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8/14/2019 Final OB Assgn

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PERSONALI

TYTHEORIES

OrganizationalBehaviour

Submitted by:Engr. Tayyaba & Engr.PakeezaB.sc Industrial engg &ManagementUniversity of Punjab


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PERSONALITY:

Most people use the term "personality "to identify the most obviouscharacteristic of a person or to refer to that person's social skills.Personality may be defined as:

The dynamic organization within an individual of thosesystems that determine his or her characteristic behaviorand thought.

According to this definition personality has following dimensions:

Organized

Active or changing

Unique

Stability is implied and There may be multiple causes of our behavior

PERSONALITY THEORIES:

Theories of personality organize what we do know,stimulate new research, and formally specify a viewof personality.

Psychologists are mainly interested in personality to:(1) Explain why people with similar heredity, experience, andmotivation may react differently in the same situation.

(2) Explain why people with different heredity, past experiences,and/or motivation may nevertheless react similarly in the samesituation.Which personality theory we're discussing largely determines how wedefine personality, what elements of personality are being emphasized,and what techniques of study will be applied.Personality theories have been divided into five groups:

i. Trait theoriesii. Psychoanalytic theoriesiii. Behavioral or social learning theoriesiv. Self-Growth theories

v. Modern big five theories

SUMMARIES OF PERSONALITY THEORIES:

BIOLOGICAL (OR TRAIT) THEORIES:William Sheldons Theory of Constitutional Psychology:

Sheldon in his theory proposed that body features might be used

to influence and thus predict certain features of personality.


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According to Sheldon each of us could be rated on a 7-point scaleas to the amount of each form represented in our body on threedifferent general forms of human physique identified by him.

He suggested that continuity, or a high correlation, exists

between physique and behavior.

Raymond B. Cattells Factor Theory:

Raymond B. Cattell relied on data collected from three sources

for the description and analysis of personality: a person's liferecord, self-ratings, and objective tests.

Through complex statistical analyses, Cattell identified major

personality factors both within individuals and across people ingeneral .e.g. outgoingreserved, stableemotional, suspicioustrusting etc.

Cattell distinguishes between surface traits, which areobservable patterns of behavior, and source traits, which heviewed as underlying, internal traits responsible for our overtbehavior; general traits -- those possessed by all -- andspecific traits -- those typical of only one person.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES:Sigmund Freuds Psychoanalytic Theory:

Sigmund Freud argued that we are not even aware of all the

forces controlling our behavior -- we are subject to unconsciousurges.

He established the iceberg model of the human mind. He

believed just like the greater part of an iceberg lies below thewater, the greater part of the human mind remains below thesurface of the conscious. He labeled the part of the mind abovethe water the conscious, and the parts below thepreconscious and unconscious. The conscious mind we areaware of, the preconscious mind we can be aware of by focusingon it and the unconscious remains a mystery.

Freud developed the concepts of the id, ego, and superego asseparate butinteracting systems. The id (the initial systempresent at birth) has to do with our most basic desires withoutany regard for the needs or concerns of others. The ego serves to

balance the demands of the id against those of the superego byrealistically assessing the limits imposed by the real world. Itserves an executive function to maximize the benefits to thewhole person. The superego being the last of the three todevelop is concerned completely with the good of society.

According to Freud, unconscious urges, forces of life, wealthof instincts (both life and death instincts which show a balance


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between aggression and a pursuit of pleasure) and experiencesof childhoodimpact our behavior.

Carl Jungs Theory of Analytical Psychology:

Carl Jung believed that we harbor within us not only our own

thoughts, but also what he called a collective unconscious. Thiswas viewed as the accumulated memories and urgings of thewhole human race, based on certain common elements of ourexperience. We each have parents, and we each experience a lifeof sunrises and sunsets, tragedies and celebrations, feasts anddeprivations.

Jung was interested in opposites. He gave the concepts of

introversion (a turning inward) and extraversion (a lookingoutward). For Him, the successful person can bring the opposingparts of his person (inclinations toward introversion andextraversion, among others) together.

Alfred Adlers Theory of Individual Psychology:

Alfred Adler assumed that since we have little control over our

life in childhood, we grow up feeling inferior.

The battle to overcome this feeling of inferiority becomes a style

of life. Those who fail to master the feelings of inferiority, or whoremain overly worried about it even when they have mastered it,are said to have developed an inferiority complex.

LEARNING THEORIES:Dollard and Miller's Stimulus-Response Theory:

Miller developed their theory of personality stressing the

importance of learning. A/c to them in order to learn one mustwant something, notice something, do something, and getsomething. Stated more exactly, these factors are drive, cue,response, and reward. We may be stimulated into action mainlyby primary drives such as hunger. Stimulus may also come toacquire drive-like properties & may cause behavior. Cues guideus & encourage us to respond.

Reinforcement is any response that reduces our drive level; it will

tend to occur again. We are likely to do again whatever response

reduces our hunger. They argue that our personality is based on our most recent

learning experiences. We change from day to day and month tomonth. Our personality, then, is composed of habits the learnedassociations between drives, appropriate cues, and responses.

B. F. Skinner and Personality as Behavior:


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For Skinner, nobody is "neurotic" we simply show a variety ofineffective modes of escape. We are not "frustrated"; we aresimply replacing one response with another. According toSkinner, much of our behavior, especially in the company ofothers -- involves freely emitted "operants" or responses. If an

operant is reinforced, Skinner asserts, we will be more likely toemit that operant in a similar situation.

We must learn stimulus generalization so that we will emit

responses to a variety of similar, if not identical, situations.Likewise, we must learn to stimulus discrimination i-e when toand when not to emit certainresponses. Skinner emphasizes theimportance of generalized reinforcers -- such things as moneyand social approval.

Bandura and Social Learning:

He suggested that environment causes behavior, true; but

behavior causes environment as well. He labeled this conceptreciprocal determinism: The world and a persons behaviorcause each other.

He established that there were certain steps involved in the

modeling process of learning. Attention: If you are going to learnanything, you have to be paying attention. Retention: you mustbe able to retain -- remember -- what you have paid attention to.Reproduction: You have to translate the images or descriptionsinto actual behavior. Motivation: And yet, with all this, youre stillnot going to do anything unless you are motivated to reproduce,i.e. until you have some reason for.

He believed that punishment is not the right way to motivate the

people and bring about the significant changes in the personality.Excessive punishment can de-motivate the people and it hasadverse effects on human psychic.

SELF-GROWTH THEORIES:Carl Rogers and Person-Centered Theory:

According to Rogers, "behavior is basically the goal-directed

attempt of the organism to satisfy its needs as experienced, inthe field as perceived. Rogar defines the organism as the focalpoint of all experience. The total of the experience is called the

phenomenal field. As a person grows from infancy to adulthoodand gains experience, what eventually emerges, as part of thephenomenal field, is the self.

Rogers assumes we each possess an inherited urge or need forself-actualization. This is thought to be a tendency to developand utilize all of our potential. We assess everything we do andassign a value, positive or negative, to it. If it feels good when we


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are doing it, or even thinking about it, then it is good and shouldbe done.

The final concept that is important in Rogers' theory is termed

unconditional positive regard, or acceptance. It causes us to seekacceptance, warmth, and love from the valued people in our life.

Maslow's Holistic Theory:

Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs basic needs and what

some have called "metaneeds." The basic needs are the needs ofhunger, affection, security, self-esteem, and self-actualizationneeds. Metaneeds refer to needs for goodness, order, unity,justice, and so forth. Clearly more than one of the metaneedsmay be operating at any given time.

One of Maslow's major contributions was to suggest that healthy

people might not simply be the opposite of sick people.According to him self-actualizing people will beoriented toward

reality accepting of self, of others, and of nature morespontaneous problem-centered (not self-centered) moredetached from others and desire more privacy self-sufficient andindependent.

A Modern Theory of Personality-Big Five:

This five-factor model of personality represents five core traits

that interact to form human personality which are: Openness,Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, andNeuroticism.

Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure,unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience.People who are open to experience are intellectually curious andsensitive to beauty. People with low scores on openness tend toprefer familiarity over novelty. They are conservative andresistant to change.Conscientiousness is a tendency to showself-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.Extraversion is characterized by positive emotions and thetendency to seek out stimulation and the company of others.They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less involved inthe social world.

Agreeableness is a tendency to be compassionate andcooperative rather than suspicious towards others. Disagreeableindividuals place self-interest above getting along with others.Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions,such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes calledemotional instability. Individuals who score low in neuroticismtend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistentnegative feelings.


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COMPARISON OF PERSONALITY THEORIES:

BIOLOGICAL (OR TRAIT) THEORIES:William Sheldons Theory of Constitutional Psychology:

Sheldon proposed that our personality totally depends on our

physique. He totally ignored the affect of childhood &environment on human, also the role of humans experience &learning on its personality.

Sheldons theory is limited by the problem that we cannot rate

someone's personality or behavior without seeing him or herbehave. The raters of behavior must also see the physique of thebody that is behaving. The measures and ratings are thusconfused in this theory.

His theory is not theoretical at all. Rather is empirical or data

oriented.

Raymond B. Cattells Factor Theory: Cattell concentrared on too many personality traits. Though his

theory is right to some extent in the aspect that our personalityis composed of many traits. But he didnt analyze that how thesetraits are developed in a person as discussed in the learning &self-growth theories.

In Raymond B. Cattells theory by collapsing so many data, the

individual person is lost in the process.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES:Sigmund Freud and Alfred Alders Theory:

Freud made us aware of two powerful forces and their demands

on us. Back when everyone believed people were basicallyrational, he showed how much of our behavior was based onbiology whereas Alder gave the wonderful concept of impact ofchildhood on personality.

Freud & Alder argued about our unawareness of all the forcescontrolling our behavior and placed too much emphasis onheredity and childhood experiences. They placed too little

emphasis on the role of daily experience in determining ourbehavior as in self-growth theories. Their theories seem to painta desolate picture of human and couldnt be easily tested inlaboratory.

Carl Jungs Theory of Analytical Psychology:

Carl Jung has explained the concept of unconscious better than

FREUD


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Jung tries to bring everything into his system. He has little roomfor chance, accident, or circumstances. Personality -- and life ingeneral -- seems "over-explained" in Jung's theory.

LEARNING THEORIES:

Dollard and Miller's Stimulus-Response Theory: Concept of personality -- id, ego, and superego -- of Freud's

Psychoanalytic theory is collapsed in Millers Learning theory intohabits. Freud's instincts become drives in this theory. WhereFreud emphasizes childhood experiences, the Dollar and Millerstress the effects of more recent experiences. Both thesetheories emphasize the long-term stability of the consequencesof past experience.

The issues of reinforcement are most controversial part of this

theory.

B. F. Skinner and Personality as Behavior: Skinner in his Learning theory rejects Freud's concept of

unconscious urges as excess baggage. He also rejects the mainbeliefs of self-growth theories because of too much appeal bythese theorists to internal, not-directly-observable processes.

Skinner doesnt have a proper theory of personality, not even a

(social-) learning of personality development. Yet the principlesof operant conditioning can be applied to the derivation ofstatements about hoe personality is formed and how it functions.

Bandura and Social Learning:

Albert Bandura concentrates on learning by observation whereas

skinner just concentrates on observable behaviors. On the otherhand, Dollard and Miller emphasize internal processes such asmotivation, drive, drive-reduction and reinforcement.

SELF-GROWTH THEORIES:Carl Rogers and Maslows Theories:

Rogers and Maslow clearly objected to studying only a portion ofhumans (as in trait, psychoanalytic and learning theories),preferring to consider humans as a whole, complete, healthy,

growing organism. Both Roger and Miller pay little attention to childhood

experiences or unconscious determinants of behavior.

The most common criticism concerns the methodology ofMaslow: Picking a small number of people that he himselfdeclared self-actualizing and coming to conclusions about whatself-actualization is in the first place does not sound like goodscience to many people. Also Maslow placed such constraints on


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self-actualization. Maslow limits it to something only two percentof the human species achieves.

The self-growth theories are descriptive, but not analytic. They

do not yield to precise prediction or test. In these theories theself is emphasized as opposed to having a broader social,

interactive, other-centered focus.

A MODERN THEORY OF PERSONALITY-BIG FIVE:

There are limitations to the scope of Big Five as an explanatory

or predictive theory. Big Five does not explain all aspects ofhuman personality such as Religiosity, Honesty,Thriftiness,Conservativeness, Snobbishness, Sense of humor, Identity, Self-concept, and Motivation.

Big Five is not theory-driven. It is merely a data-driveninvestigation of certain descriptors that tend to cluster together

under factor analysis.

CONCLUSION:The best theory according to us is BANDURAS SOCIAL LEARNINGTHEORYbecause:

Bundura had given the excellent approach towards the learning

process of people, their style of thinking, and the kinds ofreinforcement.

He believed that human being and his environment are inter-related with each other and they both have strong impact oneach of them.

He also gave the very good ideas about the reinforcement

models.

The most significant aspect of his theory is his concepts aboutpunishment & its adverse affects.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honestyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snobhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_identityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honestyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snobhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_identityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation

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