrapersonal factors affecting dietary choice___________________________________6

1.1. Knowledge of nutrition requirements of pregnancy_____________________________6

1.2. Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy___________________________________________8

1.3. Attitudes towards weight gain in pregnancy___________________________________9

2. Interpersonal factors_______________________________________________________12

2.1. Income_________________________________________________________________12

IV. Methodology____________________________________________________________16

V. Results__________________________________________________________________27

1. Pre-pregnancy period______________________________________________________27

VI. Conclusion______________________________________________________________48

VII. Implications for research and practice______________________________________51

VIII. References:____________________________________________________________53

IX. Appendix________________________________________________________________63

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I. Abstract

Aim: The research aims to investigate what is parents’ behavior and what eating strategies do they adopt in the period of transition to parenthood. It’s seeking to provide understanding over how young

women change their eating habits in the different stages they go through between

pregnancy and kindergarten and what factors are basic determinants for their dietary

choice (children, income, marketing campaigns, family and friends etc.). It is also

looking to show if the parents are consuming healthy or unhealthy foods and what is the

effect over the body weight.

Method: A qualitative method is chosen in conducting the following study to gain deep

insight into parents’ eating habits and their change of lifestyle with transition to

parenthood. Interviews were conducted through e-mail with 15 mothers from Eastern

Europe.

Findings: The study showed that both pregnancy and giving birth bring changes in

women’s eating habits. The period of pregnancy is distinguished with transition to a

healthier diet, while the postpregnancy period is related with a turn towards unhealthy

and irregular eating.

Practical Implications: The results of the study can be used from weight and marketing

management in developing products and campaigns, which stimulate consumer behavior

towards healthy eating and proper weight gain and loss. An adequate diet of the mother

during the pregnancy will assure a healthy growing of the fetus and less risk of diseases

afterwards.

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II. Introduction

“Transitions are periods of change where there are shifts in lifestyles from one stage to

another” (Price et al. 2000). Pregnancy and the transition to parenthood mark a major

developmental period with important implications for parents, for the infant–parent

relationship and the infant’s development. Many researches has shown that the birth of a

child is often accompanied with more stress than any other developmental stage and is

considered as the most fundamental change of the family life-cycle (Cowan et al. 1985,

Priel & Besser 2002). The concept of transitions works in collaboration with that of

trajectories in the life course perspective (Devine C.M., 2005). A life course perspective

observes peoples’ behavior – what choices do they make about food and eating and what

are the most important factors, affecting those choices (Rozin P., 1990). People often

report that when some normal life transitions occur, they are making small adjustments in

their food choice trajectories to adapt to new food choice settings (eg passing on a

healthier diet when getting pregnant, eating more fruits and vegetables when becoming

parents, eating more fast foods when busy with the activities of school-aged children)

(Devine C. and Olson C., 1991).

“Some major turning points in food choice trajectories are related to major life-changing

events” (Devine C.M., 2005). Becoming a parent may well be related as a major life-

changing event. The transition to parenthood is one of the most significant events in

people’s life that can be experienced (Cowan C.P. and Cowan P.A., 1999; Polomeno V.

2006). Becoming a parent doesn’t affect only the eating habits of the person; the change

affects all levels of family life, including the relationship in the couple and the

responsibility the partners share in the family, daily activities and routine, expression of

intimacy between them, and professional involvement (Cowan C.P. and Cowan P.A.,

1999; Polomeno 2006). Parents might also change their eating habits in congruence with

child’s needs and become more responsible about nutrition and healthiness of the

consumed food. It’s been proved in many studies that marriage and parenthood can affect

the quality of the diet (Schafer R.B. and Schafer E., 1989; Roos G. et all 2001; Devine C.

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and Olson C., 1992), can bring more concerns for nutrition and health, motivate for food

choices (Fagerh R.A. & Wandel M., 1999), bring concerns for body weight and provoke

body dissatisfaction (Saltonstall R., 1993; Rozin P. et all, 2001). Parents might transit to

both healthy and unhealthy diet, depending on the influence of different factors. The

following research will study some of the factors, which mainly affect mothers’ eating

habits and the change in nutrition that they trigger.

A growing body of literature studies the healthiness of the food that children consume and the increasing role they play in the family during the buying decisions process (Christensen P., 2004; Nørgaard M. et al., 2007). Establishing healthy eating habits is from a great importance and lots of emphasis is put on that recently, as an increasing prevalence of

childhood and adult obesity is observed (Hooker N., 2010). Parents shape children’s

perceptions and strongly determine their early choices with food and eating, providing

both genes and environments for children (Savage J. et all 2007). “Parents select the

foods of the family diet, serve as models of eating that children learn to emulate, and use

feeding practices to encourage the development of culturally appropriate eating patterns

and behaviors in children” (Savage J. et all 2007). Thus, as providing healthy food for

their children is being of a great importance for parents (Alderson T. and Ogden J., 1999; Søndergaard H. and Edelenbos M., 2007), “they might be a large

health-interested target group among consumers” (Aschemann-Witzel J., 2010). They also might provide nutrition to their babies through the food they consume during pregnancy. Studying parents’ eating habits and how they change in time might be of great importance for children’s health management The current research aims to investigate what is parents’ behavior and what eating strategies do they adopt in the period of transition to parenthood. It’s seeking to provide understanding over how young

women change their eating habits in the different stages they go through between

pregnancy and kindergarten and what factors are basic determinants for their dietary

choice (children, income, marketing campaigns, family and friends etc.). It is also

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looking to show if the parents are consuming healthy or unhealthy foods and what is the

effect over the body weight.

III. Literature Review

When women initially become pregnant, they often think that they need to consume a

significantly larger number of calories, to assure the growing of the fetus. “An adequate

diet during pregnancy maintains the nutritional status of the mother at a level that

conserves her own body tissues and contributes to the normal development and birth of a

healthy, full-term baby” (Nti C. et al. 2002). As many researches show, during the

pregnancy women often become aware of nutrition, seek health advice and change their

diets (Anderson A.S., 2001). The healthy development of the baby and maintaining a

good body weight may be an incentive and motivator for positive dietary change at this

time. It may also be a good time to target women with healthy food choices and give

them advises for a healthy eating.

Many factors might affect the dietary choice of the pregnant woman. Intrapersonal factors are such individual’s characteristics that influence the specific food choices a person makes, whereas interpersonal are such as income, relationships with family members, child and friends etc (Fowles E., 2008). “They have a collective impact and may interact with individual characteristics to influence healthy eating by pregnant women” (Fowles E., 2008).

1. Intrapersonal factors affecting dietary choice

1.1. Knowledge of nutrition requirements of pregnancy

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Pregnancy is a time of social, psychological, behavioral, and biological change in

women's lives. It is a time of life when women become more aware about health and

nutrition and their impact over the body, especially when those are related to the

outcomes of pregnancy (Olson C., 2005). Still many parents might lack the knowledge

what actually a healthy diet is. The aim of many health and nutrition organizations and

different authorities is to give advice and help mothers to achieve the birth of a healthy

infant. Therefore they have developed specific recommendations for pregnant women

related to nutrient intake of food, the use of vitamin and mineral supplements, proper

weight gain during the period, and physical activity (Allen L.H., 2001; Inst Med, 1990).

Healthy eating during pregnancy is defined as the ability to maintain healthful eating habits, which are related to purchasing, preparing and consuming healthy meals, as well as making food choices, conformable to the nutrition requirements of pregnancy (Fowles E., 2008). Food choices are considered healthy, when the mother is consuming appropriate amounts of fruits and vegetables according to the recommended levels for pregnancy, or unhealthy, when she is eating less than the recommended amounts of milk or vegetable servings and consuming foods high in fat and calories but low nutrient content (George G. et all, 2005).While most pregnant women are aware that they must “eat healthy foods” to help the

fetus grow, few actually have a knowledge for the specific nutritional demands of the

baby, and therefore may not eat according to the requirements of the pregnancy and thus

maintain unhealthy diet (Fowles E., 2002). “Women may consume foods high in fat but

low in protein, vitamins, and minerals; the result may be adequate maternal weight gain

but inadequate nutritional intake” (Aaronson L. and Macnee C., 1989). Educating

mothers and giving them a good nutrition advice may help to clear up some of the

confusions they might have about the food. Many social and governmental campaigns are

working in that direction. However, a study conducted by Goody and his colleagues

(1994) found that health education can be misinterpreted or misunderstood by mothers

and that they often make their dietary choice in the context of their social, cultural, and

economic situation. The report concluded that despite mothers were highly aware of

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healthy eating campaigns, many of them did not undertake any changes in diet in

conformity with government recommendations (Blincoe A., 2005). Mothers might feel

the period of pregnancy as liberating and start consuming foods according to their

cravings, which in many occasions might mean establishing an unhealthy diet. “They

might need stimuli or explanations other than those which simply rest on the idea of a

rational response to information” (Goody et all, 1994).

Becoming a parent is an important step in peoples’ lives and the change of their eating

habits might be a significant and stressful event. Therefore mothers should be educated

about the effects of an unhealthy diet and awareness about healthy choices should be

build. Women’s perceptions of what constitutes eating healthy and what is the effect over the baby may influence their consumer behavior. Some women change their eating habits in pregnancy as they start to consume foods they consider “better to eat,” such as fruits and vegetables, and limit salty snacks (Fowles & Gabrielson, 2005; Fowles et all, 2005; Rifas-Shiman S. et all, 2006). Women who are eating better during pregnancy are aware that they have healthy diets. They believe that in order to maintain these healthy habits during the period, they have to consume protein and eat well-balanced meals (Fowles et al., 2005). Factors that facilitate their healthy eating habits are family support, knowledge of healthy foods, willingness to prepare separate meals for themselves, healthy food choices on the market and eating meals at home. However, cravings, demands on time, and nausea are barriers to healthy eating (Fowles et al., 2005). Identifying barriers and facilitators to healthy eating is an important step in designing effective nutrition products and marketing campaigns to improve dietary quality in pregnant women.

1.2. Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy

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Nausea and vomiting are among the most common symptoms experienced by women in

pregnancy. These problems can have a profound effect over the mother’s daily life and

her family. They cause discomfort and affect her ability to eat and the individual food

choices she makes. Researches show that seventy to 85% of pregnant women experience the symptoms of nausea and 50% report having vomiting, and 13% of pregnant women report nausea and vomiting beyond 20 weeks of gestation (Jewel D. and Young G., 2003; Lacroix R. et all, 2000;). It is popularly known as ‘morning sickness’, but many women find these

physiological symptoms persist throughout the day and even into the night (Lacroix R. et

al, 2000). This problem may affect the eating habits of the mother and she might need to

consider some changes in the food she consumes in order to prevent the symptoms. The

diet might become unhealthy, unvaried, irregular, which might also affect the nutrition of

the baby during the period. Common problems that also occur are depression and

relationship problems and many mothers might be fearful of another pregnancy (Volinski

J. 2008). Nausea and vomiting are unpleasant symptoms, which have effect on a woman's

family, her work and relationships, but mostly on her eating habits (Gadsby R. et al,

1993; Jewell D. and Young G., 2003). Studying the foods that women can bear to eat

during the period might help for some companies to create products, mothers will be

willing to buy.

Researches show that women mostly suffer from light symptoms of nausea and vomiting.

The most common advice given to mothers by specialists is to eat ‘little and often’ in

order to prevent hypoglycemia, which may exacerbate the problem (Tiran D. 2006). “In

cases of mild to moderate nausea and vomiting, women usually experiment with dietary

adaptations, eating only foods that appeal and do not exacerbate symptoms” (Tiran D.

2006). Anyway the problem may require a change in the lifestyle of the mother and her

diet in order to provide a healthy growing of the baby during the period.

1.3. Attitudes towards weight gain in pregnancy

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All over the world the body is an important aspect of women’s personal self and a way to

communicate with others in society. “Inherent is the cultural notion of beauty and the

optimal size and shape of the body” (Helman C., 2000). Society reveres the slim ideal

and the pressure for women to maintain perfect body shape is extremely high (Garner

D.M. et al., 1980; Striegel-Moore R.H. et al., 1986). Throughout the life cycle women of

all ages experience weight concerns and body dissatisfaction (Stevens C. and Tiggemann

M., 1998). Being overweight might bring stress to women, as the body has become an

expression for success and achievement.

Life events might be related to weight change and mainly motherhood transition has a

great impact over the body. The body may change dramatically and that might affect the

women’s self perception, their relationships with the partner, society and the baby. After

giving birth women might not like the changes that occurred in their bodies and might

find that distressing (Walker L., 1998). Returning to their old body shape and weight may

be difficult and not always achievable (Jenkin W. & Tiggemann M., 1997). The issue

becomes more salient when society doesn’t place such a high value on mothering or baby

care-taking as it places on thinness (Stern G. & Kruckman L., 1983). Many mothers may

therefore undervalue motherhood and pregnancy and de-value their “larger, maternal

body” because it is socially less accepted from esthetical point of view (Davis-Floyd

R.E., 1994). If women strongly value their body shape in the pre-pregnancy period, it

might be extremely difficult for them to accept the new role and the eating habits they

have to acquire during motherhood.

A few studies indicate that the weight and body shape changes during pregnancy are

liberating for some women and bothersome to others, and the difference may lie in the

pre-pregnancy dieting histories and weight characteristics of women (Genevie L. and

Margolies E., 1987). What was typical for women dieting for weight loss was episodes of

overeating during pregnancy, feelings of dissatisfaction about the changes which

occurred with shape in pregnancy, and plans to start a diet, following childbirth (Fairburn

C.G. and Welch S.L., 1990). Researches also show that body size from the period before

women get pregnant has been negatively associated with attitudes towards weight gain in

pregnancy and attitudes towards body shape in postpregnancy (Copper R.L. et al., 1995).

But mostly the risk of becoming overweight after the pregnancy in the long run increases

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two to three times because of overeating and uncontrolled diet (Gunderson E.P. et al

2000). A study conducted by Thorsdottir and Birgisdottir (1998) showed that mothers

who gained more than recommended during pregnancy retained more weight in the

postpregnancy period than those who were in the norms. Reasons, mentioned as basic for

the weight retention are disappointment with body shape, surprise, symptoms of eating

disorders, reduced self-esteem, and depressive symptoms at 1 year postpartum (Jenkin

and Triggemann, 1997; Walker L.O., 1997; Stein A. and Fairburn C.G., 1996).

Becoming a parent has also been described as a ‘crisis’ (Leifer M., 1977; Pines D., 1978;

Osofsky H.J. et al., 1985) requiring struggle and adjustment to the new role for parents

who make the transition to maturity and growth. According to Nicholson (1999) the

postpartum period is heavy for women: they are happy to give birth and have a child and

in the meantime unhappy with the losses that this event brings to their lives. Pregnancy

indicates the beginning of a life stage in which women start considering the needs of their

child so important as their personal nutritional needs and weight goals (Devine C. and

Olson C., 1992; Gordon J.B. and Tobias A., 1984). “Transitions in family roles related to

marital status and parenthood are perceived by women to be linked to changes in dietary

behaviors” (Devine C. and Olson C., 1991). It might be difficult for mothers to establish

regular eating habits as pregnancy brings disruption to routine, sleep and mealtimes

(Patel P. et al, 2005). In many studies women report to face problems with establishing

and maintaining a healthy diet (Stein A. & Fairburn C.G., 1996). Because of the demands

of the infant they may not have the same time as before, energy or freedom to utilize

previous strategies for weight control (Patel P. et al, 2005). During the postpartum period

vulnerable mothers might not be able to fight preoccupations with body shape and

weight, which intensify and may precipitate eating disorders (Welch S.L. et al., 1997).

Recent studies have shown that mothers, habitually dieting for weight loss before

pregnancy, gained more weight during that period. They also consider themselves more

irresponsible regarding weight during pregnancy (Abrams B. et all, 2001; Conway R. et

all, 1999). Such eating disorders are relatively common amongst women of childbearing

age with a prevalence of 1–2% (Fairburn C.G. & Beglin S., 1990). They are characterized

by extreme concerns about body shape and weight, which can greatly affect eating habits

of women and change their behavior during pregnancy (Patel P. et al, 2005).

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Conway et all (1999) found that, despite similarities in nutrient intakes, those mothers

who were usually restraining themselves from eating in the pre-pregnancy period had a

higher proportion of weight gain, which was above the recommended amount. The

comparison was made with unrestrained eaters (Mela J., Rogers P.J., 1998). “ The data

suggests that repeated cycles of dieting and overeating may distort one’s ability to

perceive internal hunger and satiety clues” (US DH, 1996). In order to prevent mothers

from such a disruptive attitude, weight management should provide more information and

nutritional choices for women in the pre and postpregnancy period in order for them to

build and maintain a healthy lifestyle and good body shape.

The following research aims to study the eating behavior of women during the different

phases of pregnancy and examine their weight concerns. To understand what are

women’s eating habits and the strategies they use to cope with the new experiences

during pregnancy and postpregnancy period, their diets and exercise behaviors will be

observed. The results might help the weight management to create products, according to

women’s preferences for healthy and dietary food choice.

2. Interpersonal factors

Interpersonal factors have strong influence over pregnant women’s ability to eat healthy

foods. Interpersonal determinants of healthy eating include income, interactions with family members, friends and support from others.

2.1. Income

Low income is a social factor, which is commonly associated with unhealthy eating (Finch B., 2003). The limited financial resources of women may prevent them from providing healthy nutritional diet for the period of pregnancy (Berkowitz G. & Papiernik E., 1993). Studies show that low-income pregnant women often consume less fruits and vegetables and have a lower intake of lean sources of protein and

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whole grains—all comparatively high-cost foods (Rogers I. et all, 1998; Wynn S. et all, 1994). This eating behavior can lead to lower intakes of macronutrients, vitamins, and minerals (Rogers I. et al., 1998), and can lead to low infant birth weight (Wynn S. et al., 1994). A study of 513 British

pregnant women shows that in distinction from those groups with higher income, low-

income women are younger, have an increased probability of stillbirth or low birth

weight babies, and their dietary intake of nutritional food is poor, which means less

whole grain and dairy products, fruits and vegetables. One explanation for this is the high

cost of these foods (Wynn S. et all, 1994). Thus, woman’s ability to implement a

nutritionally adequate diet may be negatively affected by the income as it increases their

inability to provide healthy food (Berkowitz G. & Papiernik E., 1993).

Young mothers need to use their food budget carefully and buy food that can provide

more calories and can be easily stored; therefore many of their choices include

inexpensive, high on fat and carbohydrates foods (Stevens C., 2010). Depending on

whether these young women receive assistance from the government or not, they have

different personal experience with providing food for their families (Stevens C., 2010).

In several studies, young mothers reported that they were perceptive of public health

messages and understood the need to maintain nutritional diet, such as to increase the

consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables and whole grain products (Collins M.E. et al,

2000; Stevens C., 2004; Stevens C.A., 2006). The reasons given for poor nutrition and

obesity in their lives included the high cost of fresh foods, cravings for unhealthy

products during some periods, lack of available supermarkets in the area they live, and

the need to rely on nonperishable high-density foods during times of food insecurity each

month (Center on Hunger and Poverty, 2002).

Furthermore, several studies also have shown that low income can lead to perceived

stress and depression among mothers, which are allied with riskier health and nutrition

behaviors in pregnant women and new mothers (Walker L.O., 1989; Walker L.O. et al.,

1999). Conversely, social support and family care is associated with more positive health

behaviors (Walker L.O. et al., 1999).

Low income might be a big problem for mothers living in countries from Eastern

Europe. They might face food insecurity or other difficulties to provide healthy and

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nutritional diet for the baby and themselves. Still despite economic limitations and the

negative influence of stress, women might find different strategies to provide adequate

dietary intake for them and their children. Influenced by different factors they might find

resources to eat the required healthy foods and enact different health behaviors.

2.2. Marital status and social support

Marital status might greatly impact mothers’ eating behavior. Studies conducted in

Europe proved that after marriage women increase the consumption of snacks and

dessert, decrease alcohol (Deshmukh-Taskar P., et all, 2007) and also include more fruits

and vegetables in their diets (Billson H., Pryer J., & Nichols R., 1999) than unmarried

individuals. Some other studies found that it was easier for pregnant women with family

support to engage in healthy eating. Furthermore, single women or those who spend lots

of time alone, tend to eat frequently at fast food restaurants with friends. In part to fulfill

socialization needs, they often consume unhealthy high fat foods (Fowles E. et al., 2005).

A positive relationship has been found between “social support and positive health

practices in pregnancy, which include healthy eating patterns, exercise, and drug and

alcohol avoidance” (Cannella B., 2006). Yet, a general conclusion cannot be made.

Marriage and friendships might affect mothers’ diets in a positive or negative way. The

following study will observe the effect of those factors over the mothers’ eating habits

and the changes that they overtook under their influence.

2.3. Parents-children relationship

A life course perspective incorporates multiple concepts with importance for

understanding food choices. “These concepts include trajectories, transitions, turning

points, lives in place and time, and timing of events in lives” (Devine C.M., 2005).

Becoming a parent is an event that might affect both parents and children dietary

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behavior. A healthy dietary intake of pregnant women is important not just for the mother

but it also has an influence on maternal and baby health, and thus may exert an influence

over the health of younger and older generations (van Teijlingen E. et al, 1998).

Adults make food choices for the whole family. “Parental attitudes must certainly affect

their children indirectly through the foods purchased for and served in the household,

thereby also influencing the children’s exposure and, hence, perhaps their habits and

preferences” (Wardle J., 1995). Hence there is an opportunity for healthy eating habits to

be established in early age. That is why it is vital parents to be well informed about

appropriate diets and targeted with healthy choices of food both for them and their

children.

“The conditions in which foods are chosen, the lives of the parents making the choices,

and the foods available to be chosen are constantly changing” (Devine C.M., 2005).

Significant social and economic trends, which affect the food choices include changes in

the conditions related with maternal employment and parental hours of employment

(Presser H.B., 1999; Bureau of Labor Statistics., 2005) and time spent preparing and

eating meals at home (Blisard N. et all 2002; Devine C.M. et all 2003; Jacobs J.A. et all

2001). Because of the busy daily routine, mothers might adopt unhealthy eating habits,

which they unconsciously might transfer over the child. According to Nielsen (2002), an

increasing proportion of food that parents and children eat is prepared and consumed

away from home. The eating culture is drastically changing and this is related to changes

in food consumption, changes in nutrient intake, such as increases in calorie consumption

(Chanmugam P. et all 2003); “and a disproportionately high level of dietary fat, saturated

fat, cholesterol, sodium, and calories and a low level of fruits and vegetables, dietary

fiber, calcium, and iron, associated with meals eaten away from home” (Guthrie J.F et all,

2002).

Recently studies prove that marketing campaigns significantly influence parents’

choices for food. Pregnant mothers might be especially vulnerable as they might tend to

eat according to cravings and personal taste. As the baby absorbs some components from

the food that the mother consumes, unhealthy eating might have a negative effect over

the child’s nutrition and growth.

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Parents are a major mediator of children’s access to food and determine their eating

habits after the birth (Gier S. et al, 2007). Parents influence children’s dietary behavior by

the types of foods they buy or allow their children to buy (Gier S. et al, 2007). Sometimes

parents might adopt unhealthy eating habits and influence negatively to their children by

increasing the consumption of fat and sugar during the day. Fast food is a type of food

that is marketed directly both to adults and their children and often preferred when the

family is out. Studies show that the consumption of such food is steadily increasing

despite the fact that adults’ frequency of dining in fast-food restaurants is associated with

increased body weight and obesity (French A., Harnack L., and Jeffery R., 2000; Pereira

A. et al. 2003). Factors influencing the decision of heaving such unhealthy meals might

be cravings and preferences. The busy daily routine of the parents might also be a factor

for the increasing consumption of that kind of food. Mothers, who have been at work the

whole day, might not have the time to prepare hot and healthy dish afterwards. This

might predetermine bad eating habits and unhealthy diet for the whole family.

As parents interact with children daily, they have the opportunity to improve their food

choices (Birch L.L. & Fisher J.A., 1998). “Family members can influence the food

preferences of their children by providing healthy food choices, offering multiple

opportunities to prepare and eat new foods, and serving as positive role models through

their own food choices” (Kalich K. et all, 2009). Children might also affect parents eating

behavior through the foods they request. By requesting food products they determine the

choice for the whole family as, food products, which are most often requested by

children, are most often bought on request (Ward S. and Wackman D., 1972). Research

suggests that fast-food marketing influences children’s food preferences and what they

repeatedly ask their parents to buy for them (Hastings G. et al. 2003; Institute of

Medicine 2006b). If parents buy fast food for their children and constantly go to such

restaurants, they might not be able to resist the temptation and increase their consumption

of this type of food. The same can be said for any product requested by the child. Thus,

children might also affect parents’ dietary choices and predetermine both healthy and

unhealthy eating.

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The following research will study the relationship parents-children and how their eating

behavior is affected from each other. It will look also on the factors, which influence their

choice and preferences for food, including the consumption of fast-food and advertising.

IV. Methodology

Qualitative research is very appropriate when the aim of the research is to give a more

profound understanding of an issue, including the routines and interactions of the

respondents in everyday life (Carson D. et al., 2001; Flick U., 2009).

The central ideas guiding the method are mostly what distinguish the qualitative research

from quantitative research. According to Flick (2009) the main characteristics of the

qualitative study are “the correct choice of appropriate methods and theories; the

researcher’s reflection on their research as part of the process of knowledge production;

and the variety of approaches and methods” (Flick U., 2009).

“Appropriateness of methods and theories”

Quantitative methods like experiments or surveys cannot be used in every area of

research. A problem that might arise with this type of research is the inability to identify

and isolate variables to be used in the experiment. Or it might be really hard to assure big

enough representative samples for the research, as the phenomena can be studied only in

a few cases. All these situations require the use of qualitative methods. (Flick U., 2009)

According to Flick (2009), for the study of complex issues is good to be used qualitative

methods. The crucial factor for choosing the exact method is the object under study.

There is no formulation of variables, but the objects are represented in their everyday

context. Therefore the fields of study of the qualitative methods are to show how the

respondents interact in their everyday life. A typical feature of the methods is openness

towards their objects. The aim is to discover and develop something new, not to test what

is already known as with quantitative research. “Also, while in quantitative research the

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validity exclusively follows abstract academic criteria of science, in the qualitative

research it is assessed with reference to the object under study. The central criteria here

depend on whether the findings are empirically tested or whether the appropriate methods

are selected and applied. It depends also on the relevance of the findings and the

reflexivity of proceedings”. (Flick U., 2009)

Qualitative research studies the knowledge and routines of the participants. “It

demonstrates the variety of perspectives on the object and starts from the subjective and

social meanings related to it” (Flick U., 2009). It takes into account that because of the

different perspectives and social status of the participants, they have different viewpoints

and experience which affects the results of the study (Flick U., 2009).

“Reflexivity of the researcher and the research”

As Flick states, unlike quantitative research, qualitative methods take the information

gathered from the interviews with the respondents as clearly formulated part of

knowledge instead of considering it an interviewing variable. A minus of the qualitative

research is that it carries the subjectivity of the researcher and the interviewees, which

can affect the results of the study. The field process includes the following steps: the

researcher reflects on the objects’ actions, observes their impressions, irritations, feelings

and so on, forms interpretations and document them in research diaries or context

protocols (Flick U., 2009).

“Variety of approaches and methods”

Various theoretical approaches form the qualitative research and “their methods

characterize the discussions and the research practice” (Flick U., 2009). The first starting

point is subjective viewpoints. “A second string of research studies the making and

course of interactions, while a third seeks to reconstruct the structures of the social field

and the latent meaning of practices” (Flick U., 2009). The history of the qualitative

research and its development in time presupposes this variety of approaches, which

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evolved partly in parallel and partly in sequence. There is no single method, but many

different approaches may be used according to the research questions and the research

tradition (Flick U., 2009).

The appropriateness of methods is a central feature of the qualitative research. For almost

every procedure it is possible to define for which particular research object it was

developed. The leading point is that for the purpose of the study there is no other suitable

method. Unlike the quantitative research, where everything that cannot be investigated by

particular method is excluded from the research, with the qualitative research the object

and questions under study represent the point of reference for the selection and evaluation

of methods. The research is also strongly directed to everyday life; it aims to investigate

participants’ everyday knowledge and experiences. The interviews are situated in their

everyday context; the conversations are advisory and stimulate the communication (Flick

U., 2009).

“Accordingly, qualitative data collection, analytical and interpretative procedures are

bound, to a considerable extent, to the notion of conceptuality: data are collected in their

natural context, and statements are analyzed in the context of an extended answer or a

narrative, or the total course of an interview, or even in the biography of the interview

partner” (Flick U., 2009).

According to Flick (2009), during the research process the greatest attention is paid to the

variety of information reported by the interviewees. Another important thing is the

capability of the researcher to reflect the answers of the objects under study in the best

manner. His actions and observations during the investigation are considered an essential

part of the research and every source of personal opinion and influence should be

eliminated. Moreover the researcher should master the techniques of the qualitative

research, which include the understanding of complex relationships, rather than just

explaining the situation by isolating single relationship, such as “cause-and-effect”.

“Understanding is oriented, in the sense of methodically controlled understanding of

otherness, towards comprehension of the perspective of the other party” (Flick U., 2009).

In order for this perspective to be fulfilled and to allow the respondents as much freedom

as possible, the collection of the data in qualitative research should reflect the principle of

openness (Hoffmann-Riem, 1980): the questions are formulated in an opened manner and

19

the procedure of observations is not strict but is conducted also in an open fashion (Flick

U., 2009).

Qualitative research is mainly text-based discipline despite the growing importance of

visual data as a source such as photos or films (Flick, 2009). “It produces data in the form

of texts- for example transcribed interviews or ethnographic fieldwork notes – and

concentrates, in the majority of its interpretative procedures, on the textual medium as a

basis for its work” (Flick, 2009).

Qualitative and quantitative research can be combined as they are compatible with each

other Wilson (1982). However, qualitative research needs the use of different approaches

when manipulating with the data. It can use a narrative interview or a questionnaire, for

example (Flick, 2009). Qualitative research covers a specific area of the relation between

issue and method (Becker H.S., 1996). “Furthermore, only in a very restricted way is it

compatible with the logic of research familiar from experimental or quantitative

research” (Flick, 2009). Quantitative research is a very strict process and can be neatly

arranged. It is remarkable with a linear sequence of the conceptual, methodological and

empirical steps. The steps are going consecutively and can be treated separately. A

mutual interdependence of every single stage of the process can be observed in

qualitative research and this should be taken into account much more (Glaser and Strauss,

1967).

According to Flick (2009) the traditional version of quantitative research has the

following steps: first we construct a model of the assumed conditions and relations of the

phenomena. Then, we derive hypotheses, which are operationalized and tested against

empirical conditions. “The concrete or empirical “objects” of research, like a certain

field or real persons, have the status of exemplary against which assumed general

relations are tested” (Flick, 2009). The aim is to assure representativeness of the study. A

further aim is to discriminate separate variables from the complex relations and to test

them. The object of research is following the theories and methods (Flick, 2009).

While the research process of the quantitative method is more linear and theory oriented,

the qualitative research observes more the data and the field under study, running away

20

from theoretical assumptions. Main difference is that the theories should not be assigned

to the subject under study. The researcher “discovers” (Flick, 2009) and creates them

while he is working with the information in the field. The choice of the respondents is

made according to their appropriateness to the studied topic. They shouldn’t form “a

representative sample of a general population” (Flick, 2009). The aim is not to isolate

separate variables from the complex relations but rather to increase complexity and to put

more meaning into them. Methods also have to be applicable to the issue under study and

their choice have to be made very carefully (Flick, 2009).

Thus, qualitative method is chosen in conducting the following study to gain deep insight

into parents’ eating habits and their change of lifestyle with transition to parenthood. The

method is a combination of e-mail interviews and new media (Facebook). Interviews

were conducted with 15 mothers from Eastern Europe.

There are so many practical benefits of incorporating computer-mediated-communication

(CMC) into qualitative research designs (Mann C., 2000). Some of the most important

gains are the following:

“Extending access to participants”

According to Mann (2000), computer-mediated-communication is a medium that allows

the researcher to pass the boundaries of time and space, which might limit face-to-face

research. The following options become possible:

Computer-mediated-communication gives opportunity for wide geographical access. It

also makes easier the communication between colleagues who may be on different sites

or in different continents (Cohen J., 1996). The Internet allows cross-cultural collations

of subjects because, as a global system, has the access to local newsgroups in many

countries and in many languages (Coomber R., 1997). CMC also enables researchers to

21

get in touch with respondents, difficult to contact with by regular face-to-face means of

communication, like mothers at home with small children (Mann C., 2000).

Other positive feature of the CMC is its appropriateness for some sensitive personal

subjects, which participants might be hesitating to discuss face-to-face with a researcher

(Mann C., 2000). “Not only does computer-mediated-communication have the potential

to defuse the embarrassment that might be present one-to-one, but it also allows groups to

speak about sensitive issues in an open and candid way without the fear of judgement or

shyness that characterize face-to-face groups” (Sweet C., 1999). It also allows some

researches to be conducted in politically sensitive or dangerous areas (Lee R., 1993) and

gives access to people in places which have closed or restricted access such as hospitals,

prisons, military (Mann C., 2000). Another good practical usage is that researchers may

join a group which comes together with a special interest in mind, such as chat rooms,

mailing lists and conferences (Comley P., 1996).

As Mann states, one of the most powerful advantages of Internet use for qualitative

research is that the costs are reduced to minimum. With traditional face-to-face

interviewing, both researchers and participants have to cover time and travel costs. The

participation of the respondents often depends on the travel and time costs – the less they

are, the bigger the participation. A traditional research budgets usually cannot cover the

expenses for trans-cultural participation and cross-cultural comparisons. Conducting

online survey eliminates the costs for travel.

Significant advantage of the web-page-based and email surveys is their increased reach as

they cross borders of time and space (Bachmann et all, 1996; Mehta R. and Sivadas E.,

1995). Another major advantage in the use of email is its increased speed and this was

showed in Comley’s (1996) study directly comparing email, postal mail and Web survey

options. Schaefer and Dillman’s (1998) study also affirmed that the returning of email

questionnaires is faster than their paper analogous. Furthermore, email offers

considerable savings, as it excludes paper and it is cheap to send (Mann C. and Stewart

F., 2000).

According to Mann (2000) a problem that can occur is with finding e-mail addresses of

respondents. The easiest way to cope with that is to ask people directly for contact, since

there is not yet a “fully developed global directory of e-mail addresses” (Mann C., 2000).

22

A further problem, which might arise, is with the correctness of the electronic address. It

can be misspelled or incomplete, which prevents from delivery of the message. And even

if the contact list and the technology are available and accurate, individuals might not

respond to the e-mail survey. Such problems occur as lack of enthusiasm from the

subjects under study; they might be busy and lack the time to respond or just people

might not check their e-mails regularly. This might substantially affect the response rates

and slow down the research process (Mann C., 2000).

The design of the qualitative study is another challenge in front of the researcher. He

should be able to find the balance between interview methods, carefully considering the

purpose of the study. In structured interviews the researcher is trying more to control the

interview. He uses standardized questions and the technique of contrasting the responses

(Mann C., 2000). “It is in non-standardized interviews that the focus moves from the pre-

formulated ideas of the researcher to the meanings and interpretations that individuals

attribute to events and relationships” (May T., 1993). Both methods differ by level of

qualitative depth that they offer. Depending on, which interview form is chosen by the

researcher, participants have more or less freedom when answering the questions (May

T., 1993). “Working online, less structured interviews with individuals are usually

conducted by e-mail, or by “chatting” one-to-one using real-time software” (Mann,

2000).

1. Design of the study

As the purpose of the following study is to gather information about the daily routine and

eating habits of women and how motherhood affects their diet and lifestyle, less

structured e-mail interviews were chosen as a method. This qualitative approach enabled

fast and detailed data gathering from respondents, situated in Eastern Europe. The whole

process took approximately 20 days, which can be considered as relatively short time,

considering the study group – mothers with small children. All participants were asked in

advance to participate in the study and the e-mail questionnaire was sent only if their

agreement was received.

23

The contact list includes mothers and pregnant women, gathered through personal

connections, as well as by using the participants’ own friendships with other mothers.

The age of the respondents is between 20 and 35. They are all married and live with their

husbands. Two of the mothers are still pregnant, six of them have small babies under one

year old, one is with twins at the age of one year and a half and the other six mothers

have children older than two years. Excluding the woman with the twins, three others

indicated the presence of a second child in the family. Four of the participating parents

are working and the other eleven are on a maternity leave at the moment. Most of them

take care of the child by themselves and don’t use child care services. All of the

respondents are educated – college or university and are currently employed except one.

The information is summarized in Table 1.

During the process of gathering the e-mails the respondents reported to feel more

comfortable with their mother language. Therefore the questionnaire was made in two

forms – English and Bulgarian versions, as the respondents were mostly with Bulgarian

nationality. They were asked to choose and fill in one, according to their preferences. At

first the questionnaires were send for pretesting to five women. They answered in few

days and no significant problems with the questions were determined. Therefore the

original forms were kept and the questionnaires were sent to the others subjects under

study from the contact list. Those five women were included in the research. All the data

was gathered for approximately twenty days. Two mothers were contacted again with

additional questions about their diet during the pregnancy period. Only one from all 15

mothers answered the English version and the data was more incomplete and

unsystematic. The data gathered from the other questionnaires was full, representative

and systematic. The overall information helped for the elaboration of a complete

descriptive analysis.

Since the change of the eating habits with the transition to motherhood were of interest,

we asked questions in the areas: 1) way of eating before, during, after pregnancy and in

the current moment; 2) lifestyle behavior; 3) weight gain during pregnancy, recovery

after giving birth, body image and satisfaction with their own diet and weight; 4) fast-

food consumption, healthy eating and the effect of the advertisements over the mothers’

diets. All the gathered data was analyzed through comparison. The analytic procedures

24

included: 1) reading each participant’s e-mail interview and summarizing the data; 2)

reviewing each participant’s data to identify change in eating habits over time and finding

key points in the areas of interest of us; 3) comparing summarized cases- describe

variations in the data and note relationships among the cases; 4) identifying emerging

themes; 5) describing the cases (Devine C. et all, 2000). Drawbacks of the method are the

cultural specificity of the respondents and the subjective assessment of healthiness of

their dietary behavior.

Table 1: Participants

Age in years: 23 27 26 26 30 32 31 34

Age of each child in years:

2 Twins 1,5

6 2 9 months

Not born yet 1,5 months

3,5 +second child

Assessment of distribution of household tasks between yourself and partner (if) in percentage:

50:50 55:45 98:2 50:50 70:30 80:20 50:50 70:30

Hours or work per week, you:

0 0 40 0 0 0 0 168

Hours or work per week, partner:

40 55 120 40 40 50 40-50 168

25

Hours of child-care per child (all regular arrangements, such as institutional child-care, babysitter and grandparents):

0 12 per day

40 0 0 0 8 hours per day

Educational level, you: bachelor Master College Bachelor Bachelor

Bachelor International Economic Relations

2 masters Bachelor

Educational level, partner:

College College College College Bachelor

Bachelor’s - Engineer

Bachelor Bachelor

Occupation (or last position), you:

waitress accountant

life insurance agent

Reporter unemployed

Investor Relation Director

Expert marketing manager

Operator in a firm

Occupation (or last position), partner:

Military man

procurator

driver driver engineer

Guard Quality control Expert

Labor inspector

Age in years: 23 29 34 30 23 30 25

Age of each child in years: 2 10 months+ second child 6 years

5 months+ second child

Unborn 5 months

2,5 years 5 months

Assessment of distribution of household tasks between yourself and partner (if) in percentage:

50:50 70:30 70:30 60:40 60:40 50:50 60:40

Hours or work per week, you: 0 0 20 0 0 30 0

26

Hours or work per week, partner:

40 40 40 0 60 50 40-50

Hours of child-care per child (all regular arrangements, such as institutional child-care, babysitter and grandparents):

0 0 40 0 0 40 0

Educational level, you: college bachelor bachelor Bachelor College

Bachelor bachelor

Educational level, partner: College College bachelor Bachelor College

Bachelor College

Occupation (or last position), you:

waitress Bank Manager

Business Consultant

Operator in Call Center

Shop assistant

School Teacher

Products demonstrator

Occupation (or last position), partner:

Military man

Driver Private Business

Lawyer Distributor

Constructor Distributor

V. Results

The qualitative analysis of the mothers’ responses led to the conclusion that the life event

of becoming a parent brings a change into women’s eating habits and their body image.

All of them distinguish different phases through which they have passed and make a

comparison between their dieting during the periods. In the following analysis the phases

are named and thoroughly described, as well as all the factors that influenced the

respondents and their satisfaction with body shape and eating.

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1. Pre-pregnancy period

Many mothers from the study group describe the way they were eating before they got

pregnant or got married. They had concerns about their body weight and used to watch

closely the type of the food they ate:

Before the pregnancy I used to eat low caloric foods, lots of salads, yoghurt and muesli,

less fruits, meat and eggs in order to keep my body in shape.

One says:

I ate healthy before the pregnancy… I looked so good at that time.

Other women took the advantage of some coping strategies in order to look and feel

good:

I used to sport a lot… I had a time for that in contrast to now.

I didn’t eat breakfast before, as I didn’t feel the need of eating so much food….just a

fruit and a coffee in the morning was enough. Later in the day, some light meals…not

that much food

A few respondents stress on the fact that the busy life of a working woman before and the

daily routine didn’t actually let them think so much about food. They don’t define their

diet before pregnancy as healthy, but as satisfying according to their body image and self-

confidence:

Before the pregnancy I used to skip so many feedings, my eating was irregular; I was

smoking a lot and all that because of the work. Of course, I knew it was unhealthy, but

I’ve never been bothered about excess weight. I was satisfied with my diet. Now I look in

the mirror and I see all that weight that I gained….but still there is a good reason…

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During the pre-pregnancy period women’s attitude shows concern about body shape and

weight and each of the interviewees found her own strategy to cope with the problem,

according to her own case. The eating habits of most of the mothers cannot be defined as

healthy during the period.

2. Pregnancy period

The pregnancy period is connected with positive change in eating habits by most of the

women. Becoming a parent might be triggering some feelings of concern and

responsibility for the child and its growth and mothers adopt new eating behaviors. They

start eating more fruits and vegetables, stop the coffee and dizzy drinks, no alcohol and

cigarettes during the period, though some of them report to be extensive smokers and

quitting was really hard. They started drinking more fresh juice and water and reduced

the consumption of sweets:

Before the pregnancy I didn’t eat oatmeal, I used to have my dinner late and practically

all kinds of food, but knowing that I’m expecting a baby changed everything- bit by bit I

was getting interested in the healthiness of the foods, like preservatives and stabilizers; I

started eating more fruits and vegetables, mostly organic, and increased the consumption

of water, tea and juice.

Many of the respondents indicate a positive change in their regimen of diet. The

expectancy of a baby provokes a regular eating in most of the mothers under study. All of

them, who didn’t have breakfast before, start including it in their daily menu. They don’t

skip any of the obligatory feedings, though it was a practice before the pregnancy. Their

perceptions about nutrition are totally influenced with the occurrence of the life changing

event- the baby.

My eating was so irregular in the period before pregnancy – my first consumption of

some food during the day was around 2-3 pm in the afternoon and it was some unhealthy

staff. The baby changed my perception for nutrition and lifestyle.

29

I don’t remember to have ever had any breakfast; I was smoking a lot and drank lots of

coffee. Not anymore…

Other mothers reported that their daily diet didn’t change significantly. They kept eating

the same way as before the pregnancy and increased only the amount of the consumed

fruits during the day. The reasons might be that they considered their way of eating as

healthy and didn’t see the need to undertake any change:

I have always been eating three times per day; my food includes plenty of meat, rise,

vegetables, and pasta. I have also been avoiding all kinds of dizzy drinks; I just started

eating more fruits between the main feedings.

Another reason might be that they didn’t want to give up their daily routine and have

been afraid of gaining weight during the pregnancy. The stress of losing their body shape

might have affected the mothers and their way of eating during the pregnancy:

I didn’t change a lot…no breakfast, lots of coffee during the whole day. I only included

lots of fruits and vegetables because it’s healthy for the baby. Still I consider my diet

better than before the pregnancy.

Some of the women reviewed that the pregnancy has turned to be a liberating period for

them according to eating and diets. They significantly increased the amount of the

consumed food and the numbers of feedings during the day. One reason might be that

they didn’t actually eat regularly and enough before the pregnancy and the transition to

parenthood made them more responsible about their regime and nutrition:

I’ve never been eating a lot; just enough to satisfy my needs….but when I understood

that I’m expecting the little precious, I started to eat regularly and as healthier as I

could.

Still other reason might be that the mothers just felt liberated from all restrictions about

weight and body image and saw the period of pregnancy as a moment to let themselves to

their cravings and needs of food. The thought that it’s good for the baby and that’s

30

enough a reason to eat whatever they want has been the leading for those mothers. They

didn’t have to worry or feel the pressure of maintaining their weight anymore:

At the beginning I was trying to maintain my regular diet and to eat healthy but the

more the months were passing, the more food I was eating. I couldn’t resist – I was

consuming everything my body was craving…fast food, sweets, chips. I gained 30 kilos

and I still cannot get back in shape.

It was awful; I simply couldn’t stop eating….

Still, except these cases of uncontrolled eating by some of the respondents, most of the

interviewees see the phase of the pregnancy as a period when they passed to a healthier

eating. Even those mothers who didn’t make any radical changes in their diet, say it

became more nutritious in a way, because they were watching closely what was good for

the baby and excluded the inappropriate food. As a whole the transition to parenthood

had a positive effect over the women during this particular phase, maybe because they

felt responsibility not only for themselves but also for a second life.

The symptoms of nausea and vomiting affected significantly the eating habits of most of

the women in the study group. Though some of them didn’t really change their diet with

the occurrence of the life changing event, the months through which they felt the nausea

provoked the appetite for foods, not normal for the mothers’ daily routine:

I had nausea the fist months of the pregnancy and I could hardly stand strong smells of

food. I had a craving for very sweet and sour things like cakes and pickles. I perceived

the principle: Eat whenever and whatever I can, as much as possible.

I’ve never been eating fast food before, but during the period it was obligatory for me to

include in my daily diet pizza, duner kebab, cake, lemons. And these are foods I couldn’t

eat before.

Mothers just left themselves on their cravings and consumed everything they liked.

31

Others were just looking for some kinds of food that their body was accepting and they

could eat during this period. That in a way made their diet unhealthy both for them and

the baby:

I couldn’t stand any cooked dishes, only fast food and bread…that was all I was eating

for the first three-four months.

One mother shares: I couldn’t eat normally at all…only sandwiches with cheese. The

vomiting was so strong that I’ve lost 3 kilos during the first months. Later on, during the

sixth month of the pregnancy I got heart-burns, which again disturbed my regular diet…I

was eating mostly mandarins and yoghurt. All these restrictions didn’t let me gain a lot

or eat healthy during the pregnancy.

Thus the symptoms of nausea and vomiting led to a change in the eating habits of the

mothers who were affected and practically made their nutrition unhealthier. Those

women who didn’t suffer the symptoms report having a healthy and wonderful

pregnancy. They felt fit and consumed all the recommended foods, which were good for

the baby, thus trying to assure it properly growing. They report to have increased the

amount of the daily meals, which might have been more than the child actually needed,

but this led to a calm and easy pregnancy.

I was eating good and that led to healthy and slowly gaining of 18 kilos during the

pregnancy. I was feeling wonderful.

I didn’t have any symptoms of nausea… I had a big appetite for different kinds of

food…I’m still pregnant and I really feel good with my diet.

3. First months after giving birth- breastfeeding

Most of the interviewees changed slightly their diet during the period of breastfeeding

compared to the time of pregnancy. They report to have excluded foods of their daily

32

menu like spices, cabbage, chocolate, coffee and dizzy drinks because all these were

provoking colic for the baby. They were looking for solutions so the baby wouldn’t feel

any discomfort. But these cannot be defined as significant changes for them. They kept

the healthy diet acquired during the pregnancy period.

My doctor advised me to keep the same rules of eating as during the pregnancy and I

was doing it …...I just limited the consumption of eggs and cheese…but nothing so

special.

Those who didn’t have a healthy or regular diet during the pregnancy share to have tried

to eat that way during the breastfeeding, thus to assure everything needed for the baby.

They acquired completely new nutrition habits. Some noted their own diet was directly

related to the nutrition demands of their baby through breastfeeding and they preferred to

postpone their own body needs for their child.

I was eating more often on small portions….drinking more water and juice. I tried to

maintain good nutritional levels and eat healthily.

I’ve missed the coffee so much during the period, but I was trying to eat nourishing

food….everything was worthy for my little precious baby.

Some mothers report a significant change in their lifestyle and diet only during the period

of breastfeeding. They didn’t eat differently during the pregnancy comparing with the

time before that, but the first months after the baby was born affected their routine:

I actually increased the amount of the consumed food only during the ten months of the

breastfeeding. That’s the only period when I was eating fast food, sweets like croissants

and waffles; I was drinking lots of water and juice. After that I got back to my normal

regimen; I didn’t feel the need for so much food any more.

With the end of the breastfeeding the mothers share to have returned back to their bad

habits about eating. While the period of feeding the baby with milk stimulated them to eat

healthy and to take care of the consumed foods, its end gave them the liberty to start

33

eating whatever they wanted again. They might have been feeling restricted in their

choices during the period, which to have caused the opposite effect afterwards.

After I stopped the breastfeeding I was eating everything I can…

I had a healthy diet during the breastfeeding, but after that…..

As a whole it can be concluded that the biggest part of the mothers had a healthy diet

during the breastfeeding period. They report that they knew the baby was absorbing

everything they were consuming and therefore were extremely cautious about the food

they were eating. Their instinct of mothers might have developed even more, as women

who didn’t undertake any changes during pregnancy started a healthier diet now.

3. After breastfeeding-back to routine

Women report that after the breastfeeding period a complete turn-down in their diet

occurred. They completely gave up the healthy and regular eating of the previous period.

They started skipping some meals and led themselves to the cravings for all kinds of

food. This is the period when mothers report to be the least satisfied with their diet. Some

of them started working again, which led to the consumption of more fast food, more

stress while eating and less time for body shape care. Women share that with the return

back to the routine, their diet became unhealthier.

4. Weight management

Concerns about weight have taken a major part in the interviewees’ answers. With the

appearance of the life changing event – the pregnancy, most of the mothers report a

transition to a healthier and regular diet. They include more vegetables and fruits, milk

and meat. They start consuming more food, in a bigger variety, watch out for the nutrition

of the products, all in the name of the baby. Still other women leave themselves to their

34

cravings and appetite for unhealthy nutrition. The maximum “Eating for two” has been

perceived by not so small part of them. Some say that they were just hungry too often,

others share:

I don’t like this maximum, but practically that was my way of eating during the

pregnancy.

My doctor was scolding me because of that way of diet…I gained too much weight, but

I liked to eat.

One mother says that she doesn’t want to admit it, but it’s true that her eating habits

became according to that maxim. That led to dissatisfaction with their nutrition and body

weight. While during the pregnancy mothers didn’t feel almost any worries, because they

ate in the name of the baby, after the birth, the feelings changed:

…now I feel so worried because of this excessive weight, I still cannot get back in

shape.

I didn’t feel worried by the fact that I was gaining weight. It was such a pleasure to see

how my tummy was growing. The depression and unhappiness came when the child

turned one year and a half.

The comparison between their body shape before and after the pregnancy brings the

biggest dissatisfaction. Women cannot accept the change that occurred with the transition

to parenthood:

I’m still trying to loose 3-4 kilos but it’s so hard. I’m not so satisfied with my body now.

No, because I have always been skinny and good looking and now this is too much – all

this weight.

Apart from those women who feel dissatisfied with their weight during and after the

pregnancy, half of the mothers report to feel very happy with their body.

35

I knew that I was gaining within the normal limits and I didn’t feel any stress about

that. And now I’m happy with my appearance too.

I didn’t feel happy about the 12 kilos more, but neither had I felt worried. Now I’m even

skinnier than before.

The though about the baby’s health and nutrition preoccupies the women’s concerns

about their body. They accepted the new role of mother, which is much more important

than the body shape.

I have excessive weight, but I cannot think about that now…the baby is more

important…I’ll think about my body later…..maybe some sport.

As a result the study showed that the transition to parenthood brought weight concerns

and dissatisfaction to half of the women during the phase of the pregnancy. They couldn’t

accept the change in their body. The other part of them was either satisfied, or just

accepted the situation as normal for the period. The thought about the baby and its health

and nutrition justified everything. Maybe some women realized the effect of the life

changing event over their bodies on a later stage of the pregnancy and started looking for

different ways to fight the problem.

5. Coping strategies

Women always find some strategies to fight with excessive weight, no matter how busy

they are. But with the occurrence of the baby they may not have the same time, energy or

freedom to utilize previous strategies for weight control because of the demands of the

infant. The following study showed that some mothers didn’t have the need to do

anything to cope with the gained weight during the pregnancy. It was a matter of good

metabolism or body structure that they returned their previous shape very fast:

36

My baby is 10 months old and I’ve already lost 15 kilos without any restrictions or

dieting. My structure and metabolism help a lot for that result.

I don’t have problems with my weight. It helps me a lot that I’m always running after

the children. They take all my energy.

Maybe I need to do some sports but not to lose weight.

Many mothers regret of not having the time to do some sports. They see the need for

themselves to take more care for their appearance, but the motherhood is a lot of time

consuming and puts some limits in front of them. The mothers share:

Motherhood is a holdback for me…I don’t have even a second free time for myself…

before I was going to fitness, taking care of myself, but now I cannot find time for

anything.

I find time for fitness only once a week, because the children make me really busy. But

what is bad for my diet is that I always eat the kids’ leftovers.

I’m still breastfeeding and I cannot find time for sports or keep any diets.

When the baby comes into parents’ lives it becomes the first priority for them and

mothers are unable to spend the same amount of time for themselves as before. Their

daily routine totally changes and the care for the body shape and appearance steps aside.

Some women might not be happy with the new circumstances and they look for other

ways to cope with the problem. They rely on restrictions in food like no sweets and fast

food, more fruits and vegetables to return their previous weight. Still others cannot fight

with their cravings and appetite for food. They report being dissatisfied with their weight

but the weakness to resist to all the temptations that unhealthy diet can offer is stronger.

They share:

Motherhood is not a hold-back; I just miss a strong will.

Staying at home is really bad for me, because I’m always going around the fridge. My

laziness and weak will prevent me from achieving good results.

37

In order to retain their weight in normal borders, some interviewees report that their

eating during the pregnancy wasn’t much- just enough to satisfy their and the baby’s need

of food.

I wasn’t on a diet but I was watching closely what I’m eating- It was just enough to

satisfy my hunger.

Thus mothers were trying to find different coping strategies during different periods of

the motherhood to fight their dissatisfaction with weight or were just accepting the

weight gain as something normal. Some were planning to start exercising or dieting on a

later stage of their life, but it seems that they have accepted their new role of mothers,

way of eating and appearance as they were. From the interviews can be concluded that

the women adjust themselves to the new daily routine that the motherhood brought and

are happy with it.

6. Influence factors

Women mentioned many factors that influenced their diet during the different phases,

which were both internal and external. Such a prominent factor is the partner. For some

mothers he plays a significant role in the change of their eating habits with the transition

to parenthood. The husband directs the wife to a healthier diet in the name of the baby.

He has always been eating healthy in contradiction to me…and after I got pregnant he

led me to this better kind of eating. He is so interested in the quality of the products that I

consume gives me advises and cooks for me. We spend lots of time together during the

day and maybe that affects also…I’m positively surprised.

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The husband exerts a positive influence on the mothers’ eating habits, according to what

choices of food she should make, what is nutritional and not, but also predisposes her to

eat bigger meals.

He works a lot and when he comes back at home he insists to have plenty of nutritional

food on the table – always something with meat….kind of heavy dinner.

While there are husbands who affect their wives’ daily eating habits, most of the men are

staying inactive and don’t exert any influence over the family food choices. Women

report of being alone most of the time and that presupposes the preparation and eating of

food depending on own preferences:

My husband is not at home most of the time and doesn’t affect my diet in any way.

He is working a lot and that actually contributes for our high standard of living and the

plenty of food that we consume. But therefore he doesn’t spend so much time at home and

affect my eating. I cook whatever I like.

One mother reports that her husbands’ eating habits has changed according to hers after

the birth of the baby.

We are so busy around the small precious. I’ve always been eating something light

whenever I had time and that regimen is not new for me.…except during the

pregnancy…...now I conform my meals according to the baby but I didn’t expect my

husband to do that…and he is helping me a lot. He is eating when the baby lets us and

because I don’t like cooked food, he eats whatever I do…some salad or a soup.

A final conclusion can be maid that the biggest part of the husbands doesn’t affect the

eating behavior of their wives. The reasons might be that the couples do not spend so

much time together or just because the women are the more active part in the family.

With the birth of the baby, it becomes another factor that often influences the mothers

eating behavior. As this woman reported both her and hers husband diets became

39

irregular and unhealthy with the transition to parenthood. The care for child is so time

consuming for them, that they almost forget their own needs. And if she is familiar to that

regimen and way of eating, for her husband that’s a complete change of the lifestyle.

Another mother reports that her regular eating depends on the mood of her child.

If he is calm and let me I can sit down and eat a regular meal as I’m used to, but if he’s

not….I just skip it.

Still another shares that what affects her diet is the habit to finish the leftovers of her

children after they are done with the meal. Or when mothers buy some fast food for the

children, the temptation to eat becomes stronger and they just cannot resist.

Another interviewer reports to conform the cooking for the family to the taste of her

child.

I don’t watch on the healthiness of the food if she likes it.

More than a half of the women being under study are on a maternity leave and still take

advantage of the free child’s kitchen that the Government assures. The food is prepared

according to the standards for the children’s healthy eating. Thus in most of the cases the

mothers cook only for themselves and the husbands and they report to conform that

mostly to their own taste.

The other relatives or members of the family do not exert almost any influence over the

couples’ eating habits. Most of the interviewers report to be living alone and they have

only some irregular visits, which doesn’t significantly affect their diets. One woman

shares:

When my mother comes at home she stays for couples of days and then we definitely have

to eat healthy and regularly. But after she leaves….

Women also mention that meeting with friends affects their healthy diet. An afternoon

coffee is always accompanied with a cake, an ice-cream or cookies and being with

40

somebody else increases the temptation for such kind of food. Also mothers report that

they often buy themselves fast food when they are with a friend. This does not happen if

they go out alone or with their husbands. Thus friends influence negatively the healthy

eating of the mothers and presuppose the consumption of more fast food and sweets,

which leads to weight gain and dissatisfaction with women’s own diet.

Still social connections have also a positive impact over mothers. They gain lots of

knowledge and exchange information about what is healthy and unhealthy for the baby

and themselves through the participation in some online and personal social groups. They

educate each other, exchange advices when having problems during the pregnancy or

with the baby and find coping strategies for the different phases.

By sharing our own experiences to each other, we find solutions of many problems. I

didn’t have anybody to ask at the beginning and the other mothers were giving me so

many advices about the baby.

When I don’t know something I ask my pregnant friends…how they cope with the

problem, what effect does some product have over their body and weight…it is really

helpful.

Social connections, no matter personal or in a group, influence to a high degree mothers’

decisions about choice of food or products. They help them to make discrimination

between healthy and unhealthy either for the baby, or for themselves. The women share

to have their eating habits affected by the contacts with the others in the group, because

they often exchange recipes and cooking advises too. Still face-to-face meetings are

characterized by eating more cakes and cookies, some fast-food which they usually try to

avoid.

Women report to acquire unhealthy habits of eating also on their working place. The

stress of the working environment and the busy daily grind presuppose irregular feeding,

snacking and the consumption of more sweets and fast-food, either alone or in the

company of colleagues.

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I always have fast food for lunch, because I’m busy and in a hurry….we just go and

grab with the colleagues. I’m never calm, often interrupted by something…I don’t like it;

I know I’m eating unhealthy.

I’m always in the run while having my lunch, I don’t have time to sit down and

relax….it’s some sandwiches, easy to carry.

This work is just so much; it’s good if I have five minutes for some fruit or chocolate

bar. I drink coffee all day long; I wouldn’t stand it without it.

Some of the workplaces offer a lunch that is already prepared with a wide variety of

meals, where women can have a salad or a soup. Still some of the interviewees connect

the canteen with fatty food and too big portions that they cannot handle.

I prefer to bring food prepared at home, it’s not that fatty and it’s healthier.

The working environment is a great indicator for women’s lifestyle and affects their

eating habits. The busier the mothers are at the office, with the child and with the

housework, the less healthy they eat and cook. They start relying on frozen food,

something, which can be prepared fast and easy, neglecting the content and nourishment

of the meal. Such diets and eating habits can easily lead to diseases and obesity, either for

the parents or for the children.

7. Satisfaction with diet

The current diet of most of the interviewees include lots of meat, rise, potatoes, pasta,

fruits and vegetables, dark bread, muesli, cheese, yoghurt, milk. They try to prepare their

meals on their own and to bring as much variety as possible. The culture of the

respondents imposes some beliefs about healthiness. One mother says:

We always start with a soup, then a salad, the main course, which is a meat with

potatoes or rise and vegetables and at the end a dessert. I consider this an appropriate

and healthy meal for the grown ups, as well as for the children.

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Most of the women like that they consume lots of fruits and vegetables during the day

and dislike the excessive consumption of sweets and chocolate. They report they have the

wish to change that fact in the future, as eating so much cake and sugar is seen unhealthy.

I love sweets and the children eat lots of candies because we always have at home. We

should change that.

What is also liked by the women under study is the fact that they don’t restrict themselves

about food. None of them admits to be on a real diet for loosing weight and they all say to

be satisfied by that fact. Only one mother shares that once per month she doesn’t eat

anything for 24 hours and relies on that way of dieting to maintain her body shape.

I don’t like it… all the restrictions…no food during the whole day is kind of heavy.

As a whole the mothers are satisfied with the way they are eating at the moment, no

matter if they are still pregnant or they gave birth. Those who already have children admit

that the period of pregnancy was the one when they ate the healthiest diet and attained

bad eating habits after that.

My regimen now became irregular and unhealthy; it wasn’t like that during the

pregnancy.

Still this fact doesn’t affect the feeling of satisfaction with the own diet. Maybe that is

due to the fact most women consume the products they like, eat according to their taste

and cravings and do not report of having obsessions for weight loss and restrictions.

8. Fast food consumption

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Another topic that was under interest of the following study was the consumption of fast

food from the mothers and the influence that advertisements or some other factors have

over them. To introduce the women into the topic, questions about their behavior and

choice of products were asked. Most of the women reported to have no affection to any

particular product and that advertisements do not influence their consumer behavior.

I never pay attention on an ad showing food products.

I don’t really crave any food or try new products, even if I see them on the TV.

Still there were some interviewees who reported their consumer choice was affected by

advertisements.

I often choose what to buy according to what was seen on the TV, but I’m also usually

disappointed.

I think ads always affect our consumer behavior, even if we sometimes don’t realize

that.

Then the mothers were directly asked about their fast food craving and if it increased

with the occurrence of the life changing event. Almost half of the women reported that

with the transition to parenthood they had bigger appetite for fast food and chocolate,

especially during the phase of pregnancy. They also report to have tried to avoid this type

of food, being aware of its unhealthiness and bad effect over the body.

Yes a lot… I always liked these but I used to avoid them.

I used to avoid the big shopping centers, where it’s really easy get pizza or hamburger.

Yes, the craving definitely increased, especially during the first months of the

pregnancy.

I started to eat lots of chocolate and cakes during the pregnancy, some sandwiches…

Interviewees shared that the appetite for fast food appeared especially when they were on

the street among other people, which were consuming such type of food. Sometimes even

the smell can trigger the craving and make mothers buy for themselves.

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When I’m out for a walk and see somebody eating pizza, I really cannot resist, I should

have one piece.

When I’m out, I usually eat them on my own.

Friends and work are also a strong influential factor according to women. Being in the

company of someone else or just the busy daily routine presupposes eating of fast food

and unhealthy dieting.

Whenever I go out with friends, we visit such type of restaurant and it happens kind of

often.

Whenever I’m in a hurry or at lunch time with a colleague…that’s the best food we can

grab.

A situation when mothers were unable to resist the temptation was when they were out

with their children. Women share that kids often want fast food or some cake and usually

the requests are being satisfied. But being around, the mothers appetite for the same kind

of food increases and they buy for themselves too. Thus sometimes the influence of the

children might affect parents’ healthy eating. The inability of the mothers to refuse kids’

requests leads to bad in nutrition diets for the whole family.

Other factors that the women pointed as being influential over their consumption of fast

food were the period of pregnancy and their cravings.

This type of food is tasty for me; there are no any particular factors.

….the need to eat something really unhealthy

Right now pregnancy does mostly.

Some mothers report that the marketing campaigns have a strong effect over their buying

behavior of fast food. One of them reported on an earlier question that ads are affecting

also her choice of any type of food. That is not the case with the other interviewees.

Though they might buy some type of fast food as a result of a good marketing campaign,

that doesn’t mean this is a typical consumer behavior for them about all kinds of

products.

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A general conclusion can be maid that almost all women consume fast food influenced by

different factors and in different situations. Family, children, friends and work are from

the most common given reasons that the interviewees report to affect their craving for

this type of food. Marketing campaigns and advertising cannot be considered as a

significant influential factor over mothers’ consumer behavior. They report to rely mostly

on their taste and cravings.

9. Discussion

From the results can be concluded that eating habits change to great extend with the

transition to parenthood. Women passed through different phases which were

distinguished from them as the pre-pregnancy period, pregnancy, breastfeeding and the

period after breastfeeding. Motherhood triggered both healthy and unhealthy changes.

The period of pregnancy was distinguished as the one, when women were eating the

healthiest. A possible reason might have been that mothers felt responsible not only for

themselves, but also for the life of the baby. A common tendency was an increase of the

consumed food, more fruits and vegetables between the main feedings and regulation of

the regimen of eating of mothers. No matter if and what changes the women undertook,

they almost all see the period of pregnancy as a transition to a healthier diet. Exclusion

makes the period when mothers had the symptoms of nausea and vomiting, as this is the

time when most of them report eating lots of fast food, chocolate, unvaried and unhealthy

meals.

In comparison with the pregnancy period the pre-pregnancy period is characterized with

taking more care about the weight and personal appearance. Women use different coping

strategies to keep their body shape as it is. Some describe their eating behavior as

irregular, consuming less food; others rely on a healthy diet and sport. As a whole the

period cannot be characterized with a healthy eating behavior by the women.

The biggest part of the mothers had a healthy diet during the breastfeeding period. They

report that they knew the baby was absorbing everything they were consuming and

therefore were extremely cautious about the food they were eating. With some exceptions

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where women gave themselves to their cravings for innutritious eating, the period can be

described as healthy in food habits. Still mothers see the pregnancy period as the one

when they maintained the best diet.

The period after breastfeeding is characterized as the unhealthiest according to eating

habits period. Women return back to their normal life and eating or report to stop the

healthy diet from the previous period, which has a negative influence over their body.

Some of the mothers return to their daily routine, start working again, which brings

irregular feedings, lots of fast food and sweets. That’s the period during which

interviewees are the least satisfied with their diet.

The transition to parenthood brought lots of weight concerns to mothers. Half of them

had serious worries about their body and the kilos they gained during the phase of

pregnancy. Therefore they took advantage of different coping strategies in order to

prevail themselves from weight gain above the standard or took steps to loose it

afterwards. The other half were either happy or just accepted the change that occurred.

They looked more on the reason than on the effect that it caused. Maybe some body

concerns actually occurred among these mothers on some later stages, but during the nine

months of pregnancy the satisfaction with weight prevailed.

Women’s eating behavior was affected by some influence factors. As such were

mentioned the husband and the child, friends, family and the work atmosphere. With

some exceptions, most of the mothers reported that their husbands didn’t affect their

eating behavior and they were the one who took the decisions about food choices in the

family. The child was a significant influential factor for the mothers. The transition to

motherhood brought the feeling of responsibility for the second life and aim for healthier

eating. With its birth it kind of ruined the regimen of eating of some mothers, as they

were having their meals according to the mood and regimen of the child. Still more than

half of the mothers kept preparing the food for the family according to their own taste and

needs.

Interviewees didn’t think the family affects in any way their eating habits. Friend exerted

more influence over them by visiting different restaurants and coffee shops and thus

increasing the consumption of unhealthy food. The other way friends influenced the

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mothers was through social groups, by giving advises and directing each other to

healthier eating.

The working environment exercise negative influence over the eating habits of the

women. The stress of the working environment and the busy daily grind presuppose

irregular feeding, snacking and the consumption of more sweets and fast-food, either

alone or in the company of colleagues. Women also report that the role of working

mothers puts the cooking on a back position and they start relying more on fast and

frozen food also at home. Thus children are affected as well and acquire the unhealthy

diet of the parents.

Mothers don’t consider the income as a significant factor, affecting their eating behavior.

During the pregnancy most of the women report having a healthy and nutritional diet,

despite the fact that some of them are unemployed and others are on a maternity leave,

which considering the situation in the country is relatively low. The issue requires

additional, deeper research, which wasn’t the aim of the following study.

The research of the fast food consumption among the mothers showed that the biggest

part of them are eating this type of food and thus affect the diet of the children too. Kids

also affect their parents’ eating habits by requesting pizza or hamburgers and women

report being unable to repress their appetite and buy for themselves. Factors as friends

and work are also with a major significance. Marketing campaigns and advertising have a

minor influence over the mothers. Only a few of them reported to have ever been affected

by such kind of factor. They report to rely mostly on their taste and cravings.

VI. Conclusion

A qualitative method was chosen in conducting the following study to gain deep insight

into parents’ eating habits and their change of lifestyle with transition to parenthood. The

method was a combination of e-mail interviews and new media (Facebook). Limitations

might have been that the interviews were conducted only with 15 mothers from Eastern

Europe. Thus the small number of the respondents does not allow generalizing the

conclusions, especially on some topics. In addition women were from the same

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geographical area, which restricted the conclusions to one cultural group. However,

extensive information was gathered about mothers’ attitudes with the occurrence of the

life changing event.

“Transitions are periods of change where there are shifts in lifestyles from one stage to

another” (Price et al. 2000). The concept of transitions cannot be discussed separately

without that of trajectories in the life course perspective (Devine C.M., 2005). A life

course perspective can be used to observe people’s food and eating choices, how they

construct and change them and what factors in the food and eating environment affect

those choices (Rozin P., 1990). People often report that when some normal life transitions

occur, they are making small adjustments in their food choice trajectories to adapt to new

food choice settings (Devine C. and Olson C., 1991). In congruence with the theories, the

following study showed that parenthood has a major effect over the lifestyle of mothers.

Pregnancy affected women’s daily and eating habits, diet quality; concerns for nutrition

and motivation for food choices, as well as body weight concerns and satisfaction. As

proved in other studies mothers pass to a healthier diet during the phase of pregnancy.

They change their eating habits during the period as they start to consume foods they consider “better to eat,” such as fruits and vegetables, and limit salty snacks (Fowles & Gabrielson, 2005; Fowles et all, 2005; Rifas-Shiman S. et all, 2006). Factors, which facilitate their healthy eating habits, are family support, knowledge of healthy foods, willingness to prepare separate meals for themselves, and eating meals at home. (Fowles et al., 2005). The biggest influence over them exerts the awareness that the baby absorbs everything the mothers take with the food. Pregnancy marks the beginning of a life stage in which women

think not only for their personal nutritional needs and weight goals, but also for the needs

of their child (Devine and Olson, 1992; Gordon and Tobias, 1984). However, cravings, demands on time, and nausea are barriers to healthy eating (Fowles et al., 2005). The weight management has a great implication for the mothers. The study proved the

results of other researches that pregnancy brings concerns for weight gain and half of the

women experience body dissatisfaction. After giving birth women might not like the

49

changes that occurred in their bodies and might find that distressing (Walker, 1998). “

Returning to their old body shape and weight is difficult and not always achievable”

(Jenkin & Tiggemann, 1997). Many of the mothers used to take extensive care for their

appearance in the pre-pregnancy period and the thought that they’ll never look as before

is very stressful. The postpartum period is hard for women: they are happy to give birth

and have a child and meanwhile unhappy with the losses that this event brings to their

lives. (Nicholson, 1999). Mothers rely on different coping strategies to fight the excessive

weight. Some of them do sports, others use dieting, and still others learn to accept their

new body look and feel satisfied with their eating habits.

The postpregnancy period is connected with a down turn in dietary behaviors. Mothers

transit from nutritious and regular eating to totally unhealthy diet. The main factors are

work, friends, but mostly the child. As Patel (2005) also concludes from his research, it

might be difficult for mothers to establish regular eating habits as pregnancy brings

disruption to routine, sleep and mealtimes. Because of the demands of the infant they

may not have the same time as before, energy or freedom to utilize previous strategies for

weight control (Patel P. 2005). This leads to irregular eating and unhealthy diet for most

of the mothers under study.

Low income is a social factor, which is commonly associated with unhealthy eating (Finch, 2003). The limited financial resources of women may prevent them from providing healthy nutritional diet for the period of pregnancy (Berkowitz & Papiernik, 1993). Studies conducted by Rogers (1998) and Wynn (1994) show that low-income pregnant women often consume less fruits and vegetables and have a lower intake of lean sources of protein and whole grains—all comparatively high-cost foods. In our study, women report to have consumed lots of fresh fruits and vegetables, meat and rise during the pregnancy. Most of them are on a maternity leave and take advantage of the offered from the Government Child Kitchen. From the data can be seen

that some of the families are with low income, but they don’t report it as factor, which

50

affects their eating. No significant relationship was found between the income of the

respondents and their unhealthy diet at certain phases of the pregnancy.

“The conditions in which foods are chosen, the lives of the parents making the choices,

and the foods available to be chosen are constantly changing” (Devine C. 2005).

Significant social and economic trends, which affect the food choices include changes in

the conditions related with maternal employment and parental hours of employment

(Presser H.B., 1999; Bureau of Labor Statistics., 2005) and time spent preparing and

eating meals at home (Blisard N. et all 2002; Devine C.M. et all 2003; Jacobs J.A. et all

2001). The following study showed that after giving birth mothers are enormously busy

with children, work and household that they increase the consumption of unhealthy food

and meals, easy to prepare. Their diet becomes irregular. They also adopt habits to buy

take away and fast food for themselves, as well as for their children. Thus, the busier the

daily routine of the parents, the unhealthier is the diet of the whole family. Children were

also affecting the eating behavior of the mothers through the foods they were requesting.

Buying unhealthy products for their kids increased the cravings of the women for that

kind of food. In congruence with many researches, which show that marketing influences

parents’ eating habits, the following study couldn’t find a significant relationship between

it and the consumption of any kind of food.

The changes that occurred into mothers’ lives and were reported into the study can be

synthesized into the following:

- Women differentiate separate phases during the pregnancy as each one is

characterized by different eating habits and diet quality.

- Before pregnancy the biggest part of the women are highly cautious about the food

they are consuming and care a lot about their body shape and weight. Still their

eating habits cannot be defined as healthy and nutritious.

- The nine months of pregnancy are connected with transition to healthy eating. The

phase is considered the healthiest in diet and nutrition from the biggest part of the

mothers.

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- The symptoms of nausea and vomiting provoke drastic change in women’s diet.

Those who experience them pass to unhealthy and unvaried eating.

- During the breastfeeding period most of the mothers maintain a healthy diet

considering the fact that the baby is absorbing everything they are consuming.

- The examination of the daily routine of the mothers after the breastfeeding phase

shows that a total turn down occurs into their eating habits. It’s reported a transition

to unhealthy diet from most of the women. Factors, influencing these choices of

food are the child and the family, friends and work environment.

- The pregnancy brought both satisfaction and dissatisfaction with gained weight.

Half of the women under study, who didn’t accept the change in their body took

advantage of some coping strategies to fight the problem.

- Fast food is consumed by almost all of the women. Different factors affect their

choice for such kind of food. Among the most common are friends, children,

family, going out. Advertising is not considered an important factor, which can

influence women’s consumer behavior.

VII. Implications for research and practice

Additional research that draws on a life course perspective should be conducted. It should

examine the eating behavior and changes in diets in the long run. The transition to

motherhood is an important event and the outcomes of the change in the eating habits

should be seen. Chronic diseases, obesity, and other problems which arise with the

mother or the child in the long run should be studied (Olson C., 2005). A factor, which

was only mentioned, but has a significant impact over women’s eating habits and should

be a subject of another research, is low income.

Weight management is of a great importance for women. Therefore the topic should be

studied in depth. Eating disorders, obsessions for weight control and habitual overeating

during pregnancy might be of interest as such attitudes endanger the health of the baby.

52

The results of the following study have also implications for the practice. Transition to

motherhood is a sensitive event, which demands lots of knowledge about health and

nutrition. Pregnancy is a time, when mothers are closely connected with different

institutions and organizations, working in the particular sphere (Olson C., 2005). Thus, it

might be easier to advise women about healthy eating and proper weight gain during the

period. Mothers might need advises how to maintain regular and healthy diet in the

postpregnancy period or on the work place, as these were reported as factors extremely

affecting their healthy eating and body shape.

The results have also implications about weight management. Women are preoccupied

with child, work, household, which might lessen the time spend for body shape care and

sports. They might need more advises how to gain weight according to the

recommendations during pregnancy and how to lose properly in the postpregnancy

period. Food marketing can also contribute for that by offering healthy and low caloric

products, which are tasty for the mothers.

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IX. Appendix

1. Questionnaire

Questionnaire for healthy parents

Thank you for taking the time to fill in the questionnaire. The aim of the study is to look at how parents change their eating habits in regard to eating healthier or less healthy than before in the different stages they go through during pregnancy and kindergarten. It’s also looking to show what products and services do parents choose and what kinds of marketing communications affect their buying behaviour. The results might be used in the food marketing or help giving advice to future parents. Please answer the questions as honest as you feel comfortable to. Your answers will be treated with complete confidentially. The survey will take approximately one hour. Please return the filled in questionnaire on the same e-mail address.

Part 1 – today’s daily routine and food

1. Would you please shortly describe your daily routine- what you do at which time throughout the day on an average weekday?(If there is no “average day”, describe the most common day at the moment? Or explain why that is not possible. Answer only the questions that are applicable to you.)

When do you get up?      What do you do throughout the morning?      When do you leave the house?      

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Where do you go, and how? (Child-care? Work? Breaks? Shopping? Appointments? Sport? Eat-out? …)      What else do you do throughout the day?       When do you come back home?       What do you do throughout the evening? (Children? Work? Leisure time? …)      When do you go to bed?      

2. Would you please describe the food that you eat on a typical weekday at the moment. What kind of meals/snacks and drinks do you eat throughout the day. Please try to narrate it and give me a full picture of the situation – when you eat, where you eat, with whom you eat, how and why you do that, and how you feel like in that situation. (Give circular picture of day with hours as an aid)

Where, when, what, with whom and how you eat and drink for … and why in that way? - Breakfast - first and second?       throughout the morning: Break and Snack,      - Lunch,      throughout the afternoon: Break and Snack, maybe cake, fast food      - Dinner – (first with children, second after bringing children to bed)?      - Maybe snacking, maybe drinks in the evening      - How do you feel like, in this eating/drinking situations that you have described?      - Does the company of your family affect your eating habits? ( in a way that makes you eat more, try different kind of foods, eat less healthy foods?      

Part 2 – past’s diet and eating behavior

3. Would you please try to recall your diet and eating habits of the last years? Please think of what you usually ate and drank throughout the day, in the time before (your first) pregnancy and in the different stages of becoming a parent. If you try to compare that – what do you think has changed, and why? (Give time-line picture of becoming parent with phases and events as an aid)Answer only those questions which are applicable to you.

What were your diet and eating habits like, when:You did not have children (before pregnancy)?      You were pregnant?      - at the first three months of pregnancy/ during the symptoms of nausea and vomiting

     - later in pregnancy      Your (first) child was still a baby, drinking (breast-) milk?      Your (first) child ate food but had its own food (puree, baby-food from glasses)?      Your (first) child ate the same food as you?      You had your second child?      

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4. What else do you think has also led to changes in your own diet and eating habits in the last years?(Give picture of a parents´ surrounding as an aid, use subquestions to explain)

Which influence has for example brought a change?      How healthy and fit you are?      Your partner (e.g. his work and contribution to family life, his eating habits)      The support or influence of the extended family and friends/ family visits      Your work (as e.g. working hours and working environment)?      The child-care (as e.g. hours of child-care, the facilities, the time-frame and how it is organized)      Your home and the area where you live (space and equipment in home, recreational facilities, shopping facilities and centers near home)?      

Part 3 – healthiness of changes and today’s diet and eating habits

5. If you look at the different stages from when before you had a child and throughout all the stages of becoming a parent: when do you think that you have eaten in the healthiest, and when in the least healthy way?     

Part 4 – Satisfaction with today´s diet and eating habits

6. Please think about the diet and eating habits that you have at the moment. Are there things that you are unhappy and dissatisfied with, and are there other things that you are happy and satisfied with?Is there something that you dislike about the diet that you eat at the moment, or the way you eat food at the moment?       Are there things you would like to change?      Is there something that you like about the diet that you eat at the moment, or the way that you eat food at the moment?       Are there things that you are pleased with?      What coping strategies do you use to deal with some of the influences that becoming a parent had on your diet and eating habits?      

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7. Would you please describe how your weight/ body shape has changed during and after the pregnancy?       Do you feel satisfied with your body now?       If not, what strategies do you apply to change that?       Does the child prevent you from taking care for your own diet?      What kinds of food do you tend to avoid now in order to keep your body shape? What did you avoid during the pregnancy?      What kinds of food do you prefer now and during the pregnancy?      What do you think about the maxima – “eating for two”? Did you eat that way during your pregnancy?      

Part 5 – fast food marketing

8. Would you please describe what your attitude towards fast food is and do you regularly consume such kinds of food (sandwiches, hamburgers, pizza, chips, chocolate etc.)?       Does your craving for such foods increased during the pregnancy?      When, where, in what situations, with whom do you consume such kind of food?      

9. Would you describe what kinds of factors affect your food choices?       Does advertising affect your preferences or do children and family requests such kind of food.      Please shortly describe some advertising or situations not connected with the daily routine that made you break your diet.      

11. Personal questions

Age in years:

Age of each child in years:

Household-members, apart from yourself and child(ren):

Assessment of distribution of household tasks between yourself and partner (if) in percentage:

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Hours or work per week, you:

Hours or work per week, partner:

Hours of child-care per child (all regular arrangements, such as institutional child-care, babysitter and grandparents): Educational level, you:

Educational level, partner:

Occupation (or last position), you:

Occupation (or last position), partner:

Thank you very much for taking the time to complete the questionnaire. Please send it back to the following e-mail: svetoslava_ss@yahoo.com

If you have any other comments, please add them below:      

2. Contact list

Evgenia Kovacheva – bebo_sn@abv.bg

Cvetelina Uzunova – ceckauzunova@mail.bg

Emilia Yonkova – eyonkova@yahoo.com

Emilia Boneva – emi_ganeva@abv.bg

Stanislava Radeva – choki_@abv.bg

Velina Georgieva – velina_1984@abv.bg

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Marina Yordanova - mjstojanova435@gmail.comYovka Dimitrova - ilonessa@abv.bg;

Yana Boshkova – yana_boshkova@abv.bg;

Galena Ivanova- galena.80@abv.bg;

Daniela Stancheva - daniela_stancheva@yahoo.com;

Tanya Slavova - tanya23@abv.bg

Mariyana Stancheva - mariyana_85@mail.bg;

Neli - neli_kz@mail.bg

Tsveti Boicheva - tsveti_boicheva@yahoo.com;

Sonia Sarabqn- sonia_sr@abv.bg;

Zori - zoribori@gbg.bg

Tanq Karabelova - taidi@abv.bg

Tania Daneva - kreizito_tania@abv.bg

Elena Koleva - elis.k@abv.bg

Milena Dimitrova – mimikoserkata@abv.bg

Snezhka Popova-Koleva – snezhka@gbg.bg

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