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The Chronology of Colonization in Remote Oceania

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PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2015. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: University of Auckland; date: 14 September 2015

Subject: Archaeology,ArchaeologyofOceaniaOnlinePublicationDate: Sep2015

DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199925070.013.010

TheChronologyofColonizationinRemoteOceania TimothyRiethandEthanCochraneTheOxfordHandbookofPrehistoricOceania(Forthcoming)EditedbyEthanCochraneandTerryHunt

OxfordHandbooksOnline

AbstractandKeywords

ColonizationofRemoteOceaniaresultedinthediscoveryofthousandsofislandsspreadacrossanenormousareaofthePacificOcean.Beginningasearlyasapproximately3500cal.B.P.inWesternMicronesia,populationsbegananexpansionwestwardeventuallysettlingEastPolynesiaovertwomillennialater.Althoughthisgeneralpatterniswell-established,thereliabilityofcolonizationchronologiesforparticularislandsandislandgroupsvariessignificantly.Thischaptersynthesizesandcritiquescurrentinterpretationsofradiocarbonandotherdatingestimatesforcolonizationofthemajorislandsacrosstheregionandprovidesrecommendationsforfutureresearchandchronologybuilding,highlightingthepotentialforBayesiananalyses.EstimatesforthecolonizationofHawai’iarepresentedasacasestudy.

Keywords:Bayesiananalyses,chronologybuilding,colonization,radiocarbon,RemoteOceania

ThecolonizationofRemoteOceania(Green1991a)—thevastoceanicregionbeyondPapuaNewGuineaanditsnearbyoffshoreislands—representsaheroicperiodofoceanicexplorationunprecedentedinprecedinghistory(seemapinCochraneandHuntessay).Thisprocessspansmillennia,beginninginWesternMicronesiabetween3500and2950cal.B.P.,withthelastmajorexpansionfillingEastPolynesiaapproximately800to1,000yearsago.Theaimofthischapteristosynthesizetheavailablearchaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentaldatarelatingtothetimingofcolonizationastheyarecurrentlyinterpreted.Inaddition,weofferaprogrammaticassessmentofgeographicalandcontextualdeficienciesandambiguitiesinthecurrentrecord.Aspartofthisassessment,wereviewthevaryingestimatesforthePolynesiancolonizationofHawai’iasacasestudy.WeconcludeourchapterbyidentifyingthetemporalpatternsofthehumancolonizationofRemoteOceaniaandofferrecommendationsforfutureresearch.Tobeclear,ourdiscussionofcolonizationonlyconcernstheearliestempiricalevidenceforahumanpresenceonanisland.

Ourchapterisorganizedintothreesections.ThefirstsectionintroducesthemethodscommonlyusedinPacificarchaeologytoestablishcolonizationchronologies.ThesecondsectionisaregionalrevieworganizedgenerallywesttoeastbeginningwithhumanmigrationbeyondthecircumNewGuineaIslandsandIslandSoutheastAsia.Whenapplicable,thePacificcultureregions(Melanesia,Micronesia,andPolynesia)areemployed,buttheprimarystructureofourpresentationisthevarioustimingsofpopulationmovementsthatoftenoccurredcontemporaneouslyacrosstheseareas.ThethirdsectionpresentsHawai’iasacasestudythatoffersdirectionandcautionsforOceaniaasawhole.Ourconcludingsectionsuggestsfuturedirectionsforthedevelopmentofisland,archipelago,andregionalchronologies.

Introduction

Pacificarchaeologistswereearlyadoptersofthenascentradiocarbondatingtechniqueinthe1950s,beginningwithEmory’sexcavationinHawai’i(Libby1951)andGifford’sresearchinFiji(Gifford1951).Overthelastsixtyyears,thousandsofradiocarbonandotherradiometricdateshavebeengeneratedacrossRemoteOceania,ifinanunevendistribution.Islandsandarchipelagoswithrobustculturalpreservationlawsandsignificantdevelopment,suchasNewZealand,Hawai’i,andGuam,haveproducedthelion’sshareoftheseresults,whiletheabsolutechronologyofcertainsmaller,moreremoteislandsisbasedonahandfulofdates.Regardlessoftheunevenspreadofradiometricdatesacrosstheregion,thegeneralpatternofwesttoeastcolonizationhasbeenwell-establishedformanyyears(Kirch2000).Thetempoofthiswesttoeastpattern,aswellasanumberofsmallerback-migrations(i.e.,thePolynesianoutliers),appearstobeepisodicandpulse-likeinnature(Andersonetal.2006;Wilmshurstetal.2011).Aswewillshow,withinthisgenerallyaccuratechronologicalframework,Pacificarchaeologistscontinuetorefinetheprecisionoftemporalestimates.

Currently,radiocarbondatingisemployedalmostsolelyasthemethodfordevelopingabsolutecolonizationrecordsinthePacific.Althoughotherradiometricdatingtechniques,suchasU/Th( Th)dating(e.g.,Burleyetal.2012)andopticallystimulatedluminescence(e.g.,ClarkandAnderson2009),havebeenusedonalimitedbasis,relativelyhighercosts,constraintsonsamplesorsamplecollection,andalimitednumberoflaboratoriesprovidingtheseanalysespresentlyhampertheirwiderapplication.Temporallysensitiveartifactformsorstylesandfaunalassemblagesdocumentingtheexploitationofpristineenvironmentshavebeenusedforrelativechronologies,alongwithmodelingofcoastalgeomorphologytoidentifyancientshorelinesandbeachfeaturesaspotentialinitialcolonizationlocales.

Twoissuesareinvolvedinradiocarbonsampleselection:samplecontextandsamplematerial(Waterbolk1971;seealsoAllenandHuebert2014;RiethandAthens2013;Taylor1987).Documentingthecontextofapotentialsamplealsoentailsunderstandingthefactorsaffectingitsprovenience.Thisisessentialsincethedatedevent(cessationoftheuptakeof Cbyanorganism)mustbelogicallylinkedtothetargetevent(eventofarchaeologicalinterest).Thepotentialforintrusivematerialintroducedbyburrowinganimals,redepositionthroughwaveactivity,colluvialmasswasting,orothernaturalandculturalactivitiesmustbeevaluated.Contextuallysecuresamplesshouldbeselectedthathaveaminimalinbuiltage(McFadgen1982),suchasshort-livedplantsandplantparts(e.g.,seeds)andcertainmarineshells.Thecalibrationofmarineshellandbonecollagenwithamarinedietaryinfluencerequiresfurtherconsiderations(RiethandAthens2013).Essentiallyoneneedstoknowwhereasampleiscomingfrom,howitrelatestothearchaeologicalevent,andwhetheritcanprovideareliableage.

Onceradiocarbonageshavebeenobtainedandcalibratedtocalendricalyears,fourapproacheshavebeenusedbyPacificarchaeologistsforestimatingthetimingofcolonization(seealsoBaylissetal.2007).Thefirstapproachacceptstheoldestcalibratedradiocarbondate(s)fromanisland

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orarchipelagoasrecordingtheageofcolonization.Thiswastheearliestmethodemployedforinterpretingradiocarbondeterminations,anditremainsacommon,ifimplicit,method.Thesecondapproach,reliesonachronometrichygieneprotocoltoexplicitly,yetsubjectively,removedatesfromconsiderationthatmaybeproblematicbasedonprovenience,association,orsampletype(SpriggsandAnderson1993).Thisapproachwasinitiallyadvocatedinthe1990sandhascontinuedinusetothepresent.Thethirdapproachisderivativeofchronometrichygiene,butinsteadofsimplyremovingdatesfromconsideration,alldatesareclassifiedbasedoncriteriadesignedtomeasurereliability(thatis,likelyaccuracyrelativetotargeteventandprecision)basedoncontext,samplematerial,andtheradiocarbonerrorestimate.Theresultingpoolofhighreliabilitydates,anddatesofotherreliabilityclasses,canbeevaluatedinanumberofways,andrecentstudieshaveusedsummedprobabilities(Wilmshurstetal.2011;Riethetal.2011).Lastly,thefourth,andmostrecent,approachisaBayesianmodel-basedmethod(Athensetal.2014;Denhametal.2012;Dye2011).Thisapproachstructuresradiocarbondatabasedonpriorknowledgesuchasstratigraphicandotherrelationshipsthatproviderelativeorabsolutetemporallimits(Bucketal.1996).

Inparallelwithanyoftheseapproaches,archaeologistsmayemployimplicitorexplicitmodelsforthehumancolonizationofislandswheninterpretingabsolutedatingresults.Theseoftenrangefrommorecommon-sense-typemodels(GravesandAddison1995)tomodelsbasedonbehavioralecology(Kennettetal.2006).

Inthesubsequentsection,wepresentislandandarchipelagocolonizationsummarieswithreferencetotheissuesdescribedabove.Whenavailable,wealsoreferencepaleoenvironmentalstudiesthatprovideindependentestimatesfortheonsetofhumanactivities.Thesummariesgenerallyrelyonpublishedpresentationsoftheoldestradiocarbonresults(thefirstapproachabove),althoughwedoreferencealternativestatisticalestimateswhenavailable.Assuch,itisimportanttonotethatmanyofthesedaterangesshouldbeviewedasapproximationsthatshouldberefinedthroughstatisticalmodelling,ideallyusingBayesiancalibrationmethods.Weintentionallypresentcalibratedranges(attwosigmaunlessotherwisenoted)ratherthantheearliestdatewithinadistributionasthecolonizationage.Withoutfurtherstatisticalanalysis,themostappropriateinterpretationisthatcolonizationoccurredsometimewithinthecalibrateddistribution(seeBaylissetal.2007:8–9).Wedonotincludespeculativeestimatesforcolonizationthatlackradiometricsupport.

Table1providesthecurrentcolonizationestimatesforislandsandarchipelagosdiscussedinthischapteralongwithnotationsonthereliabilityofthedatingsamplesandcorroboratingevidence,ifany.

Table1Colonizationestimatesformajorislands/archipelagoswithnotationsoncorroboratinglinesofevidence

Island/Group ColonizationDate

CorroboratingDates?

ReliableSamples?

EarlyDiag.Artifacts?

EarlyFaunalAssem.?

SupportingPaleoenviron.Data?

Sources

MarianaIslands

3550–2950cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.charcoal;short-livedtaxacharcoal;marineshell

Yes No Discordant Summary:Carson(2014);Athensetal.(2004)

Reef/SantaCruzIslands

3275–2700cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.charcoal;issueswithdeltaR

Yes Unreported — Green(1991b);Greenetal.(2008)

Vanuatu 3200–3000cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.charcoal;marineshell

Yes Unreported — Bedfordetal.(2006)

NewCaledonia 3050–3000cal.B.P.

Yes Mostlyunident.charcoal

Yes Possibly — Sand(2001)

Fiji 3130–3010cal.B.P.(older),3010–2870cal.B.P.(younger)


Yes Yes Agreement Hopeetal.(2009);Summaries:Denhametal.(2012);NunnandPetchey(2013)

Palau 3100–2900cal.B.P.


Yes No Discordant AthensandWard(2001);Clarketal.(2006);Liston(2005,2013)

Tonga 2846–2830B.P.(Nukuleka),2850–2750

Yes coralabraders(U/Th);unident.

Yes Yes Agreementwithsea-levelchangeandcoastalgeomorphology)

BurleyandConnaughton(2007);Burleyetal.


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2850–2750cal.B.P.

unident.charcoal;short-livedtaxacharcoal;marineshell

Burleyetal.(1999,2001,2012)

Sāmoa 2800–2400cal.B.P.


Yes Yes — Cochraneetal.(2013);KirchandHunt(1993);Petchey(2001)

Futuna 2300–2200cal.B.P.

No Unident.charcoal

Yes No — Kirch(1981)

Chuuk 2300–1750cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.charcoal;short-livedtaxacharcoal

Yes Unreported — Shutler(1984)

Niue 2000–1600cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.charcoal

No No — WalterandAnderson(2002)

Yap 2000–1700cal.B.P.

Yes Marineshell;unreportedmaterial

Yes Unreported Discordant IntohandLeach(1985);Takayama(1982)

Kosrae 2100–1750cal.B.P.


Yes No Paleoenviron.evidencefordisturbancepost-datestheearliestarchaeologicaldatesby~500years

Athens(1995)

Kiribati(GilbertIslands)

2150–1750cal.B.P.

Yes Short-livedtaxacharcoal

No No — DiPiazza(1999)

MarshallIslands

2000–1600cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.charcoal;short-livedtaxacharcoal;marineshell;foraminfera

No Yes Agreementwithsea-levelchangeandatollemergence/geomorphology

Beardsley(1994);Riley(1987);Weisler(1999,2001);Weisleretal.(2012)

Pohnpei 1900–1700cal.B.P.


Yes No — Athens(1990);Galipaud(2000)

Rotuma 1300–1050cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.charcoal;ratbone;humanbone

No No — Ladefogedetal.(1998)

SocietyIslands

960–800cal.B.P.


Yes Possibly Slightlydiscordant AndersonandSinoto(2002);Kahn(2012);Wilmshurstetal.(2011);Parkes(1997)

Marquesas 950–750cal. Yes Unident. Yes Yes — Allen(2004);


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Marquesas 950–750cal.B.P.


Yes Yes — Allen(2004);AllenandMcAllister(2010,2013);AndersonandSinoto(2002);Conte(2002);ConteandAnderson(2003);Rollett(1998);RollettandConte(1995)

Tuvalu 1070–770cal.B.P.

Yes Unreported Unreported Unreported — Dickinsonetal.(1990)

SouthernCookIslands

900–680cal.B.P.


Yes Yes Discordant(Atiu) AllenandMorrison(2013);AllenandWallace(2007);Kirchetal.(1995);Parkes(1997)

AustralIslands 850–750cal.B.P.(Rapa),670–550cal.B.P.(Rurutu)


Yes Yes Yes(Rapa) Bollt(2008);Kennettetal.(2012);PrebbleandAnderson(2012)

TuamotuIslands

~1,100–770cal.B.P.

No Unreported;unident.charcoal

No No Unreported Chazine(1985);Hatanakaetal.(1978)

Hawai’i 950–850cal.B.P.


No Unreported Yes Athensetal.(2014)

PitcairnGroup 950–730cal.B.P.


No Yes — Weisler(1995)

Mangareva 920–660cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.charcoal;short-livedtaxacharcoal;landsnailshell;birdbone

Yes Yes — Andersonetal.(2003);GreenandWeisler(2002);Kirchetal.(2010)

LineIslands 800–500cal.B.P.


No No — Andersonetal.(2000,2002);DiPiazzaandPearthree(2001)

RapaNui 750–700cal.B.P.


No No Agreementwithsomeanalyses

HuntandLipo(2006);Mannetal.(2008);Mulrooney(2013)


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Tokelau 750–550cal.B.P.


No Unreported — Petcheyetal.(2010)

PhoenixGroup(Kiribati)

750–500cal.B.P.


No No — DiPiazzaandPearthree(2004)

NewZealand 720–670cal.B.P.

Yes Short-livedtaxacharcoal;eggshell;rat-gnawedseeds

Yes Yes Yes Highametal.(1999);McGloneandWilmshurst(1999);Wilmshurstetal.(2008)

AucklandIslands

750–700cal.B.P.


No No — Anderson(2005)

NorfolkIsland 700cal.B.P. Yes Unident.charcoal;short-livedtaxacharcoal

No No — Andersonetal.(2001)

KermadecIslands

650–550cal.B.P.

Yes Short-livedcharcoal

Yes Yes — HighamandJohnson(1997)

NorthernCookIslands

550–300cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.material

Yes Unreported — Chikamori(1998);ChikamoriandYoshida(1988)

ChathamIslands

450–400cal.B.P.

Yes Unident.charcoal;marineshell

No Yes — McFadgen(1994)

Note:Columnheadingsreferencethefollowing:CorroboratingDatesaredatesinstratigraphicsequenceordatesofcomparableagefromthesameorotherdepositsontheisland/archipelago.EarlyDiagnosticArtifactsaretemporallydiagnosticartifactformsorstyles;formanyislandstheremaynotbeanestablishedtemporallysensitivematerialculturesequence.EarlyFaunalAssemblagesareextinctavifaunaorothertaxa;documenteddiminishmentinpreysize,abundance,ordiversitythatmayrelatetoexploitationofpristinecommunities.SupportingPaleoenvironmentalDataarepaleoenvironmentalcoringorcoastalgeomorphologicalinvestigationsorreconstructions.Thetableisorganizedinageneralchronologicalsequencefromoldesttoyoungestcolonizationdate.

RegionalReview

BeyondNearOceania:PopulationExpansiontotheMarianaIslandsandIslandMelanesia(3500–2700cal.B.P.)

Clicktoviewlarger

Figure1 Close-upofthewesternportionofRemoteOceaniawiththecurrentcolonizationestimatespresented(cal.B.P.)


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AftermillenniainIslandSoutheastAsiaandNearOceania,multiplepopulationsinitiatedmigrationsfurtherintothePacificbetweenapproximately3500and2700cal.B.P.(Figure1).Oncurrentdata,colonizationoftheMarianaIslandsislargelycontemporaneouswiththeearliestLapitapotterydepositsinMussauneartheBismarckArchipelago(Denhametal.2012;cf.CarsonandKurashina2012;Carson2014).Duringthesubsequent~500years,groupscontinuedtoexpandintheSouthernHemispherereachingasfarasFiji,andintheNorthernHemispheresettlingPalau.

MarianaIslandsColonizationoftheMarianaIslandsbetween3500and2950cal.B.P.isattestedbyradiocarbondatesfrommultiplelocationsacrossthearchipelago(CarsonandKurashina2012;Carson2014;seealsoFitzpatrickessay),althoughCarsonarguesforaslightlyearlierdate(cf.Clarketal.2010).Pre-2950cal.B.P.dateshavebeenobtainedfromGuam,Saipan,andTinian(seeCarson2014:table4.1).Theredundancyofthissuiteofdateshasbeenusedasanimplicitmeasureofaccuracyforthecolonizationestimate,thoughnostatisticalanalyseshavebeenundertaken.Earlypotteryformsandstylesareassociatedwiththesedates,althoughrobustfaunalcollectionsarelacking.Anoutstandingissue,however,forestablishingthetimingofthecolonizationoftheMarianaIslandsisthesignificantdiscrepancybetweenpaleoenvironmentalestimatesat~4300cal.B.P.(Athensetal.2004)andthearchaeologicalrecord.

InitialLapitaExpansionintoRemoteOceaniaThemovementofpopulationswithLapitapotteryintoRemoteOceania,includingtheSoutheastSolomonIslands(Reef/SantaCruzIslandsandTaumako),Vanuatu,andNewCaledoniaisfairlyrapid(cf.Terrell’sessay).ColonizationoftheReef/SantaCruzIslandswaspossiblybetween3150and2950cal.B.P.(Green1991b),althoughrecentworkbySheppardetal.(2015)suggestsadateolderthan3000cal.B.P.isveryunlikely.Taumakowaslikelysettledshortlythereafter(LeachandDavidson2008).ColonizationofVanuatuappearstohavebeennearlycontemporaneousbetween3200and3000cal.B.P.(Bedfordetal.2006),althoughDenhametal.(2012)estimatecolonizationofVanuatubetween~3250and3100cal.B.P.(68.2%highestposteriordensity[HPD]region)usingaBayesiancalibrationmodel.ExpansiontoNewCaledoniatothesouthwestandFijidueeastoccurredwithinseveralgenerationsofVanuatu’scolonization.Sand(2001)calculatesLapitacolonizationacrossmostofNewCaledoniabeginning~3050to3000cal.B.P.

RecentestimatesfortheLapitacolonizationofFijivaryatextremesby~250years,beingslightlyyoungerthanNewCaledonia.IntheirreviewofalargesuiteofLapita-associatedradiocarbondates,ClarkandAnderson(2009)suggestcolonizationbetween~3050and2950cal.B.P.,whileDenhametal.(2012)useasmallersubsetofdatesintheirBayesiancalibrationthatestimatescolonizationbetween3130and3010cal.B.P.(68.2%HPD).UsingadifferentlystructuredBayesianmodel,NunnandPetchey(2013)estimate~3010and2870cal.B.P.(68.2%HPD)fortheMatanamuanidepositonNaiganiIsland(Irwinetal.2011),whichtheyconsidertobetheoldestsecurelydateddepositinthearchipelago.Theysuggestthatolderestimatescanbeattributedtoinbuiltageofunidentifiedwoodcharcoaldatingsamples(NunnandPetchey2013:30).MostFijianpaleoenvironmentalsequencesareconsistentinsupportofhumanindicatorsbetween3100and2700cal.B.P.(Hopeetal.2009).

FurtherExpansioninWesternMicronesiaThecolonizationofPalauinWesternMicronesia(Clarketal.2006;Liston2005;andseeFitzpatrickessay)isgenerallyconcurrentwithLapitacolonizationofNewCaledoniaandFiji.TheearliestknownculturaldepositisfromUlongIsland,anupraisedlimestoneislandtothesouthofthemainvolcanicislandofBabeldaob.TheUlongdepositprovidesmultipledatesforinitialoccupationby~3100‒2900cal.B.P.(Clarketal.2006).SeveraldatesfromuplandlocationsonBabeldaobhavecomparablecalibratedages,relatingtoanthropogenicburning,earthworkconstructionfilland,morerarely,occupationdeposits(Liston2005,2013).Theseestimateshavereliedonreviewsoftheoldestradiocarbondatesandchronometrichygieneassessments.AswiththeMarianas,theearliestarchaeologicaldatesarediscordantwithpaleoenvironmentalevidencethatsuggestscolonizationby~4,300cal.B.P.(AthensandWard2001).

FinalLapitaExpansion:TongaandSāmoa(2850‒2700cal.B.P.)

ThecolonizationchronologyforTongaisrobustandbasedonnumerousradiocarbonandU/Thseriesdates(BurleyandConnaughton2007;Burleyetal.1999,2001,2012).MultiplelinesofevidenceindicateaninitialLapitalandfallonNukuleka(Burleyetal.2010)andthedatingprecisionofthiseventisimpressiveanduniquefortheregion,withaU/Thdateofacoralabraderestimatingcolonizationbetween2846and2830B.P.(Burleyetal.2012).Generallycomparableoverlappingageshavebeenobtainedthroughoutthearchipelagoindicatingrapidandsystematicexplorationfromsouthtonorth(seeBurleyandAddisonessay).

LapitacolonizationofSāmoaiscertain,althoughcurrentevidenceisforalimitedhumanpresenceinthearchipelagountil~2500cal.B.P.(BurleyandAddisonessay;Cochraneetal.2013;Riethetal.2008).Mulifanua,asubmergeddepositoffofthewesterntipof‘UpoluIsland,istheonlydepositwithdentate-stampedLapitaceramics.Fourdateshavebeenobtainedforthedeposit,severalofwhichareproblematicfordifferentreasons,leadingPetchey(2001)tosuggest2880‒2750cal.B.P.(68%)asthemostlikelyagebasedonthecombinedprobabilitiesoftwodates.AlthoughPolynesianplainwaredepositsarerelativelynumerousacrossthearchipelago,additionalLapitadepositsremainelusive.

Post-LapitaColonizationintheSoutheastSolomonIslands(3000‒2400cal.B.P.)

TikopiaandAnutaarePolynesianoutliers(seeFeinbergandScaglion2012)withintheSoutheastSolomonIslandsthatweresettledbyLapita-associatedpopulationsmillenniabeforethedevelopmentofAncestralPolynesiaculture(KirchandGreen2001).Potteryispresent,butdentate-stampeddecorationandthesuiteofLapitavesselformsarelacking.TheearliestdepositsonTikopiadateto~3000‒2450cal.B.P.(basedontheoldestdates)andareassociatedwithearlyceramictypes,shelladzeforms,shellornaments,andfaunalassemblagescharacteristicoftheexploitationofpristineenvironments(KirchandYen1982).TheAnutasequenceissimilarwiththeoldestdatefromthebasalstratumcalibratingto3250‒2780B.P.,withtwootherdatesfromthedeposityoungerbyseveralcenturiesat2790‒2350cal.B.P.(KirchandRosendahl1973).Datesfrombothislandsarefromunidentifiedcharcoalandaremeasured,ratherthanconventional,radiocarbonages.

TheCentralPacific

ThissectionsummarizesthecolonizationhistoriesofthesmallerislandsofWestPolynesiaandcentralMicronesia.Toasubstantialdegree,theseislands,particularlytheWestPolynesianislandsnearTongaandSāmoa,havebeensubjecttoalimiteddegreeofinvestigation.Therefore,thesechronologiesmaybesubjecttothegreatestamountofrevisionwithfutureresearch.


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SmallIslandsofWestPolynesiaTheinfillingofthesmallerislandsofWestPolynesiaoccurredinthreeperiods.TheearliestdatesforUvea(alsocalledWallis)are3720‒2780cal.B.P.onunidentifiedcharcoalinalayeratthesiteofUtupoathatcontainsceramicswithsimpleLapitadecorations(Frimigacci2000;Sand1998)and2800‒2450cal.B.P.onTridacnasp.atthesiteofUtulevefromalayerwithsimilarceramics(Sand1998).GiventhepresenceofceramicswithsimpleLapitadecorationsatthesesites,itislikelytheywerecolonizedatapproximatelythesametimeasSāmoa.Incontrast,Futuna’sabsolutechronologyisbasedontwodatesfromunidentifiedcharcoalsuggestingcolonization500ormoreyearslater,byatleast~2300‒2000cal.B.P.(Kirch1981).TheprobablecolonizationofNiueislaterstill,~2000‒1600cal.B.P.(WalterandAnderson2002),althoughmostoftheavailabledateshavelargeerrorrangesresultinginimprecisecalibrationestimates.Thearchaeologicalrecordoftheislandisaceramic,unlikeUveaandFutuna.

ThelowislandsofWestPolynesiaweresettledpotentiallyamillenniumaftertheinitialinfillingoftheregionandrepresentcontinuedexplorationoftheregion.Theseislandsarepoorlydated,withrecentresearchinTokelauasanexception(Petcheyetal.2010).ColonizationofRotumaby~1300‒1050cal.B.P.issuggestedbyalimitednumberofradiocarbondatesfromceramic-bearingdeposits(Ladefogedetal.1998).Pottery-bearingdepositsonTuvaluhavebeendated~1070‒770cal.B.P.(Dickinsonetal.1990).TheRotumaandTuvaludatesrequirefurthercorroborationsincetheywereobtainedfromunidentifiedwoodcharcoal,orinthecaseofTuvalu,unidentifiedmaterial.TokelauhasamorerobustsuiteofdateswiththeearliestagesfromFakaofo,Atafu,andNukunonoat750‒550cal.B.P.(Petcheyetal.2010).

TheCaroline,Marshall,andGilbert(Kiribati)IslandsDatesfortheinitialcolonizationofYap(IntohandLeach1985;Takayama1982),Chuuk(Shutler1984),Kosrae(Athens1995),andPohnpei(Athens1990andthisvolume;Galipaud2000)arefairlyconsistentatabout2100‒1700cal.B.P.Theseestimatesarebasedononeorafewoldestdateswithoutstatisticalanalyses.Althougheachislandhasmultiplecorroboratingdates,mostwereobtainedfromunidentifiedcharcoal,orinthecaseofYaparedatesfrommarineshellwithpotentialinbuiltageorfromunreportedmaterial.Paleoenvironmentalcoringstudieshaveeitherfailedtoidentifythetypicalcolonizationsignature(AthensandStevenson2012forPohnpei)orsuggestcolonizationsignificantlypre-datingtheearliestarchaeologicalevidence(DodsonandIntoh1999forYap).

Colonizationofatleastsomeofthelowislandsofthisregion,namelyNikunau(2150‒1750cal.B.P.[DiPiazza1999])withinKiribati,andUtrōk(~1900‒1800cal.B.P.[Weisler2001;Weisleretal.2012]),Maloelap(~2050‒1850cal.B.P.[Weisler1999;Weisleretal.2012]),Kwajalein(2070‒1700cal.B.P.[Beardsley1994]),andMajuro(~2000‒1600cal.B.P.[Riley1987])withintheMarshallIslands,isgenerallycontemporaneouswiththehighislands(andisalsobasedonareviewoftheoldestdateswithoutfurtheranalyses).DatessuggestingsettlementofBikiniAtollasearlyas3000cal.B.P.(Streck1990)appeartorelatetolargeinbuiltage,consideringthatestimatesforthetimingofatollformation(Weisleretal.2012)indicatethatatleastsomeatollsonlyformedandstabilizedbetween~3000and2000cal.B.P.Dickinson’s(2009)calculationofsea-leveldrawdownandstabilizationoftheatollsinthisregionissubstantiallylater.

ColonizationofNukuoroandKapingamarangi,PolynesianoutlierswithintheCarolineIslands,wassignificantlylater.TheoldestdatesfromNukuorowereobtainedfromdogteeth,whichatfacevaluesuggestcolonizationby~1000cal.B.P.(Davidson1992).However,thesedatesareproblematicfortworeasons:one,itisunclearwhatpretreatmentmethodwasusedforcollagenextraction,andtwo,noisotopicmeasurementswerecalculatedandthedegreethatamarinecalibrationcurveisnecessary(duetoapartialmarine-baseddiet)isunknown.Kapingamarangiisabitmorereliablydatedat~750‒550cal.B.P.,althoughthesedateswereobtainedfromunidentifiedwoodcharcoalandorganicsfrombulksoilsamples(LeachandWard1981).

EastPolynesia

Clicktoviewlarger

Figure2 Close-upoftheeasternportionofRemoteOceaniawiththecurrentcolonizationestimatespresented(cal.B.P.)

ExpansionintoEastPolynesiarepresentsthelastmajorpopulationthrustinOceania(Figure2).Thistriangularregion,withverticesatNewZealand(Aotearoa),Hawai’i,andRapaNui,hasgarneredthemajorityofarchaeologicalresearchinthePacificandhasthegreatestcorpusofradiometricdates.EstimatesofthetimingofPolynesiancolonizationhavevariedsignificantlyduringthelastseveraldecades,largelyreflectingchangesinthesophisticationofradiocarbondatingtechnologyandarchaeologists’analysesandinterpretationsoftheseresults.Althoughstillanactivetopicofdebate,mostresearcherswouldagreethatinitialcolonizationfromWestPolynesiabeganaround950‒1000cal.B.P.withmostoftheregioncolonizedby700‒750cal.B.P.(AllenandKahn2010;Mulrooneyetal.2011;Wilmshurstetal.2011;forslightlyearlier,butoverlappingestimates,seeKirch2010andKirchandKahn2007).

CentralEastPolynesiaTheCookIslandsareatthewesternmarginofCentralEastPolynesiaandmaybeexpectedtohavetheearliestcolonizationhistoryfortheregion.Recentradiocarbondates(severalfromshort-livedplantparts)andtheapplicationofaBayesianmodel-basedchronologyestimateanageof~900‒680cal.B.P.fortheearliestevidenceofuseoftheMoturakaurockshelterand700‒530cal.B.P.fortheinitialoccupationoftheUreiasite,Aitutaki(AllenandMorrison2013;AllenandWallace2007).MultipledatessuggestcontemporaneouscolonizationofMangaia(Kirchetal.1995),althoughnoneofthedatesaresolelyfromidentifiedshort-livedplanttaxa.Withtheexclusionofanomalouslyolddates,theearliestagesfromthenorthernCookIslandsarelater,between~550and300cal.B.P.(Chikamori1998;ChikamoriandYoshida1988;Chikamorietal.1995).TheearlyendoftheMoturakausequenceistwohundredyearsolderthanWilmshurstetal.’s(2011)estimateof700‒669cal.B.P.forthesouthernCookIslands.

IntheAustralIslands,archaeologicalinvestigationshaveproducedradiocarbondatesforRurutuandRapa.Bollt(2008)obtainedasuiteofdatesfrom


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Peva,Rurutu,suggestingcolonizationby670‒550cal.B.P.,basedonunidentifiedwoodcharcoalsamples.UsingaBayesianmodel,Kennettetal.(2012)estimateinitialcolonizationofRapabetween~1150and650cal.B.P.(95%HPD),withthegreatestprobabilitybetween~850and750cal.B.P.(68.2%HDP).Withoneexception,thedatesusedinthismodelarefromunidentifiedcharcoal.Theseresultsaregenerallyconsistentwiththepaleoenvironmentalsequence(PrebbleandAnderson2012).

EventhoughtheSocietyIslandsarecentrallylocatedinEastPolynesiaandconsistofrelativelylargeislands,datingtheinitialcolonizationoftheSocietyIslandsisstillplaguedwithuncertainty.Wilmshurstetal.(2011:supplementalmaterial)listaseriesofpreviouslyunpublished,reliabledatesfortheSocietyIslandsthatgenerallycalibratebetween~960and800cal.B.P.(~925‒830cal.B.P.basedontheirsummedprobabilityanalysis);nospecificprovenienceinformationisprovided.Kahn’s(2012)recentsingledatefromMo’oreaissomewhatyounger,providinganageof900‒685cal.B.P.fortheearliestarchaeologicalevidencefromthatisland.Theseresultsareslightlydiscordant,about200‒250yearsyoungerthanParkes’s(1997)paleoenvironmentalrecordforpresumedhumandisturbancefromLakeTemae,Mo’orea.Improvedprecisioninthedatingoffuturepaleoenvironmentalsequencesmayrectifythisdiscrepancy.AlthoughLepofskyetal.’s(1992)datesonanaerobicallypreservedcoconutsareradiometricallyreliable,thepre-humanpresenceofcoconutinthearchipelago(Parkes1997)makesanassociationbetweenthesedatesandhumancolonizationuncertain.AndersonandSinoto(2002)suggestasimilarageasMo’orea(~900‒500cal.B.P.)forVaito’otia-Fa’ahia,Huahine,basedonaseriesofdatesfrommarineshellsamples.

AcrosssoutheasternPolynesia—Mangareva,thePitcairnGroup,andRapaNui—relativelyconsistentchronologieshavebeenproposed.FortheMangarevaIslands,basalculturaldepositsonKamakaIslandhavebeendatedto~900‒660cal.B.P.usingunidentifiedwoodcharcoal(GreenandWeisler2002)withayoungerageof~800‒670cal.B.P.fromRikitea,MangarevaIsland(Andersonetal.2003).Morerecently,Kirchetal.(2010)obtaineddatesfromdifferentsamplematerialsrecoveredfromtheearliestportionoftheOnemeaculturaldeposits,TaravaiIsland.Theoldestdateonshort-livedcharcoalis~920‒750cal.B.P.DatesfromProcellariidaeboneandpulmonatemolluscshells(Polynesian-introducedspecies)provideacalibratedrangeoveracenturyolderat~1050‒810cal.B.P.MultipledatesfromunidentifiedcharcoalprovidecomparableagesforHendersonIslandinthePitcairnGroup(Weisler1995).Wilmshurstetal.(2011)estimatedcolonizationofMangarevabetween~840and675cal.B.P.basedonthreeofKirchetal.’s(2010)dates.

TheMarquesansequencehasseenrevisiontowardayoungercolonizationagesinceSuggs’s(1961)seminalresearch.Are-evaluationoftheregionalchronologybySpriggsandAnderson(1993),renewedfieldworkatHa’atuatuaandHane(AndersonandSinoto2002;RollettandConte1995),andnewresearchacrossthearchipelago(Allen2004;AllenandMcAllister2010,2013;Conte2002;ConteandAnderson2003;Rollett1998)hasproducedestimatesforcolonizationbetween950and750cal.B.P.basedonassessmentsoftheoldestradiocarbondates.PossibleearliercolonizationatHa’atuatua(RollettandConte1995)requirescorroboration.Wilmshurstetal.(2011)estimatecolonizationtohaveoccurredlaterbetween~750and670cal.B.P.

InvestigationsonKiritimati(Christmas)Island,a“mystery”islandwithintheLineIslands,producedasuiteofdates,allofwhicharefromunidentifiedcharcoalandtwoTridacnasp.shells(Andersonetal.2000,2002;DiPiazzaandPearthree2001).Resultsfromtheinvestigationsarecomparable,indicatingearliestPolynesiancolonizationbetween~700and500cal.B.P.DiPiazzaandPearthree(2001)alsoprovideasinglereliabledatesuggestiveofearlierPolynesiancolonizationbetween~800and670cal.B.P.onTabuaeran(Fanning)Island.Sinoto(1973)obtainedasimilardate,alongwithasignificantlyolderdate,fromhisexcavationsontheisland;however,theseresultsaresuspectduetosystemicproblemswiththeGakushuinLaboratory,whichprocessedthesamples(SpriggsandAnderson1993).Usingasubsetofthereliabledatesfromthemorerecentinvestigations,Wilmshurstetal.(2011)calculatedacolonizationdateof~675‒660cal.B.P.fortheLineIslands.Nodatesareavailablefortheotherislandsinthegroup,whichhavenotbeensubjecttointensivearchaeologicalresearchalthoughsurfacestructuresandartifactshavebeennotedonMaldenIslandandTeraina(Washington).Similarages,~750‒500cal.B.P.,havebeenobtainedfortheotherPolynesian“mysteryislands”Manra(Sydney)andOrona(Hull)inthePhoenixGroup(Kiribati)(DiPiazzaandPearthree2004).

ThechronologyofcolonizationoftheTuamotuIslandsismarginallyoutlined,atbest.Chazine(1985)providesanuncalibratedageof~800B.P.forsubsurfacedepositsofboneandshellfishnearanunnamedmarae(ceremonialarchitecture)ontheislandofReao,althoughthematerialdatedandlaboratoryisnotgiven.Additionally,Sinoto(inHatanakaetal.1978)excavatedathincharcoallenswithnoculturalmaterialnearamaraenamedHitianaunauonReao.Unidentifiedcharcoalreturnedadaterangeof~1100‒770cal.B.P.

TheCornersofthePolynesianTriangleNewZealand,RapaNui,andHawai’iprovideevidenceforcolonizationthatisgenerallycontemporaneouswithmanypartsofCentralEastPolynesia.TheresultsforNewZealandandRapaNuiarepresentedherewithalongerdiscussionofHawai’iasacasestudyforfutureresearchattheendofthechapter.

NewZealandpresentsthemostrobustcolonizationchronology,andnotsurprisingly,theleastcontroversial.Archaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalevidence,includingdatesfromthecommensalPacificrat(Rattusexulans)andrat-gnawedseeds,convergeonacolonizationestimateof~720‒670cal.B.P.(Highametal.1999;McGloneandWilmshurst1999;Wilmshurstetal.2008,2011;seealsoHoldawayandJacomb2000).

MultiplesmallislandgroupssurroundingNewZealandprovideevidenceforsomeofthelastPolynesianeffortsatexplorationandcolonization(seeAnderson’sessay,SouthernPolynesia),representinganearlyradialexpansionfromNewZealand(Anderson2005:798‒799).Short-durationoccupationofthesubpolarAucklandIslands(andprobablytheSnares)isestimatedaround750‒700cal.B.P.(Anderson2005),withcolonizationofNorfolkIslandaround700B.P.(Andersonetal.2001),theKermadecsbetween~650and550cal.B.P.(HighamandJohnson1997),andChathamIslandbetween~450and400cal.B.P.(McFadgen1994).

ColonizationofRapaNuiaround750‒700cal.B.P.isestimatedusingthesummedcumulativeprobabilitydistributionofaselectnumberofreliabledates(HuntandLipo2006;Wilmshurstetal.2011).Usingthesamedatesbutadifferentstatisticalmethod,Shepardsonetal.(2008)haveestimatedcolonizationapproximately300yearsearlier.Althoughthereisafairlylargecorpusofarchaeologicaldatesfortheisland,dateswithcalibratedagespre~750B.P.areofquestionablereliabilityandrequirecorroboration(Martinsson-WallinandCrockford2002;Mulrooney2013).Archaeologicalevidenceforcolonizationbetween~750and700cal.B.P.issupportedbyrecentpaleoenvironmentalstudiesdocumentingsubstantialsoilerosionandburningshortlyafterthisperiod(Mannetal.2008).

Hawai’iasaCaseStudy


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Clicktoviewlarger

Figure3 Colonizationestimates(AD)forHawai’iplottedbypublicationdate.Estimatespriorto1950reliedonoralhistoriesandgenealogies;alllaterestimatesarebasedonradiocarbondates.Thedark(68.2%HPD)andlightcolored(95.4%HPD)bandsrunninghorizontallynearthetopofthefigurerepresentthecolonizationestimatespresentedbyAthensetal.(2014).

ThefigurehasbeenmodifiedslightlyfromtheoriginalavailablecourtesyofTomDyeandWikimediaCommons(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Settlement-estimates-hawaii.svg).

Hawai’iisavaluablecasestudyforexaminingestimatesofislandcolonizationduringthelastsixtyyears.Attheextremes,estimateshavevariedbyover1,000years,andasdepictedinFigure3thetrendintheseestimatesdoesnotrepresentasteadyprogressionandimprovementbutrathersubstantialrandomvariation.Thisisstillavigorouslydebatedtopic,butanewconsensusisformingaroundcolonizationbetween~950and700cal.B.P.(Athensetal.2014;Dye2011;Kirch2011;Riethetal.2011;Wilmshurstetal.2011;Mulrooneyetal.2011).Whatshouldbeexpectedinsubsequentyearsisarefinementandincreasedprecisionwithinthistimeframeof~250years.

Hawai’ihasasuiteofradiocarbondatesnumberinginthethousands,althoughnocomprehensivedatabasehasbeencreated(seeRiethetal.2011,forHawai’iIsland;Carson2005,forKaua’i;Duarte2012,forMaui;andMcCoy2007,forMoloka’i).InitialassessmentsofthePolynesiancolonizationofthearchipelagoreliedonoraltraditions(e.g.,Emory1928).Withtheadventofradiocarbondatingcolonizationestimatesreliedontheoldestagesforparticularsites(e.g.,Emoryetal.1959),andtheapplicationofthisapproachcontinuedforthenextseveraldecades(e.g.,Kirch1985).Beginningintheearly1990s,someassessmentsstartedtorelyonvisualinspectionoflargerdatasetsofradiocarbondates(e.g.,HuntandHolsen1991).Throughthatdecade,colonizationwithinthefirstseveralcenturiesA.D.wasdeemedplausible(e.g.,Kirch2000),ifnotrepresentingthemajorityview.Duringthelastfifteentotwentyyears,threeprimaryissueshaveledtoincremental,yetsignificant,shiftstowardayoungercolonizationage.

First,paleoenvironmentalsequencesfromO’ahuandKaua’ihaverecordedvegetationchangeandincreasesinmicroscopiccharcoalconsistentwithhumanactivitiesbetween~1050and850cal.B.P.(Athens1997;BurneyandBurney2003).Second,anincreasedawarenessaboutappropriatedatingsamples,namelyshort-livedplanttaxaorparts,andthepotentialforinbuiltageinunidentifiedwoodcharcoalhasresultedingreatercareinsampleselectionandmorereliableresults(Dye1994,2000;RiethandAthens2013).Third,nearlyalloftheputativeearlysiteshavebeenre-datedorreassessedandfoundtobecenturiesyoungerthanoriginallythought(Dye1992;DyeandPantaleo2010;Kahnetal.2014;KirchandMcCoy2007).

Currently,manyarchaeologistsworkinginHawaiiareregularlycompletingwoodcharcoalidentificationsaspartofdatingsampleselection.Usingthispoolofreliabledates,themostrecentmeta-analysesforestimatingcolonizationhavetakentwodifferentapproaches.Oneapproachhasusedcumulativesummedprobabilitiesrelyingonasubjectivecutoffdateof650cal.B.P.bywhichtime100%confidenceisassumedforcolonization.Theseanalyseshaveconsistentlyidentified~730‒690cal.B.P.astheperiodofPolynesiancolonization(Wilmshurstetal.2011[archipelago-wide];Riethetal.2011[Hawai’iIsland];Duarte2012[Maui]).ThesearetheyoungestcolonizationestimatesfortheHawaiianIslandsbyatleastonehundredyears.

Atleastthreeissuesneedtobeaddressedwiththismethod.First,thepoolsofreliabledateshavebeensmall(n=16to22)raisingthepossibilitythatsamplesizeiseffectingtheresults(e.g.,Williams2012).Second,usingthesamesetofdatesbutvaryingthe100%certaintycutoffdateaffectsthecumulativeprobabilitycurve(Mulrooneyetal.2011).Sincethisisasubjectiveparameterwithinthecalculation,aparticularcutoffdatemaybeintroducingabiastowardayoungerorolderestimate,whichcannotbeassessedwithinthestructureofthemethod.Third,relatedtothesecondissue,thereisnoindependentmeansforassessingtheresultsofthisapproach,thatis,amodelshouldbestructuredsothatoneknowsiftheansweriscorrectorincorrect.

ThesecondapproachusesaBayesianmodel-basedcalibrationthatincorporatespaleoenvironmentaldatawithapoolofreliablearchaeologicalradiocarbondates.ThisisaPacificexampleofwhatBayliss(2009)hastermedthe“thirdradiocarbonrevolution.”Thesimplemodelhastwoanalyticalgroups:apre-colonizationgroupcomprisedofdatesobtainedfromportionsofpaleoenvironmentalsequencesthatareindicativeofpristinenativeenvironments;and,apost-colonizationgroupthatincludesradiocarbondatesobtainedfromPolynesianplantintroductions,thecommensalPolynesianrat,andshort-livedplanttaxa/partsfromdefinitivecombustionfeatures.Themodelisstructuredwiththeendofthepre-colonizationperiodequivalenttothestartofthepost-colonizationperiod;thisistheestimationofinterestforcalculatingcolonization.OriginallypresentedbyDye(2011)usingasingledateforthepre-colonizationperiodandsixdatesforthepost-colonizationperiod,Athensetal.(2014)expandedthedatasettotwopaleoenvironmentaldatesandthirty-threearchaeologicaldates,thusgreatlyimprovingtheprecisionoftheestimate.The95%HPDrangeis1010‒820cal.B.P.witha67%HPDof950‒850cal.B.P.RemovingthedatesfromPolynesianratbones,duetotheuncertaintyregardingamarinedietarycomponentfortheseanimals,the95%HPDshiftstotherightbyapproximatelyeightyyearsto950‒740cal.B.P.TheseresultsaresupportedbyareanalysisoftheOrdyPondpaleoenvironmentalsequence(Athensetal.2014).Unlikethecumulativesummedprobabilityapproach,theBayesianmodelprovidesparametersforassessinganyreliablearchaeologicaldateagainstanindependentdataset(i.e.,paleoenvironmentaldata).

IthasnotbeenasteadyprogressiontowardamorepreciseandaccurateestimationofthePolynesiancolonizationofHawai’i.However,agreaterappreciationofdatingsampleselection,agrowingbodyofreliableradiocarbondates,andinnovativestatisticalapproacheshaveresultedingreatstridesduringthelastdecade,andespeciallythelastfewyears.Thewindowoftimeforcolonizationisnowestimatedat~200‒100years,withnosupportforestimatesearlierthan~1000‒950cal.B.P.InsightsgainedfromHawai’iarereadilyapplicabletoislandsacrossthePacific,aswellasotherregions.

DirectionsforFutureResearch:DevelopingRobustChronologies

ThehumancolonizationofthevastareaofRemoteOceaniaistrulyastounding.Withwoodencanoesandwovensails,groupslocatedandsettlednearlyallhabitableislands.ExplorationandcolonizationbeganoverthreemillenniaagointhewesternPacificandended~700‒650yearsagoinEastPolynesia.Formostislands,however,thecorpusofdatesistoosmallforstatisticallyvalidestimations,andmostofthesedatesarefromunidentifiedcharcoalwiththepotentialforinbuiltage(seeTable1).Manyofthecolonizationrangespresentedinthischapterwillbesubjecttorevisionwithfutureresearch,andextantchronologiesshouldbeunderstoodashypothesestobetestedwithmorerigorousdatingregimes.

Withaneyetowardthedevelopmentofthemostreliablecolonizationchronologiespossible,weprovidesixstepsforconsideration.


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1.Identifythepotentiallocationsofearlysitesusingexplicitgeographical/geomorphologicalcriteriaandmodeling.Examplesofthisapproacharecommonacrosstheregion(e.g.,Burleyetal.2001;KirchandHunt1993),andithasbeenveryproductive.ApplicationofthisapproachatthescaleofanislandsuchasO’ahuorHawai’iIslandhasnotbeenattempted,butiswarranted.2.Employasystematictestingregimebasedongeomorphologicalassessments.Allenandcolleagues’(Allen2004;AllenandMcAllister2010,2013;Allenetal.2011)recentinvestigationsacrossNukuHivaofferamodelforsuchasystematicfieldstrategy.3.Selectappropriateradiocarbondatingsamplesthatcanbelogicallylinkedtothearchaeologicaltargeteventofinterest.Thismeanscompletingwoodcharcoalidentificationsandselectingshort-livedplanttaxaorparts,andtheselectionofsuitableboneorshellspecimensalongwithproperpretreatmentprotocolsandisotopicmeasurements.WorkbyPetcheyandcolleagueshasgreatlyimprovedΔRvaluesacrosstheregion(Petchey2009;Petcheyetal.2008a,2008b,2009).Ideally,obtainmultipledatesthatproduceredundant,supportingresults.4.Presentdatafollowingstandardreportingprotocols(StuiverandPolach1977)sothatresearcherscanassesstheresults.5.Archaeologicaldatashouldbecoupledwithpaleoenvironmentalsequenceswheneverpossible.AsseenfromtheHawai’icasestudy,integrationofthesetwodatasetscanproduceamutuallyreinforcingestimateforcolonization.ExamplesfromWesternMicronesiaalsopointtodiscrepanciesthatmaybeidentifiedthatwillrequireadditionalinvestigationstoresolve.6.Bayesiancalibrationoffersapowerfulstatisticalmethodthatcansignificantlyimprovecolonizationestimateswiththepotentialtoprovidetemporalresolutionatagenerationalscale(e.g.,Whittleetal.2011).

Awiderapplicationofevensomeofthesuggestionsshouldresultinmoreprecise,accurate,andreliablecolonizationchronologies.Withthesechronologiesinplace,substantiveissuesrelatingtoislandcolonization,adaptations,culturalinteractions,agriculturalandsocialdevelopments,andotherscanbeexplainedwithlessspeculationaboutthetimingofchangeandcontinuity.

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TimothyRiethTimothyRieth,InternationalArchaeologicalResearchInstitute,Inc.

EthanCochraneEthanCochrane,UniversityofAuckland.

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