SFC Roland J. Milliard passes out candy during a MEDCAP

68 Veritas

Field Sanitation, Practicing Medicine, and Civic Action in Bolivia

by Charles H. Briscoe

The slit trench latrine built by the SF medics was treated like a shrine by the Bolivians and never used.

The large anaconda was added to the Bolivian “stew” pot.

Army: Joined 1953, Ft Campbell, KY, BCT 11th

Airborne Div, Abn School, Ft Benning, GA;

Japan, E Co, 2/187th ABRCT; 1956, SSG (E-5)

Gyro to Ft Bragg, G Co, 505th Inf, J/M School

Instr; 1959, Germany, 3rd Inf Division, 3rd ID

AMU; 1961, Distinguished Marksman; 1962,

Ft Bragg, C Co, 2/325 Inf, 82nd Abn Div; 1965,

SSG (E-6), 82nd Abn Div, Dom Rep, Joined SF;

1966, SFC, B Co, 8th SFG, Panama, 8th SFG Abn

School-GT Abn Bn cadre course.1

SFC Daniel V. Chapa

DOB: 22 August 1933 POB: Alamo, TX HS: GED Native Speaker

Special Forces medic is the best-trainedcombat emergencymedicalpracticioner in the

Americanmilitary. It takes two years of schooling andpracticalexperiencetobecomefullyqualified,andannualre-certifications aremandatory. These soldiers have theskills of physicians’ assistants and routinely performminorsurgeryincombatandremoteareas.Theyaretheprimeenablersandforcemultiplierswho“wintheheartsandminds”ofthepopulaceastheSFODA(OperationalDetachment Alpha) performs its missions. They areespeciallyimportantduringforeigninternaldefense(FID)assignmentswithcounterinsurgency(COIN)training.Thetwomedicsonthemobiletrainingteam(MTT)missiontoBoliviain1967fulfilledtheirrolewithdistinction.The work for the two Special Forces medics on

MTT-BL404-67XbeganwiththearrivaloftheBolivianconscripts in the early days of May 1967. The smelland accumulating filth around the warehouse wherethesoldierswerebilletedprompted immediateaction.The peasant soldiers had to be taught field sanitationimmediately and the critical necessity for it becamea top priority enforced by the Bolivian junior officersandsergeants.Ifnot,diseasewouldthreatentheteam’sability to organize, field, and train a Ranger force.Classesinhealth,fieldsanitation,andpersonalhygienewereimmediatelygiven.Constructionofseverallatrines50-100metersawayfromsleepingareasfollowed.“ItwashardtoimpressupontheBoliviantroopsthat

fieldsanitationwasimportant.Theysimplydidnotknowanybetter.Themajoritywereindiosfromthehinterlandswhose toilet since birth had been anywhere outdoors.

Water was for drinking and cooking. Bathing wasoptionalbasedonavailablewatersources.Theslittrenchlatrine ‘model’ thatwe built anddemonstrated how touseproperlybecamealmost a shrine.Theyneverusedit, and even those they constructedwere rarely used,”saidSSG JamesHapka, a teammedic.1 “The conscriptscontinuedtoheadforthebushes.Wefinallyconvincedthemtorelievethemselvesatleasttwentymetersbehindtheirbillets.Becausetoiletpaperwasforeigntomostofthem,thereweren’tany‘warningflags.’Youreallyhadtokeepyoureyesopen,”saidSFCDanChapa.“Livingwiththemwasnotanoption.”2The Special Forcesmaintained a separate campwith

theirownlatrineandwashingarea.Iftheybecamesicktheirmissionwouldbecompromised.“SFC[EthylW.]Duffieldand Idugmost of our latrines.Whenyoudidn’t followMSG [Oliverio] Gomez’s instructions exactly, the teamsergeant used ‘hole digging’ to enforce discipline. He’dbeupwaitingfor‘Duff’andmewhenwecamebacklatefromarationruntoSantaCruz.Whilewewerediggingatnight,he’dinspectourprogresswithhisColemanlantern.Ifitwasn’tshoulderhighyet,he’dsay,‘Keepdigging,’andwalkoff,”chuckledSFCChapa.“Itwasawaytokeepusinline,and,becauseitwasimposedatnight,theBolivians

The

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SSGs James Hapka (left) and Jerald L. Peterson (center) gave these Bolivian soldiers their first physical exams.

SSG James Hapka treats a Bolivian soldier with a glandular infection in his armpit.

neverknew.Itkepttheguysontheteamlaughing.”3Oneothermedical responsibility associated with sanitation wasinspectionoftheBolivian“mess.”“It was actually an outdoor fireplace where local

womenoccasionallycooked.Eachmorningthesoldierswere given a piece of bread and a cup of sweet blackcoffee.Lunchinthefieldwasanotherpieceofbreadthatwascarriedinapocket.Dinnerwasservedfromthehalfof a 55-gallondrum inwhicha“stew”ofquestionableingredients simmered,” said SSGPeterson. “AfterMAJShelton tasted the concoction, wewere told not to eatthere.”4“Oneday,outofcuriosity,Iaskedthe‘cook’whatwasinthecaldron,”recalledSFCChapa.“Hegavemeadirtylookandsaid,‘I’mdoingwhatI’mtold.’Iresponded,‘But,you’rethecook.’Hereplied,‘I’mnotreallyacook.I’mjustdoingajob.’Idecidedthattherewasnoreasonto pursue it.”5 After their collective experiences at theBolivian“mess,”SSGsPetersonandHapkaconcentratedonpracticingmedicinesinceonlyafewconscriptshadeverbeentreatedbyadoctor.

Assessing the general health ofthe Bolivian soldiers by conductingrudimentary physical examinationsfamiliarized the SFmedicswith severalcommon health problems. “Most of theconscripts were illiterate, so readingan eye chart would have been futile.Dental hygienewas atrocious; carewasnonexistent. Though very hardened bya toughrural life, theyhada lotofskindiseasesandinfections,mostattributableto poor personal hygiene. Since these

soldiers had only grownupwith a single shirt, a pairoftrousers,somesandals,andaponcho,itseemedquitenormal to just have one uniform,” related SSGHapka.“Thatdidnotpromotegoodhygiene.”6“Thetrainingareawherewedidtacticalfieldexercises

hadalotofbullthorntreesthatthesoldiersusedforcoverand concealment. Those thornswere about an inch andhalf long and caused nasty scratches. Personal hygienewas so poor that they became infected very quickly. Tomakemattersworse,thebullthorntreeshadasymbioticrelationship with red ants. The branches being pushedasidebythefirstmanusuallytriggeredredantambushesonallthosefollowingthesameroute,”rememberedSSGPeterson. “However, theworst infectionswerecausedbyflies or boring insects (venchugas) that attacked the rawgashes.Theydepositedeggsinsidecreatingboils.Thesehadtolanced,scrubbedoutwithstiff,soapybrushes,antisepticapplied,andthenpenicillingiventothehaplessvictims.Sometimes,thishadtoberepeatedseveraltimes.”7

70 Veritas70 Veritas

SSG Jerald L. Peterson attending one of the casualties of the mortar accident.

After proper treatment of the infection on his face this Ranger served as the senior Bolivian medic in the SF aid station.

“Ourbestmedicwasoneofthesevictims.Hisfacelookedlikesomeonehadthrownacidonhim.Itwassomethingstraightoutofahorrormovie.Weloadedhimupwithpenicillinandtwiceadayscrubbedhisfacecleanforalmosttwoweeksbeforehestartedhealingupproperly.Itturnedoutthathewasreallyahandsomeguy.WedecidedtousehiminthedispensaryastheseniorBolivianmedic.Hebecamearealasset,”saidSSGPeterson.“HygieneprecautionsweretakenbytheAmericans,buttheplacewasfullof‘bitingcritters.’”8 “MSGGomezwarnedusabout thevenchugas, sowe

tuckedthemosquitonetsunderourairmattresses,”saidSFCChapa.9SincetheSFsoldiersspentmostoftheirtimetrainingBoliviantroopsinthefield,theyencounteredavarietyofvenomousscorpionsandsnakesonthegroundandflyinginsects,spiders,andtreevipersinthewoodedareas.OnlyoneAmericanSFsoldier,SFCChapa,sufferedanearfatalinjuryinBolivia.10“C Companywas getting ready to conduct a night

attack.Irememberwalkingunderatreewhensomethinghit my forehead. The next thing that I felt was a hottinglingspreadingdownmyarmsandlegsandgeneralweakness. I was having a hard time standing up,”recalledSFCChapa.11 “MAJSheltongotChapaintothecarryallprovidedby

theMILGPandtookhimbacktocamp.Bythen,Chapawas semi-conscious when we manhandled him intotheaidstation.JimHapkaandIsuspectedasnakebitebecausetreeviperswerecommon.Wecutoffhisclothesand examined him all over, butwe couldn’t find fangmarksanywhere.Hewasmumblingthathisskinwasonfireandtinglingandthathefeltveryweak.Allthatwecould see abnormalwas a large lumponhis forehead.BecauseChapa’sarmsandlegswereswelling,Jimbegantreatinghimforanaphylacticshock, injectingcortisonebetweenhisfingersandtoes,”saidPeterson.12 “Since thenearestdoctorwas inSantaCruz, almost

twohoursaway,HapkaradioedFortGulicktocallintheGroupSurgeonforanemergencyconsult.Wetookshiftsapplyingwet,coolcompresseswhilewewaited for the

callback. When the surgeon in Panama could suggestnobettertreatment,wecontinuedwithcompressesandcortisoneshots.ThenextmorningChapawasnobetter,butnoworseeither,”continuedPeterson.13 “Bythenwordofhisconditionhadspreadamongthe

villagersandalocalhealer(bruja)recommendedapplyingapieceofrawmeattothelumponhisforeheadtodrawoutthepoison.Sincehewasunconscious,wedidn’tthinkthatwouldhurtanything.So,webandagedaslabofbeefonto his forehead. Thirty-six hours later, when Chapacame to,wewarnedhimnot to touchhisheador lookin themirror.Whenhedozed off, I removed themeatslabfromhishead.Wedidn’twantChapatothinkthattheSFmedicshadusedvoodoomedicine to curehim.Thatwasourlittlesecret,”saidSSGPeterson,“butitwaspretty scary there for awhile.”14 “Iwas checkedout byCPTQuiñones, thegroupsurgeon,whenhevisitedLaEsperanzainNovemberandwhenwereturnedtoFortGulick inDecember,” said SFCChapa. “I had no aftereffects,buttheguystriedtoplaytricksonmesayingthattherewaswaspbehindmyhead.”15 In addition to treating their own and the Bolivian

soldiers, the two medics had handled forty nightemergencymedicalcallsinthecommunitybymid-May.TheystartedsickcallforthecommunityeverySaturdaymorningbeginningon15May.Night emergencyvisitscontinued. By the end ofDecember 1967, the two hadrespondedto124nightcallsformedicalassistance.Theytreated 410men, 589women, and 1,375 children in LaEsperanzaalone.16HapkaandPetersonwereexpectedtotrainthefieldmedicsforthebattalion.“Themedictraining,whileorientedaroundU.S.Army

basic medic [today’s 68W MOS (military occupationalspecialty)]skills,emphasizedtreatmentforgunshotandexplosiveinjuriesandbrokenbonesnormallyassociatedwith them. They needed to have emergency medicalskillstoperformimmediatefirstaid.Today,they’recalled

Vol. 4 No. 4 71

Bolivian Rangers conducted rifle bayonet fighting drills with unsheathed bayonets.

‘Combat Lifesaver’ skills. We taught shock symptoms,wound cleansing, proper bandaging, when, how, andwhere to apply a tourniquet, starting IVs (intravenousfluids), splinting broken bones, and sucking chestwoundtreatment.Themedicswereshownhowtomakefield expedient stretchers, splints, and bandages fromclothing,” said SSGHapka. “Pete (SSG JeraldPeterson)and Ibuilt smallmedical aidbags for eachof thefieldmedicsandresuppliedasnecessary.Emergencymedicalevacuationwasatrucktothecivilianhospital inSantaCruz.”17Alongwith theirmedical trainingHapka andPetersonpresentedweaponsclasses.“SSG Hapka and I taught the hand grenade to the

battalionen masse.ThrowingisapartofmanyAmericansports, but itwas not a natural skill formost Bolivianpeasants. We showed them first how to throw rocksaccurately.Thatskillmastered,westartedusingpracticehandgrenades.Whenwe took themto the range, theyenjoyedwatching the explosions somuch thatwe hadtoconstantlyremindthemtodropdownintotheproneafter tossing the grenade to avoid fragments. It took afew cuts andnicks before theygot themessage. Eventhough we alternated shouting the commands anddemonstrations, we were both hoarse afterwards. Allwe hadwas a small, conical megaphone. The altiplano conscripts spoke Quechua and Aymara primarily, butunderstood some rudimentary Spanish. While classesoftenevolvedinto‘monkeysee,monkeydo,’learning,thesoldierswerealwaysenthusiasticandeagertolearn,”saidSSGPeterson.18 “During the bayonet fighting, Bolivianofficerswereinterspersedintheformationbecausetheyused weapons with unsheathed bayonets,” said SFCChapa.19Inadditiontothecompass,mapreading,handgrenade, bayonet fighting, and combat medic classes,medicalemergencies,sickcall,andmedicalcoverageontheranges,theSFmedicsdealtwithtrainingaccidents.Surprisingly, there were only three fatal accidents

during the six month mission. No Americans wereinjured in these.Thefirsthappenedon28 Julyaftera

lieutenantorderedasoldiertocleanhispistolwithoutclearing it beforehand. The accidental dischargeoccurredinthecrowdedtroopbilletsarea.Fortunately,nooneelsewashurt.TheBoliviansoldierdiedenroutetoSantaCruz.20ThemostserioustrainingaccidentwasonSunday,11August.“This incident involved the smooth bore French 82

mmmortars.ABoliviansergeant(sub-official),onhisowninitiative, decided to take his squad out for additionaltraining one Sunday afternoon. No one in the Bolivianchain of command nor any of the Americans werenotified.Howhegottheammunitionwasunknown.Thesergeant had his squad set up the Frenchmortar for afiremission.Then,hetookseveralmenaboutahundredmetersinfrontofthepositionalongthegun-targetlinetoshowthemhowtocallforfire.Thefirstroundfellshort,killingone(thesergeant)andseriouslywoundingseveralothers.Theexplosioncaughtusbysurprise.Itwascausedbyacombinationoferrors:wrongmortarelevation;firinginto the wind without compensation; and ammunitionfrom old stocks. SSG Hapka did an emergency triageand started first aid, got IVs flowing, and stabilizedthemasbesthecould.Then,thedeadmanandthetwomost seriously injuredwere loadedaboarda truck.SFCKimmichaccompanied themto theprovincehospital inSanta Cruz. The primitive, early 1900s-vintage,medicalfacilitydidhaveadoctoronduty.Oneof thewoundeddiedinthehospital,”rememberedSSGPeterson.21Thethirdaccidentoccurredduringrefreshertactical

training provided to nine infantry companies afterthe Ranger Battalion mission. “We were teaching theBolivian soldiers how todeterminewhere a shot camefromanditsapproximatedistanceaway.It’scommonlycalled the ‘crack-thump’method [the crack of the rifleshotprovidesdirectionwhiledistancefromtheshootertothetargetisdeterminedbytheamountoftimeelapsedbefore the thumpof thebullet isheard]. I’mconvincedthattheshooterselectedbytheBolivianofficersdidnotunderstandexactlywhathewassupposedtodonordidhe

72 Veritas72 Veritas

(Above) Since one SF medic had to be present in camp on radio standby while marksmanship, live fire exercises, and field training were being conducted, SFC Robert Owens (who replaced SSG Jerald Peterson 3 October 1967) and SSG James Hapka rotated the MEDCAP missions. Here Hapka explains to a mother what must be done to cure her daughter’s problem.

(Left) SGT Byron R. Sigg, a radioman, helps SSG Hapka with an ear exam.

(Right) Bolivian Ranger medics practice splinting a broken leg.

factor in the bullet’s trajectory when he supposedlyaimedover theheadsof the infantry soldiers sitting inmakeshiftbleachers.Hewastoldtomakeitrealisticanddid.Whenthesoldiersdidhearthesoundofthethump,halfturnedrightandtheotherhalf,lessoneman,turnedleft.Themanwhodidn’tturn,tumbledforward,shotinthechest.HediedenroutetoSantaCruz,”rememberedSFC Tom Carpenter, a light weapons sergeant on theMTT.22 Thesewere theworstmoments for themedics.ThebestwereduringtheMEDCAPs(medicalcapability)innearbyvillagesandtowns.MAJ Shelton expanded his civic action efforts by

supporting the requests from several Peace Corpsvolunteers forMEDCAPvisits to their towns. In 1967,thereweremorethan220volunteersservingthroughoutthe country.23 When the visiting regional directorintroducedhimselftotheSheltonduringaMEDCAP,heemphasized the “PEACE” part. The nonplussed, goodhumoredSFmajor fromMississippi calmly responded,“Pleasedtomeetyou.I’mMajorRalphSheltonfromthe‘WAR’ corps. I’mglad thatmymedics canhelp out bytreatingthesefolks,seeinghowmostcouldn’taffordtoseeadoctorinSantaCruz.”24ThevolunteerswholivedandtaughtEnglishandfarmingtechniquesinthesmallvillagesappreciatedthemilitarymedics.“WedidthreeMEDCAPsinLasCrucesandthreein

LosChacosattheinvitationofthePeaceCorpsvolunteers.Wetreatedkidsprimarily.Therewereveryfewoldfolks.Everyone seemed to have the same skin diseases andinfections that plagued the Rangers for basically thesamereasons:poorpersonalhygieneandcontaminatedwater.Itreatedonesickdogandahorsewiththebiggest

syringeandneedlethatIhad,a20ccsyringewithan18gaugeneedle,toinject20millionunitsofpenicillinintothatoldnag.Whilewebroughtafielddentalset,Idon’trecalldoinganyextractions.Hugo,thebarberandkioskownerinLaEsperanza,didsome‘dentistry’ontheside.He gave his ‘patients’ a few hits of aguardiente (highlypotentgrainalcoholdistilledfromsugarcanejuice)andtookseveralbeltsbeforegoing towork,” chuckledSSGHapka.“Wehadnodesiretocompetewithhim.”25TheAmericanmedicstreatedmorethan2,500civiliansandexpended $10,000 dollars in medicine, bandages, andmedical supplies.26MAJ Sheltonwas so well regardedbytheIndianconscriptsthattheyaskedhimtohelptheindigenoussquattersontheplantation.AfewsoldiersbroughttheleadersofthelargeIndian

“squatter” community toMAJ Shelton when they wereabouttobeevicted.TheNewYorkbankholdingthelienonthesugarfacilitywantedtosellthelandtoagroupofJapaneseandOkinawanfarmerslivingwestofSantaCruz.“MSGGomezandImadeatriptovisittheircommunityandmeet the leaders.We invited them toLaEsperanzato talk with the spokesmen for the Quechua-speakingsquatters. The fat, bald-headed bank representativeaccompanied them. After touring the plantation andrealizingwhattheirlandpurchasewoulddotothepoorfolksthathadbuilthomesontheproperty,theJapaneseand Okinawans empathized with their situation. Theyrecalledthatithadn’tbeenthatmanyyearssincetheyhadcome virtually penniless to Bolivia. The deal collapsed.GomezandIbecameheroesintheeyesofthosesquatters.Webothfeltreallygoodabouthowthatturnedout”saidthetenantfarmer’ssonfromMississippi.27

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“Our musical group was usually me on my Gibson guitar, Fricke on the wash tub bass, Bush on the spoons, and someone on the shakers,” said MAJ Shelton.31

Traditionally, local priests in Bolivia sanctified community construction projects with a blessing. Working with local people proved to be lot easier than with the USAID at the embassy in La Paz.

A group of Bolivian Ranger musicians joined MAJ Pappy Shelton’s quartet to provide entertainment for the school fiesta in June 1967. The Americans are left to right, MAJ Shelton, SFC Harold T. Carpenter, the Bolivian professional cazador, Manuel Jesus, and SFC William R. Bush.

Shelton also made a very conscious effort not toundermine the local economy. Beer and sodas werenottobeboughtinSantaCruzandbroughtbacktothecamp.The teamwouldpatronize the establishments ofLaEsperanzawhogottheirsuppliesviathebussesfromthecity.28GettingU.S.EmbassysupportforanewschoolbecameShelton’stoughestchallenge.ThebiggestcivicactionprojectforMTT-BL404-67Xwas

the constructionofanewschool forLaEsperanza.MAJSheltonmade that decision in late April before trainingbegan.ErwinBravo,themayor,arrangedameetingwiththe town leaders,HarrySingh from thePaulHardemanConstruction Company, Sanford White from USAID,Shelton, and LTC José R.Gallardo, the Ranger Battalioncommander, to get support for a new, larger school.

Laborwas tobeprovidedby theLaEsperanzavillagersandRangerBattalionpersonnelwith construction skills.The lion’s shareof themoney for thebuildingmaterialswouldcomefromUSAID.Bravosuggestedaschoolfiesta to launchtheeffort.Itwassetfor25June1967whenthepriestwasavailabletogiveablessingtotheproject.Hewantedtogetthewholecommunitybehindtheeffort.Hethoughtthat donations, regardless of the amount,would bolstercommitment.29Constructionmaterialsarrivedinmid-Julyforlocalworkerstogetstartedonthenewschool.30Progress on the new school was constantly slowed

down byUSAIDpayments.MAJ Shelton doggedly kept

up pressure on the regional USAID director, SanfordWhite, in Santa Cruz,who dribbled themoney down atight funnel toHarrySingh, the roadbuilder.The threemonthprojectwasdraggedoutalmostsixmonthsbytheembassybureaucrat.32InterventionbyGENPorterinlateAugust to get thewindows and a roof on the buildingbefore the rains came actually slowed the project. Todemonstratewhowas in charge in Bolivia,AmbassadorDouglas Henderson directed that USAID delay fundsanothermonth.“ThoughthebureaucraticpettinessoftheState Department folks frustrated me to no end, it wasseenasnormalbyJorgé,whohadtodependonanationalministry and province officials to fund the school andpay his salary. Thatman had the patience of Job,” saidShelton.33 Itwasmid-OctoberwhenWhite came to visittheschoolprojectinLaEsperanza.Heleft$800fortheroofandsaidthattheambassadorwasholding$300inreserve.InhisNovemberreporttheMTTcommanderwrotethatwindow sills (withoutwindows)hadbeen installed andtheroofwasalmostcompleted.34Thesix-room(anofficeand five classrooms) school was finished about a weekbeforetheAmericansoldiersreturnedtotheCanalZoneon22December.“Still,itwasthebestChristmaspresentwecouldhavegiventhosefolks,”saidMAJShelton.35 While field sanitation was critical to the training

missionsuccess,itwasthepracticeofmedicineandcivicaction projects that “won the hearts, minds, and loyalsupportofthepeople.”ThesesetpositiveconditionsthatenabledtheSFMTTtomold650peasantconscriptsandtheir officers into a well-trained, elite Ranger Battalioncapable of defeating the Cuban-led insurgent threat inBoliviain1967. 

Charles H. Briscoe has been the USASOC Command Historian since 2000. A graduate of The Citadel, this retired Army special operations officer earned his PhD from the University of South Carolina. Current research interests include Army special operations during the Korean War, in El Salvador, and the Lodge Act.

74 Veritas

The Special Forces officer in the top photo is Captain LeRoy Mitchell, who replaced Captain Edmond L. Fricke as the MTT deputy and operations officer. In the second photo down, the mayor, Erwin Bravo, surveys progress. In the bottom photo, the local priest holds a special Mass to bless the new school.

Endnotes1 JamesA.Hapka,telephoneinterviewbyDr.CharlesH.Briscoe,3November2008, Lawton, OK, digital recording, USASOC History Office ClassifiedFiles,FortBragg,NC,hereaftercitedasHapkainterviewanddate.

2 DanielV.Chapa, interviewbyDr.CharlesH.Briscoe, 18April 2007,FortBragg,NC,digitalrecording,USASOCHistoryOfficeClassifiedFiles,FortBragg,NC,hereaftercitedasChapainterviewwithdate.

3 Chapa interview, 18 April 2007 and Oliverio Gomez, interview by Dr.CharlesH.Briscoe,13November2008,PacificGrove,CA,digitalrecording,USASOCHistoryOfficeClassifiedFiles,FortBragg,NC,hereaftercitedasGomezinterviewwithdate.

4 DanielV.ChapaandJeraldL.Peterson,interviewbyDr.CharlesH.Briscoe,11April 2007, Fort Bragg,NC, digital recording,USASOCHistoryOfficeClassified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Chapa and Petersoninterviewwithdate.

5 Chapainterview,18April2007.6 Hapkainterview,19November2008.7 JeraldL.Peterson, interviewbyDr.CharlesH.Briscoe,6April2007,FortBragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files,FortBragg,NC,hereaftercitedasPetersoninterviewwithdateandChapainterview,18April2007.

8 Petersoninterview,6April2007.9 Chapainterview,18April2007.10 Chapainterview,18April2007.11 ChapaandPetersoninterview,11April2007.12 Petersoninterview,6April2007andChapaandPetersoninterview,11April2007.13 Peterson interview, 6April 2007,Chapa andPeterson interview, 11April2007,andHapkainterview,7November2008.

14 Petersoninterview,6April2007andChapaandPetersoninterview,11April2007.15 Chapainterview,18April2007,MTTBL404-67X,8thSpecialForcesGroup(Airborne),1stSpecialForces,SpecialActionForce,FortGulick,CanalZone.SUBJECT:ReportofMobileTrainingTeamtoBolivia(RCSCSGPO-125),30November1967,hereaftercitedas8thSFGMTTBL404-67XSITREPdated30November1967,andRolandJ.Milliard,telephoneinterviewbyDr.CharlesH. Briscoe, 15 October 2008,, Dracut, MA, digital recording, USASOCHistoryOfficeClassifiedFiles,FortBragg,NC,hereaftercitedasMilliardinterviewwithdate.

16 8thSFGMTTBL404-67XAfterActionReportdated22December1967.17 Hapkainterview,3November2008.18 ChapaandPetersoninterview,11April2007.19 Chapainterview,18April2007.20 8thSFGMTTBL404-67XSITREPdated29August1967.21 Chapa and Peterson interview, 11April 2007, 8th SFGMTT BL 404-67XSITREPdated29August1967,andHaroldT.Carpenter,telephoneinterviewbyDr.CharlesH.Briscoe,29October2008,LasVegas,NV,digitalrecording,USASOCHistoryOfficeClassified Files, Ft Bragg,NC, hereafter cited asCarpenterinterviewwithdate.

22Carpenterinterview,29October2008.23 KariAboodemail toDr.Troy J. Sacquety, subject:PeaceCorpsHistoriandated 10 November 2008, USASOC History Office Classified Files, FortBragg,NC.,hereaftercitedasSheltoninterviewwithdate.

24 RalphW.Shelton,telephoneinterviewbyDr.CharlesH.Briscoe,18November2008,Sweetwater,TN,digitalrecording,USASOCHistoryOfficeClassifiedFiles,FortBragg,NC,hereaftercitedasSheltoninteviewwithdate.

25Hapkainterviews,3and19November2008.26 8thSFGMTTBL404-67XAfterActionReportdated10December1967.27 Sheltoninterview,12April2007,Gomezinterview,14November2008,8thSFGMTT BL 404-67X AfterAction report dated 22December 1967, andHenryButterfieldRyan,The Fall of Che Guevara: A Story of Soldiers, Spies, and Diplomats(NY:OxfordUniversityPress,1998),95.

28 Carpenterinterview,18November2008.29 8thSFGMTTBL404-67XSITREPdated29June1967.30 8thSFGMTTBL404-67XSITREPdated29July1967.31 Sheltoninterview,18November2008.32 8thSFGMTTBL404-67XSITREPsdated29May1967,29June1967,29July1967,and29August1967.

33 Sheltoninterview,13April2007and8thSFGMTTBL404-67XSITREPdated30September1967.

34 8thSFGMTTBL404-67XSITREPdated30November1967.35 Sheltoninterview,13April2007.

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