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FirstinFlight:AComprehensiveStudyofEtruscanWinged“Demons”

MarvinMorris

HonorsThesis

PresentedtotheDepartmentofClassics,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeleyinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsfordepartmentalhonors

April11,2016

Dr.LisaPieracciniDr.KimShelton,CommitteeChair

Dr.ChristopherHallett

EtruscanWinged“Demons”

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Introduction:IconographyandIdeology

EtruscanwingedUnderworldfigures(commonlyreferredtoaswinged“demons”)

representoneofthemostfascinatingandleastunderstoodaspectsoffunerary

iconographyinancientEtruria.Theirfunction,alongwiththeirorigin,haslongbeenthe

subjectofscholarlydebates.However,overthelasttwodecades,scholars1havebegunto

takeacloserlookatthesechthonicfigures.Recentscholarshiphasbeguntoprovide

answerstomanyofthemostfundamentalquestionsconcerningtheirrole,evenif

disagreementsremainovertheirmurkyorigins2.Expandingoninterpretationsthathave

castnewlightonhowthesewinged(andnonwinged)Underworldfiguresfunctioned,

questionsconcerningEtruscanreligiousbeliefsandfuneraryideologycannowbe

reconsidered.

Onesuchquestionconcernsthesuddenincreaseintheappearanceofwinged

“demons”thatbeginstooccuraroundtheendofthefifthcenturyBCE.Bythemid-fourth

century,thisshiftinfuneraryiconographysupplantedwhatwereonceexuberantscenesof

dancing,banqueting,funerarygames,andsexualencounters.TheseUnderworldfiguresare

attestedinnotonlywallpainting,butinvasepaintingandstonesculpture,amongother

media.Somescholarshaveclaimedthatthesewingediconswereindicativeofan

impendingsenseofdoomandapervasivepessimismthatinvadedEtruriaattheendofthe

1ThisstudyofEtruscanwinged“demons”isespeciallyindebtedtothescholarshipofNancyT.DeGrummond,Jean-ReneJannot,FrancescaSerraRidgway,IngridKrauskopf,MarioTorelli,andLisaC.Pieraccini.2JanosSzilâgyi(1989,613)arguesthattheseventhcenturyBCEpresenceofwingedUnderworldfiguressupportstheargumentinfavorofarichnativeEtruscanmythologicaltradition,independentofforeigninspiration.Martellivehementlydisagreeswiththisassessment,claiminginsteadthatimportedAtticblackandred-figurevasesweretheprimarysourceofinspirationintheformationofEtruscanmyth(seeRizzoandMartelli1989).ClaimslikethisimplythattheEtruscanswerejustmindlessconsumersofGreekmodelsandareuntenable,inmyopinion.Krauskopf,aleadingauthorityonEtruscanUnderworldfigureswrites“Thenumerousdemon-figuresare…anEtruscanpeculiarity,forwhichGreekparallelscanscarcelybefound”(2013,521).


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fifthcenturyBCEduetoexternalpressuresfromhostileneighbors,suchasRome3.Less

substantiated,however,istheassertionthatthischangewassymptomaticofashiftin

Etruscanfuneraryideologyandtraditionsconcerningdeathandtheafterlife4.

I,therefore,reassessthenotionthatanabruptshiftinEtruscanfunerary

iconography(spearheadedbytheappearanceofwinged“demon”)attheendofthefifth

centuryBCEsignaledashiftinEtruscanfuneraryideology.CloserexaminationofEtruscan

“demon”iconography,anditsrelatedthemesofguarding,guiding,andprotecting,suggests

insteadthatanaturalevolutionoccurredwherethepopularizationofanew,butquite

familiar,visualrepertoire(i.e.winged“demons”)wasusedtoexpresscontinuityinideas

regardingthetransitionofthedeceasedfromthisworldtothenext.Througha

comparativeanalysisoffuneraryiconographyinEtruria,wecanidentifyantecedentsthat

emphasizedthecareandprotectionofthedeceasedandtheirimmortalityintheafterlife.

Furthermore,IbelievethatthisevidencestronglysuggeststhattheEtruscansturned

inwardattheendofthefifthcentury,drawingonmodelsfromtheirownrichcultural

3DeGrummond(2006,9)writeswithregardtotheRomanconquestofEtruriabetweenthebeginningofthefourthandthemid-firstcenturiesBCEthat“itisworthconsideringhowthisacculturationaffectedthedepictionsofmythinEtruria,andinparticulartoseehowandwhythereisanewconcernwiththemesoftheUnderworldandafterlife,sometimesshowingpessimismandpreoccupationwiththefateoftheindividualsaswellastheEtruscanpeopleasawhole.”SheiscertainlynotthefirstscholartohavesuggestedapossiblerelationshipbetweenchangingfuneraryiconographyattheendofthefifthcenturyandtheRomanconquestoftheItalicpeninsulainthecenturiesthatfollowed.Additionally,incorrespondencewithProfessorDeGrummondinMarchofthisyear(2016),sheraisedthehighlyspeculativepossibilitythatplague(suchaswasvisitedonAthensin429BCE,andlateronRomeattheendofthefifthcentury)mayhavealsoinflictedheavycasualtiesonthepopulationinEtruriaaroundthesametime.Parallels,shesuggests,mayexistbetweenthewinged“demons”weseeappearinEtruscanfuneraryartattheendofthefifthcenturyBCE,andthedemonsweseeinChristianartmanycenturieslaterduringtheLateMedievalPeriodperhapsinresponsetotheBlackDeaththatwasspreadingacrossEurope.Thistheoryiscompletelyuntested,butworthnotingasanareaforfutureexploration.4Torelli(1999,154)forinstance,arguesthat“acrisisinEtrusco-Italicideologyofdeath”isreplacedby“aDionysiacmessageofsalvation”asearlyastheendofthesixthcenturyBCE,aswitnessedintheTomb1999atTarquinia.Moreover,hesuggeststhatduringthefifthcenturythetombitselfshiftsfrombeingthoughtofasa“liminalspace”betweenthelivingandthedead,toonethatbelongsentirelytothe“realmofthedead,”whereGreekmodelsoftheUnderworldaresoughtafterbyEtruscanstoexpresstheirchangingbeliefsystems(157).


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heritage.Althoughfuneraryiconographymayhavechanged,traditionalideologicalbeliefs

arounddeathandtheafterliferemainedthesame.

Background

TheEtruscanswereanindigenous5ItalictribewhoinhabitedwestcentralItalyin

anarearoughlyboundedbytheArnoRiverinthenorth,andtheTiberRiverinthesouth6.

Theirpresenceisattestedthroughanenormouscorpusofart,architecture,andamyriadof

materialculturalremainsdatingbacktotheVillanovancultureintheeleventhandtenth

centuriesBCE7.Knownprimarilythroughtheirfunerarydepositionsandvastnecropoleis,

theirhabitationssitesremainlargelyunexcavated8.Builtincloseproximitytotheir

settlements,manyofthesenecropoleis,suchastheBanditacciaatancientCaereandthe

MonterozziatTarquinia,eachcontainthousandsoftombs.Aclearneedtomaintainaclose

linkbetweenthelivinganddeadisathemethatplaysthroughoutoverninehundredyears

ofEtruscanhistory.Evidenceofcomplexspiritualandreligiousbeliefsandpracticescanbe

identifiedthroughfuneraryiconographycontainingvisualnarrativesthatappearona

varietyofmediumsincludingwallpainting,vasepainting,sculpturalrelief,freestanding

sculpture,carvedgemstones,andvariousotherworksinbronze,andpreciousmetals.

Throughthistypeofvisualrepertoire,scholarshavebeenabletopiecetogetherabroad

5Muchhasbeenmaderegardingthealleged“Anatolianorigin”fortheEtruscansbasedonthemtDNAtestresultsfromAchilli,etal.(2007).ThemorerecentworkandpublicationfromGhirotto,etal.(2013)directlyrefutesthisearlierstudy,statingthat“Etruscanculturedevelopedlocally,andnotasanimmediateconsequenceofimmigrationfromtheEasternMediterraneanshores”(fromarticle’sabstract).6EtruscancolonizationhasbeenattestedaswellfromasfarnorthasPoRiverValley,asfareastastheAdriaticSea,andasfarsouthasCampana.7Torelli1986,50.8Thisisduetocontinuousoccupationofsuchhabitationsitesallthewayuptomodernday.


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understandingofEtruscanfuneraryideology,althoughconceptsabouttheEtruscan

Underworldandafterlifestillremainopaque9.

Thisprocesshasbeensignificantlyhindered,however,bythelackofsurviving

textualevidencefromtheEtruscansthemselves10.Despitetheknownexistenceofarich

literarytraditionconcerningdivination,thebrontoscopiccalendar,religiousobservances,

andfunerarypractices,preciouslittleintheEtruscan’sownnon-Indo-Europeanlanguage

hasbeenpasseddowntous11.Thelittletextualsupportscholarsdohavetodrawoncomes

fromGreek,Roman,andearlyChristianauthorswhoseaccounts(oftenmanygenerations

removed)aretobereadwithcautionastheyareoftenbiasedandskewedtowardsthe

contemporaryaudienceforwhomtheywerewrittenfor12.Whathassurvivedistheartthe

Etruscansproduced,andthecontextsthat,forthemostpart,preservedthiswealthof

material–earlyIronAgeburialpits,monumentaltumulifromtheOrientalizingera,and

chambertombsofvaryingsizesfromtheArchaiceraonward.Individuallyandcollectively,

therefore,burialassemblages,wallpaintings,andtombarchitecturearetobereadas

culturaldocuments.Intheabsenceoftextualmaterial,theseworksofEtruscanartareour

bestmeansforinterpretingnearlyninecenturiesofEtruscanfunerarycustomsand

practices.

9Bonfante1986,286;Krauskopf2006,66.10ItiswellknownthattheEtruscansadoptedtheGreekalphabetforusewiththeirownnon-Indo-EuropeanlanguagearoundthemiddleoftheeighthcenturyBCEthroughcontactwithEuboeanGreekcolonistsinsouthernItaly.SeeTorelli(1986,49-50)forfurtherdiscussion.11SeeTurfa2012forherdiscussionondivinationandthebrontoscopiccalendar;DeGrummond(2006,10)referencesthewellattestedexistenceoftheEtruscadisciplina,avoluminouscollectionofmaterialsconcerningreligiouslore,omensfromthegods,andthenatureoftheuniverse.WithinthiscollectionexistedtheLibriacheruntic,aspecialgroupofwritingsconcerningtheUnderworld.12DeGrummond1986(b)providesathoroughcompilationofquotesfromGreek,Roman,andearlyChristianauthors.Ofnoteare:Pliny,NH35.5.16-18;LivyHistory7.17.2-6;VirgilAeneidVI.331-360;Arnobius,Adv.nat.7.26:“…genetrixetmatersuperstitionisEtruria”–“Etruria[was]thesourceandmotherofsuperstition.”(Author’strans.)


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EtruscanWingedUnderworldFigures

Thephrase,EtruscanwingedUnderworldfigures,referstoagroupofchthonic

figureswhosepresenceinEtruscanfuneraryartandideologycanbedetectedatleastasfar

backastheendoftheseventhcenturyBCE13.Instancesoftheirdepictions,asalready

noted,begintodominatethefuneraryspherebeginningattheendofthefifthcentury,

continuingthroughthesecondcenturyBCE.ItisatthistimethatRome’s‘manifestdestiny’

marchacrosstheItalicpeninsulafinallyabsorbsthelastoftheEtruscancity-statesunder

theyokeofRomanrule.

Throughsurvivinginscriptions,weareabletoidentifyatleastthreeofthesewinged

Underworldfiguresbyname:Charu(n),Vanth,andTuchulcha.Charu(n)[Fig.1]appears

overonehundredtimesinEtruscanart14.Heiseasilyidentifiedthroughhisattributive

blueskin(thecolorofdecayingflesh),thelargemalletheusuallycarries(foropeningand

closingthegatestotheUnderworld),alargehookednose,darkfurrowedbrow,deep-set

eyes,highleatherhuntingboots,andashortsleevedtunicbeltedaroundthewaist(proper

attirefortraversingtherockyterrainoftheUnderworld).Hisfemalecounterpart,Vanth

[Fig.2],carriesatorch(tolightthedarkpassagethroughtheUnderworld),isoften

depictedwithherbreastsexposed(thoughttobeapotropaic),wearingthesame

characteristichuntingbootsasCharu(n),andoftenbrandishingsnakes.Representationsof

Tuchulcha[Fig.3],asweshallsee,areexceedinglyrare.Thefigurehasthebeakofabirdof

13Krauskopf(2013,521)raisestheintriguingnotionthatwingedfigures,likethoseweseeintheUnderworld,were“probably…inall…manifestationsofEtruscanreligion.”EvidenceincludingawingedmalefigurefromtheCampanaplaques(agroupofpaintedterracottaplaquesexcavatedfromachambertombattheBanditaccianecropolisatCerveteriinthemidnineteenthcentury)certainlysuggeststhismayhavebeenthecase.Thetopicdeservesfurtherexploration.14DeGrummond2005,214.


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prey,theearsofaquadruped,andthefacialhairofanadultmale.Tuchulcha’sgenderisnot

alwaysclear,andisamatterofsomedebate.Allthreeofthesefiguressharetheattributeof

wingsincommon.HoweveritshouldbenotedthatCharu(n)andVantharealsosometimes

depictedwithoutwings15.

WingedUnderworldfigurescanbefoundinwallpaintingthroughoutEtruria,most

notablyatTarquinia,Vulci,andSarteano,fromthesecondhalfofthefifthcenturythrough

thefirstquarterofthethirdcenturyBCE16.InBologna,thesewingedfiguresarefoundon

funerarystelefromthefourthcenturyBCE.FromOrvieto,acollectionofEtruscanred-

figurevasesknownasthe“Vanth”GroupalsodatestothefourthcenturyBCE.Andfrom

Chiusi,acollectionofterracottaashurnsfromthelatethirdandearlysecondcentury

provideuswithsomeofthelastexamplesofEtruscanwingedUnderworldfigures.These

examplescomprisejustahandfuloflocationsthroughoutEtruriawherewingedchthonic

figureshavebeenidentified.

DatingandNomenclature

ForthemostpartEtruscologistshaveadoptedthestandarddatingschemewidely

usedtodatetheGreekworld.Thatis,terminologythatdesignatesperiodsasArchaic,

Classical,andHellenistichasbeenmappedontoEtruriatoprovideaframeworkwithwhich

toseparateandtalkaboutspecificepochsinartandarchitecture.Greekmodels,however,

sometimesfailtoproperlyconveytheparticularstyleweseeexpressedinEtruriaduringa

givenperiod.TheseforeignmodelstendtotakeagencyawayfromtheEtruscansby

15Thesignificanceofthesevariationswillbediscussedlateron.16ItshouldbenotedthattwoverybadlyfadedsmallwingedfiguresappearintheTomboftheMaidenfromTarquiniaroughlycontemporarywiththeTomboftheBlueDemonsinthelasthalfofthefifthcenturyBCE.Steingräber(2006,132)describesthemas“wingedgenii.”Furtherinvestigationisneededtomakeanaccurateassessment.


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removingaworkofartfromitsEtruscancontext.CertainlyHellenisticandClassical

influencesmadetheirwaywestfromGreeceandtheeasternMediterraneanviatrade

networksandthroughimmigration17.However,overrelianceontheseGreekmodelsof

artisticstyletofilterEtruscanartthroughhascreatedasituationwheresomescholars

haveunfairlycriticizedandplacedvaluejudgmentsonEtruscanworksofartfornot

adheringtoa“Classical”style18.OurgoalwithEtruscanart,thesameaswithGreekor

Romanart,shouldbetoapproachitfirstfromitsnativecontext.

Therefore,IpreferthemoreneutraldatingschemepositedbyDeGrummond:Early

Period(1000/900-450BCE),MiddlePeriod(450-325/300BCE),andLatePeriod

(325/300-1stcenturyBCE)19.ShefurthersubdividestheEarlyPeriodintotheVillanovan

era(1000-750/700BCE),theOrientalizingera(750/700-600BCE),andtheArchaicera

(600-450BCE)20.Ibelievethisschemeoffersgreaterclarityandamorefruitfulanalysis

whentracingiconographicandideologicaltrendsthroughroughlyninehundredyearsof

Etruscanfuneraryart.

Wemustalsorevisittheacceptedterminologyusedtodescribeourwinged

Underworldfigures.Althoughwehavealreadyidentifiedthepropernamesforthreeof

thesewingedfigures,wedonotknowwhattheEtruscansthemselvesmayhavereferred

collectively(orindividually)totheseUnderworldfiguresas,ifindeedsuchatermexisted

17SeeÅkerström(1981);Naso(2010);Steingräber(2006).18EarliergenerationsofEtruscologists,OttoJ.Brendelinparticular,weretrainedduringatimewhenaclearbiasthatfavoredGreekculturepervadedthestudyoftheancientMediterranean.Thepioneeringworkoftheseindividualsisinnowaydiminishedasaresult.19DeGrummond2005,2-9.20Ibid,2.


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atall.Nonetheless,thevastmajorityofscholarstodayalmostreflexivelyrefertothese

figuresas“demons”21.

Theterm“demon,”however,isgrosslymisleading.Inthecolloquialsense,“demon”

corruptsthetruenatureoftheseUnderworldfigureswho,inthevastmajorityofnarratives

wefindthemin,operateasguides,guardians,andgatekeepers22.Unfortunately,inthe

handsoflateMedievalandRenaissanceartistswhoweknowcameincontactwith

Etruscan(aswellasRoman)worksofart,EtruscanwingedUnderworldfigureswereoften

hijackedasartisticmodelsforthesatanicbeingsweseepopulateworksofartfromGiotto

toMichelangelo23.EighteenthcenturyScottishantiquarian,JamesByres,andhisPolish

draftsman,FranciszekSmuglewicz,didlittletohelpthismisconception.AsSmuglewicz’s

illustrationsdemonstrate,thewingedUnderworldfigurestheyencounteredonthewallsof

tombs(mostnotablyTheTomboftheCardinal,Tarquinia,ca.fourthcenturyBCE)were

renderedasevilandnefariouscreatures,outtopreyonthedeceased,andfulfillingsome

sortofdemonicroleasconceivedthroughaChristiancontext24.Theseantiquatedandlazy

interpretationscannolongerbetolerated.Andneithershouldtheacceptednomenclature.

Termslike‘escort’,‘guardian’,‘witness’,and‘protector’moreaccuratelydescribethese

figuresbythefunctionstheyperform.Thephrase“wingedUnderworldfigure”willhave

preferenceoverwinged“demon,”thoughforbrevity’ssake,“demon”shallstillberetained

21Tomymindwinged“friends”comesmostnaturally,andisfarmoreexpressivethanagenerictermlike“figure.”Thelatter,however,islesscolloquialandthereforemoreappropriateforformaldiscussions.22ItbearsrepeatingfromtheprevioussubsectionthatCharu(n)’smalletwouldhavebeenusedtoknockopenandcloseshutthegatestotheUnderworld,nottowieldagainstthedeceased.Jannot(1997,Fig.4)providesanoutstandingillustrationofamalletinteractingwithawoodengate.23DeGrummond1986(a),23-24.24Byres(1842);SeeRidgway(2003;and2005,Fig.7)fordiscussionandillustration.


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attimes.Placingtheword“demon”inquoteswhenitisused,however,servesasa

remindertothereaderoftheterm’sinadequaciesandclearlybiasedconnotations25.

ResearchandMethodology

ThisstudybuildsonpreviousscholarshipthatIbelieveclearlydemonstratesthe

mostly26benevolentnatureofthesechthonicfigures27,astheyappearinboththeirwinged

andnon-wingedforms.Muchofthisearlierworkhasfocusedontheirattributivefeatures.

Indeed,Ihavejustspentafairamountoftimeinsimilardiscussionasawaytointroduce

thesefigures.Myaim,however,istomovepasttheseimportantsurfacedetailstogetatthe

ideologicalmessage(s)thesefiguresweremeanttoconveywithintheirancientEtruscan

funeraryandreligiousspheres.ItisnotenoughtojustidentifyawingedUnderworldfigure

suchastheubiquitousCharu(n)asa‘guardian’and‘gatekeeper,’thoughitisappropriateto

dosogivenhiscloseassociationwithgatesandbecauseofthemalletwithwhichheisso

oftendepicted.Wemustalsotietheseattributesandrolestothelargersetofideological

beliefsthat,themselves,fitwithinthebroader,complexfabricofEtruscanburialcustoms

andreligiouspractices.

Althoughthisstudyisintendedtobeascomprehensiveaspossible,thescopeofthis

currentpaperistointroduceandfocusononlyoneofseveralareasofinquiryaround

whichthepresenceofwingedUnderworldfiguresinEtruscanfuneraryartplaysacritical

role.Whileitismyintentiontointroducematerialexamplescontaining“demon”

25AsfortheGreektermdaimones,IwouldarguethatthisGreektermfailstofullyillustratethetruenatureoftheseEtruscanwingedUnderworldfigures.AswithourpreviousdiscussiononGreekmodelsimproperlyusedtodescribeEtruscanworksofart,moreneutralterminologyshouldbeappliedhereaswell.26Exceptionstothisrule,asweshallsee,doexist.27DeGrummond(2005);Jannot(1998;2005);Ridgway(2003;2005);andPieracciniandDelChiaro(2013).


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iconographyfromavarietyofartisticmedia(wallpainting,vasepainting,andsculpture),

theextensivelistofsimilarexamplesnumberingwellintothehundredswillhavetowait

untilsuchtimeasanevenmoreambitiousprojectcanbemastered28.

TransitionintheFifthCenturyBCE

TheclaimthatasuddenandmorefrequentappearanceofwingedUnderworld

figuresattheendofthefifthcenturyBCEwastheresultofanabandonmentoftraditional

Etruscanfuneraryideology,mustbechallengedheadon.MarioTorelli29haswritten

extensivelyaboutanalleged“crisis”havingvisitedEtruriaduringthisperiod.Hiscauseand

effectscenarioconcerningthehistoricalnarrativeofthefifthcenturyBCE30inthewestern

Mediterranean,however,isnotall-togethersatisfying.Undoubtedlysocio-economicand

politicalupheavaloccurredinmanyregionsontheItalicpeninsuladuringthefifthcentury.

InEtruriathearchaeologicalrecordatteststoadeclineinthequantityofgravegoods31.

Somescholarshavealsonotedanimpoverishmentinstylisticinnovations,particularly

wherewallpaintingwasconcerned32.Exemplifiedbythewaybanquetingscenesgain

notorietyonthebackwallofArchaiceratombsinthefifthcentury,thisconventional

themeformsthebasisforhisargument.Itisinthesescenesofdininganddrinkinginthe

28AppendixAcontainsanintroductorylist.ItismydeepconvictionthatatrulycomprehensivestudyofEtruscan“demon”iconographyislongoverdue.Afocusedstudytakingintoaccountallevidencethatsurvivesreferencingwingedfiguresastheyappearintheirfunerary(andother?)contextswouldnodoubtbenefitthelargerfieldofEtruscologyinwaysthatwillhelptotemperthelongperceivedinfluencesonEtruriafromtheGreekmainland.29Torelli1986;1999.30Torelliseesthis“crisis”asbroughtonbyanumberoffactors:thelossofLatiumbytheEtruscansandtheexpulsionofthelastEtruscankingatRome(seeLivy1.36-59)inthefinaldecadesofthesixthcentury;theEtruscannavaldefeatbythefleetofSyracuseatCumaein474BCE(seePindarpythi.71;andDiodorusxi51);andthehostileadvancementofUmbro-SabelliantribeswhosupplantedEtruscanruleinCampaniabythelastquarterofthefifthcentury.Asaresult,GreekimportsintoEtruriafromMagnaGraeciaweredisrupted.TheseimportswereeventuallyreroutedthroughSpina,thetradingcenterofthePoRiverValley,ontheAdriaticcoast(1986,55-56).31Torelli1999,56.32Brendel1978,263;Torelli1986,55;and1999,155.


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afterlifethatTorellifinds“Dionysiacmessagesofsalvation”33.Heequatesthisallegedly

newiconographicthemewitha“crisisintheEtrusco-Italicideologyofdeath”34.Hethereby

impliesthatthecrisisthatoccurredabovegroundinthefifthcenturyonasocio-political

andeconomiclevelprecipitatedacrisisofadifferentkindundergroundintheliminal

spaceofthetomb.Asareactiontoexternalstimuli,heallegesthattheEtruscansturned

theirbacksonoverfourcenturiesoftraditionalfuneraryideologytoembracecultsof

foreign(Greek)origin.Theeffectincludedtheallegedlynewandsuddenappearanceof

wingedUnderworldfigures,asattestedintheTomboftheBlueDemons,ca.400BCE35.We

willreturntothistombbelow.

Torelli’sreasoningonthismatterispuzzling.Firstofall,visualrepresentationsof

thebanquetitselfarewellattestedthroughoutEtruriafromasearlyastheseventhcentury

BCE,whereitcanbefoundinavarietyofcontexts36.Itsnoveltyonthebackwallsof

paintedtombsduringthefifthcenturycanbestbeexplainedassimplyoneofseveral

innovationsinpaintediconographyandthemesthatweseethroughouttheArchaicera37.

Moretothepoint,ritualfeastingappearstohavebeenanintegralpartoffuneraryideology,

asPieraccinihaswrittenextensively38.Bronzeimplementsforroastingmeats,itemsfor

mixingwine,andallsortsofvesselsinbuccheroandterracotta,forrealandsymbolic

feasting,persistthroughoutEtruscancivilizationasfarbackastheeighthcenturyBCE.

33Torelli1999,154.34Ibid.35SeeTorelli’sdiscussiononthese“Greekdoctrines”facilitatedby“Greekmodels”(i.e.the“demons”thatgivethetombitsname)(1999,157).36AnimpastoashurnfromMontescudaio,ca.625BCEdepictsamanseatedatatablewhileafemaleservant(hiswife?)offershimfood(Haynes2000,fig.92).TerracottaplaquesfromtheearlysixthcenturyatAcquarossa(Haynes2000,fig.120)andPoggioCivitate(Murlo)(Haynes2000,fig.105)depictbanquetsceneswithmenandwomenrecliningonklinai.37Paintedfalsedoorsoftenflankedbysymmetricallyplacedfigures,forinstance,areonesuchinnovationinpaintingfromthesixthcenturyBCE.Wewillreturntotheirsymbolismlater.38SeePieraccini2003;and2014(a,b).


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Simplyput,wearehardpressedtoidentifyanythingforeignaboutthebanquetasan

iconographicdevicebythetimeitappearedinfifthcenturywallpainting39.

Ibelievethefondnesswithwhichthebanquetscenegainedprominenceinfifth

centurywallpaintingsuggestssomethingquitedifferent.Reactingtowhateverexternal

pressuresmayhavebeenpresentduringthefifthcentury,theEtruscanschosetolook

inwardtotheirownrichculturaltraditionsconcerningdeath,burialandtheafterlife.

Relyingonfamiliarthemes,likethebanquet,musthavebeenasourceofcomfortaswellas

pride.Ratherthanabandoningtraditionalfuneraryideologies,IseetheEtruscansofthe

fifthcenturymakingaconcertedefforttomaintaintieswiththeirancestralpast,and

perhapseventostrengthenthoseconnections.Thisisconsistentwiththeoverwhelming

materialevidencethattestifiestotheenormoustime,effort,andexpensetheEtruscans

investedinpreparingfordeath.Theselessons,Iwouldfurthersuggest,haveadirect

bearingonhowweshouldperceivetheappearanceofwingedUnderworldfiguresatthe

endofthetransitionalfifthcenturyBCE.

TomboftheBlueDemons

IbelieveantecedentsfromtheOrientalizingandArchaiceraswilldemonstratethat

wingedUnderworldfigureswerecloselyassociatedwithtraditionalfuneraryideologies.

Thesefiguresfulfilledtheroleofpsychompoi,orguidesforthedead.Theyoffered

protectiontothedeceasedastheymadetheirwayalongwhatcouldbeatreacherouspath

throughtheUnderworld.Andtheybroughtintofocusthegeographicalterrainofthe

Underworldinamannerearlierepochsonlyhintedat.Recognizingtheseelementsatthe

39Krauskopf(2006,77)andRidgway(2007,128)wereamongthefirsttochallengeTorelli’s“overinterpreted”conclusionsregardingpaintedscenesofbanquetingandtheirallegedconnectiontoDionysiacmysterycultshavingsupposedlyinvadedEtruriaduringthefifthcentury.Idrawmyowninspirationfromthesevoicesofdissent.


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endofthefifthcenturyBCEintheTomboftheBlueDemonsprovidesuswithaneffective

referencepoint.

Someoftheearliestdepictionsofwinged(andnon-winged)Underworldfiguresin

wallpaintingoccuraround400BCEintheTomboftheBlueDemonsatTarquinia.Thetomb

isoftendescribedastransitional,bridgingtheperceivedgapbetweentheendofthe

Archaicera(andtheaforementionedcrisis)andthelaterphasesofEtruscancivilization40.

Indeedthetombpresentsbothtraditionalandinnovativeiconographicelementsand

narrativethemes.Thismodestlysized,singlechambertombisaccessedbyalong,roughly

cutdromos.Discoveredin1985underneaththemodernroadthatcutsthroughthe

MonterozziNecropolisalongtheIlCalvarioplateau,itsfrescoesareinfragilecondition,and

thetombisnotaccessibletothegeneralpublic.

Thetomb’snarrativeprogramconsistsofthreecontinuouspaintedfriezesonthe

left,right,andbackwalls41.Thewalltotheviewer’sleftdepictsakindoffunerary

procession.Theprotagonistinthescene,adeceasedmale,isdrawnbyabigatowardsthe

backwallofthetomb.Musicianswalkinfrontofthechariot,whiledancersfollowbehind.

Thesceneisalivelyone,andhasparallelsincontemporaryandearlierwallpainting42.On

thebackwall,aswewouldexpect,abanquetingsceneisdepictedwithfourcouples

recliningonklinaiwithakylekeionspillingover,asitwere,ontotheveryendofthe

adjacentleftwall.Wecanstillmakeoutthetracesofwhatappearstobetheancientand

highlysymbolicactofpassinganeggbetweenoneofthesecouples43.Intotal,thetomb

40Krauskopf2006,73.41Steingräber(2006,181)notesthatthesidesoftheentrancewallwerealsopaintedwithscenesthatmightdepicteitherfunerarygamesorahunt.Partofaserpent’sheadisalsopreserved.42Torelli1999,Table1.43Pieraccini2014(b),278.Havingbeeninthetombinthesummerof2015,Ibelievetheeggtobethereaswell.


14

adherestothestandardthematicdevicesofthefifthcentury,whileaddinganewlandscape

elementtotherepertoire.

OntherightwallasceneofajourneythroughtheUnderworldisrenderedinalarge

scalepaintedfrieze[Fig.4].TheprotagonistinthisUnderworldlandscape44appearstobea

deceasedwomanmakingherwayalongasubterraneanpath.Thesceneisreadfromright

toleftonthissideofthetomb.Ourfirstencounteriswithablack-skinnedwinged“demon.”

Thefigureisinprofilewithalargehookednose,bright,bushyredhair,tracesofredinits

forwardfacingpupil,andaredspur(perhapsafang)juttingfromitsmouth[Fig.5].

Sproutingfromthefigure’sbackareapairoflargeblackwings.Dressedinapalegarment

withablueborderandredtrim,thissinisterlookingfigureclimbsonhandsandkneesover

arock,thoughttobesymbolicofthethresholdtotheUnderworld45.Theblack-skinned

demon’sprogressischeckedbyasecondwinglessUnderworldfigurebrandishingtwo

beardedsnakes[Fig.6].Totheleftofthispair,anotherpairofUnderworldfiguresleads

ourprotagonisttowardsaveiledwomanandchild[Fig.7].Thepairstandsreadytogreet

thedeceasedwoman.Thenarrativeiscompletedbythedepictionofasmallskiffwitha

partiallypreservedoarsmanwhowaitstocarrythetriointotheafterlife[Fig.8].

Thescenecommunicatesstrongideologicalbeliefsconcerningthejourneythrough

theUnderworld,theprotectionsuchajourneyrequires,andthecriticalassistancewinged

andnon-wingedUnderworldfigurescanprovide.ThebenevolentpairofUnderworld

figuresthatattendthedeceasedwomanworkinunisontoescorthertowardsherwaiting

kin.Theformidableblue-skinnedfigureusesthesnakeshebrandishestomenacethe

advancingblack-skinnedwinged“demon.”Thisblue-skinnedfigureislargerthantheother44Pieraccini2013,252.45Roncalli1996,47-48.


15

threefigures.Hismusculatureisclearlyvisible,andhewearssomesortofcuirassthat

exposeshischestandarms,whileprotectinghisleftshoulder[Fig.9].Theblack-skinned

winged“demon”withitsthreateningpostureandfrightfulappearanceistheonlyoneof

thefourthatmaypossiblybethoughtofinthecolloquialsenseoftheword“demon.”The

figuremayserveasanimportantindicatorthattheEtruscansdidconceiveofthepassage

throughtheUnderworldandintotheafterlifeasapotentiallyhazardousjourney.

Contemporarycomparandacommunicatesthesesameideologicalthemes.An

Etruscanscarabfromtheendofthefifthcentury[Fig.10]depictstwowingedfigures

believedtobeescortingayoungmanthroughtheUnderworld46.Whiletheprovenienceof

thescarabisunknown,thegem,nonetheless,communicatesthefamiliarmessageof

guardingandguiding.

Additionally,afunerarystelefromBologna,datingtothemid-fifthcenturyBCE[Fig.

11],isripewithiconographyrepresentingthisdualthemeofthejourneyandof

protection47.Theburialmarkeriscarvedinthreeregisters.Theupperregisterdepictstwo

hybridseamonsters.Thesehippocampi,asweshallsee,arefamiliariconographicsymbols

ofthejourneyintotheafterlife.Themiddleregisterdepictsamaninachariotdrawnby

twowingedhorses.Likelythedeceased,hiswingedbigaisbeingguidedbyamalewinged

Underworldfigure.Intheregisterbelow,weseeabattlebetweenamanonhorsebackand

anudeGallicwarrior.Perhapsthisalludestothemannerinwhichthedeceasedmethis

fate.Thethemeofjourneyisfurtherreinforcedthroughthedecorativewavepatternthat

runsalongthefacingedgeofthestele.

46Klinger2013,57.47Briguet1986,117.


16

Inreview,thereislittledoubtastotheroletheseUnderworldfiguresareservingin

theseexamplesfromthelatefifthandearlyfourthcenturiesBCE.Stillmorefascinatingare

thefuneraryideologiestheserolescommunicate–thejourney,andtheneedforprotection

throughthephysicalterrainoftheUnderworld.EstablishingthesethemesintheTombof

theBlueDemons(andcontemporarycomparanda)willhelpustoidentifyantecedentsand

toassociatetheirfuneraryideologiesaswelookbacktotheearliestphasesofEtruscan

civilization.

OrientalizingEra(750/700-600BCE)

ThewingedUnderworldfigure,Vanth,providesuswiththeearliestextantexample

ofawingedchthonicfigureattheendoftheseventhcenturyBCE.JanosSzilâgyi’sextensive

workonEtrusco-Corinthianceramicmaterialfrom630to580BCEproducedacorpusof

frequentlyusedimagesidentifiedonthisdistinctivestyleofpottery48.Init,Szilâgyi

identifiesaninscriptiontoVanthonthebaseofapiriformaryballosfromVulcithatwas

founddepositedinatombinMarsilianad’Albegna49.Theinscriptionreads,“Iamthe

beautifulofferingtoVanth”50.ThisinscriptionisoneofonlynineinstanceswhereVanth’s

namehasbeenpreserved,anditsearlydatemakesit(especially)unique.Szilâgyi

48AmongothernotableanthropomorphicformsidentifiedbySzilâgyiisa“MasterofBirds”(DeGrummond2005,6,fig.I.9).Thiswingedmalefiguresisoftendepictedinacrouchingposition(indicativeofrapidmovement).Heappearsonalateseventh,earlysixthcenturyalabastronwithtwobirdsrestingonhisoutstretchedwings.Heholdsathirdbirdarounditsneck.49Szilâgyi1989,624.50Colonna1997,171;Jannot2005,71.AlsonotethatwhiletheEtruscan’snon-Indo-Europeanlanguagehasnotbeendeciphered,theiradoptionoftheGreekalphabetinthemid-eightcenturyBCEdoesmakeitpossibletoreadshortinscriptions(suchasthisone),aswellastohelpdatematerialbasedonthewaytheformoftheletterschangedovertime.RexWallaceandLarissaBonfanteareleadingauthoritiesonmattersrelatedtotheEtruscanlanguage.


17

interpretsitasevidenceforanativeEtruscanmythologicaltradition,independentofGreek

influences–aviewechoedbyothersinlaterscholarship51.

Jannothassuggestedthattheartifactisevidencefortheexistenceofanactualcult

totheUnderworldfigureofVanth52.Certainlythedepositionofthisofferingaspartofa

tombassemblagesuggestsareciprocitybetweenthedeceased(ortheirfamily)andthe

Underworldfigure/goddessVanth.Twocenturieslaterasimilarlyinscribedvessel

excavatedfromanecropolisatSpinaprovidesadditionalsupportforcultactivityto

Vanth53.Theinscriptionisinthenominativecase–“mivant,”or,“IamVanth.”Likeitslate

Orientalizingpredecessor,thevesselwasleftinthetombasavotiveofferingperhapsin

exchangeforVanth’sassistance.WearesafetoassumethatVanth’sinterventionwould

havehadtodowiththecareandprotectionofthedeceased.And,indeed,ascomparanda

suggests,Vanthfunctionedasanescortforthedeceased,apsychopompthroughthe

Underworld54.Sheoftenleadsthedeceasedbythehand,orwithanarmaroundherorhis

shoulder55.Withthiscontextinmind,thedepositionofvotiveofferingsdedicatedtothis

powerfulUnderworldfiguremustsurelyhavebeenmeanttoinvokeherprotectionand

service.

AlthoughitwillnotbeuntiltheMiddlePeriodbeforeweseeforcertainourfirst

visualimageofVanth,herpresenceintheOrientalizingerasetsaprecedentforcultactivity

involvingwingedUnderworldfiguresingeneral.Datinglessthanacenturylater,an

inscriptiontoCharu(n)wasfoundonthefootofablackglazedterracottabowl,thoughtto

51MostnotablyDeGrummond(2005);andJannot(2005).52Jannot2005,71.53Colonna1997,171.54SeeFigs.23and24.55SeeFig.24foronesuchexamplefromthesecondcenturyBCEChiusiansarcophagusofHastiAfunei.


18

havecomefromCerveteri56.Itspresencestronglysuggestssimilarvotiveofferingswere

leftaspartofcultobservancescenteredaroundoneofourmostpopularUnderworld

figures.LongbeforevisualrepresentationsofeitherVanthorCharu(n)canbepositively

identified,cultactivitynotonlypointstotheirlongestablishedpresence,butalsotothe

ideologiestheirattributeswillcometosymbolize.Inthisway,thesevotiveofferings

compelustorethinkthepositionwingedUnderworldfiguresheldintheearliestphasesof

Etruscancivilization.

AstheOrientalizingeradrewtoaclose,innovationsinwallpaintingpreviously

referencedprovideuswithadditionalantecedentsthatalsopointtocontinuityinfunerary

ideology.Iconographythatincludesguardiansofdoors,realandfalse,inwallpainting,

alongwithhippocampiandotherreferencestothejourney,setthestagefortheimagesof

wingedUnderworldfiguresthatfollow.

ArchaicEra(600-450BCE)

TheearliestextantwallpaintingsfromTarquiniacomefromtheTombofthe

Panthers,ca.600BCE57.Thetombfeaturestwoheraldicallyplaced,highlystylized,spotted

felinesonthebackwallofasmallchambertomb[Fig.12].Therightfelineisinprofile.The

leftfelineoppositehasitsheadturnedtowardstheviewerwiththerestofitsbodyin

profile.BetweenthemrestsalowaltardecoratedwithwhatSteingräbercalls“amasklike

protomaofanotherpredatoryfeline”58.Thepairoffelinesresttheirfrontpawseitherright

aboveordirectlyontopofthealtar.Itisnotclearhowweshouldinterpretthisscene.

56SeeColonna1997,Fig5.57Steingräber2006,61;1986,333.NotethatSteingräberplacesthistombattheendoftheOrientalizingera.58Ibid2006,63.


19

Perhapsitwasmeanttoprotectthedeceasedbywardingoffthe‘EvilEye’inanapotropaic

manner.Thefelinesmayalsohavebeensymbolicreferencestolifeafterdeath59.

Morecurious,though,andthereasonIcallattentiontothebackwallofthetomb,

arethesetofsmallwingsthatappeartosproutfromtheheadofeachfeline.Theseoften

overlookedrenderingsareoutlinedinredpaintandfilledinwithblack,similarinstyleto

thecurlingtipoftheleftpanther’stail.Damagetothispartofthefrescomakesvisual

analysischallenging.Itisdifficulttotellwhetherthesewingsmightbeattachedtoactual

figures.60.Whateverthecase,theappearanceofwingsintheearliestexampleoftomb

paintingfromTarquinia,wherewewillseethelargestcontingencyofwinged“demons”

twotothreehundredyearslater,isprobablynotacoincidence.

Worthyofnotearetwoadditionalfelinesflankingtheinsideofthedoorway.The

placementofthese“rampant”felinesmusthavebeendeliberate61.Ridgwayarguesthatthe

seatedfelinesoneithersideofthedoorwereconceivedofas“guardiansofthetomb,

protectorsofthedeadandoftheirplaceinthecosmicorderofthings”62.Ridgwaypointsto

thenearlylifesizewingedlionspaintedintheTombofSanAndreainCancellonenear

MaglianoinToscanafromtheendoftheseventhcenturyBCEasantecedentsthemselvesto

thisthemeofprotectionderivedfromiconographyofbothpredatoryfelines,and,Iwould

argue,fromthewingstheypossess63.Inshort,thisthemeofprotectionishardlynewtous.

New,however,istheiconographythatweseeappearintheearliestexamplesofwall

59Thisisbased,inpart,onNaso’sinterpretationthatfelines,asrepresentedinEtruscanart,weresymbolsofdeath:“Thefunctionoftombpaintingmaybemorethandecorative:onecanpostulateanadditionalsymbolicmeaning,inwhich…lionsmaybeasymbolofviolentdeath”(2010,76).60Pieraccinihasproposedthatperhapsratherthanfigures,thefelinesarewearingwingedheaddresses.61Wemustalwaysremindourselvesthatapatron’schoiceiniconography,especiallyinwallpainting,wasdeliberate.SeeBonfante2003and2007andrelatedbibliography.622007,133.63Ibid.


20

paintingfromtheArchaicera,andthewayitisbeingusedtoexpresstheunderlyingand

familiarideologyofprotection.Paintedfalsedoorsappearnextinthesixthcenturyand

becomeanothersymbolicallychargedinnovationinArchaiceraiconographyusedto

expressthefundamentalthemeofthejourney.

Inall,TorelliidentifiesseventeentombsfromTarquiniabetween560and500BCE

thatcontainatleastone(andinseveralinstancesuptothree)paintedfalsedoors.Inclose

associationwithinnovationsofthesixthcenturyinwallpaintingthatincludescenesof

dancing,revelry,banqueting,funerarygames,andeveneroticencounters,theplacementof

paintedfalsedoorswithinthesenarrativesbeginstodesignatethetombasaliminalspace,

operatingbetweentheterrestrialworldandtheAfterworld64.Thesepaintedfalsedoors,

therefore,werelikelyconceivedassymbolicportalstotheafterlife.Theywereawayfor

thedeceasedtopassintotheworldbeyondbyusingthegeographyofthetombas

symbolizedthroughitspaintediconography.

Inadditiontofiguresthatflankedthesidesofpaintedfalsedoors,wealsosee

innovationsintheArchaicerathroughpaintedimagerythatdepictshippocampi(half

horse,halfseacreature)intheupperpedimentofthebackorentrancewallofthetomb.

Thegable,ortympanum,seemstohaveachievedsymbolicimportanceduringtheArchaic

era,oftenphysicallyseparatedbyaseriesofhorizontalgroundlinesfromthemainportion

ofthewallandthenarrativescenedepictedthereon.Furtherreferencingandemphasizing

thethemeofthejourney,thesehybridseacreaturesaresometimesdepictedwiththe

deceasedridingontheirback,suchasinthetympanumontheentrancewallintheTombof

theBullsatTarquinia,ca.530BCE.Thehippocampushereappearstobecarryingayoung

64Torelli1999,157.


21

mantowardsalandmass,interpretedastheAfterworld65.Thissceneofjourneyandof

destination66isrepeatedincountlesstombsthroughouttheArchaicera,tothepointwhere

themotifbecomesconventional67.Thesenarrativescenesbringintofocusthedeeply

engrainedbeliefwithintheEtruscanfunerarycontextintheexistenceofpsychopompoi,or

guidesforthedead.Itwillbethiscoreprinciple,continuousthroughoutallphasesof

Etruscancivilizationthatwillgiveriseinthefourthandthirdcenturiestothevisual

representationsofwingedUnderworldfigures.

MiddlePeriod(450-325/300BCE)

WehaveseenhowantecedentsforwingedUnderworldfigurescanbetracedasfar

backastheOrientalizingeraoninscribedvotiveofferingstoVanth.Wehaveestablisheda

linkbetweentheiconographyofdoorsinArchaicwallpaintingwiththematic

representationsofthejourney.Wehavefurtherestablishedatraditionthatdatesbackto

theearliestphasesofEtruscancivilizationthatplacedgreatvalueintheroleof

psychopompoi–identifyingtheirpresenceinArchaicwallpaintingintheformof

hippocampianddeceasedridersonhorseback.Wehavealsobrieflyexploredthenotion

thatthetombitselffunctionedasakindofUnderworldgeographicallandscape,guiding

anddirectingthedeceasedthroughtheUnderworldandintotheafterlife.Andwehave

designatedtheTomboftheBlueDemonsasareferencepointfromwhichtolookbackat

theseearlierepochs.Itistimewelookforwardtothefourthcentury,andtothe

comparandathatwillhelpsolidifyourargument.

65Steingräber2006,91;Jannot2006,61.66Krauskopf2006,69.67Alongwithhippocampi,frequentlyoccurringstylizedmotifsthatincludewavepatternsinterspersedwithdivingdolphins,suchasintheTomboftheLionessesatTarquinia,ca.520BCE,arealsobelievedtoreferencetheseajourneyintotheafterlife.WewillnotethelongevityofthismotifasitoccursinoneofourlatestexamplesoftombpaintingfromTarquinia,theTomboftheTyphon,ca.275BCE.


22

Thesecondclaimthatanincreasein“demon”iconographyreflectedan

overwhelmingsenseofpessimismthatinvadedEtruriaduringtheMiddleandLatePeriods

needstobeaddressed68.Wehaveseen,tosomeextent,thisnotionplayedoutintheTomb

oftheBlueDemonsthroughinterpretationsconceivedofGreekmodelsreplacingtraditional

EtruscanideologiesduringthetransitionalfifthcenturyBCE.But,asRidgwayargues,one

tombaboveallhasbeenusedbythe“proponentsofthe‘doomandgloom”theory69,namely

theTomboftheOrcusatTarquinia,datingtothelastseveraldecadesofthefourthcentury

BCE.TheTomboftheOrcusisinfactcomprisedofthreetombs(OrcusI,II,andIII).OrcusI

andIIwerejoinedsometimeatthebeginningofthethirdcenturyBCEbyalongconnecting

corridor,OrcusIII70.Theundergroundsepulchreisenteredtodaythroughalongdromos

anddoorwaythatleadsintoOrcusI.Ridgwayprovidesanexcellentschematicgroundplan

ofthetomb71[Fig.13],andtheplacementofitsextensivepaintedelements.

TheprogramofpaintingsinthistombreflectsavisionoftheUnderworld,aswe

haveyetneverseen.Thenarrativescenesandimagesappeartohavebeeninspiredby

Homer’sOdyssey,andothercontemporaryworksofGreekliterature72.Scenessuchasthe

blindingofPolyphemosarecapturedintruefresco,theartisthavingfirstappliedseveral

centimetersofplasteronwhichtowork.TheseusandPeirithoos,alongwithfigureslikethe

bandagedAgamemnon,theshadeofTiresias,andAjaxareeachidentifiedbyinscriptions.

Animulae,or“tinyhumansilhouettes,”clingtothereeds,havingbeenfreedfromthe

68Thisclaimhasmultiplesources.TheyincludetheunsubstantiatedclaimthatTorellimakes,suggestingthatacrisisoffaith,sotospeak,wasthecauseforanincreaseinwinged“demons”attheendofthefifthcentury.Mischaracterizationsbyearliergenerations(seeDatingandNomenclaturesubsection)thatinterpretedthesefiguresthroughJudeo-Christianconstructsareanothersource.69Ibid,131.70Steingräber2006,206-209.71Ridgway2007,Fig.1.72Ridgway2007,131;Jannot2005,67.


23

“weightoflivingbodies”73.Andinthebackrecessesofthetomb,thedivinecouple,Aitaand

Phersipnai(GreekHadesandPersephone),holdscourtwithattendantmonstersofthe

Underworldincludingthetriple-bodiedgiantGeryon,Cerberus,andtheHydra.Tothis

narrativeprogram,steepedin“Greekdoctrine”74,nolessthaneightwingedfigures,three

preservedalmostintheirentirety,areinserted.

Ratherthanavisionoftheterrifying,nightmarish“demonicUnderworld”75that

somescholarshaveinterpretedthesescenestomean,Ridgwaysuggestsotherwise.She

basesherargumentnotjustonthemannersheperceivesthewingedUnderworldfiguresin

thevariousnarrativestobefunctioning,butonthecontinuityinideologiesthey

communicate.Crossingthethresholdintothetomb,oureyeisimmediatelydrawntothe

well-preservedrenderingofthewingedUnderworld“demon,”Charu(n)[Fig.14].Apartial

inscriptionleavesnodoubtastohisidentity.Butevenwithoutthat,wewouldbeableto

identifythefigurethroughhisvariousattributes.Themalletwewouldexpecthimtobe

carryingisonlypartiallypreserved.Hiswingsaremagnificent,thecolorsstillvibrantover

twothousandyearsaftertheywerepainted.Thefeathersalternatecolorsbetweendark

redandagrayishblue,withadeepgoldenyellowpatchonthewing’sinterior.Theouter

rimofhiswingsfeaturesadiamondpatternthatisidenticaltothemarkingsofahighly

venomoussnakeinItaly(thenandnow),theadder76.

Charu(n)wasjoinedoriginallybyanotherwinged“demon,”whoseimagehasnot

survived.Thepairflankedarecessedwallonwhichafamilybanquetscenewasrendered.

73Jannot2005,67.74Ibid.75DeGrummond2005,231.InthesameaforementionedcorrespondencewithDeGrummond,shereferredtothispointofviewastheaccepted“partyline,”warrantingfurtherinvestigation.76Hostetler,2002inDeGrummond2006,218.


24

Weknowthroughinscriptionthisbanquetincludedatleastthreegenerationsofthesame

familythatwasentombedhere77.Intheconnectingcorridor,OrcusIII,thepainted

remnantsofasimilarfamilybanquetscenearenowmostlylostduetorenovationswhen

theyconnectedthetwochambers(OrcusIandII).Alowbenchwascutdownthelengthof

thewallwheresarcophagioftheportraittype,typicalfromthethirdcenturyon,were

placed.Ridgwaysuggeststhesesarcophagiwereconfiguredinfrontofthiswalltomimic

thebanquetsceneoriginallyrenderedthereinpaint78.Paintedremainsofthekylekeion

surviveontheadjoiningwall.Twoblond-haired,nude79youngmen,onewithwings,

appeartobeactingascupbearerstothesimulatedbanquethappeninginfrontofthem[Fig.

15].

Ridgwayinterpretsthesescenesashappyoccasionsinwhichthefamilyengagesin

aneternalbanquetintheUnderworld,presidedoverbywinged“demons”80.Sheagrees

thatonthesurfacethisvisionoftheUnderworldisradicallydifferentfromthescenesof

dancing,ludi,anderoticpleasuredepictedonthewallsoftombsfromtheArchaicera81.

However,theselaternarrativesstillcommunicatecontinuitywithearliericonographic

traditions.Theyfosteraconceptionoftheafterlifefreefrompunishmentanddevoidof

judgment.Charu(n),likeVanth,ispresentnottotormentthedeceased,butrathertoguide

andprotectthem.

77Steingräber2006,207.78Ridgway2007,131.79Bonfante(1996,155)arguesthatdepictionsofnudityinEtruscanartwere“closelyrelatedtodeath.”Herinterpretationisbasedonthebeliefthatnudityhadanapotropaicfunction,protectingthelivingandthedeadfromthe“EvilEye.”80Ridgway2007,128-131.81SeeSteingraber2006fortheTomboftheTriclinium(136),TomboftheAugurs(92),TomboftheWhipping(67),andTomboftheBulls(91).


25

ProceedingintoOrcusII,weencountertheraredepictionoftheEtruscanwinged

“demon,”Tuchulcha[Figs.3and16].Inadditiontoitsuniquephysiognomy,snakessprout

fromthefigure’shead,andunfurlfromitswings(whichmatchthesamediamond-shaped

patternwejustnotedonCharu(n)’swings).Tuchulcha’sgenderissomewhatambiguousin

thisdepiction.Thefigurewearsawoman’sgarment,similartoapeplos,thathintsatthe

presenceoffemalebreasts82.Tuchulcha’sskincolorisapaleorangethatmatchesthepatch

ontheinteriorofthewings83.ThepaleorangeisinstarkcontrasttoTheseus’sdarkreddish

brownskintone,thatleavesnodoubtastothehero’sgender.Theaforementionedserpent

isbeingusedtomenacebothTheseusandPeirithoos,whohavebrokenthelawsofnature,

daringtoentertheUnderworldasmortals,wheretheyplantokidnapPhersepnai

(Persephone).Properlycontextualizingthisasabreachinthefabricbetweenthelivingand

thedeadhelpsustoaccuratelyinterpretTuchulcha’sfunctioninthescene.Ratherthan

anotherexampleofanallegednewandterrifyingviewoftheUnderworld,manyscholars

nowbelievethatTuchulchafunctionedinamannerthatwasmeanttoprotectthe“cosmic

order”oftheuniverse84.Thisinterpretationbearsfruitandisconsistentwiththenarrative

contextwefindTuchulchainonamid-fourthcenturyBCEEtruscanred-figurevolute

kraterfromVulci.

OnonesideoftheVulciankrater,theGreekmythofAlcestisandAdmetusis

depictedinan“Etruscanised”manner85[Fig.17].Flankingthefigureofhusbandandwife

aretwo“demons”identifiablebytheirattributes.TotheleftofAlcestis,thefigureof

82DeGrummond2005,218.83ThisisbasedoffofmyownobservationsandissupportedbyDeGrummond2006,218.84SeeDeGrummond(2005);Ridgway(2007);andPieracciniandDelChiaro(2013).85PieracciniandDelChiaro2013,304.Theterm“Etruscanised”referstothemannerinwhichEtruscansadoptedandadaptedGreekmythsbyinsertingdistinctlyEtruscanvisualelements(suchaswingedUnderworldfigures)intothem,thusmakingthesemythstheirown.


26

Charu(n)isclearlydepicted.Althoughthisversionofthefigureiswingless,hecarrieshis

attributivemallet.Ontheright,flankingAdmetus,PieracciniandDelChiaroconvincingly

arguethatthewinged“demon”weseerenderedisinfactTuchulcha86.Notonlydowe

recognizeTuchulcha’suniquephysiognomy,buthe87alsobrandishesthesamesnakeswe

sawinOrcusII.Asidefromhisattributes,however,theinterpretationisbasedonthe

ideologicalpurposethatTuchulchaappearstofulfillinthenarrative.PieracciniandDel

Chiarowrite,“Admetuswasmeanttodie,buthereescapeddeath–aneventthatclearly

disruptedtheorderofthe[U]nderworld”88.Thus,Tuchulcha’spresenceatAdmetus’sside,

menacinghimwithsnakes(oftheUnderworld),notonlyattemptstosetrightthis

disruptiontothecosmicorder,italsocreatesanentirelynewandpurelyEtruscancontext

toaGreekmyth,adoptedandadaptedtofittheneedsofanEtruscanfuneraryideology.

Furthermore,whiletheimageofTuchulchamightbenew,thefigure’sfunctionof

maintainingthecosmicorderbetweenthelivingandthedeadisanancientthemewehave

alreadytracedbacktotheearlyArchaiceraintheTombofthePanthers,andtheTombof

SanAndreabeforethat.

Overall,theTomboftheOrcusisnotrepresentativeofadepressionvisitedon

Etruriaduringthefourthandthirdcenturies.Whilethemoodmaynotbeoptimistic,

neitherisitdarkandbrooding.WhilecloudsoftheUnderworldswirlaroundthefiguresin

thisgrandsepulchre,thelevelofdetailandofculturalcapitaltheartistachievedonbehalf

ofhispatronisstriking.ThisvisionoftheUnderworldisbold,andthepresenceofsomany

wingedfiguresisexhilarating.Heretheprincipleoffamilyunitywheretheclanwillforever

862013,306-307.87Inthisrendering,PieracciniandDelChiaroarguethefigureisdefinitivelymoremasculineinappearance.88PieracciniandDelChiaro2013,207.


27

begatheredinthepresenceofheroesfromHomericlegendisemphasized.Insertedinto

thepaintedvignettesfromGreeklegend,Charu(n),Tuchulcha,andtheasyetidentified

wingedfigureswhoseimageshavebeenlost,redefinetheseHellenicmythstofitwithinthe

boundsofEtruscanfunerarypracticeandideology.Ratherthancreateanewideology,the

Greekelementsareabsorbedintothefuneraryideologiesrepresentedbyourpurely

EtruscanwingedUnderworldfigures.Weevenseethereturnofthebanquetaswinged

Charu(n)figureskeepawatchfuleyeoverthedeceasedfamilyastheyreclinetogether

triumphantoverdeath,oratleastthefearassociatedwithdying.

LatePeriod(325/300-1stcenturyBCE)

AsthethirdcenturyBCEdawnsinEtruria,theappearanceofwingedUnderworld

figuresreachesafeverpitch.Forroughlythenextonehundredandfiftyyears,winged

“demons”willdominatefuneraryiconography,symbolicallyimbuedwithoverfive

centuriesofEtruscanfuneraryideology.This,forsure,istheeraofCharu(n)andVanth,

andanopportunitytocomefullcircleinourdiscussion.Fromtheearliestphasesof

Etruscanart,theideologicalneedtoprotectandcareforthedeceasedastheymadetheir

wayintotheafterlifeandbeyond,foundexpressioninavarietyoficonographicnarratives

andthemes.ThisneeddoesnotdiminishinlaterphasesofEtruscanart.Additional

comparandacontinuestosupportourargument.

ThethirdcenturyBCETomboftheCharuns[Fig.18]atTarquiniabeautifully

illustratesthenowfamiliarthemeofsymmetricallyplacedfiguresflankingthesidesof

paintedfalsedoors.Twodoors,tobeprecise,areeachflankedbyapairofwingedCharu(n)

figures–fourinall,eachidentifiedbyinscription.DeGrummondnotesthepresenceofa


28

bynameinthreeofthefourinscriptions89,raisingtheissueofwhetherthenameCharu(n)

shouldbethoughtofgenerically90.WewillseethisissuecomeupwithVanthaswellina

moment.Fornow,wenotethateachfigureisnotacarboncopyofitsneighbor.Endowed

withattributesthatincludeCharu(n)’scustomaryblueskin,oneofthefiguresalsosports

theappearanceofblackpockmarks–perhapsrepresentativeofdecomposition.Wenotea

secondCharu(n)carryingasword(araredepiction)inhisrighthand,whilewieldingthe

morecustomarymalletinhisleft.Hisorangecoloredtuniccontrastswiththatofthe

Charu(n)withwhomhesharescustodyofthedoor.Amantleofdarkbluish-greenfeathers

accentsthebrowntuniconthisadjacentfigure.Hecarriesanaxinhislefthand.Snakes

writheinthefigures’hair(whichincludesblondforatleasttwofigures),andeachwears

thecustomaryhuntingbootswewouldexpecttosee.Thepairthatflankstheseconddoor

isnotaswellpreserved.Inall,thesefourfiguresleavenodoubtastotheroleCharu(n)

playedasgatekeepertotheUnderworld.AndRidgwayrightfullynotesantecedentsin,

amongotherexamples,thepairofboxersthatflanktheentranceintheArchaiceraTomb

CardarelliatTarquinia91.

AtombdatedtothefirstquarterofthethirdcenturyBCEatTarquinia,theAnina

FamilyTomb,featurestwonearlylifesizepaintedfiguresflankingitsentrancewall.Onthe

right,identifiedbyinscription,isCharu(n)[Fig.19].Ontheleft,alsoidentifiedby

inscription,ishisfemalecounterpart,Vanth[Fig.20].Bothfiguresfacethedoorwayready

toconfrontanyoneenteringorleavingthetomb[Fig.21].Charu(n)hashismallet,perhaps

tomenaceanywould-betombrobbers,whileourUnderworldgoddessVanthwithbreasts

89Thefourthfigurelikelyhadabynameaswell,buttheinscriptionforthisfigureisincomplete.90DeGrummond2005,214-215.912007,133.


29

exposed,carriesthetorchthatwilllightthedarknessunderground.Thetombillustrates

theharmonywithwhichthepairoperates.Oneguards,whiletheotherguides.Antecedents

forthesefigurescanbefoundinthesixthcenturyTomboftheAugurs92[Fig.22]at

Tarquinia,inadditiontotheaforementionedexamples.

AsEtruscantombpaintingisthoughttodrawtoaclosearound275BCE93,stone

sarcophagiwithcarvedreliefpanelsfeaturingwingedUnderworldfiguresfillthevoid.

Tarquiniaalonepreservesdozensofsuchsarcophagi.Likethebanquetscenesthatbecame

conventionalcenturiesbefore,sotooarethescenesofthedeceasedbeingledeitheron

horseback,inchariots,orevenwagonsbyCharu(n),oftenwithVanthbookendingthe

funeraryprocession,torchinhand[Fig.23].Thefamiliarthemeofthejourneyandtherole

ofpsychopompoiintheguiseofwinged“demons”aretheemphasisofmanyoftheseLate

Periodsarcophagi94.

OfspecialnoteisasecondcenturyBCEsarcophagusofawoman,HastiAgunei,from

ChiusiwithnolessthanthreefemaleUnderworldfigurescarvedinstonerelief[Fig.24].

Inscriptionsabovethefiguresprovideuswithtwooftheirnames.Thefigurefarthesttothe

leftislabeled“Culsu.”SheemergesfromthepartiallyopeneddoorwaytotheUnderworld.

Sheholdsatorch,andwearsthecustomaryshortskirtandhighleatherhuntingboots.Her

breastsareexposed,andsheisdevoidofwings.ToherimmediateleftisVanth,asher

inscriptiondenotes.Sheisdepictedwithanenormouskeyorboltthatmustbearsome

92Ridgway(2007,133)notesthatthepairofprieststhatflankthepaintedfalsedooronthebackwallofthetombstrikeaposturethatmaysuggesttheirpresenceasguardiansorkeepersofthesymbolicportaltotheUnderworld.93Ridgway(2003,11)isadamantthattombpaintinginEtruriacametoanendinthefirstquarterofthethirdcenturyBCE.94OneoftheraredepictionsofwingedUnderworldfigurestosurvivefromancientCaereisdisplayedattheMuseoNazionaleCerite.TwolargepanelfragmentsfromwhatappearstohavebeenthesideofasarcophagusdepictatleastfiveUnderworldfigures,threeofwhichhavewings.


30

relationshiptothedoorshestandsincloseproximityto.Vanthhereisalsowearingher

characteristicshortskirtandhuntingboots,andherbreastsareexposedaswell.Athird

figure,whoseinscriptiondoesnotsurvive,balancesthesceneontheright.This“Vanth-

like”figure95(identifiedaswewouldexpectbyherattributiveshortskirt,huntingboots,

exposedbreasts,and,inthisinstance,bywings)hastakenthedeceasedgentlybythearm

andisabouttoleadhertowardsthetwofiguresonthefarleftanddoortotheUnderworld.

Thewoman’srelativesstandbetweenherandthedoortotheUnderworldwaitingtobid

herfinalfarewell.

HereinonecomplexnarrativewehavethreefemaleUnderworldfigures,twoof

whichareclearlyassociatedwiththedoortotheUnderworld,andthemeanstoopenand

closethatdoor.ThelabelCulsu,Jannotargues,isnotsomuchapropername,asawordthat

describessomeone“inchargeofadoor”96.Likethebynameswejustobservedforour

multipleCharu(n)figuresintheTomboftheCharuns,the“generic-like”97labelhereseems

toemphasizefunctionaswellasform.Iamnotthefirsttowonderwhetherthepluralitywe

observeinVanthandCharu(n)may,inpart,beexplainedbyregionaldifferences

throughoutEtruriainthewaythesefigureswereoriginallyconceivedof.Perhapsthered-

hairedfemaleUnderworldfigurefromthelatefourthcenturyBCETomboftheInfernal

QuadrigaatSarteanoisaregionalvariantonthemorefamiliarCharu(n)figuresthat

Tarquiniantombshavepreservedingreaterabundance.Furtherinvestigationswillno

doubthelptoprovideuswithfreshperspectives.

95DeGrummond2005,222-223.96Jannot2006,64.97DeGrummond2006,224.


31

VariationsintheroleofCharu(n)andVantharenotedinthelatefourthcenturyBCE

FrancoisTombatVulci[Fig.25].HerewingedVanthisdressedrathermoremodestly(by

modernstandards),herbreastscoveredandinafulllength,pleatedgarment.Sheholdsa

scroll,ratherthanatorch,asshewitnessesthebloodysacrificeoftheTrojanprisonersby

Achilles.AwinglessCharu(n)standsoppositeher,glaringdownatamortallywounded

prisoner.Reminiscentofthe“Etruscanized”HomericlegendsintheTomboftheOrcus,the

insertionofwinged(andnon-winged)UnderworldfiguresintheFrancoisTombalso

createsanewnarrativethatiscompletelyEtruscanincontext.Thisraisesafinalpoint.

PeterHollidayhaswrittenextensivelyonnarrativeperformanceaspartofEtruscan

andlaterRomanfuneraryrituals98.Theritualisticnatureofbloodlettingsographically

portrayedintheFrancoisTomb,drawsstrongparallelswiththebloodyPhersugamefrom

thelastthirdofthesixthcenturyintheTomboftheAugursatTarquinia.Thepracticeis

thoughttohaveaconnectiontolaterRomangladiatorialcontests.Whileweneedalwaysbe

vigilantaboutkeepingEtruscancontextsseparatefromRoman(aswellasGreek)contexts,

wearecorrecttoassumethatRomeadoptedatleastsomeEtruscanfuneraryideologiesin

thecenturiesprecedingRomanconquest.Thoseideologiesthatwereconcernedwiththe

care,protection,andimmortalityofthedeceasedwouldhavebeenespeciallyattractive99.

WeknowforcertainthattheRomanscooptedEtruscanreligiousandcivicsymbolsof

powersuchasthelituus,andsellacurulis.Itfollows,then,thattheRomanswouldhave

borrowedideologiesarounddeathandtheafterlifefromtheEtruscansaswell.Continuity

ofthiskindhasonlyjustbeguntobestudiedinmattersrelatingtoiconographic

98See1993,175;and2002,128fordiscussion.99Holliday(2002,128)writes,“Thesurvivalofthesoulwasanancient,anddeep-seatedbeliefinItaly.”


32

antecedentsbetweenEtruscantombpaintingandlaterRomanwallpainting100.Fornowwe

maylegitimatelyask–whoconqueredwhom?

Conclusion

Wemustbearinmindthatthesubjectmatteronpaintedtombwalls,aswellason

paintedvases,andstonesarcophagi,weredeeplypersonalchoices.Madeeitherbythe

deceasedbeforetheirdeath,orbythefamilyafterwards,theiconographyselectedno

doubtwasmeanttoconveyassymbolicallypotentamessageaspossible.Itisworth

rememberingthattheimagesfrompaintedtombs,specifically,werenevermeantforpublic

consumption,andthatthesetombswererarely,ifever,reentered.Wemustaskourselves

whatsortofculturalcapitalwastheretobegainedbythedeceasedandtheirkinby

selectingtheiconographyofwingedUnderworldfigures?

Tosomeextentwecantry,asthisstudyhas,toexplainthepopularizationof

“demon”iconographyintheMiddleandLatePeriodsasacontinuingcommitmenttothe

traditionalreligiousandfuneraryideologiesfromthedistantpast.Ritualisticbeliefsand

potentUnderworldfigurespopulatedthelidsofashurnsfromtheeighthcentury101.

InscribedvotiveofferingstoVantharefoundintombassemblagesbeginninginthelast

decadesoftheseventhcenturyBCE,withsimilarinscriptionstoCharu(n)followinga

centurybehind.IconographicinnovationsduringthelateOrientalizingandearlyArchaic

erasoframpantpredatoryfelines,paintedfalsedoors,symmetricallyplacedfigures

flankingrealandpainteddoorways,andhippocampiservingaspsychopompoiforthe

deceased,capturedtheEtruscan’simaginationuntilthetransitionalfifthcentury.

100Pieraccini(2014)isaleadingvoiceinthisdiscussion.101TheBisenzioashurn,ca.725BCE(seeDeGrummond2005,fig.I.2).


33

Ihavearguedabovethatitwaspreciselybecausethethreatofchangeloomedso

largeduringthisperiodof“crisis”thattheEtruscansweredrawntothechthonicfiguresof

theirancestors.InthesewingedUnderworldfiguresIbelievetheynotonlymaintained

continuitywithtraditionalbeliefs,theymayevenhavefortifiedthosebeliefsystems.

Providingcomfortnotjustforthedeceased,butmoreimportantly,forthoseleft

behindtogrievetheloss,hadtohavebeenachiefconcern.Inthisway,wingedUnderworld

figureswouldhavebeenideal.TheirabundanceintheLatePeriodcertainlysuggeststhis

wasthecase.LikelyconceivedofnativeEtruscanmythologicaltraditions(nowlost),these

wingedfiguresrepresentedtraditionalreligiousbeliefsystemsandfuneraryideologies.

Comfortwasfoundthroughconnectionwiththepast.Andnowherewasthismorereadily

apparentfortheEtruscansthaninthedeeplyrespectedfunerarysphere.Theirvast

necropoleisstandasvisibleremindersofthistruth.Wehaveonlythefaintestglimpseinto

howtheEtruscanUnderworldmighthavebeenperceived.TheTomboftheOrcusoffersus

onesuchvision.TheTomboftheBlueDemonssuggeststhatitcouldbetreacherousattimes

tonavigate.Charu(n)withhismallet,andVanthwithhertorchwerethedeceased’sfriends

andallies.Thatthoughtmusthavebeenofgreatcomforttothefamilyleftgrievingtheloss

ofalovedone.

UnlockingthemysteriestotheEtruscanafterlife,asKrauskopfnotes,hasbeen

especiallychallenginggiventheemotionallychargedanddeeplypersonalritualsthatare

oftenassociatedwithdeathandburial102.Whateverthecase,arichculturalheritagethat

includednotjustavastcorpusofreligiousandfunerarytexts,butcertainlyanextensive

pantheonofnativeEtruscandeities,nourishedtheEtruscanspiritinlife,justasitdidinthe

1022006,66.


34

afterlife.Withinthiseternalcycleoflife,death,andrebirth,EtruscanwingedUnderworld

figuresplayedavitalrole.


35

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41

APPENDIXA:ChronologicalListingofWingedUnderworldFiguresinEtruria

1. VanthinscriptiononpiriformaryballosfromMarsilianaD’Albegna(Vulci),endof

theseventhcenturyBCE.2. “MasterofBirds”onEtrusco-CorinthianalabastronfromVulci,ca.630-580BCE.3. TombofthePanthersatTarquinia,ca.600BCE.4. Bronze“demoness”figureholdingagildedbirdfromTombof“Isis”fromVulci,ca.

600-575BCE.5. Caeretanterracottabrazierwithcylinderstamparoundrimwithwingedmale

figuredepictedfromancientCaere,ca.575-500BCE.6. Charu(n)inscriptiononfootofblackglazedbowlfromVallePegaNecropolisat

Spina,ca.530-520BCE.7. Etruscanblack-figurestamnoswithwingedmaleUnderworldfigurefromVulci,

earlyfifthcenturyBCE.8. Birdheaded“demon”onablack-figurepotterysherd,provenienceunknown,early

fifthcenturyBCE.9. Scarabseal,provenienceunknown,earlyfifthcenturyBCE.10. TomboftheBlueDemonsatTarquinia,ca.400BCE.11. TomboftheMaidenatTarquinia,endofthefifthcenturyBCE.12. “Vanth”Group–collectionofred-figurepotteryfeaturingdepictionsofVanthand

Charu(n)intheirusualrolesofguidingandguardingfromOrvieto,ca.fourthcenturyBCE.

13. GoliniITombatOrvieto,mid-fourthcenturyBCE.14. Etruscanred-figurevolutekraterwithCharu(n)andTuchulchainsertedintoGreek

mythofAlcestisandAdmetusfromVulci,ca.350BCE.15. Etruscanred-figurevasewithCharu(n)andAmazonsfromVulci,ca.fourthcentury

BCE.16. GravestelaegroupfromBologna,fourthcenturyBCE.17. GoliniIITombatOrvieto,thirdquarteroffourthcenturyBCE.18. TomboftheOrcusatTarquinia,secondthirdoffourthcenturyBCE.19. FrancoisTombatVulci,thirdquarteroffourthcenturyBCE.20. TomboftheShieldsatTarquinia,thirdquarteroffourthcenturyBCE.21. TomboftheInfernalQuadrigaatSarteano,endofthefourthcenturyBCE.22. HescanasTombatOrvieto,endofthefourthcenturyBCE.23. Stonereliefpanel(sarcophagus?)fromancientCaere,endofthefourthcenturyBCE.24. AninaFamilyTombatTarquinia,thirdcenturyBCE.25. TomboftheGarlandsatTarquinia,270BCE.26. TomboftheCardinalatTarquinia,firsthalfofthethirdcenturyBCE.27. TomboftheCharunsatTarquinia,secondquarterofthethirdcenturyBCE.28. Tomb5636atTarquinia,thirdcenturyBCE.29. TomboftheTyphonatTarquinia,endofthethirdcenturyBCE.30. SarcophagusofHastiAfuneifromChiusi,thirdcenturyBCE.31. SarcophagusofLarisPulenasfromTarquinia,thirdcenturyBCE.32. TerracottaashurngroupfromChiusianterritory,secondcenturyBCE.


42

APPENDIXB:IMAGES

Fig.1 Charu(n)flanksthelefthandsideoftheentrancewallintheAninaFamilyTomb,atTarquinia,ca.thirdcenturyBCE.(Photo:author).

Fig.2 OppositeCharu(n),VanthflankstherighthandsideoftheentrancewallintheAninaFamilyTombatTarquinia,ca.thirdcenturyBCE.(Photo:author).


43

Fig.3 TuchulchamenacesTheseusandPeirithoosintheUnderworldwithasnake.TomboftheOrcusII,Tarquinia,ca.330BCE.(Photo:author).

Fig.4 ContinuousfriezeintheTomboftheBlueDemonsatTarquinia,ca.400BCE.Thenarrativeontherightwallofthetombdepictsadeceasedwoman’sjourneythroughthe

UnderworldalongwiththepresenceoffourUnderworldfigures.(Photo:author).


44

Fig.5 Detailofheadfromblack-skinnedwinged“demon.”TomboftheBlueDemons,Tarquinia,ca.400BCE.(Photo:author).

Fig.6 Ablue-skinnedUnderworldfigurebrandishingsnakesconfrontsablack-skinnedwinged“demon”atthethresholdtotheUnderworld.TomboftheBlueDemons,Tarquinia,

ca.400BCE.(Photo:author).


45

Fig.7 EscortedbytwoUnderworldfigures(blue-skinnedandreddishbrown-skinned),theprotagonistinthescene,adeceasedwoman(pleatedskirtstillvisible)meetsherwaiting

kin(left)intheUnderworld.TomboftheBlueDemons,Tarquinia,ca.400BCE.(Photo:author).

Fig.8 Aboatwithanoarsman(left)waitstocarrythedeceased(notpictured)andherkinintotheafterlife.TomboftheBlueDemons,Tarquinia,ca.400BCE.(Photo:author).


46

Fig.9 Detailofblue-skinneddemonbrandishingbeardedsnakes.TomboftheBlueDemons,Tarquinia,ca.400BCE.(Photo:author).

Fig.10EtruscanscarabdepictingwingeddemonsleadingayouthtotheUnderworld,provenienceunknown,earlyfifthcenturyBCE.Boston,MuseumofFineArts,inv.21.1198.

(Photo:Scarrone2011,Fig.10).


47

Fig.11FunerarystelefromBologna,mid-fifthcenturyBCE.ArchaeologicalMuseumofBologna.(Photofrommuseum’swebsite).

Fig.12TwoheraldicpanthersdecoratetheupperportionofthebackwalloftheTombofthePanthers,Tarquinia,ca.600BCE.Notethewingsthatdecoratethetopofeachfeline’s

head.(Photo:Steingräber2006,61).


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Fig.13PlanoftheTomboftheOrcusI,II,andIIIshowingthepositionofthepaintings,atTarquinia,ca.330-300BCE.(Ridgway2007,Fig.1).

Fig.14Charu(n)flankstherighthandwallofaloculuswherefragmentsofapaintedbanquetscenearejustbarelyvisible.TomboftheOrcusI,Tarquinia,ca.330BCE.(Photo:

author).


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Fig.15KylekeionalongwithtwonudeUnderworldfigures(onewithwings)servingas

cupbearers.TomboftheOrcusII,Tarquinia,ca.330BCE.(Photo:author).

Fig.16DetailofTuchulchawithserpentmenacingTheseusintheUnderworld.TomboftheOrcusII,Tarquinia,ca.330-300BCE.(Photo:author).


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Fig.17Red-figurevolutekraterdepictingthe“Etruscanised”mythofAlcestisandAdmetus.TheUnderworldfigure,Charu(n)(left),canbeidentifiedbythemallethecarries.The

wingedUnderworldfigure,Tuchulcha(right),isidentifiedbyhisuniquephysiognomyandtheroleheappearstobeservinginmaintainingcosmicorder.Vulci,ca.350BCE.

(Photo:Martelli1987,pl.222).

Fig.18TwoCharu(n)figures,identifiedbyinscription,flankoneoftwopaintedfalsedoorsintheTomboftheCharunsatTarquinia,thirdcenturyBCE.(Photo:author)


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Fig.19DetailofCharu(n)’sheadinprofilefromtheAninaFamilyTombatTarquinia,thirdcenturyBCE.(Photo:author).

Fig.20DetailofVanth’sheadinprofilefromtheAninaFamilyTombatTarquinia,thirdcenturyBCE.(Photo:author)


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Fig.21Charu(n)guards,VanthguidesastheyflankthedoorwayontheinsidewalloftheAninaFamilyTombatTarquinia,thirdcenturyBCE.(Photo:DeAgostiniPictureLibrary/

Scala,Florence.)

Fig.22TwosymmetricallyplacedfiguresflankapaintedfalsedoorintheTomboftheAugursatTarquinia,ca.530BCE.(Photo:author).


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Fig.23Agroupofthirdcenturyportrait-typestonesarcophagiintheArchaeologicalMuseumatTarquinia.EscortedbyCharu(n)(centerfigureholdingmallet),thedeceased(onhorseback)makeshiswayintotheUnderworld.TwoVanthfigures(farrightandleft)fulfilltheroleofpsychopompoi,lightingthewaythroughtheUnderworldwiththeirtorches

raisedhigh.(Photo:author).

Fig.24SarcophagusofHastiAfuneifromChiusi,secondcenturyBCE.Culsu(farleft)emergesfromthedoortotheUnderworld,torchslungoverhershoulder.NexttoherleaninganenormouskeyisawinglessVanthfigure.AnotherwingedVanthfigure(farright)gentlyguidesthedeceasedasshebidsfarewelltofamilymembers.(Photo:

ArchäologischesInstitutderUniversitätHeidelberg).


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Fig.25ATrojanprisonerissacrificedbyAchilleswhiletheshadeofPatrokloslookson.InsertedintothisHomericmytharewingedVanth,whoholdsascroll,andawingless

Charu(n),whomwecanidentifybyhisblueskinandmallet.Theyappeartobefunctioninginthesceneaswitnessestotheslaughter.FrancoisTomb,Vulci,lastquarteroffourthcenturyBCE.(Photo:LesGrandsSieclesDeLaPeinture-LaPeintureÉtrusque,p.115).

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