ECONOMIC BOTANY

FIBRES, RUBBER, FIREWOOD, TIMBER AND BAMBOO

Dr. Balakrishna Gowda Department of Botany

Univerity of Agricultural Sciences Hebbal,

GKVK Campus Bangalore – 560065

CONTENTS:

FIBER CROPS RUBBER FIREWOOOD TIMBER BAMBOO

FIBER CROPS

Fibre-yielding plants have been of great importance to man and they rank second only to food plants in

their usefulness. In ancient times, plants were of considerable help in satisfying man’s necessities in respect

of food, clothing and shelter. Although other materials like animal skin and hides were also used to meet

the demands with regard to clothing, they were quite insufficient for the purpose. Further, the need for

some lighter and cooler substance was keenly felt. In those days, man also required some form of cordage

for his snares, bow-strings, nets, etc, and also for better types of covering for his shelter. Tough, flexible

fibres obtained from stems, leaves, roots, etc., of various plants served the above purposes very well. With

the advancement of civilization, the use of plants fibres has gradually increased and their importance today

is very great. Although many different species of plants, roughly about two thousand or more, are now

known to yield fibres, commercially important ones are quite small in number.

In commerce, ‘fibres’ include practically all small, thin, fragments of any substances. There are fibres of

mineral origin (asbestos, spun glass, and so on) and of animal origin (wool and other animal hair, silk,

feathers, and so on), as well as the more important plant fibres.

The fibres may be grouped into two broad categories, namely, (i) natural fibres, and (ii) synthetic or

artificial fibres. The natural fibres include fibres obtained from plants and animals. Wool, hairs of many of

the animals, and silk are animal fibres. Nearly 90 percent of the world production of fibres is from the

natural vegetable fibres.

The plant fibres are among the most important of the world’s crops, and a valuable commodity in world

trade because they are essential to man for the manufacture of much of his clothing, his cordage and coarse

fabrics. The plant fibres are classified into there groups according to their anatomical origin in the plant.

Soft, Stem, or Bast Fibres

These are sclerenchyma fibres associated with the phloem, pericycle or cortex of the stems of plants. They

are consequently rather easy to separate from underlying woody tissues as a constituent of the ‘bark’ which

can be peeled from the stems, They arise with primary tissues from the apical meristem, or with secondary

tissues produced by the lateral meristem, the cambium, associated with the vascular tissues of the stem.

Important bast fibres are flax, jute, hemp, kenaf, ramie , etc.

Hard, Leaf or Structural fibres

The hard fibres are bundles of small, short lignified cells unsheathing xylem and phloem which occur in the

leaves of some monocotyledons, notable examples are Agaves, Manila hemp, Sensivieria, Mauritius hemp.

Seed and Fruit fibres

Surface hairs associated with the fruits and seeds of plants are single-celled outgrowths from the testa or

from the ovary wall, which protect developing seeds. Cotton, which belongs to this group, consists of the

surface hairs produced by the testa of the seeds of cultivated species of the genus Gossypium. Kapok,

which is the floss, filling the capsules of the tree, Ceiba pentandra, consists of single-celled, lustrous hairs

with a waxy coating, which grow from the ovary wall.

In the coconut, the fruits have sclerenchymatous fibres, which are hard due to high lignifications.

Fibre crops can also be classified based on the their applications and uses:

• Textile fibres – it is the most important group; the fibres are used for manufacture of fabrics,

netting and cordage. The textile fibres of economic importance are cotton, flax, kenaf, hemp,

Roselle hemp, deccan hemp, sun hemp etc.

• Brush fibres – tough and stiff fibres used for the manufacture of brushes and brooms

• Rough weaving fibres – flat, pliable fibrous strands used for making straw hats, sandals, baskets,

mats, chair seats, etc. These include hard fibres like Palmyra leaves, Coconut coir, Agave fibres.

• Filling fibres – fibres used in upholstery and for stuffing cushions, mattresses, pillow, etc. They

are also used as packing materials. These include Cotton, floss of many species ex. Calotropis,

Inflorescence of Aerva tomentosa, soft parts of coir, sun hemp etc.

• Natural fibres – basts extracted from bark in layers or sheets and used as substitutes for cloth or

lace

• Paper making fibres – wood fibres, etc, used for papermaking

The same fibre may be used for different purposes as one particular plant may yield more than one kind of

fibre. Fibres may be found in different parts of the plant, namely stems, leaves, roots, fruits and seeds, and

may be different in their characteristics, like texture, strength, chemical composition, etc. However, they

are, with certain exceptions, long sclerenchyma cells with thick walls, small cavities and pointed ends. The

walls of the cells usually consist of lignin and cellulose. The fibres may occur singly or in small groups,

According to their origin, the fibres are of four chief types, namely, bast fibres, wood fibres, sclernchyma

cells associated with strands of vascular bundle in leaves, and surface fibres or the hair-like outgrowths

present on the seeds.

Textile fibres Those fibres, which are required mainly for the textile industry, must be long with high tensile strength,

pliability and cohesiveness and they must possess fine uniform lustrous staple. The chief textile fibres may

be of three categories namely, surface fibres, soft fibres and hard fibres. Cottons belong to the first

category, flax, hemp, jute and ramie which are base fibres to the second category; and sisal, coconut, pine

apple, etc. fibres of which are found chiefly in the leaves of monocotyledonous plants, to the third.

Cotton Cotton is the oldest and the most important commercial crop of the world. It has been grown in India in the

Indus valley for more than 5000 years. It is considered to be indigenous to south -east Asia and also to

south Central America. The crop is grown chiefly for fibre in many countries of the world, of which

principal ones are USSR, USA, China, India, Brazil, Pakistan, Turkey, Egypt, Mexico and Sudan. These

countries account for nearly 85 per cent of the total world production, in acreage, India ranks first among

the cotton growing countries. With regard to production, however, it occupies the fourth position. The crop

is grown in this country from the sub-himalayan region in the north to the Cape comarin in the south, the

major cultivation being confined to peninsular India.

The cotton goods, in the trade with the West, were carried either on camels or in boats which plied between

India and the Middle East.

A cotton fibre is a single celled hair, a delicate tubular prolongation of the epidermis of the outer

integument of seed. It may be of varying lengths, the maximum being about 51-mm. The fibre has

characteristic twists and is commonly referred to as lint fibre. The lint hairs are mixed with some much

shorter hairs known as fuzzy hairs, which do not exceed 10 mm in length and, unlike the former, lack the

twists.

Cotton fibres are obtained on a commercial scale from the four cultivated species of the geneus Gossypium,

belonging to the family, Malvaceae. Varieties of these four species of Gossypiun namely arboreum and

herbaceum of the old world and hirsutum and barbadense of the new world are grown in India. Of these

species, G. hirsutum occupies the largest area roughly about 50 percent of the total cotton acerage in the

country. This is followed by G. arboreum and G. herbaceum with 29 percent and 21 percent, respectively.

G. barbadense occupies a few thousand hectares only.

Botanical Name: Gossypium

Family: Malvaceae.

Vernacular: Assamese-Kapah; Bengali-Karpas; Oriya- Kapa; Telugu-Pratti; Tamil-Paruthi;

Malayalam-Paruthi;Kannada-Hatti; Marathi- Kapus; Gujarati and Hindi- Kapas; Punjabi- Kapa.

History Cotton finds mention in the Rig-veda, the oldest scripture of the Hindus and Manu’s Dharma shastra. In

India it has had the pride place among the cash crops from the earliest times. India was having a

flourishing export trade in cotton and cotton goods as early as 569-525 B.C. Two Arabian travellers,

describing Indian fabrics have recorded that the ‘Garments were of such extraordinary perfection that

nowhere else were the like to be seen, being woven to that degree of fineness that they might be drawn

through a moderate size ring.’ Marco Polo mentioned the coast of Coromandel as producing the finest and

most beautiful cottons’. One of the army generals of Alexander the Great, during his sojourn in India

described cotton as a plant from which the natives plucked the vegetable wool which they spun in to

admirable clothing’.

Cotton made its appearance in England in 1298 and soon established there as a major industry. The rapid

development of the cotton industry brought unprecedented prosperity. The fortune of Indian cotton seems

to have been always linked with the adequacy or otherwise of cotton exports to England from America. The

East India Company had conducted extensive trials with exotic cottons over a long period of time in an

attempt to develop an alternative source of supply. American cotton was introduced into India during this

period.

In respect of acreage, India now occupies the foremost position among the cotton growing countries of the

world. In respect of production, however, it has the fourth place, the first, second and third positions being

taken by USA, USSR and China, respectively (Table 11.4).

In India, the yield per acre varies appreciably from state to state and sometimes even in the different parts

of state (Table 11.3). The yield of rain fed cotton is highest in the Punjab 343 kg/ha and followed by

Haryana and Rajasthan. (298 kg/ha, 208 kg/ha respectively).

Cotton Field

Origin and Distribution The genus Gossypium, comprises approximately thirty tropical and subtropical species that have been

assigned to six cytologically defined diploid, genome groups, A,B,C,D,E, and F and one tetraploid genome

group ‘AD’.The lint bearing species of Gossypium, which are the true cottons, include the diploid G.

arboreum and G herbaceum indigenous in Asia and Africa, and the tetraploid G hirsutum and G.

barbadense.

It has been shown that the New World Cottons are natural amphidiploids combining the A genome from a

taxon of the Asiatic diploid group (G. arboreum, 2n=26) and a D genome from a taxon of the American

diploid group (G. thurberi, 2n=26). Crossing the two species and doubling the chromosomes of the sterile

hybrid with colchicine experimentally showed this probable origin. The resulting amphidiploids (4n= 52)

crossed and produced partially fertile hybrids with the New World tetraploid cottons.

The earliest civilization known to have spun and woven cotton was the Harappan in the Indus Valley in

Pakistan(2300-1750 B.C.) and for many centuries the cotton plant was known outside India only in

traveller’s tables.The original cultivatable Asiatic cottons belong to the species G. arboreum and G.

herbaceum, both of which have short staple length. G. arboreum is grown in 40 percent of the total acreage

in India and about 30 percent of the acreage by G. herbaceum. The dating of the origin of the cottons has

been the subject of two major theories, the ancient origin theory of Harlans (1939) and Stebbins (1947) and

the recent origin theory of Hutchinson, Silow and Stephens (1947).

The recent origin theory states that wherever the true cottons are found growing wild, their closest relatives

are the earliest known cultivars in the same region, and not wild cottons growing at the center of the origin.

It has been argued that such a situation would arise if the cottons now growing wild were to escape from

cultivation, and not truly wild forms. It follows then that the very large genetic gulf between the cottons

and the wild species of Gossypium arose as a result of the selection by man of mutant types which bore

spinable lint (Santanam & Hutchinson,1974).

New World Cottons

The origin of the New World Cottons has been attributed to allopolyploidy resulting from the cross

between the 13 chromosome American wild species and the old world cultivated type bearing “A’genome.

The American wild species, G. raimondii (Fig.11.1) is probably the nearest relative of the ‘D’ genome that

has entered into the ancestry of the present day New World cotton.

A complete list of cultivated and wild species of Gossypium is presented in following Table.

TABLE 1. Species of Gossypium (Compiled from Hutchinson (1962)

Saunders (1961) and Stephens (1947) Species

Genome symbol

Geographic origin

Use

I Diploid, old World species 2n=26

G. herbaceum L. A1 Asia Cultivated. G. arboreum L. A2 Asia Cultivated. G. anomalum Waw.& Pcy. B1 Africa Wild. G. triphyllum Hochr. B2 Africa Wild. G. sturtii F. Muell. C1 Australia Wild. G. robinsonii F. Muell. C2 Australia Wild. G. australe F. Muell. C3 Australia Wild. G. stocksii Mast. E1 Indo-Arabia Wild. G. somalense (Gurke) Hutch. E2 Arabia-India Wild. G. somalense (Deflers) Hutch. E3 Africa Wild. G. incanum (Schwartz) Hillcoat E4 Africa Wild. G. longicalyx Hutch.& Lee E5 Africa Wild. II Diploid, New World species 2n=26)

G. Thurberi Tod. D1 N. America Wild. G. armourianum Kearn. D2 N. America Wild. G. harknessii Brandeg. D2 N. America Wild. G. klotzschianum (Kell.) Hutch. D3 Galapagos & N.

America Wild.

G. aridum (Rose & Standl.) Skovsted D4 N. America Wild. G. raimondii Ulb. D5 N. America

(Peru) Wild.

G. gossypioides (Ulb) Standl. D6 America Wild. G. lobatum Gentry D7 America Wild. III Tetraploid, New World species (2n=52)

G. hirsutum L. (AD)1 N. America Cultivated G. barbadense L. (AD)2 S. America Cultivated G. tomentosum Nutt. Ex. Seem. (AD)3 Hawaii Wild.

Species of Gossypium Linn.

1. G. arboreum Linn. (Chinese cotton, Tree cotton, Ceylon cotton)

Vernacular: Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi and Punabi-Kapas, Rui,Tula: Kannada-Hathi; Telugu-

Patti, Karpasma; Tamil and Malayalam-Paruthi,Panji; Oriya-Karpasu, Kopa.

The plant is distributed throughout the rain-fed savannah areas from Africa, through Arabia and India, to

China Japan and East Indies. The species in now divided into six races, based mainly on geographical

distribution. These are bengalense,burmanicum, cerunum, indicum, sinense and sudanense. The first four

comprise all the cultivated types belonging to G. arboreum in India. G. arboreum is a diploid Old World

species with n=13 chromosomes. It includes perennial or annual shrubs,0.6-3m high, bearing slender,

trailing, purplish branches; flowers-purple, red, yellow or white; capsules tapering,3-4 locular, opening

widely when ripe. Seeds small with two coats of hairs, lint white, grey or brown, fuzz green, grey or white.

2. G. barbadense Linn.

Vernacular: English-sea Island cotton, Egyptian cotton Brazilian cotton Peruvian cotton, kidney cotton.The

centre of origin of this group is tropical South America, particularly Columbia, Ecuador and Peru. It is a

tetraploid New World species with n=26 chromosomes. It includes perennial shrubs or small tree, 0.9-4.5m

high, or annual shrubs, moderately high, tree cottons are monopodial. Capsules large, 3-4 locular broad at

the base, tapering to an acute tip, rough with oil glands at the bottom of pits; seeds 5-8 per loculus; lint pure

white or light cream to deep mahogany red, fuzz coat full, partial one or both ends, or entirely absent.

3. G. herbaceum Linn.

This species occurs in Africa, Middle east countries, Central Asia and Western India. Commercially the

cottons belonging to this species constitute a fairly large percentage of medium staple cotton grown in

India. There are five races: persicum in South Central Asia, Kuljiamum in Chinese Central Asia,

acerifolium in North Africa, wightianum in Westrn India and africanum in South Africa (Hutchinson

1950). It is a diploid Old World species with n=13 chromosomes. It includes small shrubs,0.6-2.4m high

with thick and rigid stems: flowers medium sized, yellow with purple center, rarely white, capsules

rounded, beaked, with smooth surface, 3-4 locular,opening slightly when ripe. Seeds usually with two

coats of hairs; lint hairs white, grey or red-brown in colour and fuzz hairs, nearly of the same colour and

distributed uniformly over the seed.

4. G. hirsutum Linn.

Vernacular: English American cotton,

Bourbon cotton Upland cotton

The center of origin of this group is Central

America. It comprises a large number of

types often classified into groups, varieties

and races. It is a tetraploid New World

species with n=26 chromosomes. It includes

perennial or annual shrubs. 0.9-4.5m high,

stems usually green, brown or reddish-

brown, capsules rounded,3-5 locular; seeds

bearing copius lint hairs and usually, also fuzz hairs, lint variable in quality white, brown or rust coloured.

Indian Cottons Botanically, the cotton varieties of India, belong to three distinct species, namely G.arboreum G.

herbaceum and G. hirsutum. Of these, G. arboreum is supposed to be indigenous to India. Fragments of

yarn found in the excavation at Mohen-jo-Daro have been identified to belong to this particular

species. The second species G. herbaceum seems to have been introduced in India from the Middle East

countries and the history of its introduction can be traced back to the early days of the British East India

Company.

The arboreum group includes varieties which are predominantly coarse and short stapled, though a few

among them are medium stapled and fairly fine. They are cultivated to a varying extent in almost all cotton

growing States. The varieties belonging to the herbaceum group are generally much finer and longer in

staple than arboreum varieties. Their cultivation is confined to part of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra

Pradesh and Karnataka.

The hirsutum group includes varieties which are medium to long staple and are much finer than those of

the other two groups. These varieties are largely grown in the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra

Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. The cultivation of these varieties is also spreading in some parts of

Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

Fig. Gossypium Sp. Improved Varieties As a result of intensive research work carried out in the recent past, India has now a wide range of cotton

varieties to meet the varying requirements of the industry. With the facilities for fibre testing and spinning

quality evaluation, at the Cotton Technological Research Laboratory, Bombay, good number of improved

varieties with better fibre and spinning quality have been evolved. The I.C.A.R. has sponsored an All –

India Coordinated Cotton Improvement project since 1970 for evolving better yielding varieties of cotton

suitable for different cotton tracts.

1. G. barbadense: varieties with superior long staple length. Sujata, Sea Island, Andrews. Sujata:

Extra-long staple length high spinning Egyptian type, suited for irrigated cotton tracts in Tamil

Nadu.

2. G. hirsutum: Varieties: Gujarat-6,7 Hybrid-4, MCU-4, MCU-5, B. 100. Deviraj Krishna.

3. Krishna: A short duration variety of cotton with better fibre quality suited for Andhra Pradesh.

4. MCU varieties are suited for the irrigated cotton tracts. MCU-5, is superior in yield to MCU-1 and

MCU-3 varieties. MCU-5 is suited for cultivation in Tamil Nadu, Nagarjuna Sagar Project area of

Andhra Pradesh and the Deccan Canal area in Maharashtra.

5. G. arboreum: Improved varieties: K-7 Gaorani-46, CJ-73, (Sanjay),

6. Virnar, AK-235,AK-277, Y-1, Adonicum Maljari, Coconadas-2, ‘741’ Gl,

7. Syyamali, 231-R,G.27.

8. G. herbaceum. Varieties: Digvijay, Suyodhar, Wagad 797, Jayadhar Westerns-1, Kalyan.

Khandwa-varieties: K-1 to K-7, K-1 is suited for rainfed Nimar tract of Madhya Pradesh.

Ecology The climatic requirements for the successful cultivation of cotton are a mean annual temperature of over

15.40 C, an annual rainfall of at least 50 cm, abundant sunshine during the period of boll maturation and

harvesting of the produce, and a frostless season of 180-240 days in North India.

Cotton needs a soil with good moisture-holding capacity, drainage, and aeration with optimum pH 5.5-8.5.

The cotton crop is grown in India mainly on alluvial, black cotton, red sandy loam and lateritic soils.

Botany of the Plant G. herbaceum L.-Shrubs usually 1-1 m tall with few or no vegetative branches; Stems thick and rigid, twigs

and young; leaves usually sparsely hairy, rarely glabrous, fruiting branches many jointed, leaves usually

flat, 3-7 lobed, lobes ovate rotund to rounded, stipules small, linear, caducuous bracteole large rounded or

broadly triangular; stamens monodelphous on a column; Anther filaments short, styles short, stigmas

usually united throughout, rearely cleft at the top;

Gossypium herbaceum

Capsules rounded, beaked, 2-3.5 cm

long, surface smooth or very

shallowly dented, with few oil

glands, 3 or 4 –locular, usually only

opening slightly when ripe, sutures,

devoid of hairs, not more than 11

seeds per locule; Seeds usually

bearing two coats of hairs, long lint

hairs and short fuzz hairs, in rare

types bearing lint only.

Cultivation Practices In India it is mainly grown as a

Kharif of autumn harvested crop. The

sowing of the rainfed crop is done with the commencement of themonsoon in June or July, whereas the

irrigated crop is sown one or two months earlier, i.e., in May or April, depending on the varieties grown

(desi or American). Like most crops cotton gives better yields when grown in rotation with other crops like

methi, berseem, peas, senji, mung or shaftal. In the black soil tracts the usual rotation for rainfed cotton is

Kharif jowar.

The seed of most of the cotton varieties are covered by short fibre called ‘fuzz’ which makes the seeds

cling together. The seeds are rubbed with mud or mixture of earth and fresh cow-dung and dried for

separating the seeds. In Uttar Pradesh, the desi variety forms the bulk of the crop.

After sowing, the rainfed crops are hoed 4-5 times for removing the weeds. Cotton requires heavy

manuring during the growing period.

Manuring Of the three chief elements of plant nutrition, viz., phosphorus and potash, the application of nitrogen alone

was found essential for increasing yield. For the quick ripening, early maturing at sowing time was found

the best. About 22.5 kg/ha of nitrogen for rain fed cotton and 45-67.5 kg/ha for irrigated seems good under

average conditions. Basal application of farmyard manure at the rate of about 13 cart loads per hectare also

essential for high yields.

Harvesting The flowering season usually starts from 2-21/2 months after the sowing of seed and lasts for a period of 8-

10 weeks. The crop produces only a few flowers during the first 8-10 days but after that, the rate of

flowering increases rapidly. The peak rate continues for 3-4 weeks and then it gradually tapers off. As a

result of this phenomenon, the production of ripe fruits or bolls is also gradual being spread over a period

of 3-4 months. Ripe cotton is usually collected or picked periodically i,e., whenever a sufficiently large

number of mature bolls are there to make collection an economic operation.

Development of Cotton Fibre Cotton fibres are elongated epidermal cells present on the seed coat. The cells pass through three stages of

development (i) differentiation, (ii) growth and (iii) desiccation. Differentiation of some epidermal cells

into fibre cells starts even before pollination, but becomes an active process only after the pollination is

accomplished. Mitotic divisions take place till about the tenth day after flowering and the number of lint

cells continues to increase up to about third week after flowering. In this way epidermal cells are

transformed into lint cells. The growth of hair cell begins as bulge on the outer wall of the epidermal cell

and they elongate for about 3 weeks. Deposition of secondary cellulose takes place on the primary walls of

tubular hairs. 20-50 concentric layers of secondary cellulose are deposited.

Desiccation: The period lasts for 15 to 25 days during which tubular fibre collapses and a residue of

proteinaceous solids is left in the lumen.

Structure of Cotton Fibre • Size. The fibres of cottoncultivated in India are as long and broad, the average width very-ing

between 20 and 30 microns. The fibre is a translucent, collapsed, hollow tube, charactericed by

the presence of convolutions which repeatedly change direction along its length.

• Primary wall. The cellulose of the primary wall is an open mesh of fine thread-like strands that

frequently anastomose. The strands may be arranged in a spiral, right-or left-handed, inclin-ed to

the main axis at an angle of 65-700. recent studies with the help of the electron microscope have

shown that the primary wall is probably less than 0.2 microns thick and is made up of laminated

microfibrils whose diameter ranges from 100 to 400A.(A, angstrom unit which is equivalent to 10-

8 cm).

• Secondary wall. The first layer of the secondary thickening called the ‘winding layer’ is thicker

than the other layers, which are called ‘growth rings’. The growth rings are concentric and their

number varies from fibre to fibre.

• Fibrils. These are strands of pure cellulose and are made up of a number of microfibrils, referred

to as crystallites’ or ‘micellae’. The cellulose chains constituting the fibre are held parallel to each

other and to the fibre axis, by the secondary forces between hydroxyl groups. The average cotton

cellulose molecule contains about 3,000 glucose residues linked together by 1:4 oxygen bridges to

form a chain.

• Chemical composition : Raw cotton consists principally of cellulose. The composition (dry basis)

of the fibre is as follows: cellulose-94%, protein-3%, pectic substances.-0.9%; ash-1.2%, wax-

0.6%; and sugars 0.3% pigments traces.

Cotton Seed Commercial cotton seed is produced after ginning seed-cotton (kapas) for the staple fibre. Cotton seed has

three principal parts viz. linter, hulls and kernel (meat). The linters consist mainly of cellulose. The minor

constituents ar pectins, minerals, waxes, resins, pigments, and water soluble carbohydrates etc.

The hull or seed coat is brownish – red to jet-black in colour. The main constituents of the hulls are

cellulose complexes, lignin and furfural, and the minor constituents are tannins, mineral matter, colouring

matter and other substances. In between the inner surface of the hull (spermoderm) and the kernel (embryo)

there is a thick membrane which forms the attachment to the cotton seed hull at the chalazal cap.

Embryo. It has two cotyledons, theaxial organs and the enveloping membrane. It contains largely oil and

protein besides the pigment glands. The pigment glands contain pigment materials which impart the

characteristic yellow-red colour to the cotton seed meal and oil.

The major constituent of cotton seed are fat, protein, moisture, crude fibre and carbohydrates. The minor

constituents are pigments, phosphorus compounds, sterols. anti-oxidents, mineral compounds and other

substances. All these reside entirely or mostly in the kernel.

Pigments 1. Gossypol. It is one of the cotton seed pigments. It is a complex polyphenolic compound, yellow in

colour, molecular formula C30 H30 O8.

2. Gossypurpurin. Purple coloured pigment of the cotton seed.

3. Gossyfulvin. Orange coloured pigment of the cotton seed.

4. Gossycaerulin. Blue coloured pigment of the cotton seed. 11 other pigments are also presnt in the cotton seed.

Cotton Ginning and Baling Industry Seed cotton or kapas, as harvested, contains both lint and seed, the latter forming about two-third of the

weight of kapas,. Cotton is ginned, on a cottage industry basis, in the charkha and the Foot Roller. Now

most of the cotton is ginned in ginning machines.

Pressing. Ginned cotton is marketed in the form of pressed bales. The ginning and pressing of cotton is

regulated by the Cotton Ginning and Pressing factories Act, 1929. In 1818 Bowreah Cotton Mill Company,

was started at Calcutta. Now, Bombay holds the leading position among the States in the Indian cotton mill

industry. In the cotton mill, cotton is cleaned and the spinning machines spun the cotton into yarn.

Uses of Cotton Cotton is a major cash crop which gives three important products fibre, food and feed. Lint fibre is used for

clothing, household and industrial articles. Articles of clothing include shirtings,outer-wear, underwear,

gloves, hosiery etc. Household articles include bed sheets and covers, pillow cases, towels, table clothes,

mosquito nettings, flannel, blankets etc. Industrial articles include bags, belting, industrial thread, awnings,

tents, tarpaulins, insulation, cellulose, plastics, etc. The linter is used for stuffing cushions, pillows,

mattresses, etc. It also finds wider application in the manufacture of high quality paper cellophane, rayon,

varnishes and absorbent cotton. Figure1 gives the manifold uses of cotton seed in detail.

The cotton seed is used for extracting oil. Cotton seed oil is used in the manufacture of Vanaspati. Cotton

flour is obtained from the seed and used for brad and biscuit making in USA. Cotton seed cake after

extraction of oil is a good organic manure.

Fig. 1

Cotton Seed Uses

COTTON SEED

Meats Hulls Linters

(Kernel after (Short fibers removed removing the hull) from the seed) Flour (Bread, Cake, Crackers) --Cake and Meal

Feed for dairy cattle, sheep,horses and mules, poultry & Hogs. Fertilizer

Meats

Refined oil (Salad and cooking oil, mayonnaise, salad dressing, margarine, packing oil (sardines etc.)

Soap

Glycerine (Explosives, pharmaceuticals, food preparations & cosmetics)

--Crude Oil Fatty Acids (Rubber, plastics, finishes (leather, paper, textiles), Insecticides, fungicides, metallic soaps & waterproofing.

Feed for (Beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, horses & mules)

Fertilizer (mulch and soil conditioner) Hulls

Bran (Livestock feed) Fiber (pulp-same uses as linters) Furfural (Synthetic rubber, petroleum refining & plastics)

LINTERS

Chemical Non-Chemical Absorbent Cotton Medical Supplies Films (Sausage casings, cellophane tape) Viscose

Rayon (Industrial fabrics) Yarns (Lampand candle

wicks, twine, Cellulose Esters and Ethers rugs,mops) Cellulose Nitrate (Plastics, lacquers, smokelss powder)

Felts for (Automotive

Yarn (Clothing, household fabrics) upholstery, pads, cushions, furniture

Cellulose Acetate upholstery, comforts, mattresses ). Plastics (Automotive parts, electrical

Equipment, toiletware, pens and pencils)

Films-X-ray and Photographic DISEASES AND PESTS

• Fungal disease. Wilt disease caused by Fusarium-vasinfectum, root rot caused by Rhizoctonia bataticola and R. Solani anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum capsici and G. gossypii, damping off of seedlings caused by Pythium debaryanum, Sclerotium wilt, Cercospora leaf spot, Helminthosporuim leaf spot, Alternaria leaf spot, rust caused by Uredo gossypii.

• Bacterial disease. Bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas malvacearum.

• Viral disease. Small leaf or smalling or stenosis, control; Cultivating resistant varieties like 134xCo.2,170xCo-tom-23 etc.

• Insect pests. Bell worms, cotton leaf roller, cottonsemi-leoopers, cotton budmoth, Hairy caterpillars, cotton stem weevil, cotton stem borer, cotton jassid, cotton white-fly, cotton aphid, red cotton bug, dusky cotton bug, mealy bugs, scale insects, thrips etc.

• Namatodes. Root-knot caused by Meloidogyne incognita.

•

FLAX Botanical Name: Linum usitatissimum L.

Family: Linaceae

Vernacular:English-Linseed, Flax;Sanskrit-Atasi,Ooma: Hindi-Alsi, Tisi: Gujarati-Alashi; Marathi-

Alashi; Bengali-Mosina,Tisi; Oriya-Pesu; Punjabi-Alsi, Tisi; Tamil-Alsivirai,Aalivirai; Telugu-Avisi;

Malayalam- Cheru.chana –vittinte; kannada-Alshi, Agasi, Alasee; Urdu-Alasi,Kash, Alish, Keun.

In India flax has been under cultivation from pre-historic times. Flax fibre is the earliest vegetable fibe used

by man. The plant also yields oil of commercial importance. From the records available, the Egyptian

fabrics (mummy-clothes) which are probably over 4,500 years old have been found to be of flax.

According to De Candolle Linum angustifolium. Huds, the perennial flax, found wild from the Canary Isles

to Palestine and the Caucasus, was cultivated in Switzerland and the North of Italy by peoples more ancient

than the conquerors of Aryan race. Its cultivation was replaced by that of the annual flax Linum

usitatissimum L. which was cultivated for at least 4,000 or5,000 years in Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Egypt.

It occurs wild in the districts include between the Persian Gulf, the Capsian Sea and the Black Sea. This

plant appears to have been introduced into the north of Europe by the Finns, afterwards into the rest of

Europe by the western Aryans and perhaps here and there by the Phoenicians, lastly into India by the

eastern Aryans, after their separation from the European Aryans.

Geographical Groups Two main geographical groups corresponding to the oldest areas of cultivation and the centers of diversity

may be recognized. Linseed has been cultivated since antiquity in the Mediterranean coastal lands, Asia

Minor, Egypt,Algeria. Tunis, Spain, Italy and Greece; in all these areas, only fibre-flaxes are cultivated.

The second group comprises south-west Asia, indluding Turkestan, Afghanistan and India; only oil types

are grown in these areas. In Asia Minor and in SouthRussia, transitional forms are cultivated for both fibre

and oil.

Now the linseed crop is cultivated in the U.S.S.R., the Argentina, Uruguay, India, Pakistan, China, Japan,

Morocco, Australia Ireland, Scotland, Poland a few other European countries (Table 11.5). In India, about

1.6 m ha are under flax cultivation and about 0.4 m mt of seed is produced annually.

Cytogenetics The cultivated flax is one of a well-defined group of North African and Eurasian species with 2n=30

chromosomes L. africanum, L. angustifolim,L. corymbiferum, L. decumbens, L. nervosum and

L.pallescens. They produce fertile hybrids (Gill and Yermanos,1967). L. usitatissimum is nearest to the

highly variable L. angustifolium (2n=30 ,32), a strongly branching and tillering, perennial or biennial with

dehiscent capsules, common in southern Europe and western Asia.

Wild Species of Linum in India In India three or four species of Linum are recorded, of which L. usitatissimum is cultivated widely for its

oil-seed . L. bienne Mill. (Syn.L. angustifolium Huds.) and L. grandiflorum Desf. are grown in gardens for

ornamental purpose.

1. L. mysorense Heyne. An annual glabrous herb, 47-50 cm high, found in West Himalayas at altitudes of

920-1,500 m. and in Punjab, Rajasthan and Hilly regions of Deccan and western Ghats: flowers

yellow, in panicled corymbs: capsule globose,0.3 cm diam., containing small flat, oval seeds. The

plant is a weed.

2. L. perenne Linn. A perennial herb, 30-90 cm high, found in north-west Himalayas at altitudes of

3,000-4,000m: Leaves lanceolate: lower oblong, upper linear-acute: flowers blue, in few flowered

cymes, capsule as large as pea. It is an ornamental plant.

3. L. strictum Linn. An annual herb, 30-50 cm high, found in north-west Himalayas upto 3,500 m and in

Punjab, Leaves linear-lanceolate, rough: flowers yellow, capsule globose, 0.5 cm. diam. The plant is

cultivated on a small scale.

Botany of the Plant Annual: stem-cylindric, erect, simple below, 0.6-1.2 m, often solitary corymbosely branched above: leaves

narrow sub-3-nerved, linear or lanceolate without stipular glands: flowers 2.5cm diam, in broad cymes:

sepals ovate, acuminate, 3-nerved, eglandular, margins ciliate or not, petals blue, styles quite free: stigmas

linear-clavate: fruit---is a rounded capsule about one –fourth inch or more in diam, surrounded by the

persistant sepals. It possesses 10 locules, each with one seed. The seed is oval, lenticular, and pointed at

one end. Its length varies between 4 and 6 mm. and breadth between 2 and 3 mm. Each capsule contains

ten seeds.

Ecology In India, flax is a winter crop and flourishes equally well in both the peninsular region of the South and the

alluvial soils of the North. In general a lighter soil where the rainfall is heavy and a heavier soil, where

drier conditions prevail, suit the flax plant very well. Soil pH 6.6-7.6 is best suitable for the plant. The flax

is primarily a rain-fed crop and it requires average rainfall ranging from 75-175cms in a year.

Cultivation Practices Flax is primarily a winter (rabi) crop all over India. Its normal time of sowing differs from region to region.

In the Peninsular India, it is generally sown early in October, whereas in the North in the Gangetic

alluvium, it is generally sown in November. In Kashmir,the crop is sown in February and March. When this

crop is sown broadcast in the standing crop of paddy, the system is called utera in Madhya Pradesh and

paira in Bihar. Under this system the sowing time is earlier by about a month. The seed rate of a normal

flax crop in different localities in India varies between 22.5-33.5 kg/ha. When grown as utera or paira crop,

the seed rate does not ordinarily exceed 11.25 kg/ha.

Linseed (flax) is grown as a mixed crop with gram, wheat, barley, mustard etc. there is a general belief that

flax is an exhaustive crop and, therefore, raising flax after flax is not often practiced as the land is said to

become flax-sick. So rotation practices with jowar, arhar, til, coriader, wheat, gram, cotton etc. are

followed.

Harvesting In India, the crop is harvested generally in February and March in two ways viz., either by cutting the

plants close to the ground with sickle or by uprooting the plants by hand. For oil-seed purposes the first

method is employed and for fibre purposes the latter method is followed. The harvested plants are

subjected to threshing. The separation of the seed from the chaff (winnowing operation) is easily carried

out during hot months by exposing the threshed material to the blowing winds, when the seeds fall down

and the chaff (bhusa) is blown away to a distance before it settles down. A hand-winnowing machine

utilised for crops like wheat can also be utilised for flax in separating the seeds from the chaff.

Flax Fibre The fibre of commerce is obtained from fibrous (essentially cellulose) bundles, running the length of the

stem and forming a ring in the cortex, the bundles individually consisting of overlapping strands, averaging

4 cm in length. Flax fibre is stronger than cotton or wool and linen fabrics have special qualities of

strength, durability, gloss, water absorption and drying. Linen thread is used in gloves, footwear, netting

and sports gear.

Extracting of fibre It is very necessary that straw to be utilized in the fibre production should be reasonably long and

unbroken. Good quality, fibre could be made available after the water retting and chemical retting process.

But economic extraction has been found possible only after the newly developed process called the dry-

scutching process which enables the fibre being extracted without any pre-treatment of the straw with the

help of a specially designed machine. The fibre obtained by this process is, however, rough and crude, but

simple treatments, such as washing in hot water, render it soft.

Use of Fibre The fibre is used in the manufacture of strong ropes, twines and cordage, cheap and rough textiles such as

blankets, carpets, hessian-like cloth, galicha, mats, mattresses and newar in the, manufacture of fine

textiles called as Linso- fabrics, the fibre is also used in the manufacture of straw boards, writing paper

parchment paper, cigarette paper, toys etc,; it is a good fuel of domestic use; in the railways it is used in the

feed boilers to run the steam engine.

The seed contains 40 percent linseed oil, a drying oil used in varnishes, paints and linoleum. The residue

after oil extraction is a valuable high protein cattle food called linseed cake or, when ground, linseed cake

meal.

JUTE

Botanical Name:Corchorus capsularis L. and C. olitorius L.

Family: Tiliaceae.

Vernacular: Bengali-Pat, Nalita, Koshta:Assamese-Pata, Marapata: Oriya-Jhot,

Jhout,Jhuta:Hindi-Tita-Pat,Guti-pat,Miltha-pat: Sanskrit-Patta: Telugu-Janapanara.

The two species of Corchours, C. capsularis and C. olitorius, yield a best fibre of great commercial

importance. Jute is used extensively in the manfacture of gunny bags for packaging materials. The jute

fibre is obtained from the bark of the plant. The jute is the secondary phloem fibres of the stem.

Origin There are about 40 species distributed throughout the tropics of the world. Out of these, eight species occur

in India. C.capsularis is considered to have its origin in the Indo-Burma region. C. olitorius is found wild

both in Africa and India. The plant has been used (hardly cultivated) as a minor vegetable in Africa and the

middle East for a vary long time. The cultivated type under this species are found only in India. It has been

thought that the primary center of origin of C. olitorius was Africa and the secondary Centre may be India

or Indo-Burma. The data when the fibre-yelding properties of the jute plant were utilised by the Indians is

not definitely known, there is, however, evidence of trade in jute cloth in the sixteenth century in Bengal.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century jute was exported to England. Subsequently, the growth of this

industry was rapid and by the beginning of the twentieth century, it occupied the foremost place among the

Indian industries. The crop is cultivated for fibre only in West Bangal, Bangladesh, Malaya and Sri Lanka

(Table 11.6); and Table 11.7 gives world statistics of jute.

Cytogenetics Most of the species have 2n =2x=14. A few tetraploids (2n=28) are also known. There is no information

about cytotaxonomic relationships of the wild species.

Botany of the Plant Though the two species from which the jute fibre of commerce is obtained are similar in general

appearance, the leaf of C. olitorius has a shining upper surface and rougher under surface and is almost

tasteless, when chewed. The leaves of C. capsularis contain a bitter glucoside –corchorin-and tastes bitter

on chewing, hence it is often known as tita (bitter) Pat, whereas C. olitorius is mitha (sweet) pat, The

flowers of C. olitorius are larger than those of C. capsularis. C.olitorius seeds are bluish-green to steel-grey

and smaller than those of C. capsularis seeds which are copper coloured.

Plants herbaceous annuals (duration 3-5 months) 1.5-4.5 m high; Stem cylindrical, branched or

unbranched; leaves glabrous, oblong, acuminate, coarsely toothed, lowermost pair of serrations enlarged

and end in filiform appendages; petiole 4-8 cm: stipule usually 0.5-2 cm or more, foliaceous in some

varieties of C. capsularis; Flowers small, in leaf opposed cymes in groups of 2-5 or more: sepals 5,

yellow, pale yellow or green; petals 5-6, yellow entire or split, stamens 30-60 I(stamens 20-30 in C.

capsularis). Ovary round or elongated, 5-carpellary syncarpous, ovules axile: Seeds 25-40 in single row in

each locule, with transverse partitions between each seed, 127-200 in each fruit (seeds 7-10 in two rows in

each locule without transverse partitions 35-50 in each fruit in C. capsularis). Seed small, chocolate brown

(C. capsularis) or bluish green to steel grey or black (C. olitorius).

Fibre The fibre of C. olitorius is finer, softer, stronger and more lustrous than that of C. capsularis. The fibre of

C. capsularis is ordinarily whitish, and is, therefore, called white jute by the trade. The C. olitorius fibre

has either a yellowish, reddish or grayish colour, depending upon the nature of the retting water.

Ecology Jute requires a warmer and humid climate with medium rainfall. The crop can be cultivated in a wide range

of soils. Generally well drained loam soils with pH between 5 and 7, and rich in potassium and phosphorus

are suitable for jute cultivation.

Cultivation Practices Preparatory tillage of the land starts just after the first shower of rain is received during the latter part of

February or the beginning of March. Jute lands are usually manured with cow-dung, ashes, and compost

house sweepings. As jute is a bast fibre crop, the yield of the fibre is dependent on the vegetative growth of

plant. Application of ammonium sulphate at the rate of 11.2.5 –225 kg/ha during the active period of

growth of the plant gives good results.

Sowing. Seeds are usually sown broadcast method at the rate of 11.25 kg/ha for C. capsularis and 6.75

kg/ha for C. olitorius. During the first two months of the crop, manuring, weeding and thinning operation

are done.

Harvesting Jute plants may be cut any time before they are dead ripe, but harvesting is not usually done before the

flowering stages in flooded areas, the crop may have to be harvested some times even before the

appearance of the flower buds, for fear of its complete, destruction by early floods. The ideal stage of

harvest is when the plants are in small pods. The plants are cut close to the ground with sickles and tied

into bundles.

Extraction of Fibre Retting. Retting is a process by which the fibres in the bark get loosened and separated from the wood

stalk due to the removal of pectins, gums and other mucilaginous substances. This is usually effected by

the combined action of water and microorganisms. The tied bundles of jute stems are taken to the nearest

pool or ditch for retting. The bundles are laid flat in water atleast 0.6-0.9 m in depth, and arranged side by

side so as to form a regular platform, which is usually known as jak. The retting process is completed in

8—30 days. Fibre is extracted from the stalks of retted jute by hand or by decorticators. Retting can also be

done by chemical process.

Yield. The normal average yield per acre is estimated at about 481---518.5 kg in India and about 592.5 kg

in Pakistan.

Structure of Jute Fibre The fibre of jute is a bast fibre obtained from the stem (secondary phloem). The fibre cells are longer in

length and considerably lignified, and the fibre bear a silky lusture.

The longest fibre cells occur in the stems of the longest internodes. In general, the fibre cells of jute are

much shorter than those of hemp, flax or cotton, since the fibres are short, spinning by ordinary methods

becomes difficult, and hence the use of the jute fibre is limited to coarse fabrics only.

Uses Jute is an important textile fibre next in importance to cotton. It is also a cheap fibre. The jute fibre is spun

into yarn and yarns of good quality are used for certain fabrics and for coarse sacking and package material.

Nearly 90 percent of the jute fibre goes into fabric and sack manufacture with the rest being utilized for

making twines,m ropes, paper and as filling material. Different types of cloth are made for the purpose of

upholstery, for linoleum, for tapestries and mats.

Pests and Diseases Beginning with the seedling stage, the jute crop is liable to be attacked by various diseases, mostly caused

by fungi, Wilt caused by Sclerotium rolfsii, black band caused by Dipldia corchori seedling blight and

collar rot caused by Ozonium spp. Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum corchori, mildew caused by

Oidium sp.

Insect pests. Jute stem weevil, semi-looper, indigo caterpillar, hairy caterpillar, mealy bug, yellow mite,

cornu and root-knot nematodes.

KENAF Botanical Name: Hibiscus cannabinus L.

Family: Malvaceae.

Vernacular: Hindi- Patwa, Mesta: Kannada- Pundi: Telugu- Gogu:

Tamil- Pulichi, Puli Manehi: English- Bimlipatam Jute: Marathi- Jute Kenaf, Deccan hemp, Bimli Jute.

Kenaf is an important jute substitute. It is a common wild plant of tropical and subtropical Africa and is

wild or naturalized in Asia. It has been widely introduced recently as a potential fibre crop. Cultivations,

have been established in China, Russia, Thailand, South Africa. Egypt, Mexico and Cuba. An Indian origin

for kenaf is suggested by some authors but the peoples of Western Sudan domesticated the plant before

4000 B.C. (Murdock1959). Wild forms occur in several parts of Africa, especially in the upper Niger and

Bani valleys. Wild collections have also been made in Angola and Tanzania. The Angolan collections

appear primitive and may indicate Angola as the centre of origin of kenaf (Simmonds, 1976).

Kenaf is an important fibre crop in South India. It is cultivated as a rainfed crop in large areas in Madhya

Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It is sown on the bunds of irrigation channels and in small

patches in garden lands. It is stronger than jute, but not so flexible and soft.

The plant is said to have been introduced from South Africa and it is grown in India from time immemorial.

Cultivated forms are annual, erect herbs, largely self-pollinated. The chromosome number of the Bimili jute

is 2n=2x=36.

Botany of the Plant The plants are herbaceous annuals; growing to a height of even 5 m. the stems are straight, with small

prickles: leaves alternate, stipulate, lobed and with serrated margins,stipules long and pointed: flowers

solitary, with short pedicels and axillary, epicalyx stiff, consisting of seven to eight bracteoles: corolla

larger, spreading pale yellow or yellow with crimson or purplish centre: stamens numerous on a staminal

column: ovary superior, five carpelled: style passes through staminal column and terminate in five

stigmatic branches: fruit capsule, five loculed each containing four to five seeds. It is mainly as self-

pollinated crop.

Ecology

The plant is best grown in tropics and to some extent in sub-

tropics. It is sensitive to frost. In India, kenaf is grown often

as a border crop in garden areas where the soil is loamy and

affords good drainage. It is grown mixed with most cereals

in dry lands or as a pure crop.

Cultivation Practices The plant is sown with the commencement of monsoon in

all kinds of soils. Seeds are sown at the rate of 28-34 kg/ha.

One or two hoeings are given and the leaves are picked,

when they are tender for use as a green vegetable. The plants flower in three to three-and-half months and

are harvested before the seeds mature. Water is let into wet lands and the plants are pulled out with the

roots. The tender top portions are cut and the green plants are made into small bundles and steeped in water

for retting. They are kept in a vertical position to start with and laid flat after a few days to bring about

uniform retting from the base to the top. Retting process takes about 15 to 20 days, and the fibre is

extracted later.

Nature of the Fibre The yield of dry fibre ranges from 225-1350 kg/ha. Bimli jute fibre is extracted from the inner part

of cortex, outside the cambium layer. The fibre strands range in length from 0.15-6.0 mm in length. The

ultimate fibres are cylindrical in shape with thickened walls and blunt or pointed ends, polygonal and

rounded in cross-section with small or large lumen. Two types of fibres, primary and secondary, are

reported to be present in the bark. The primary fibres arising from the terminal meristem are more glossy

and flexible than the secondary fibres, which arise from cambial activity. The barks of early maturing types

contain larger percentage of primary fibres than those of late maturing ones. The fibre is comparable to

jute in luster, but is some –what coarser, harsher and more brittle and inflexible, it is more resistant to rot.

Uses

Bimli fibre is widely used for rope and cordage. Large quantities are used in making fishing nets and

strings for training rafters. It is also used for coarse canvas, sacks and gunny bags, floor matting, rug

backing, etc. The stalks left after fibre extraction can be used as fuel. Leaves are used as green vegetable.

Diseases and Pests 1. Fungal diseases. Dry rot caused by Macrophomina phaseoli, leaf spot by Cercospora hibisci,

leaf blight by Phyllosticta hibisci, and stem rot by Diplodia hibiscina.

2. Insect pests : Podagrica apicefulva, Agrilus acutus.

COIR

Botanical Name: Cocos nucifera L.

Family: Arecaceae

Vernacular: English-Coconut, Porcupine wood: Tamil- Thennai, Kalpakaviruteham: Malyalam- Thengu,

Nalikeram: Telugu- Tenkayi chettu, Kobbari chettu: Kannada- Tenginagida; Hindi- Naril.

Coir or coconut fibre belongs to the group of hard structural fibres. It is an important commercial product

obtained from the husk of the coconut. Industries based on coir have developed in many coconut producing

countries especially India, Tanzania, Kenya, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Ghana etc.

In India, coir manufacture is a traditional industry, which has taken deep roots in the economic structure of

the rural areas in the coastal states. The industry sustains over half a million people and contributes

substantial foreign exchange to the national exchequer. India was ranked first among the coconut

producing countries of the world until 1921, since then, the position has changed. Indonesia and

Philippines have increased their production and India now occupies a third place. These three countries

together account nearly 65 percent of the world production (4.5 m mt) out of which India’s share is about

25 percent.

Harvesting and Processing. The fruits are harvested when still green to obtain the best quality coir. Husk

usually forms 35.45 percent of the weight of the whole nut, when ripe. Husks from ten to eleven month old

nuts have been found to give superior quality fibre possessing a golden yellow colour. The fibre from the

husk is extracted on a commercial scale, either by natural retting process or by mechanical decortication.

Natural Retting The process involves soaking of the husks in water preferably saline water for a certain period until the

fibre becomes loose and soft. The soaking is done either in pits dug near lagoons or by the sides of

backwaters where water flows in and out with the rise and fall of the tide.

In some areas soaking is done in enclosures erected in shallow brackish waters with coconut leaves and

petioles. After the husks are filled in the soaking pits, nets or enclosures, they are covered with coconut

leaves and mud and weighted down to prevent floatation when immersed in water.

During the retting process, the husk becomes soft and a number of substances like carbohydrates,

glycosides, tannins and nitrogen compounds are brought into solution. The carbohydrates and nitrogen

compounds are acted upon by a great variety of anaerobic organisms, which produce various organic acids

and gas. When the fermentation progresses, the temperature of the husk increases, water becomes turbid

due to gas formation and frothing, and the pectin in the middle lamella of the husk slowly dissolves

subsequently, the rate of fermentation slows done and the water becomes clear without the evolution of

gases and the consequent frothing. At this stage, the husks are ready for removal. The period of retting is

longer (8-10 months) in saline water and shorter (4-6 months) in fresh water.

Mechanical Methods Mechanical methods of retting are employed in areas where facilities for natural retting do not exist. Either

dry or green husks are soaked in cement tanks for a period varying from a few hours to three weeks and the

fibre extracted manually or mechanically. In one method, the husks are first crushed through a series of

corrugated iron rollers, a machine called husk crusher. Then the husks are thrown into a retting tank where

they undergo fermentation for a minimum period of 72 hours. This process, however, does not yield fibre

of spinnable quality as in the case of natural retting, but yields only bristles and mattress fibres.

Chemical Methods Various chemical methods have also been developed for the retting of husk. The advantages claimed are:

higher yield of uniform quality fibre and a considerable saving of time.

1. Nanji Process. The green or dry husks are partially crushed and treated under steam pressure of 36.4-

45.4 kg/sq. inch. With sodium sulphate or sodium carbonate containing traces of aluminium sulphate for 1-

2 hours . During this process the pith is loosened from the fibre and removed by washing. The fibre

obtained is of good quality but slightly darker than that of natural retting.

2. Elod and Thomas Process. The crushed husks are immersed in hot water twice. Slaked lime or similar

substance is added during the second immersion in order to avoid discolouration. Subsequently, the fibre is

extracted mechanically.

3. Rowel Process. The crushed husks are subjected to a high steam pressure and the fibre come out loose

from the steaming chambers.

4. Vander Jaget Process. The husks are first split into pieces. The pieces are than boiled with a weak

solution of caustic-soda and squeezed. The compressed fibres are reopened, softened and cleaned. It is

claimed that good quality fibre could be produced using this technique in less than two hours.

5. Caraan Process. The husk is fermented for four days at 370C with the aid of the fungus Aspergillus sp.,

previously isolated from partially retted husks. This process is reported to give 37 percent fibre output.

Extraction of Fibre After retting, the husks are taken out of water and washed. Outer skin peeled of, placed on wooden blocks

and beaten with a wooden mallet for separating the fibres from the pith. After fibres are separated from the

pith, these are cleaned and then spread on shade for drying. The fibres spread for drying are occasionally

beaten and tossed up with poles to remove the remnants of pith and impurities still adhering to the fibre.

For making superior types of fibre, especially for spinning, improved methods exist.

It is estimated that the annual production of coir in India nearly amounts to 1 m mt. Three classes

of fibre are recognized in the trade. They are Mat, Curl (toe or mattress)and Bristle fibre. The bulk of

fibre produced in the west coast of India is mat fibre. Mat fibre is sometimes used as a substitute for hemp

in certain cordages. Curl fibre is obtained mostly from unretted husk and is short; it is used for mattresses

or for stuffing upholstery, cushions etc. Bristle fibre, which is coarse and thick, is used for making brushes,

and brooms. Bristle fibre is not produced in India, but mostly imported from Sri Lanka.

Fibre Structure • Individual fibres are 0.3-1.0 mm long and 0.01-0.0.2 mm in diameter; the ratio of length to

diameter being 35. The lumen is medium to large, polygonal-rounded, or elliptic. The vascular bundle is collateral and is surrounded by thick sclerenchymatous sheath. Lignin and hemicelluloses, which form the cementing materials of fibre cells, increase with the age of the fibre and the pectin decreases. As the lignin content increases, the fibre becomes stiffer and tougher.

• Length of the fibre determines its spinnability and commercial utility. Spinnability may be defined as the ease with which textile fibres may be twisted into continuous, uniform yarns, having commercially acceptable properties.

• Fineness of a fibre is usually expressed by its diameter in microns or by the weight of the fibre per unit length- dinier. The compactness and strength of a yarn or cord depends on the cohesion between individual fibres.

• Strength or tensile strength of a fibre is determined by its ability to resist strain or rupture induced by tension , and is a determining factor in the selection of a fibre.

• Elongation at rupture is a criterion of practical value and is an index of the work that could be performed by the fibre within the limits of its breaking load.

• Torsional rigidity. Stresses in the fibre due to twisting and bending or important factors which affect the diameter of the yarn, its ability to snarl, its pliability and elastic recovery from small strains and internal pressures.

The chemical composition of coconut husk and coir fibre is as follows:

Percentage

1. Total water solubles 26.00 2. Pectins etc. soluble in boiling water 14.25 3. Hemi-celluloses 8.50 4. Lignin 29.23 5. Cellulose 23.81

Grading

Indian coir is classified into four grades: (1) Cochin fibres, (2) Lustrous fibre, (3) Reddish or Greyish fibre

and (4) Inferior quality.

Long fibres FFFF (15 cms. And above) Medium FFF ( 12-15 cms.) Short FF ( 6-8 cms.) Very short F (4 cms.)

Deterioration

Coir has been found to be remarkably resistant to both fungal and bacterial decomposition.

Spinning Spinning of coir yarn is mainly a cottage industry in India and abroad. It is produced either by wheel

spinning or hand spinning or mechanized spinning. Handspun yarn is soft and the twist and thickness are

even. Wheel spun yarn has a hard twist; it is stronger and more uniform in size and twist than handspun

yarn.

The classification of coir yarn is based on variations of color, twist, pitch, scorage etc. and also area of

production like; Anjengo, Aratony, Alapat, Beach, Rope yarn, Parur, Muppiri etc.

Weaving Coir yarn is treated with dilute solution of sulphuric acid, which improves its colour and gives a certain

amount of brightness for the production of mats, Coir mats, fibre mats, speciality mats, Mattings, rugs,

mourzouks, carpets etc.

Dyeing and Printing Colour and design play an important part in the marketing of coir products. Dyed yarn is exported to

Australia for the manufacture of matting. The following dye stuffs are employed in coir dyeing. Chrysodin

YS, Bismarck Brown, Methyl Violet, Malachite Green, Magenta, Naphthalene orange, Naphthalene Red,

Naphthalene Green etc.

Ropes & Cordages Coir is resistant to the action of water and has the property of elongation without breaking. By

virtue of these properties, coir has long been used for ropes and cordages.

Uses of Coir • Besides its main use as floor covering and in rope making, coir fibre finds extensive use as

packaging material to protect goods against shock in transport.

• Coir fibre finds its use in the production of activated carbon, artificial horse hair, paper pulp, roofing tiles, writing boards, thermal insulations, high stretch paper, manufacture of olive oil filters etc.

• In Germany, coir is rubberized for making cushion seating for automobiles and railways. The rubberization is brought about by Splashing layers of coir fibre and rubber with the help of a specialized machine.

• Coir yarn has been found to be ideal lead for hop wines which is used in brewery in U.S.A Coir bags are used in tea estates for collecting tea leaves and for transportation: and also for lifting coal from mines.

• Coir yarn is used for making fenders which are attached to ships and boats for preventing collision and shock.

• Coir mats are used for commercial packaging purposes and circular brush mats are used for packing.

• Coir mattings after bituminisation offer possibilities of being used as floor covering in godowns to withstand moisture adsorption by stored goods.

• Rubber backed coir mats are sol-proof, sound absorbent and do not scratch polished floor. Heavy matting made out of thick coir rope is being used for transporting gas cylinder. It is used as a strainer in tube wells in place of wire mesh.

• Hardboards made of coconut husk shorts and coir dusts are durable, smooth, insect proof, fire retarding and water-repellent. They may be sawed, nailed, glued and finished into particular requirement.

• Coir waste has been recently used in the manufacture of Coirolite by incorporating with resins and other ingredients by the usual techniques of plastics manufacture. The powder so obtained is hot-pressed to obtain articles of any shape using appropriate moulds. It is a tough and hard material and possesses good strength and electrical resistance.

KAPOK Botanical Name: Ceiba pentandra (L) Gaertn.

Family: Bombacaceae.

Vernacular : Sanskrit-Svet salmali; Hindi- safed simal, hattian, katan; Bengali-schwetsimul; Marathi- Salmali, pandhari; Tamil-Ilavum; Telugu- Tella buraga; Kannada- Buraga, bili buraga; Malyalam-Illavu, mulli lavu; English- White Silk Cotton Tree, True Kapok Tree. Before 1940, the kapok tree was an important commercial crop in the world, grown for its fibre. In recent

years, these fibres have been replaced by synthetics but the kapok tree is still cultivated on a small scale for

local use. Major producers of Kopak are Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, East Africa and India.

The plant is considered to be a native of America. The plant is very variable, in the spininess of its stem,

habit of branching, colour of flowers, size of fruits, manner of fruit opening, and in the length, colour and

springiness of the floss. Based on these differences three varieties are recognized.

1. C. pentandra var. indica,

2. C. pentandra var. caribaea, and

3. C. pentandra var. africana. The plant is widely distributed in the hotter parts of western and southern India Andaman Islands, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Java,Indo-China and other south-east Asian countries.

Botany of the Plant A tall deciduous tree, 15-30 m high, with broad buttress-based trunk and horizontal whorled branches. The

branches are prickly when young and bear digitately compound leaves. The fruits are oblong capsules, 15

cm long and 5 cm in diam., enclosing numerous black obovoid seeds, which are enveloped in copious,

shining, silky hairs arising from the inner walls of the capsules.

Cultivation Practices Propagation is by seeds or from cuttings. It thrives best in a warm tropical climate at elevations less than

450 m with abundant rainfall during the growing season, and a dry period from the time of flowering till

the pods ripen. It requires a well-drained soil, grows rapidly and begins to fruit when 3-6 years old.

Harvesting The pods from which the floss is obtained are brought down, before they are ready to burst, by hooked

knives attached to long poles. The fruits are dried in the sun and split open with mallets. The floss is taken

along with seeds, dried in the sun and the seeds separated by beating the dried material with sticks.

Kapok Fibre Kapok fibre is light, brittle, elastic, lustrous and white or pale yellow in colour. Individual fibres are

cylindrical, each being a single cell with a bulbous base. The cells of the inner epidermis of the epicarp

form the fibres, which are about 1-2 cm long. The air-filled lumen is broad and the wall rather thin. The

fibre is, therefore, fragile, which together with smoothness of the outer surface, makes spinning impossible.

Uses Kapok finds use in bedding and upholstery industries, in the production of life-saving equipment, and in the

construction of thermally insulated and soundproof covers and walls. On account of its buoyancy, freedom

from water-logging and weight-bearing capacity, it is the material par excellence for the manufacture of

lifebuoys and belts, waistcoats and other naval life-saving appliances. The buoyancy of kapok is about five

times as great as that of cork and about three times that of reindeer hair. During the war, kapok was

employed for insulating tanks, for lining aviation suits, for filling floats of army assault-bridges, and

generally for replacing cork wherever lightness, moisture-resistance and floating power were needed.

• Kapok was considered unsuitable for textile purposes, because the fibre is brittle, smooth and

slippery.

• Refined kapok seed oil is used for the same purposes as refined cottonseed oil. The wood is light

and soft and is suitable for making canoes and toys. It is used for matches. The root bark yields a

fibre.

SUNN HEMP

Botanical Name: Crotalaria juncea L

Family:Fabaceae.

Vernacular: Hindi & Sanskrit-Sanai, Sani; Tamil-Sadambu, Sanapu, Shanal; Malayalam-Wuckoo; Telugu-

Janumu; Kannada- Sanabu.

Sunn hemp is a bast fibre grown on a large scale in India, for local use and export, as a raw material for

sacking and cordage. The plant is indigenous to India and is cultivated for fibre and for green manure in

many states, viz., Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. It is also grown on limited scale in

Maharashtra, Punjab, West Bengal and Orissa.

The fibre has a fair demand from overseas

countries and a large proportion of it is exported.

A great quantity of the fibre exported is said to be

used primarily in the preparation of cigarette

papers and high quality tissue papers. The sunn

hemp is often referred to as Bombay hemp. The

fibres are stronger than the fibres of jute, but

lighter in colour and more enduring than that of

jute.

C. juncea (2n=2x=16) is not found as a wild plant

but its ancient cultivation in India may indicate

that it originated there. Crotalaria is a large genus

with many species native to the Asian tropics, but

mostly concentrated in Africa. Sunn hemp is

cultivated widely throughout the tropics as a green

manure since it is a large, fast growing, rapidly

rooting, annual legume which can be ploughed in

after 8-10 weeks.

Botany of the Plant Erect, annual, grows to 1.2-1.5 m or more; leaves alternate, short, petiolate, lanceolate, obtuse with a small

bristle like apex, stipulate; Inflorescence in terminal racemes; flowers bracteate, papilionaceous, bright

yellow, calyx gamosepalous of 5 lobes, deepley cleft into two lips, the upper two lobed and the lower lip of

three lobes; corolla polypetalous, standard broad, wings oblong, keel much pointed lightly twisted at the

apex; stamens 10, monadelphous, dimorphic with 5 short, versatile anthers on slender filaments alternating

with long basifixed anthers with flattened filaments; ovary superior monocarpellary, marginal

placentation, ovules few; style long bearded at the top; stigma small oblique; pod oblong, inflated 2.5-3 cm.

long, downy; seeds kidney shaped, exendospermous.

Pollination The crop is almost completely cross-pollinated by bees,

which are exploited by an intricate pollen release

mechanism involving dimorphic stamens.

Varieties There are many varieties of sunn hemp and they are

generally named after the tracts, where they are grown.

Three main varieties of sunn hemp are known to exist in

India; white, green or ganjam and dewghuddy. The

dewghuddy variety produces a creamish coloured fibre with

good length and texture, is considered to be best in quality. The white variety; produces fibres white to

grayish coloured, lustrous, and fine textured. The green or ganjam variety produces the fibres green to grey

and stronger than the white fibres.

Ecology The crop thrives best in tropical and subtropical climates. It is a hardy and drought-resistant crop, growing

on poor soils. The crop needs a moderate, but well distributed rainfall of at least 50-75 cms, during the

growing phase.

Cultivation Practices The land is prepared thoroughly with pre-monsoon showers. Seeds are sown at 45-112.5 kg/ha. The

sowings are done in the Kharif season. The crop requires thorough weeding operations in the early stages.

Harvesting The harvesting of the crop can be done when the pods are just setting or when the pods dry up. Immature

crops give clean white fibres, fine in texture and of little strength. The fibre from mature crop is coarse and

strong.

The crop is harvested by cutting the plants close to the ground with sickles. The tops of immature crops are

cut and used for feeding cattle and the pods are stripped from mature crops, for use as seed. The plants are

then tied into small bundles and steeped in water for retting. When dry stalks are retted, the bundles are

immersed in water for about, 5 days and then dried in the sun for 3 days, before taking up the extraction of

the fibre. The cleaned fibre is packed in bales for export.

Uses Sunn hemp is essentially cordage fibre and is used in the manufacture of ropes, twines, cords and marine

cordage, it also finds application in the manufacture of sail-cloth, canvas, matting, sacking and rope soles

of shoes and sandals, etc. being resistant to deterioration in water, sunn hemp is used for making fishing

nets and marine cordage.

RAMIE Botanical Name: Boehmeria nivea Gaud.

Family: Urticaceae.

Vernacular: Bengali- Kankura; Assamese-Rhea; Burmese-Gun, goun; Chinese-Schou (the plant) and

Schou-ma (the fibre)

Ramie or China grass was an important fabric fibre produced in ancient China and exported to Egypt,

Babylon and neighbouring countries. As the Ramie material was in the form of ribbons, it was often

referred to as China grass. It is also known as nettle fibre or rhea fibre.

Ramie is a perennial shrub 0.9-2.1 m high monoecious, wind-pollinated with small unisexual flowers, the

stems yield a very strong, lustrous bast fibre. The plant is indigenous to China and Japan and now

introduced into southern USA. It is cultivated in some parts of India. In Bengal, it is a garden crop and in

Assam it is grown as a scattered crop.

The plant has two distinct varieties---nivea proper (Rhea), with leaves that are green above and whitish

beneath and tenacissima(Ramie), with leaves green on both sides. The var. nivea belongs to somewhat

cooler climate than the other.

The species is diploid, with 2n=2x=14.

Cultivation Practices Plants can be raised either from seeds, or preferably from root and stem-cuttings. The root system is

perennial and gives rise to abundant fresh shoots after each cutting of stems. If properly cultivated, no

replanting is necessary for about six years. The usual time for transplantation is either April-May, or

September-October. The stems become mature in 10 months and change colour, from green to brown. For

obtaining fine, soft fibre, shoots must be cut before they mature and begin to flower. The quality of fibre

depends on the age and length of shoots. Shoots not more than 0.6 m in height give very fine fibre, but the

quantity obtained is small. In long stems the fibre is coarse but yield is good.

The crop thrives on a rich loamy soil, and is of an exhausting nature. Heavy manuring at frequent intervals

is necessary. Japan has made considerable progress in the cultivation of Ramie and also in the technique

of processing the fibre. Formosa and the Philippines cultivate Ramie. Japan imports considerable quantities

of this fibre from the Philippines to supplement their own production.

Extraction of Fibre The cut stems are decorticated by hand as in India and China, or by machinery as in America, and the fibre

is stripped off. Retting does not yield satisfactory results. The crude fibre is heavily coated with gum which

is removed by treatment with soap solution or lime steaming. The resulting clean fibre is called ‘filasse’.

Ramie fibre is regarded as the longest (40-20 mm ), toughest, and most silky of all vegetable fibres. It has

great strength and durability, and is highly resistant to the action of water.

Uses Ramie is used in Europe for sacks, sail cloth, belting, table-cloth sheeting, nets, threads, cordage, paper etc.

Gas mantles of good quality are also made from it. Ramie is rarely used by itself in textiles, but is mixed

with wool, silk and cotton. Its special use is in the preparation of lustrous, non-creasable fabrics.

MANILA HEMP

Botanical Name: Musa textiles Nees.

Family: Musaceae.

Vernacular: English-Manila Hemp, Abaca; Tamil & Malayalam- Naaru, Vazhai;

Kannada-Nati bale.

Abaca fibre or Manila hemp is obtained from the sheathing leaf bases of Musa textilis. The plant is a

member of the section Australimusa of the banana family, the Musaceae. It is the strongest of the structural

fibres and, because it does not deteriorate or rot in fresh or salt water, and is elastic, light and durable, it is

used mostly for the manufacture of ship’s cables and ropes, for strong sacking, coarse fabrics and strong

paper.

The wild bananas are all diploid and are distributed in south-east Asia and the Pacific. It has chromosome

number of 2n=2x=20. The plant is native to and cultivated in the Philippine Islands and Borneo.

Manila hemp is a tall, stout, stoloniferous plant, 2.5-4.0 m high; Leaves broadly oblong, leathery, firm in

texture, bright green above, glaucous beneath, often with large brown spots: fruits compact, nearly terete,

5-7 cm. diam., with pale cream coloured inedible pulp filled with many seeds. This species is valued for its

fibre extracted from leaf sheaths of mature plants.

The plant was introduced and experimentally tried in India for its fibre. Experimental cultivation of M.

textiles has been tried in West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Andaman Islands. The plant has been reported to

thrive well in Andaman, but little attention seems to have been paid to cultivation and fibre extraction.The

plant thrives in well-drained, moderately rich loams at elevations of 60-150 cm. with an annual average

rainfall of 250- 275 cm., evenly distributed throughout the year.

The plant is propagated by suckers or from parts of mature rootstock containing one or more growing buds.

The largest producer of abaca in the world is Indonesia and some countries of Central America also

produce abaca fibre in small quantities.

Fibre The harvested stalks of the plant are utilized for the extraction of fibre. The fibre is located primarily

adjacent to the outer surface of the leaf sheath. Each leaf sheath consists in cross-section of 3 layers, the

outer fibrous layer, the middle containing a small quantity of fine white fibre, and the inner layer, which

contains no fibre at all.

The fibre consists of strands ranging in length from 0.9-2.7 m. Each strand is made up of bundles of fibre

cells irregularly round or oval with tapering ends and with long distinct lumens. The fibre is strong and

flexible. It is highly resistant to microbial rotting and to salt water.

Uses The fibre is used mainly for twines, ropes and cable. It is much valued for hawkers, ship’s cables and

riggings. It is also used in the manufacture of tough paper.

Diseases

Abaca plant is susceptible to bunchy top, mosaic, wilt diseases and insect pests like the banana borer.

HEMP Botanical Name: Cannabis sativa Linn.

Family:Cannabinaceae

Vernacular: Sanskrit-Bhanga, Vijaya; Hindi, Bengali and Gujarati- Bhang, Ganja, Charas, Siddhi, Jia; Telugu-Ganzai,kapam-chettu; Tamil-Ganja, Bjangi; Kannada-Bhangi; English-True Hemp, Soft Hemp.

Hemp is an ancient crop plant, which provides a fibre, a psychotomimetic drug, minor food and a fixed oil

from the seeds. The plant is considered to be a native of western and central Asia. It is practically

naturalized in the sub-Himalayan tract in India, and is abundantly met with in wastelands from Punjab

eastwards to Bengal and Bihar and extending southwards to Deccan.

Hemp is tall annual herb; 1.2-4.8 m high with erect angular stem, bearing palmately divided leaves. The

plant is dioecious or rarely monoecious. Flowers, greenish, male flowers borne in long drooping panicles

and female flowers in short axillary spikes; fruit is an ovate seed-like achene.

The plant is cultivated commercially for its fibre mostly in Europe and parts of China, Japan and USA. In

India, the cultivation of the hemp plant is permitted in the districts of Almora, Garhawal and Nainital in

Uttar Pradesh for its fibre but not for the production of hemp drugs. The plant is also cultivated to a small

extent in Kashmir, Nepal and Travancore.

For obtaining fibre the plant is grown on rich loamy soil

in a mild humid climate, with a temperature range of 15-

26oC during the growing season. The land is well

prepared and liberally manured. The seeds are sown

either broadcast or by drills.

The crop is harvested as soon as the lower leaves are shed

and the tops of stalks and flowers turn yellow. Harvesting

at the time the plants are about to flower gives the

optimum yield of high quality fibre.

Extraction of Fibre The fibre is extracted from stalks, either by water-retting or dew-retting. The latter method is common is

Europe and America, while in Italy, and in some parts of Russia, Hungary, Yugoslavia and in India, water

retting is the common practice. The stalks are tied in bundles and immerse in ponds or slow-running

streams until the bark including the fibre, separates out from the woody inner portion. The duration of

retting varies in different localities depending upon the temperature of water. In hot and damp weather, 3-4

days may be sufficient. In cool and dry weather 1-2 weeks are required. Dew-retted fibre is grey; while

water-retted hemp is usually cream-white.

Hemp Fibre Hemp fibre is the bast fibre obtained from primary and secondary phloem fibres. Secondary phloem fibres

are smaller, shorter, thin walled or more brittle than the primary phloem fibres. The fibres from staminate

plants are considered to be superior to that of pistillate plants. Hemp fibre is strong, lustrous and durable.

Commercial fibre is 100-200 cm. in length. Its fineness of staple is less than that of linen, though its tensile

strength is appreciably greater.

Under the microscope the fibre is seen to consist of cell elements, which are unusually long averaging

about 2cm. In length, and 22 microns in diameter. The fibre ends are bluntly rounded. The fibre is

somewhat uneven in diameter and exhibits frequent joints, longitudinal fractures and swollen fissures. It is

made up of a mixture of cellulose and ligno-cellulose.

Uses Hemp is used for the manufacture of fine cordage, twine, sailcloth, tarpaulins and carpet yarns. Loose fibre

is used for caulking boats, pumps, engines and other machinery. During the last war, green fibre prepared

without retting by a process of decorticating and cottonising, was used as a substitute for jute in making

binder-twine and sacks. The use of hemp in cordages, twines and ropes has declined, its place being taken

by the hard fibres. Manila and sisal. Hemp stems can be used for the manufacture of coarse paper.

SISAL HEMP Botanical Name: Agave sisalana Perr. Family: Amaryllidaceae. Vernacular: English- Sisal. Several species of Agave are cultivated for their leaf fibres which provided over 90 percent of the hard

fibres of commerce, A. cantala Roxb. yielding maguey or cantala and A. letonae F.W. Taylor (Salvador

henequen) are grown to a limited extent. These four species are usually referred to as long-fibre agaves as

against the brush-fibre yield A.lecheguilla Torrey and A.angustifolia Haw., dwarf sisal.

World production of Agave fibres in 1980 was estimated at about 0.5 m mt (Table 11.9). The agaves are

tropical by origin and there are very few commercial plantations outside the tropics. The major sisal

producers are Brazil, Tanzania, Mozambique, Angola, Kenya, Madagascar and Haiti.

In India sisal has been cultivated on an experimental scale in Assam, Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and

Karnataka.

The sisal Agave has a short stem, 37.5cm, thick bearing a number of dark green thick, fleshy, rigid leaves.

Generally, no spines are found on the leaf margin.

The plant grows well on a dry, permeable sandy loam and is exceedingly drought-resistant. Bulbils or

suckers usually carry out propagation. Bulbils are grown in nursery beds and seedlings are transplanted

when 20-30 cm. high. They are usually spaced 2.4 m apart in rows of 1.8 m. The oldest leaves (the lowest

on the trunk) are cut close to the trunk. Each plant yields about 250-300 leaves during its lifetime of 7-8

years.

The average weight of sisal leaf is approximately 0.9 kg and 1,000 leaves yield 27-36 kg. of dry fibre. Sisal

hemp consists of strands of filaments 0.9-1.5m long. of a nealy white or pale yellowish colour. The fibre is

strong, coarse, somewhat harder and more flexible than Manila hemp.

The cultivated agaves originated from wild

ancestors in Central America and Mexico

but their precise botanical origins are

unknown. Nothing is known about the

primary ancestors of the cultivated polyploid

species, A. sisalana.

Uses The leaves of agaves yield valuable fibre. A. cantala is grown in the Philippines, Java and Cuba, A.

fourcroydes Lam., a native of Mexico, is cultivated chiefly in Yucatan and A, sisalana, the source of the

well known sisal fibre, a native of Central America, is now grown largely in east Africa and to a smaller

extent in the Bahamas, Java and Florida. In India, A. cantala A. sisalana and A. vera-cruz are planted

along railway embankments and road-sides and are suitable for hedging and fencing. They may also be

planted to check soil erosion.

Agave fibre is one of the important hard fibres. The fibre is mostly used for making ropes, cordage and

twine. The shorter fibres are used for making mops and brushes. In recent years, it has also been used for

the manufacture of coarse fabrics, etc. Agaves flower only once during their life time and they die after

fruiting.

ROSELLE

Botanical Name : Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Family: Malvaceae. Vernacular: Hindi-Lal-ambari, Patwa; Bengali-Lal-mista, Patwa, Chukar; Marathi-Lal-ambadi, Patwa; Telugu-Yerra gogu; Tamil-Pulichchai kerai, Assamese-Chukiar; English-Rosselle, Jamaica Sorrel, Red Sorrel.

Roselle is a native of tropical Africa or Asia. The plant is now found under cultivation throughout the

tropics and comprises a large number of cultivated types. The edible types are cultivated in warm countries,

particularly in the Philippines,Malaya and Indonesia, for their calyces. In India, they are grown in Punjab,

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu as

a Kharif crop.

Cultivation Practices

Seeds are sown on well-prepared seed beds and the seedlings when 10-12.5 cm. high are transplanted in the

field in rows 1.5-1.8 m apart, the distance between the plants in the row being 0.9-1.2 m. The capsules are

ready for picking in November-December and the picking season lasts for about two months. The yield of

calyces averages to 1.3 kg per plant.

Harvesting

For the production of fibre the crop should be harvested at the bud stage. The stalks are tied into bundles

and left on the field for 3-4 days, and retted as in the case of H.cannabinus. In Sri Lanka, the bark is

stripped off the cortex, tied into bundles and retted in tanks. The retted fibre is washed in running water and

dried in the sun. Then it is combed and baled. The average yield of fibre is reported to be 11 11.5 kg/ha.

Fibre Characteristics

Roselle fibres resemble jute and bimli fibre in general appearance and characters. It has a length of about

3.6 m, the ultimate fibre being 1.2-3.3 mm long. It is silky, soft, lustrous, white to pale yellowish brown in

colour, with chemical and physical properties similar to those of jute.

Uses

Roselle fibre is employed for sacking, cordage, rope, fishing nets and generally for all purposes for which

jute is used. Bags made of Roselle fibre are extensively employed in Java for packing sugar. The stalks left

over after extractions are used as fuel.

CONGO JUTE Botanical Name: Urena lobata L. Family: Malvaceae.

Vernacular: English- Aramina, Caesar weed; Spanish-Carillo. Congo Jute is a superior jute substitute producing a fine, pale fibre. It is normally used as an admixture in spinning jute. Congo jute is widely grown in the tropics but chiefly in Zaire; also in Brazil and Madagascar. The fibres are obtained from the bark of the stem. Botany of Plant

Shrub, with a short taproot, 4-5m, tall and with many widespread branches. The leaves are alternate, and

may be simple, notched or lobed. The red flowers arise from the leaf bases. The fruit is round with stiff

hooked hairs containing five seeds.

Cultivation Practices

Propagated through seeds. The seeds are treated with conc. Sulfuric acid for 3 hours and soaked in water

for 1-2 days for good germination. Seeds are then sown with 5 cm, spacing in rows 60-80 cm, apart. High

rates of NPK manures are needed.

Harvesting

Harvesting is done when flowers appear, at 4-6 months and height 2-3 m. the stems are soaked in water and

retted for 5-14 days to remove non-fibrous material. Yields of 700-2250 kg./ha of fibre may be obtained.

Rotation with other crops often proves beneficial.

Uses

Urena lobata is grown as a fibre crop in Brazil, where it is known as Aramina fibre and in Congo under

the name of Congo Jute. The fibre resembles jute more closely than other jute substitutes; it is as fine as

jute and can be spun on the same machinery; and is often mixed with jute. The fibre is soft, pale yellow and

is used for making ropes, carpets, lessain etc.

Other Fiber yielding Plants

Corchorus olitorius

TABLE 2. Other Vegetable Fibres of Minor Importance Botanical Name Family Uses

Phomrium tenax Forst.(NewZealand flax) Liliaceae The fibre from the stem is used for making ropes, twine, yarn, lines, sailcloth etc.

Juncus effuses L. (Rushes) Juncaceae

The fibre from the stem is used for making mats, baskets, and bottoms of chairs

Maranta dichotoma Marantaceae The fibre from the stem is used in making mats.

Musa paradisiacea L(Plantain fibre) Musaceae The fibre from the stem and leaves is used for textile or cordage purposes, while tow, which is separated in preparing the fibres, forms an excellent material for the finest and toughest kinds of paper.

Phoenix sylvestris (L.) for Ro

Arecaceae The leaves are used for thatching the cottages of the poor or making umbrellas

Calamus rotang Linn. Arecaceae Their smooth and shining stems are employed for caning the bottoms of chairs and other articles. They are used as sticks, and for mat making and canning work for furniture’s. The cane is extremely strong.

Borassus flabellifer L. (Palmyra tree)

Arecaceae The wood near the circumference of old trees is very hard, heavy and durable. Employed in thatching houses, making baskets, mats and the leaves are made into fans. The fibres of leaves are employed in making twine and rope.

Crotalaria tenuifolia

Fabaceae

Fibre used in cordage

Sesbania aculeata Pers. Fabaceae

Fibre is fine, long silky. Used in cordage, cables, ropes

Bauhinia racemosa Lam.

Caesalpiniaceae

Fibre used as ropes and strings.

Butea frondosa Koen boat ex Roxb.

Fabaceae

The fibre from bark and roots is used as cordage and also in construction.

Melliotus arborea

Fabaceae

Strong fibre used as ropes.

Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br ex. Ait. (Mudar fibre or Yurcum fibre)

Asclepiadaceae

Used in the paper industry and also in textile, used for stuffing pillows etc.

Cordia rothii Roem. & Schult. (Narvali fibre) Boraginaceae Yields fibre from the bark, used in r

Botanical Name Family Uses

making. Trema orientalis Blume Ulmaceae

Used in textile industry.

Artocarpus communis (Bread fruit tree)

Moraceae

Fibre used in clothing and paper industry.Forest.

Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’ Heritier in Vent (Paper mulberry)

Moraceae

Fibre from the bark is used in clothiand paper industry.

Eringa saccharifera Arecaceae

used in shipping

Saccharum munja Roxb. Poaceae Used for tying up of cattle and also making tow ropes by boats men in Banaras.

Saccharum sara

Poaceae

Used by boats men as towline for its strength and durability even the exposure of water.

Poa cynosuroidis Retz (Kooshagrass or Dab)

Poaceae Sacred grass of the Hindus, is also uin rope making

Vetiveria zizanioldes (Linn,) Poaceae Fibers are remarkable for their agreodour and also for their Nash(Khuskhus) their tenacity.

Bambusa arundinacea Wild Poaceae Used for making mats, other implements in agriculture, house-hold articles, also in the paper industry.

Cyperus tegetum Roxb. .

Cyperaceae Used in Bengal for making elegant shining mats

Eriophorum cannabinum (Cotton-grass)

Cyperaceae Seed fibre is used for stuffing pillows and used as wicks of candles and in paper industry.

Bromelia penguin

Bromeliaceae . Leaf fibre is twisted into rope, also in the manufacture of coarse cloth

Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.(Pine-apple)

Bromeliaceae The fibres are used in the manufacture of linens.

Aloe barbadensis Mill.

Liliaceae The fibre from the leaves is used for papermaking and in textile industry.

Sanseviera zeylanica Wild. T

Liliaceae

he leaf fibre is used in the manufacture of bowstrings, (Bowstring-hemp) twins and ropes.

RUBBER

Rubber was known to people in the western hemisphere much before Christopher Columbus visited South

America. Almost for the past 400-500 years there is a continuous increase in the knowledge, awareness and

usage of rubber. A large number of plants were the source for natural rubber, especially known in the

tropical America, Africa and Asia, Rubber cultivation became an important activity during twentieth

century with the advent of use of rubber in variety of applications.

The use of rubber became popular with the discovery of vulcanization process in 1839 and manufacture of

varieties of articles. The most common ones across the globe consisted

of Castilla in Mexico, Hevea in Brazil, and Ficus in Asia. This was an

effort to utilize the locally available species that yield rubber. It was

with the introduction of rubber to Europe and Asia by British

administration obtaining seeds of Hevea from Brazil in 1876.

The rapid increase in the growing of rubber tree Hevea because of its high and consistent yield over a long

period made it unchallenged species and became a chief source of natural rubber across the globe

among a host of rubber yielding plants of the world (Table 1.).

Botanical Name

Family Common Name

Organ yielding rubber

Origin

Castilla elastica Moraceae Panama or Castilla rubber

Stem South Mexico

Hevea brasiliensis Euphorbiaceae Para rubber Stem S. America Ficus elastica Moraceae Indian Rubber Stem India F. vogelli Moraceae Kobo or Memluka Stem Africa Manihot glazaiovii Euphorbiaceae Ceara rubber Stem S. America

(Brazil) M. dichotoma Euphorbiaceae Jequie rubber Stem S. America

(Brazil) M. heptaphylla Euphorbiaceae Jequie rubber Stem S. America

(Brazil) M. piauhyensis Euphorbiaceae Jequie rubber Stem S. America

(Brazil) Funtumia elastica Apocynaceae Lagos silk Stem Africa F. latifolia Apocynaceae Stem Uganda Mascarenhasia elastica

Apocynaceae `mgoa’ rubber Kenya, Mojambique

M. arborescens Apocynacee Barobanja Madagascar M. velutina Apocynaceae Guidroa Madagascar M.geayi Apocynaceae Kokomba Madagascar Parthenium argentatum

Asteraceae Guayule Whole plant USA

Taraxacum kok-saghyz

Asteraceae Koksaghyz root Russia

Ceara rubber (Manihot glazaiovii)

During twentieth century, Hevea became the most important and sole source of natural rubber unchallenged

by any other source of plant both in wild and cultivated.

The major constituent of rubber obtained from Hevea rubber tree is the hydrocarbon with a chemical

composition designated by the formula (C5H8)n, where n represents a large but indefinite number of

replications of the basic unit. The basic unit is generally considered to be isoprene, C5H8, and thus the

rubber hydrocarbon is a polyisoprene. This hydrocarbon is found in all natural rubbers and is responsible

for their resilience and elasticity.

Raw natural rubber is not a pure material but contains a complex of chemical substances of considerable

diversity, The non-rubber constituents of some rubbers may exceed the rubber itself by weight, and,

although these constituents are minor in amount in Hevea rubber, they include sugars, inorganic

compounds, resins and traces of many other organic compounds.

The latex gutta or gutta-percha is obtained form the gutta tree, Palaquiun oblongifolium. Structurally,

rubber and gutta are polymers of isoprene, but differ only in atomic arrangements before and after the

double bonds. In rubber, the cis arrangement is found, the approach and continuation of the molecular chain

being both on the same side of the plane of the double bond, whereas in gutta the arrangement is trans, the

approach and continuation being on opposite sides, the latex of Cryptostegia madagascariensis is a

triterpene ester, lupeol.

Para Rubber Tree Hevea brasiliensis (HB.&.K.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae

The genus Hevea is confined to south America- primarily the Amazon valley. It is by far the most

important species producing ninety-nine per cent of the natural rubber produced in the world. Chemical

analysis of rubber from wild trees of some of the species have indicated that, in general, the rubber from H.

brasiliensis is superior to that of most other species in that it has a low percent of non-rubber constitutents,

its latex varies from white to cream-white. Rubbber is extensievely grown in Africa, Malaysia, Thailand,

India etc.

Hevea brasiliensis is a tall tree. The trunk is 2-3 m in girth. The leaves are trifoliate with long petioles.

Leaflets are stalked and elliptic to obovate with acuminate apex. Flowers are small, green and are borne in

pubescent panicles. Fruit is a tripartite capsule. The latex vessal run in anticlockwise spirals to the right at

an angle of 300 from the perpendicular. They are arranged in concentric rings in the bark alternating with

rings of secondary phloem. For best growth Hevea tree requires a fairly evenly distributed rainfall of 175-

250 cm per annum, a temperature of 24-350 C, a high atmospheric humidity, well drained fairly deep loamy

soil with a pH value of 4.5-6.0.The tree grows well in well-drained upland areas and reaches a height of 35-

40 m. Rubber production in Hevea is entirely from the bark. Tree stumps without leaves have been taped

and have continued to yield latex for long periods,tapping of a felled tree continues for 4-6 weeks

Rubber

Rubber is the main constituent in Hevea latex other than water, making up to 30-35 percent of wet-weight

of latex. The tapping operation sets up a movement of latex in the latex vessels and at the same time, a

movement of water and water soluble materials from the surrounding tissue into the latex tubes to equalize

the pressures resulting from the out flow of the latex. This movement of water and solutes into the latex

vessels from surrounding tissue commonly termed the dilution reaction.

Nature of Bark

The bark is therefore the important tissue in rubber formation and from the standpoint of rubber production

the anatomy of the bark, and the difference in the bark of individual trees are important in the selection and

propagation of superior types. The rubber from the so-called black-barked trees is reported to be of

particularly good quality, and the yield of the trees is said to be high. Bark texture, thickness, latex-vessel

rows, latex-vessel size etc., play significant role on the yield of rubber.

Tapping

When the rubber tree has reached a circumference of 45-55 cm at about 0.9 m from the ground, it is large

enough to be tapped. The Rubber Research Insitute of Malaya (RRIM) has made the following

recommendations for the initial tapping of young rubber trees.

1. Alternate day tapping of clonal `seedling’ through a half spiral cut usually results in a

physiological disorder called brown bast.

2. Tapping towards a junction of bark of different ages leads to severe drop in yield.

3. Bark of the second renewal is often thin and yield from it is disappointing

Rubber is obtained from the tree by a system of tapping that consists of paring off a small amount of bark-

just sufficient to open up the ends of the latex vessels. A flexible template is

used to mark the limits of the tapping panel on the tree and the desired slope

of the tapping is cut. The latex vessels in the bark of Hevea do not ascend

vertically but have a slight slope to the right. To intercept maximum number

of latex vessels, the tapping cut is sloped upwards to the left at an angle of

about 300 above the horizontal.

The tapping cut is opened along the mark made in laying out the panel, and a

vertical groove is made in the bark at the lower end of the tapping cut. This vertical groove is to direct the

latex to the spout that is driven into the bark about 4 inches below the lower end of the tapping cut. Some

five tapping cuts are required to bring the cut to the correct depth and during this period the yield of latex is

low. For tapping the tree tapping equipment like knife, spout, latex cup, cup hanger, and ammonia solution

are necessary.

Collection of Latex

The latex is collected in a large receptacle and a small quantity of ammonia is added to avoid pre-

coagulation of the latex.

Straining

The latex is assembled and passed through an aluminum plate 0.01 cm perforation spaced 0.31 cm from

center to center, to remove large particles such as bark shavings, twigs, leaves etc.

Rubber content of latex

The rubber content of the latex is estimated by measuring the specific gravity of latex and estimates the

rubber content on the basis of the relative specific gravity of the major constituents. For measuring the

specific gravity of the latex, Metrolac hydrometer or latex meter are used.

Dilution and Second straining

The rubber is then diluted with water to a concentration of 12-15 percent. After a short wait for the

precipitation of heavy particles of sand, the latex is strained through a fine screen which will catch the

small particles of dirt and trash that pass through the coarse screen.

Concentration

Fresh latex has a rubber content of 30-35 percent that must be increased to 60-70 percent. This

concentration of latex is accomplished by centrifuging in a modified cream separator, by creaming with

alginates or other suitable creaming agents, or by evaporation in the presence of protective colloids.

Coagulation

The latex is then coagulated by treatment with acetic and formic acids. If ammonia has been added to the

latex, it is necessary to add sufficient acid to neutralize the ammonia as well as to coagulate the latex. The

latex coagulates into a thick sheet.

Sheeting

In coagulation, the rubber must be passed through power rolls to reduce the thickness sufficiently to assure

adequate drying. The sheet is passed through a marking roll after it has reached its final thickness, and

sheeting is done in mills with smooth rolls.

Smoking

Sheeted rubber is dried in a smokehouse where temperature is maintained below 500C, Sheet rolled to a

thickness of 2.5 mm should dry under these conditions within four days.

Grading

Before packing for shipment, the rubber is inspected carefully for defects or blemishes and graded

accordingly.

Shipment

Plantation latex is normally shipped in drums, tanks, or tankers. The containers in which the latex is

shipped must be thoroughly sterilized.

Vulcanization

Good year (1839) discovered the process of vulcanization. Rubber heated with various quantities of sulphur

(only about 2 percent for soft rubber, as much as 40 percent for hard rubber) retained its firmness at normal

temperatures and did not become tacky. Alexander Parkes (1846) found that thin films of rubber could be

changed from the plastic to elastic state by the use of sulphur monochloride, and this change could be

accomplished without heat. This is called cold vulcanization of rubber.

Mechanism

The rubber hydrocarbon, polyprene, combines with sulphur without the evolution of sulphureted hydrogen.

The vulcanization process is thus an addition reaction. The vulcanization process results in the formation of

a continuous series of addition products of sulphur and polyprene. The upper limit of this series is

represented by the compound C100H160S20 and the lower limit by the compound C100H160S.

According to L.A. Wood (1957), United States National Bureau of Standards, vulcanization is a chemical

reaction in which the physical properties of a rubber are changed in the direction of decreased plastic flow,

less surface thickness and increased tensile strength by reacting it with sulphur or other suitable agents.

Spread of Rubber Industry

Following Goodyear’s invention, factories for manufacture of articles made of rubber began to spring up in

the principal industrial countries. Solid rubber tyres were first used on road vehicles in 1867. In 1888

Dunlop invented the pneumatic bicycle tyre, from which the motorcar tyre was developed.

Uses of Rubber

Many kinds of articles can be fabricated from rubber: strong structural materials, soft, yielding comfortable

materials, resilient, elastic materials, conductors and non-conductors of electricity, shock absorbers,

mountings for motors and other machinery, transmission belts, gaskets, hoses for transportation gases and

liquids, transparent material, translucent materials, articles, or clothing to keep out rain or to control figure,

sports goods, cements, paints, plantics, pharmaceuticals, and above all, tyres , the chief outlet for rubber.

Rubber industry

Before pneumatic tyres (discovered by R.W. Thompson, 1845 and manufactured by J.C. Dunlop, 1888)

came to dominate the world market for rubber, it was used in boots and shoes, mechanical rubber goods

like packing for engines, rubber tyres for bicycles and carriages, water proof clothes raincoats and caps,

drug sundries like syringes, hot water bottles, bandages, air pillows, cushion, atomizers, hard rubber goods.

Rubber finds important application in civil chemical and electrical engineering, in automobile and aviation

transportation, in belt conveyors of materials and in escalators.

In home

Electrical fixtures and appliances, plumbing fixtures and appliances, cleaning equipment, and children’s

amusements, each require the use of dozens of rubber articles.

Electrical appliances and tubing

Many electrical appliances including floor and table lamps require use of extension of cords that must be

flexible and reliable. Rubber is important in the insulation of these cords. Heating pads and electric

blankets must be protected by the use of rubber insulation, rubber hosing is being used in washing

machines, and dish washers, shower connection in bath etc, soft rubber tubing is used in medicine fountain

syringes.

Non-electrical appliances

Pails, garbage and trash cans flexible baskets, tubs,, cups dishes tea wagons

Floor coverings The use of rubber tilling in floor surfacing in the home has increased greatly.

Rubble backing for rugs to give resistance, and anti slip factor.

Wearing apparel

Its resistance to water has been applied in raincoats, rubber with other combination of fibres in elastic

garments etc.

Miscellaneous

It has been used in the manufacture of pillows, bathing caps, foot wear, baby pants, hospital sheeting crib

sheets, heating pads, gloves, aprons, hot water bottles, ice caps, rubber hose catheters, hard rubber fittings

for couches, enemas

FUEL WOOD Fuel is one of the first commodity mankind has identified for the basic necessity. It is an inseparable

component with mankind’s living and forms a primary source of energy. Wood being used as a fuel

primarily related to heating and cooking known since its invention by early man. In all cases of generating

the heat energy wood was being used and only recently, fossil fuels originating from the buried wood

remains through geological ages are being utilized for this purpose.

Any material that burns well in air is suitable for generating heat. The most popular fuels today represent

different stages in the carbonization of the original plant tissues.

Which is the best tree species for firewood? There is plenty of scope for debate, however, it is suggested

that the best species in your area is the one that is most plentiful, easy to split and doesn't cover your hands

and clothes with sticky sap.

Cassia fistula Albizzia odoratisma

All wood, regardless of species, has about the same energy content per pound. The different species vary

only in density. Traditionally, the commonly occurring and easily available ones are favored trees in most

of the tropics except the ones that are worshipped or revered in the tradition and culture. Most often the

trees that are burnt are valuable ones and owing to their rich availability, they are burnt. It is only after the

decrease in the populations that have led people to consider trees that are less or not much value otherwise

are considered for fuel. Ultimately, it is more important to have wood that is cut and split to the right size

and properly dried than it is to get the hardest wood available

Wood is considered as the immediate source easily available for generating heat energy. The present day

technology has provided alternate source energy, but wood being used as fuel still commands the highest

position among all uses of wood in terms of quantity. For quite some time wood was being used to fuel

railway engines in many parts of Africa owing to its easy availability.

Butea monosperma

About 99 percent of dried wood is combustible and hence forms an excellent fuel. The combustible value

of the wood varies greatly due to their density and moisture content. The wood should always be as dry as

possible to get maximum heat generated during combustion and fewer amounts are wasted in vaporizing

water content.

Most often hard woods are considered as best source of fuel wood. The average calorific value of seasoned

wood is around 4600 calories / kg. Two kilograms of such wood will be equal to one kilogram of quality

coal in terms of the heat energy produced.

Use of wood as fuel provides ample scope for most of the so called wastes accumulated out of use of wood

for variety of applications in saw mill, building material, furniture making, wood shavings etc.

Varieties of fuel produced by wood are fossil fuels viz. Peat, Coal, Petroleum while the living forms

harvested as wood for various purposes includes fuel also.

Peat Peat consists of deposits of vegetable matter which have accumulated in boggy and swampy places, It is

made up of mosses, largely Sphagnum spp., grasses, sedges which have decomposed slowly, carbonized

and then compacted over thousands of years. The original structure of the tissue is still retained due to wet

acidic soils apparently have preserved properties, intact logs and even well preserved human bodies have

been discovered after a century in bog water. In Ireland and Scotland, where other forms of fuel are in

scarce, peat is compressed, dried and burned, it is more bulky to handle and leaves five to fifteen times

more ash than wood. A soft brown coal known as lignite may be found at the lowest strata of some peat

bogs. Here also original plant structure is visible.

Coal Coal represents the fossilized remains of plants and is believed to have been formed by the slow

decomposition of vegetable matter buried beneath the earth in the remote past. Because of the high pressure

of rocks, the internal heat of the earth, water and the limited supply of air, the carbonization of woody

vegetable matter resulted in the formation of coal. The original plant structure is altered and converted into

pure carbon, unlike peat or lignite; coal is much harder and compact. It has a greater heating power,

producing large amount of smoke and ash. Anthracite or hard coals are the oldest, having about 95 per cent

carbon. Bituminous or soft coals are of relatively more recent origin and, therefore, are not so completely

carbonized, tending to soften and fuse at temperatures below the combustion point. Cannel coal develops

from fossilized spores and is very compact and oily in nature, burning with a candle like flame, it does not

soil the hand.

Coal is a cheap source of heat and power generation, being extensively used as fuel for steam boilers,

railway engines and kilns, It also finds wider application in the manufacture of producer gas, semi-water

gas and synthetic petrol. On destructive distillation, coal gives many valuable products such as coke,

benzol, naphta, ammonical liquor and coal tar ( a source of many organic compounds, for example, dyes,

explosives and chemicals).

Petroleum It is generally assumed that petroleum had an organic origin, resulting under pressure from the minute

floating plants and animal life of former shallow seas. Crude petroleum has many applications. On

fractional distillation it gives a number of products that are even more important than the parental form,

including gasoline, kerosene, petroleum jelly and paraffin.

Implications of wood as fuel Benjamin Franklin's prediction in the 1700s when he launched a new and more efficient wood heater, that

' ... our wood may grow as fast as we consume it, and our posterity may warm themselves at a moderate

rate, without being obliged to fetch their fuel over the Atlantic' may have been a little too optimistic for

present Australian conditions.

Prosopis juliflora

Firewood has become expensive, and is becoming scarce in some areas with the sources becoming further

and further away from the major cities. In India the price range from Rs. 1000 to Rs.2500 a tonne.

Wood fires, primarily as a source of heating, and sometimes as a source of cooking, have increased in

popularity and usage in the past decade or so. This is not really surprising, with the possibility of ever

increasing oil prices in the years to come, when oil for heating could become exorbitant, and when even

electricity could rise dramatically in price.

The development of new designs has led to efficient, clean and easy-to-use heaters. Wood as a cheaper

source of energy in rural settings has distinct advantages, but free firewood has even more attributes. Some

firewood is collected from private land, or from clearing associated with other agricultural or forestry

practices. Continued demand leads to a reduction or scarcity in supply from these sources.

Growing trees for firewood is therefore one option to overcome this scarcity of firewood in the years ahead.

While growing a large number of trees for energy would not normally be feasible in an urban environment,

there are nevertheless many thousands of farms and rural holdings where this can be easily achieved.

Growing trees for commercial supplies has considerable merit just as it is more than feasible to grow them

for your own small-scale domestic use. Trees are a renewable resource, and if they are properly managed,

they can alleviate shortages of firewood, even if only as far as your own individual consumption is

concerned.

While many farms have retained at least some trees, consideration has to be given to just how many more

years these can be harvested. The rural areas usually used to grow trees for the purpose of energy

requirement and used to have a balance. However, use of energy of other than domestic purpose has been

the cause for concern. Most of the resource of fuel wood species have been used for small and large scale

industrial application like brick making, tobacco curing, and other industrial needs resulted in severe

scarcity of wood and loss of forest vegetation to meet the demand.

Many huge areas were cleared of timber decades ago, leaving no real resources of firewood, and farmers or

landholders throughout these areas should give serious consideration to not only establishing their own

small scale plantings for domestic use but also the additional option of commercial-scale plantations.

The typical household in India uses between one and three tonnes of wood each year.

Yields of around 20 tonnes of wood (dried) per hectare per year are feasible with plantations. Trees used

for firewood do not have to reach maturity before they are harvested, nor do their trunks have to be straight,

or the diameters a minimum or even size. Trees with short holes, with knots, warps and splits are all

useable because in fuel heaters it doesn't make any difference what they look like and whereas the need to

split logs used to be a problem with some woods with difficult grains, smaller logs can be used just as

successfully and may require no splitting; slow combustion heaters can take logs both large and small,

small branches have their value too as kindling.

The trees can have several uses while they live – providing food and shelter for birds, cleansing air, flowers

for honey production, fodder, or they may serve as windbreaks etc. A combination of variety of trees with

periodical pruning and harvesting of intermediaries, improperly grown trunks etc, could be harvested for

fuel.

A practice of planting trees as regular phenomena may to a greater extent meet the requirement of the wood

for fuel and also keep the environment better and have a sustainable management of fuel wood.

TIMBER YIELDING PLANTS

Timber is one of the important necessities of mankind from time immemorial. Housing and other

construction activities depend solely on timber obtained from well-grown tree stems. The central part of the

stem referred to as wood is the main component. The wood in the stem is often characterized by the way it

develops, the influence of the season on the growth of wood, the type of cells contributing to the formation

of wood is also important.

Wood is preferred over other types of structural materials for its classy and elegant looks, durability and

eco friendly nature.

The wood is divided into two distinct regions. The outer light colored part known as sapwood, while the

inner region is of dark colour and is known as heartwood. The latter region, which is filled with tannins,

oils, gums, resins, etc., is hard and durable. The heartwood usually takes good polish and can be put to

various uses. It can be used for making furniture, doors and windows, bridges, railway sleepers, boats,

ships, etc.

India, being tropical country, is the home for a large number of trees, growing in varied environmental

conditions viz. hot plains to subtropical and temperate regions provide different quality wood that is

suitable for a variety of utilities. This has resulted in providing timber for the needs of world across. The

woods obtained from these are both soft and hardwoods that can be used for specific needs of building and

industrial purposes.

Indian forests are predominantly non-coniferous, occupying nearly about 20% of the geographical area.

Vast stretches of forest are available in Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Assam occupy the top positions in the maximum extent of the

area while North eastern part of the country account for almost 25% of forest cover of the country.

The major timber species of the country from the temperate regions are Pinus roxburghii (chir pine),

Cedrus deodara (deodar) and Pinus wallichiana (blue pine). The most important hard wood species are

from the tropical and sub tropical forests like teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.) sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.f.),

laurel (Terminalia tomentosa Wight & Arn.), gurjun (Dipterocarpus spp.) sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.)

are well known across the country. However, other most sought after wood for variety of applications are

obtained from rose wood (Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.), Andaman padauk (Pterocarpus dalbergioides), red

sanders (Pterocrpus santalinus ) and sandal wood (Santalum album L.). Many other species are also used

as timber specific to certain regions like Nandi (Lagerstroemia parviflora ) mathi (Terminalia paniculata )

are also quite popular. Timber value has also been given to some of the trees like mango, jackfruit, acacia,

rubber tree etc. in some parts of the country. The lightwood like Melia dubia is also known for their use in

making canoes.

Wood is considered as very strong structure based on its weight, where it scores over iron, five to six times

stronger than cement. On the whole, the strength, elasticity and toughness, it out beats others in the

competition. Wood is poor conductor of heat and electricity. It has high salvage value when compared to

steel as it can be easily fashioned, fastened with nails and glue, altered, moved, rebuilt, reused etc. It is free

from corrosion that makes wood to beat other competitors.

Anatomical characters of wood

The anatomy of the stem as seen under the microscope in the sectional view reflects distinct regions the

outer epidermis, followed by cortex made of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells enclosing

the central cylinder the vasculature that eventually develops in to wood. The sectional view of vascular

tissue in the younger stages is made up of primary phloem and primary xylem with a layer of specialized

cells in between, the intra fascicular cambium, which has the meristamatic property. As the plant grows

older, the intra fascicular cambium of the bundles becomes connected on either side of inter fascicular

cambia developing from the parenchyma between bundles, thus forming a circular ring of vascular

cambium. In the woody forms of dicotyledons and gymnosperms, this cambium continues to produce

inwardly secondary xylem and outwardly secondary phloem year after year, so that the stem increases

progressively in thickness. The quality of secondary xylem produced is more than secondary phloem. The

secondary xylem persists and forms the greater part of the vasculature and secondary phloem is pushed

outward and crushed and maintained as a relatively very thin layer. Secondary growth can take place for

several years and ranging to several thousand years as in case of Sequoia in America.

The secondary xylem of the dicotyledons plants is considerably more complex, consisting of different cell

types such as vessels, tracheids, fibers, xylem parenchyma, rays of different forms and types often specific

to some species. The first three components run longitudinally, while, the rays run horizontally and xylem

parenchyma may occur either as an occasional longitudinal cell or as the chief or exclusive component of

the rays. Trachieds perform both the function of support and conduction, vessels are mainly conductive

tissue, fibers are chiefly supportive tissues, ray cells are for horizontal transmission and xylem parenchyma

is for storage and to a limited extent for conduction.

Many of the Indian forest trees are highly valuable as they provide wood for various purposes. Wood used

for construction is called timber.

The timber yielding plants / trees are classified as soft woods and hard woods

Soft woods

Cochlospermum religiosum, Bombax ceiba, Cedrela toona, Thuja occidentalis, Abies balsamea , Tsuga

canadensis, Pinus palustris, Pinus strobus, Sequoia sempervirens, Picea mariana

Hard woods

Hardwikia binata, Shorea robusta, Fagus grandifolia, Prunus serotina, Castanea dentata, Tilia americana,

Tectona grandis, Dalbergia sissoo, Diospyros ebenum, Switenia mahogany

Chemical Constituents of wood:

There are three main chemical constituents common t all woods viz. Cellulose, which accounts for 45-60

percent of total weight built up of sugar and glucose; Hemi cellulose accounting for15-20 percent of total

weight mad up of sugar residues and Lignin, which comprises some 25-30 percent of organic matter, its

function is to act as cement holding the cells together. In additions to these above, wood also contains

some minor components which vary form species to species like natural resins, oils, tannins, and alkaloids

etc.

Structure of wood

Wood is produced in Gymnosperms and Angiosperms as a result of secondary growth. Secondary xylem is

produced as a result of the activity of fascicular cambium.

After a certain period of growth, the cambium cuts off secondary xylem towards its inner face and

secondary phloem towards its outer face. In the secondary xylem, the peripheral zone is light in colour, rich

in starch content and other nutrients. This is called the sapwood while the central portion, which is dark and

oily, is called heartwood.

The wood consists of many types of cells. The following are the most important.

Vessels: These are tubular cells placed end to end, with open ends and have a number of pits. These are

dead cells and have a lignified wall. The arrangement and the size of the vessels are used in the

characterization of wood.

1. Trachieds: These are fusiform cells, much like vessels but have their end walls intact.

These are also non living cells with lignified, pitted walls,

2. Ray trachieds: Elongate cells with bordered pits.

3. Xylem fibres: These are elongated sclerenchyma cells found in the wood.

4. Medullary rays: These are sheets or ribbons of tissue extending radically in the xylem. The cells

are thin walled and parenchymatous.

Based on the structural peculiarities, wood is characterized and identified as follows.

• Porous and non-porous wood: In a transverse section vessels appear as large pores when

compared with trachieds. Hence wood with vessels is known as porous wood. While a wood

having only trachieds is called non-porous wood. Usually angiosperm wood is porous, while

gymnosperm wood is non porous. The presence or absence, and arrangement of pores serve as

ideal criteria for identification of woods

The porous wood is again divided into two types viz. Ring porous wood and Diffuse porous

wood. In ring porous wood, there is differentiation between autumn and springwood in an annual

ring so that there is a clear distinction between rings as autumn wood and spring wood alternate.

The pores are arranged in concentric rings. Ring porous wood is seen in Ulmus spp, Quercus spp,

Betula spp etc.

In diffuse porous wood, the pores are scattered in the ring ( Betula, Juglans etc.) and there is no

clear demarcation between autumn wood and spring wood. The increase in the size of the pores

from autumn wood to spring wood is gradual and it is not possible to draw a demarcating line

between the two.

• Early wood and Late wood: The development of the secondary vascular tissues in a plant is

seasonal. The extent of wood formation during any part of the year is intimately associated with

the physiological activities of the plant. During spring, where maximum growth is seen and

demand for nutrients is more, the extent of wood formation is more and also the vessels have a

broad lumen, during autumn, the extent of wood formation is less and the vessels are narrow. The

terms spring wood and autumn wood are however replaced by early wood and late wood

respectively, because the two parts of the wood do not clearly represent the two seasons. The

wood formed during the early part of the growing season is called Early wood and the one formed

late in the growing season is called Late wood. The Early wood and late wood together constitute

an annual ring. Annual rings are also called growth rings.

• Sapwood and Heartwood: Xylem elements formed first are most active physiologically and

gradually their activity ceases. The peripheral part of the wood containing living cells and still

performing conduction is said to be sapwood and the central party consisting of non-conducting

elements is said to be the heartwood. The sapwood and heartwood are also called laburnum and

duramen, respectively.

Sapwood helps in conduction and support while, heartwood provides only support. Sapwood is

light in colour and has living cells. The heartwood is completely non living and black in colour

due to the presence of tannins, oils, gums, resins etc. the heart wood is very hard, highly valuable

and used for high quality furniture, cabinet making etc.

• Storied and Non-storied wood: In transverse section of stems, xylem elements are arranged

serially. In tangential sections however the xylem elements may or may not show the

stratification. Thus a stratified wood is called a storied wood. In a storied wood the ends of cells of

one tier appear at approximately same level and several clear-cut tiers (strata) are seen. In a non-

storied wood the wood elements are not arranged in clear-cut tiers. The cells of one tier overlap

the other. Storied wood is seen in Quercus, while non-storied wood is seen in Ficus. From the

phylogenetical standpoint; storied wood is regarded as more advanced than non-storied wood.

• Grains: The size, shape and arrangement of cells in the wood contributing to the variation in

appearance is referred to as the grains of wood. Grains may be coarse, fine or arranged cross wise.

In a spiral grain, the cell systems wind spirally around the tree. Wood structure, annual rings and

wood ray together constitute the conspicuous grain of wood. In trees like Quercus, where the

wood rays are large and dense, they take a high polish and are referred to as the silver grains. In

certain trees, numerous adventitious buds remain dormant under the bark and represent areas of

parenchyma. In a cross section, the fibres and other xylem elements swing around the buds or

‘eyes’. Such grains are called bird’s eye grains.

• Compression wood: In many conifers, the under side of the branches has a type of wood called

compression wood. It is darker than the sap wood and reddish in color resembling the heartwood.

It is also called red wood because of its color. It is more brittle than the normal wood.

Wood properties

The mechanical properties of wood either singly or in combination determine the quality of wood and its

suitability for various uses. The properties of wood render it strong and not to be easily influenced by

external agents. The important properties are as follows.

1. Weight: Generally the wall materials of wood have a specific gravity of 1.53. Variations in the

weight depend on the thickness of the wall and size of the lumen. Wood with a narrow lumen is

heavier than wood with a broad lumen.

2. Strength: The ability to withstand or resist mechanical forces such as crushing, shearing, pulling

(Tensile strength) and breaking is referred to as the strength of the wood. Strength of the wood

may also be measured in terms of its stiffness, toughness, hardness; cleavability etc. strength of

the wood mainly depends on its composition. The presence of large amount of fibres or fibre

trachiedes makes a wood very strong.

3. Durability: The capacity of the wood to resist the attack of fungi and bacteria and thus remain

strong for a very long time is called the durability. This is dependent on the chemical composition

of the wood. Generally heart wood is durable because it has no food or living contents to offer to

the invading organisms, besides the tannins and oils act as antibacterial and antifungal agents. The

durability of the wood is not dependent on its weight.

4. Wood Seasoning: The process of drying the wood (so that it loses its water content) before it is

used for any purpose is called seasoning. If the wood is used before seasoning it tends to crack,

shrink or break as it loses water. In a seasoned wood, ther is no moisture and the wood retains its

shape without shrinking. Exposing the wood to the heat of the sun by keeping them in shades may

do seasoning. This method is called air seasoning. In kiln seasoning heat is applied to wood in an

enclosed space by circulating hot air. Kiln seasoning takes a much shorter period than air

seasoning.

Some Important Timber Yielding Plant and their Uses:

Wood is a versatile material and finds extensive use in various human endeavors. The following are some

of the uses of timber (wood).

• Structural timbers: These are used for buildings. Strength and durability of the wood is

important. Wood is used for doors, windows, frames, beams etc. Suitable trees are-Tectona

grandis, Toona ciliata, Hopea parviflora, Bischofia javanica, Shorea robusta, Mangifera indica,

Tamarindus indica, Terminalia arjuna, Lagerostromia lanceolata, Pterocarpus indica

• Construction of Bridges: A strong and highly durable wood is needed for bridge construction.

Tree used for this purpose are: Hopea parviflora, Mesua spp, Anogeissus latifollia,Tectona

grandis

• Timber used for Transport and Communication: Many trees yield valuable wood used for

railway sleepers, piles of bridges and telegraph, telephone and transmission poles. Strength,

toughness, resistance to decay is important for railway sleepers. Piles used for bridges should have

strength, durability, and resistance to shearing, crushing and splitting.

• Timber used for Ship, Boat building etc: Many trees are highly suitable as they remain strong

even after a long contact with water. These woods will not decay easily. Trees used for marine

work should resist marine borers. These are-Tectona grandis, Xylia xylocarpa, Stereospermum

suaveolens

• In fresh water, piles used in contact with water will remain strong if they are completely

submerged in water. But when they are alternately exposed and submerged, the wood is generally

treated with certain chemicals to prevent decay. Trees suitable for fresh water piles are- Acacia

nilotica, Bischofia javanica, Xylia xylocarpa etc.

In ship and boat building various trees are used for a variety of purposes. These are:

a) For hulls: Calophyllum inophyllum Hopea parviflora Lagerostromia microcarpa etc.

b) For ribs: Thespesia populenea

c) Deck planking: Adina cordifolia Gmelina arborea Mangifera indica

d) Oars: Grewia tilifolia

The wood used for ship and boat building has to be treated with fish oil, tar etc to prevent attack by marine

organisms (Fungi, etc.)

1. Timber used in Cabinet making: Many of the timber trees specially preferred for joinery,

furniture etc, as they are not only strong and durable but take a fine polish giving a beautiful

appearance, there should be good grains in the wood to give a good look. Some of these trees are-

a. Joinery: Dysoxylum malabaricum

Hopea parviflora

Lagerostromia lanceolata

Terminalia paniculata

b. Cabinets: Tectona grandis

Dalbergia latifolia

Dispyros ebenum

Chloroxylon switenia

Santalum album. sandalwood is used for caskets and carving as it is fragrant and pliable.

c. Furnitures: Dalbergia latifolia

Tectona grandis

Dysoxylum malabaricum

Kirugiodendron pinnatum

d. Ornamental veneers: These give a fine-grained appearance after polishing. Trees used for

this purpose are-

Tectona grandis

Dalbergia sissoo

Toona ciliata

Switentia mahagony etc

e. Plywood: Used for shelves, partitions etc

Vateria indica

Dipterocarpus indicus

Canarium strictum

Bombax malabaricum

2. Timber used in transportation vehicles. Frames of railway carriages, carts and other types of

vehicles (body building) need good timber. Wood for frame should be light and strong.

a. Wood for frames: Shorea roxburghii

Gmelina arborea

b. Axles and hubs: Acacia nilotica

Anogeissus latifolia

Dalbergia sissoo

Xylia xylocarpa

` Hopea parviflora

c. Spokes (for carts): Acacia nilotica

Anogeissus latifolila

Xylia xylocarpa

Dalbergia spp

Lagerostromia spp

d. Shafts: Shorea sp.

Grewia tilifolia

Pterospermum suberifolium

e. Rims: Vitex leucoxylon

Xylia xylocarpa

Mangifera indica

3. Wood used for tool handles: The wood suitable for tool handles must have closely located

grains, must be tough and not liable to split.

The texture of the wood should be smooth and as to be easily handled. The wood used for this purpose

belongs to:

Acacia nilotica

Grewia tiliifolia

Anogeissus latifolia

Schleichera oleosa

Mesua nagassarium

4. Wood used for packaging boxes: Wood used for this purpose must be light as it can be easily

transported. But it should be sufficiently strong to withstand damages. Trees that yield wood for

this purpose are-

Alstonia scholaris

Vateria indica

Holoptelea integrifolia

Bombax malabaricum

5. Wood used for match boxes: Wood should be light and soft.

Bombax malabaricum

Ailanthus malabaricum

Alstonia scholaris

Symplocus spicata

6. Wood used for sports goods: Cricket bats, Hockey sticks, tennis rackets are made out Morus

alba, Salix tetrasperma, Thespesia populnea.

7. Musical instruments : Many musical instruments like flute are made out of wood of Bambusa

spp, others like Tectona grandis, Switentia mahagony are also used

8. Fire wood: Fire wood is provided by practically all trees which have a sufficient amount of

secondary wood ex. Tamarindus indica, Mangifera indica, Acacia spp., Anogeissus latifolia,

Prosopis juliflora are common source of fire wood.

List of Indian timber trees

There are over 150 species of timber produced in India. Following are some of the timber trees which are

used frequently in India:

Common name

Botanical Name

Colour Density Location Characteristics and usage

Aini Artocarpus hirsutus

Yellowish brown

595 kg/m³

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala

Elastic, close-grained, and strong. It takes good polish. It can be used under water. It is used for ordinary building construction, structural work, paving, furniture, etc.

Arjun Terminalia arjuna

Dark brown

870 kg/m³

Central India It is heavy and strong. It is used for beams, rafters, posts, etc.

Axlewood Anogeissus latifolia

930 kg/m³

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh

It is very strong, hard and tough. It takes a smooth finish. It is liable to cracking .

Babul Acacia nilotica Whitish red

835 kg/m³

Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat

It is strong, hard and tough. It takes up a good polish. It is used in bodies and wheels of bullock cart, agricultural instruments, tool handles, well curbs, etc.

Bakul Mimusops elengi

Reddish brown

880 kg/m³

Some parts of North India

It is close-grained and tough. It is used for making cabinets.

Bamboo Family Poaceae, tribe Bambuseae

Throughout India, especially Assam and West Bengal

It is flexible, very strong and durable. It is used for scaffoldings, thatched roofs, rafters, temporary bridges, etc.

Banyan Ficus Brown 580 kg/m³

Throughout India

It is strong and durable only under water. It is used for tent poles, well curbs, etc.

Common name

Botanical Name

Colour Density Location Characteristics and usage

Benteak Lagerstroemia parviflora

675 kg/m³

Kerala, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

It is strong and takes up a smooth surface. It is used for building constructions, boat building, furniture, etc.

Bijasal Pterocarpus marsupium

Light brown

800 kg/m³

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa

It is coarse-grained, durable and strong. It is difficult to work. Termite do not easily attack it. It is used for ordinary building construction, Cart wheels, etc.

Casuarina Casuarina spp. Reddish brown

765 kg/m³

Tamil Nadu It grows straight. It is strong and fibrous. It is, however, badly twisted. It is used for scaffolding, posts for temporary structures, etc.

Coconut Cocos nucifera Reddish brown

Throughout coastal India

Takes polish. Requires preservative treatment. Used as poles, piles, furniture and as framwork in concrete construction.

Deodar /Cedrus

Cedrus deodara

Yellowish brown

560 kg/m³

Himalayas, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh

It is the most important timber tree providing soft wood. It can be easily worked. It possesses distinct annual rings. It is moderately strong. It is used for making cheap furniture, railway carriages, railway sleepers, packing boxes, structural work, etc.

Guava Psidium spp. Yellowish brown

560 kg/m³

Himalayas, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh

It is the most important timber tree providing soft wood. It can be easily worked. It possesses distinct annual rings. It is moderately strong. It is used for making cheap furniture, railway

Common name

Botanical Name

Colour Density Location Characteristics and usage

carriages, railway sleepers, packing boxes, structural work, etc.

Hopea Hopea parviflora

Light to deep brown

1010 kg/m³

Tamil Nadu, Kerala

It is extremely strong and tough. It is difficult to work. It is durable and not likely to be damaged by white ants. It can be seasoned easily. It is used for ordinary house construction, railway sleepers, boat building, etc.

Indian Elm Ulmus spp. Red 960 kg/m³

Throughout India

It is moderately hard and strong. It is used for door and window frames, carts, etc.

Iron wood Mesua ferrea Reddish brown

1040 kg/m³

It is durable. It is very hard and is not easily worked. It even resists penetration of nails. It is used for ordinary house construction, bridges, piles, agricultural instruments, railway wagons, railway sleepers, etc.

Irul Xylia xylocarpa

835 kg/m³

Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu

It is very hard, heavy and durable. It is difficult to work. It requires slow and careful seasoning. It is used for railway sleepers, agricultural instruments, paving blocks, heavy construction, etc.

Jack Artocarpus spp.

Yellow, darkens with age

595 kg/m³

Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu

It is compact and even grained. It is moderately strong. It is easy to work. It takes a good finish. It maintains its shape well. It is used for plain furniture, boat construction, well curbs, door panels, cabinet making, musical instruments, etc.

Common name

Botanical Name

Colour Density Location Characteristics and usage

Jarul Lagerstroemia flos-reginae

Light reddish gray

640 kg/m³

Assam, Bengal, Maharashtra

It is hard and durable. It can be easily worked. It takes a good finish. It is used for house construction, boat building, railway carriages, cart making, scaffolding, etc.

Kathak Artocarpus heterophyllus

Yellow to deep brown

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu

It is heavy and hard. It is durable under water and in damp conditions. It cracks, if exposed directly to sun. White ants do not attack it. It is used for piles, platforms of wooden bridges, door and window panels, etc.

Laurel Terminalia tomentosa

Combretaceae

Dark brown

880 kg/m³

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu

It is strong, hard and tough. It is likely to crack and to attack of dry rot. White ants do not attack it. It takes a smooth finish. It is used for house construction, boat construction, railway sleepers, structural work, etc.

Mahogany Swietenia spp. Reddish brown

720 kg/m³

It takes a good polish. It is easily worked. It is durable under water. It is used for furniture, pattern making, cabinet work, etc.

Mango Mangifera spp. Deep gray 655 kg/m³

Throughout India

It is easy to work. It maintains its shape well. It is moderately strong. It is used for cheap furniture, toys, packing boxes, cabinet work, panels for doors and windows, etc.

Mulberry Morus spp. Brown 650 kg/m³

Punjab It is strong, tough and elastic. It takes up a clean finish. It can be well seasoned. It is turned and carved easily. It is used for making baskets

Common name

Botanical Name

Colour Density Location Characteristics and usage

and sports goods etc.

Oak Quercus spp. Yellowish brown

865 kg/m³

It is strong and durable. It posses straight silvery grains. It is used for preparing sport goods.

Palms Arecaceae Dark brown

1040 kg/m³

Throughout India

It contains ripe wood in the outer crust. The colour of this ripened wood is dark brown. It is strong and durable. It is fibrous. It is used for furniture, roof covering, rafters, joists, etc.

Pine Pinus spp. It is hard and tough except white pine which is soft. It decays easily, if it comes in contact with soil. It is heavy and coarse grained. White pine is light and straight grained. It is used for pattern making, frames for doors and windows, paving material, etc. White pine is used in the manufacture of match stick.

Red ceder Cedrella spp. Red 480 kg/m³

Assam, Nagpur It is soft and even grained. It is used for furniture, door panels, well curbs, etc.

Rose wood (black wood)

Dalbergia latifolia

Dark 790 kg/m³

Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa

It is strong, tough and close-grained. It is handsome and takes up a high polish. It maintains its shape well. It is available in large sizes. It is used for furniture of superior quality, cabinet work, ornamental carvings, etc.

Sal Shorea robusta Brown 800 kg/m³

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,

It is hard, fibrous and close-grained. It does not take up a good polish. It requires slow and careful seasoning. It is

Common name

Botanical Name

Colour Density Location Characteristics and usage

Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa

durable under ground and water. It is used for railway sleepers, Ship building, bridges etc.

Sandal wood

Santalum spp. White or Red

930 kg/m³

Karnataka, Assam, Nagpur, Bengal

It gives out pleasant smell. It is used for agricultural instruments, well curbs, wheels, mallets, etc.

Satin wood

Chloroxylon swietenia

Yellow 960 kg/m³

Central and Southern India

It is very hard and durable. It is close grained. It is used for furniture and other ornamental works.

Simul, Semal

Bombax spp. White 450 kg/m³

All over India It is loose grained. It is an inferior quality of wood. It is light in weight. It is used for packing cases, match industry, well curbs, cheap furniture, etc.

Siris Albizia spp. Dark brown

North India It is hard and durable. It is difficult to work on. It is used for well curbs in salty water, beams, posts, furniture, etc.

Sissoo Dalbergia sissoo

Dark brown

770 kg/m³

Mysore, Maharashtra, Assam, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa

It is also known as shisham. It is strong and tough. It is durable and handsome. It maintains its shape well. It can be easily seasoned. It is difficult to work, but it takes a fine polish. It is used for high class furniture, plywoods, bridge piles, sport goods, railway sleepers, etc. It is a very good material for decorative works and carvings.

Spruce Picea spp. 480 kg/m³

It resists decay. It is not affected by the attack of marine borers. It is liable to shrink, twist and wrap. It is

Common name

Botanical Name

Colour Density Location Characteristics and usage

used for piles under water, airplanes, etc.

Sundri Heritiera fomes

Dark red 960 kg/m³

Bengal It is hard and tough. It is difficult to season and work. It is elastic and close grained. It is strong and durable. It is used for boat building, piles, poles, tool handles, carriage shafts, etc.

Tamarind Tamarindus indica

Dark brown

1280 kg/m³

All over India It is knotty and durable. It is a beautiful tree for avenue and gardens. Its developement is very slow. But it ultimately forms a massive appearance. Its fruit is also very useful. It is used for agricultural instruments, well curbs, sugar mills, carts, brick burning, etc.

Teak Tectona grandis

Deep yellow to dark brown

625 kg/m³

Central India and Southern India

It is moderately hard. It is durable and fire-resistant. It can be easily seasoned and worked. It takes up a good polish. It is not attacked by white ants and dry rot. It does not corrode iron fastenings. It shrinks little. It is among the most valuable timber trees of the world. It is used for house construction, railway carriages, flooring, structural work, ship building, furniture, mallets, agricultural instruments, well curbs, piles, etc. Its use is limited to superior work only as it is comparatively very costly.

Toon Toona ciliata Reddish brown or dull red

530 kg/m³

Assam It can be easily worked. It is light in weight. It is used for furniture, packing boxes, cabinet making, door panels,

Common name

Botanical Name

Colour Density Location Characteristics and usage

etc.

BAMBOO Bamboo, a member of the grass family, is one of the most useful and versatile plants in the world. It is best

known for its use as a construction material and is grown for shade, animal fodder and food. It is also

highly valued as a landscaping plant.

The origin of the word “bamboo” is not very clear. No definite records are available until 400 B.C. about

the reference to bamboo. The canes of plant are called by the Indians as “mambu”. Many species of

bamboo are native to India. The occurrence of bamboo in variety of habitats has found its use to human

kind in a variety of ways. Its more than 1250 species are so diverse that there is a bamboo to suit any need.

This natural resource plays a major role in the livelihood of rural people and in rural industry. Bamboo also

known as green gold, is sufficiently cheap and plentiful to meet the vast needs of human populace from the

"child's cradle to the dead man's bier". That is why sometimes it is known as "poor man's timber".

Bamboos has versatile uses as building material, paper pulp resource, scaffolding, food, agriculture

implements, fishing rods, weaving material, substitute for rattan, plywood and particleboard manufacture.

Pickled or stewed bamboo shoots are regarded as delicacies in many parts of the country. The major user of

bamboo in India is paper industry, which consumes sizeable proportion of the total annual bamboo

production. Bamboos are good soil binders owing to their peculiar clump formation and fibrous root system

and hence also play an important role in soil and water conservation.

Bamboo serves as major resource material for rural artisans for making variety of products. It is one of the

very versatile resources that meet the day-to-day needs of farming communities across the globe.

Bamboos are grown around habitats and also in home gardens in recent times. Generally, the temperate

bamboos tend to be runners while the tropical bamboos tend to be clumpers. Running bamboo spreads

underground, often by sending shoots several feet from the original culm. Clumping bamboo sends up new

shoots only a few inches from the culm, creating a tight clump. Though the clump size will increase

yearly, it does not spread as extensively as running types.

Botany of Bamboo Bamboo is woody grass belonging to the sub-family Bambusoideae of the family Poacae. Worldwide there

are more than 1,250 species under 75 genera of bamboo, which are unevenly distributed in the various parts

of the humid tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions of the earth (Subramaniam, 1998).

The bamboos are mostly distributed in India, Myanmar, Malaya, Japan, Philippines in Asia and New

Guinea, Queens land, South Africa.

Bamboos are characterized by woody pointed stems, commonly referred to as culms, often reaching 30 m;

15-18 cm in diameter arising from woody rhizomes. The growth of the culm is about 7.5 cm per day, often

reaching 30-40 cm per day as in Dendrocalamus giganteus. A clump of bamboos bears about 30-100 culms.

The culms are round and smooth. They are usually hollow (the `female bamboos’), and have transverse

septas at the nodes. But the culms in Dendrocalamus strictus, Arundinaria prainii. Oxytenanthera stocksii

are solid (the `male bamboos’). The bamboos bear large leafless, paniculate inflorescences. The bamboos

flower once in their lifetime (25-50 years) and die out soon after. Flowers are green and inconspicuous. The

bamboo fruit is indehiscent, single seeded. The fruit is a caryopsis, furnished with a thin pericarp and

shaped like a grain of wheat.

Species and Distribution Majority of species of bamboo are indigenous to India, Myanmar, Southern China and Malayan region and

in South America.

In India an estimated 8.96 million ha forest area of the country contains bamboo (Rai and Chauhan, 1998).

Bamboo generally forms the under-storey in the natural forests. It is found to grow practically all over the

country, particularly in the tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions where the annual rainfall ranges

between 1,200 mm to 4,000 mm and the temperature varies between 16oC and 38oC. The most suitable

conditions for the occurrence of bamboo are found in between 770-1,080 meter above sea level. However,

two-thirds of the growing stock of bamboo in the country is available in the northeastern states.

India is very rich in bamboo diversity. There are about 23 genera with 124 indigenous and exotic species,

found naturally and/or under cultivation (Naithani, 1993). Clump forming bamboo constitute over 67% of

the total growing stock, of which Dendrocalamus strictus is 45%, Bambusa bambos 13%, D. hamiltonii

7%, B. tulda 5% and B. pallida 4%. All other species put together are 6%. Melocanna baccifera, a non-

clump forming bamboo, accounts for 20% of the growing stock and is found in the north-eastern states.

Bamboo falls into two main categories according to growth pattern, (i) sympodial or clump forming, and

(ii) monopodial or non-clump forming, runner bamboo.

An exhaustive account of nomenclature, description and distribution of Indian bamboo is available (Rawat

and Khanduri 1998)

Bambusa arundinacea

Table 1: Taxonomy and distribution of bamboo species in India

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

1. Ampelocalamus patellaris (Gamble) Stapleton, (Dendrocalamus patellaris Gamble, Chimonobambusa jainiana Das & Pal)

A rather soft, evergreen, caespitose bamboo. Culms 7-10 m tall, 2.5-3.8 cm in diameter.

Nainital (Uttaranchal), Assam, West Bengal, Sikkim and Bhutan.

2. Arundinaria simonii (Carr.) A. & C. Riviere (Pleioblastus simonii (Carr.) Nakai)

Erect bamboo with long creeping rhizomes. Culms generally monopodial, up to 6 m tall, 2.5 cm in diameter.

Arunachal Pradesh, India. China and Japan.

3. Arundinaria racemosa Munro A small bamboo. Rhizome sub-terranean, scarcely 5 mm thick. Culms erect upto 1.5-m tall, 1 cm in diameter.

Endemic to West Bengal and Sikkim.

4. Bambusa atra Lindl. A tufted reed like bamboo. Culms upto 8 m tall, 2-4 cm in diameter.

Native of Moluccas and New Guinea and Tenasserim coasts Rutland Island (Andamans).

5. Bambusa auriculata Kurz An evergreen, tufted bamboo. Culms 12-16 m tall, 5-7 cm in diameter.

Myanmar.

6. Bambusa balcooa Roxb. A tall caespitose bamboo. Culms 12-20 m high, 8-15 cm in diameter, very thick walled.

Northeast India and plains of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal. Bangladesh.

7. Bambusa bambos (Linn.) Voss (Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.)

A very densely tufted bamboo, producing large dense clumps. Culms strong, hollow, upto 30 m tall, 15-18 cm in diameter; branches with thorns.

Throughout India. Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia.

8. Bambusa burmanica Gamble A caespitose bamboo. Culms 10-20 m high, 7-10 cm in diameter; nodes with white rings.

Native of Myanmar.

9. Bambusa cacharensis Majumdar A tall bamboo. Culms 20-21 m tall, 5-10 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Cachar Hills, Assam, India.

10. Bambusa copelandi Gamble A large, elegant, tufted bamboo. Culms upto 20 m tall, 16-19 cm in diameter.

It is so far known only from under cultivation in Myanmar and Indian Botanical Garden at Calcutta.

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

11. Bambusa griffithiana Munro A sub-scandent, soft bamboo. Culms slender, hollow, fistulose.

Manipur in India. Myanmar.

12. Bambusa jaintiana Majumdar This species is allied to Bambusa tulda but differs in having glabrous culm sheaths.

Endemic to Meghalaya, India.

13. Bambusa khasiana Munro A graceful bamboo. Culms 10-13 m tall, 2.5-4 cm in diameter, arising singly from a creeping rhizome.

Endemic to Meghalaya and Manipur, India.

14. Bambusa longispiculata Gamble ex Brandis

Culms 10-15 m tall, 7-10 cm in diameter, green.

North-east India. Bangladesh, Myanmar.

15. Bambusa mastersii Munro A small reed like, climbing bamboo.

A very rare species so far known only from Assam.

16. Bambusa multiplex (Lour.) Raeusch. ex Schult.

(Bambusa nana Roxb.)

A thickly growing, caespitose bamboo. Culms usually 2-4 m high, 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter.

Native of China and Japan.

17. Bambusa nutans Wall. ex Munro A medium sized graceful bamboo. Culms 6-15 m high, 5-10 cm in diameter, loosely clumped.

It's natural distribution is Yamuna eastwards to Arunachal Pradesh.

18. Bambusa oliveriana Gamble A moderate sized bamboo. Culms 13-15 m high, 2.5-5 cm in diameter, wall thick.

Native of Myanmar.

19. Bambusa pallida Munro A caespitose bamboo. Culms 13-20 m high, 5-8 cm in diameter, smooth, covered with white powder.

Northeast India, Orissa, Bhutan, Myanmar.

20. Bambusa polymorpha Munro A large handsome, densely tufted bamboo. Culms 16-25 m high, 8-15 cm in diameter, grey to greyish-green.

Native of Myanmar.

21. Bambusa pseudopallida Majumdar

This species is allied to B. pallida having shrubby habit. Culm sheaths blade longer than the sheath but auricle pointed, one projecting upwards and the other downwards.

Endemic to Assam and Meghalaya, India.

22. Bambusa teres Buch.-Ham. ex Munro

A large tufted bamboo. Culms upto 20 m high, 8 cm in diameter.

Northeast India, Bangladesh.

23. Bambusa tulda Roxb. An evergreen or deciduous, tufted bamboo. Culms 7-20 cm high, 5-10 cm in diameter, sometimes streaked with

Northeast India.

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

yellow. 24. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex

Wendl. A moderate sized bamboo, with distant culms. Culms strong, green, 15-20 m tall, 4-10 cm in diameter.

It is known only in cultivation in many parts in the country.

25. Bambusa vulgaris var. striata (Lodd. ex Lindl.) Gamble

This variety differs from B. vulgaris in having clear pale-yellow culms with few narrow dark green vertical streaks or rarely light green with pale-yellow streaks.

Commonly cultivated in the gardens.

26. Bambusa vulgaris forma waminii (Brandis) Wen

This form differs from typical B. vulgaris by its internodes 10-15 cm long, rarely longer, at base much swollen (pitcher shaped), the swollen part 10-20 cm in diameter.

Introduced in the gardens.

27. Chimonobambusa callosa (Munro) Nakai (Arundinaria callosa Munro)

A shrubby bamboo. Culms erect, 4-7 m tall, 1.2-2.5 cm in diameter, grayish-green; nodes armed with a circle of conical spines.

Northeast India, Bhutan.

28. Dendrocalamus asper (Schult.f.) Back. ex Heyne

Densely tufted bamboo. Culms 20-30 m tall, 8-20 cm in diameter.

Its origin is not certain, planted throughout tropical Asia. In India it is planted in Madhya Pradesh.

29. Dendrocalamus brandisii (Munro) Kurz

A large evergreen tufted bamboo. Culms ashy-gray to greenish-gray, 19-33 m high, 13-20 cm in diameter.

Manipur and Andaman Islands, India, introduced in Karnataka. Myanmar.

30. Dendrocalamus calostachys (Kurz) Kurz

A large tufted bamboo. Culms usually 20-25 m high.

Meghalaya and Nagaland, India. Myanmar.

31. Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro The tallest bamboo with close culms. Culms 25-30 m tall, 20-30 cm in diameter, usually 2-2.5 cm thick.

Native of Myanmar. Commonly cultivated in India.

32. Dendrocalamus hookeri Munro A tufted bamboo. Culms 15-20 m tall, 10-15 cm in diameter.

Northeast India.

33. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees et Arn. ex Munro

A large caespitose bamboo. Culms 10-20 m high, 10-16 cm in diameter, thin walled.

Throughout Northeast India. Myanmar, Bangladesh.

34. Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz

A handsome tufted bamboo. Culms 20 m tall, upto 10 cm in diameter.

Northeast India. Myanmar, Bangladesh.

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

35. Dendrocalamus membranaceus Munro

A loose clump forming bamboo. Culms 20-25 m high, 6-10 cm in diameter.

A native of Myanmar.

36. Dendrocalamus parishii Munro Culm and culm sheath not known.

Endemic to Himachal Pradesh, India.

37. Dendrocalamus sahnii Naithani A caespitose bamboo. Culms 3 m tall, 2-3 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Arunachal Pradesh, India.

38. Dendrocalamus somdevai Naithani

A caespitose bamboo. Culms 12-20 m high, 6-7 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Uttar Pradesh, India.

39. Dendrocalamus sikkimensis Gamble

A large bamboo with caespitose culms. Culms 17-20 m tall, 12-18 cm in diameter. Culm sheaths golden-brown.

North-east India, Sikkim.

40. Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees

A deciduous, densely tufted bamboo. Culms 8-16 m tall, 2.5-8 cm in diameter, thick walled.

Throughout India except Northeast. Bangladesh, Myanmar.

41. Dendrocalamus strictus var. sericeus (Munro) Gamble

Similar to D. strictus, differs in having silky pubescent spikelets.

Endemic to Chota Nagpur, Bihar, India.

42. Dinochloa andamanica Kurz An evergreen lofty climbing bamboo. Culms 90 m long.

Endemic to Andaman Islands.

43. Dinochloa maclellandii (Munro) Kurz

An evergreen lofty climbing bamboo. Culms 30 m long.

Native of Myanmar.

44. Dinochloa nicobarica Majumdar A climbing bamboo. Culms green.

Endemic to Nicobar Island, India.

45. Gigantochloa albociliata (Munro) Kurz (Oxytenanthera albociliata Munro)

A densely tufted bamboo. Culms 6-9 m high, 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, greyish-green with white stripes.

Native of Myanmar. Widely cultivated in India.

46. Gigantochloa apus (Bl. ex Schult.f.) Kurz (Gigantochloa takserah Camus)

Strongly tufted bamboo. Culms green or yellow hollow, 8-22 m tall, 4-13 cm in diameter.

Northeast India. Myanmar, Indonesia.

47. Gigantochloa atroviolacea Widjaja

Clumps loosely tufted. Culm 8-12 m tall, 6-8 cm in diameter, purplish.

Native of Java.

48. Gigantochloa atter (Hassk.) Kurz Large tufted bamboo. Culms upto 22 m high, 5-10 cm in diameter.

Native of Malaya.

49. Gigantochloa macrostachya Kurz A large evergreen bamboo. Culms 10-16 m tall, 6-10 cm in diameter.

Northeast India.

50. Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea (Steud.) Widjaja

A large evergreen bamboo. Culms 10-30 m high, 7-13 cm in diameter, green to yellowish-green, thin walled.

Native of Java.

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

51. Gigantochloa rostrata Wong

(Oxytenanthera nigrociliata Munro)

Tufted dark green bamboo. Culm 5-8 m tall, 2.5-5 cm in diameter, thick walled, basal portion with yellowish stripes.

Northeast India, Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra. Malaya.

52. Melocalamus compactiflorus (Kurz) Benth. (Dinochloa compactiflora (Kurz) McClure)

A arborescent, evergreen, climbing bamboo. Culms 5-8 m long, 2.5 cm in diameter, solid; climbing over tall trees.

Northeast India. Myanmar, Bangladesh.

53. Melocalamus indicus Majumdar Evergreen scandent bamboo. Culms 5-10 m long, arching over the tall trees.

Endemic to Assam, India.

54. Melocanna arundina Parkinson (Melocanna humilis Kurz)

An evergreen bamboo. Culms 3-5 m high, about 2.5 cm in diameter.

Assam, India and Myanmar.

55. Melocanna baccifera (Roxb.) Kurz (Melocanna bambusoides Trin.)

An evergreen arborescent bamboo. Culms monopodial, upto 20 m tall, 1.5-5 cm in diameter.

Northeast India. Bangladesh, Myanmar.

56. Neomicrocalamus andropogonifolius (Griff.) Stapleton

Culms semi scandent; small, open, spreading, 12 m long, upto 1 cm in diameter, hollow.

Endemic to Nagaland, India and Bhutan.

57. Neomicrocalamus mannii (Gamble) Majumdar (Arundinaria mannii Gamble)

A slender graceful climbing bamboo. Culms 10 m long, 1.2-2.5 cm in diameter, smooth.

Endemic to Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh, India.

58. Neomicrocalamus prainii (Gamble) Keng f. (Arundinaria prainii (Gamble) Gamble; A. clarkei Gamble ex Brandis)

A small, wiry climbing bamboo. Culms upto 10 m long, upto 1 cm in diameter, almost solid.

Endemic to Meghalaya and Nagaland, India.

59. Ochlandra beddomei Gamble Culms erect, 10-12 m high, 3-4 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Kerala, India.

60. Ochlandra ebracteata Raizada & Chatterji

An erect, shrubby or arborescent, reed-like, gregarious bamboo. Culms 5 m high, 2-3.5 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Kerala, India.

61. Ochlandra scriptoria (Dennst.) Fisch.

A gregarious shrubby bamboo. Culms erect, 5 m tall, 2.5 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Western Ghats i.e. Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

62. Ochlandra setigera Gamble Culms erect or straggling, 6 m tall, 1-2 cm thick.

Endemic to Western Ghats i.e. Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

63. Ochlandra sivagiriana (Gamble) Camus

Small straggling reed-like bamboo. Culms 5 m high, 2 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Tamil Nadu, India.

64. Ochlandra talbotii Brandis Erect, arborescent bamboo. Culms 3-6 m tall, 1.2-2 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Karnataka, India.

65. Ochlandra travancorica Benth. Erect, shrubby or arborescent bamboo.

Endemic to Kerala and Tamil Nadu, India.

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

Culms 2-6 m tall, 2.5-5 cm in diameter.

66. Ochlandra travancorica var. hirsuta Gamble

Leaves thick, margin more cartilaginous. Spikelets thickly clothed with light brown valvety pubescence, the rest as in O. travancorica.

Endemic to Tamil Nadu and Kerala, India.

67. Ochlandra wightii (Munro) Fischer

An erect shrubby bamboo. Culms 6-7 m tall, 1.5-2 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Tamil Nadu and Kerala, India.

68. Pseudoxytenanthera bourdillonii (Gamble) Naithani (Oxytenanthera bourdillonii Gamble)

A moderate sized bamboo, open clump forming. Culms 6-9 m tall, 2 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Kerala, India.

69. Pseudoxytenanthera monadelpha (Thw.) Soder. & Ellis (Oxytenanthera monadelpha (Thw.) Alston)

A straggling or sub-scandent bamboo. Culms soft, 8 m tall, 1-1.5 cm in diameter.

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala, India. Sri Lanka.

70. Pseudoxytenanthera ritcheyi (Munro) Naithani (Oxytenanthera ritcheyi (Munro) Blatt. & McCann)

A medium sized bamboo. Culms 3-5 m high, 2.5 cm in diameter, nearly solid, covered with deciduous, soft, pale-yellow, valvety tomentose.

Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala, India.

71. Pseudoxytenanthera stocksii (Munro) Naithani (Oxytenanthera stocksii Munro)

A medium sized bamboo. Culms upto 9 m tall, 2.5 cm in diameter, glabrous.

Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala and Goa, India.

72. Phyllostachys aurea Carr. ex A. & C. Rivier.

Tufted bamboo with creeping rhizome. Culms 2-8 m tall, 2-3 cm in diameter; lower internodes often irregularly shortened and swollen.

Native of China.

73. Phyllostachys bambusoides Sieb. & Zucc.

Rhizomes monopodial, 10-30 mm thick. Culms 9-22 m high, 10-15 cm in diameter, flattened on one side.

Native of China. Reported from Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim, India.

74. Phyllostachys mannii Gamble (Phyllostachys assamica Gamble ex Brandis)

A caespitose bamboo. Culms 5-6 m tall, 2.5-3 cm in diameter, green or yellow, flattened on on side.

Endemic to Assam, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh, India.

75. Phyllostachys nigra (Lodd. ex Lindl.) Munro

Rhizome long creeping. Culms 3-6 m tall, 2-4 cm in diameter, olive green at first, becoming purplish in the second year, ultimately purplish-black.

Native of China.

76. Pseudosasa japonica (Sieb. & Zucc. ex Steud.) Makino ex Nakai

A shrubby bamboo. Culms 2-5 m tall, 5-15

Native of Japan. Cultivated in temperate gardens of

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

mm in diameter, green. India. 77. Sasa palmata (Marl. ex Burb.)

Camus A shrubby bamboo. Culms 1-1.5 m tall, 6-8 mm in diameter.

Native of Japan. Cultivated in temperate garden of India.

78. Schizostachyum arunachalensis Naithani

A semiscandent bamboo with long internodes. Culms 10-15 m tall 3 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Arunachal Pradesh, India.

79. Schizostachyum beddomei (Fischer) Majumdar (Teinostachyum beddomei Fischer)

Tall, semi scandent bamboo. Culm 3-6 m high, 2.5-3.7 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Western Ghats.

80. Schizostachyum capitatum (Munro) Majumdar (Cephalostachyum capitatum Munro)

A shrubby, sub-arborescent bamboo. Culms 4-10 m long, 2.5-3 cm in diameter.

Northeast India, Sikkim and Bhutan.

81. Schizostachyum dullooa (Gamble) Majumdar (Teinostachyum dullooa Gamble)

Moderate sized to large tufted bamboo, sometimes scandent. Culms 6-9 m tall, 2.5-7.5 cm in diameter.

Northeast India. Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar.

82. Schizostachyum flavescens (Kurz) Majumdar (Cephalostachyum falvescens Kurz)

An evergreen tufted, semi-arborescent bamboo. Culms 3-6 m tall, 2.5-3.8 cm in diameter.

Andaman Islands, India. Myanmar.

83. Schizostachyum griffithii (Munro) Majumdar (Teinostachyum griffithii Munro)

Straggling or sub-erect bamboo. Culms drooping, 7-16 m long, 1.5-2 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Northeast India.

84. Schizostachyum helferi (Munro) Majumdar (Teinostachyum helferi (Munro) Gamble)

Evergreen tufted bamboo, forming large impenetrable thickets. Culms 6-12 m high, 2-4 cm in diameter.

Meghalaya, India. Myanmar.

85. Schizostachyum kurzii (Munro) Majumdar (Bambusa schizostachyoides (Kurz) Kurz ex Gamble)

An arborescent bamboo. Culms 5-8 m high, 8-10 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Andaman Islands, India.

86. Schizostachyum latifolium (Munro) Majumdar (Cephalostachyum latifolium Munro; C. fuchsianum Gamble)

A medium sized, arborescent, semi scandent bamboo. Culm 5 m tall.

Northeast India. Bhutan.

87. Schizostachyum mannii Majumdar

Shrubby bamboo. Endemic to Northeast India.

88. Schizostachyum pallidum (Munro) Majumdar (Cephalostachyum pallidum Munro)

A shrubby bamboo. Culms not more than 2 m tall.

Endemic to Northeast India.

89. Schizostachyum pergracile (Munro) Majumdar (Cephalostachyum pergracile Munro)

A arborescent, tufted bamboo. Culms 10-30 m tall, 5-8 cm in diameter.

Northeast India, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh. Myanmar.

90. Schizostachyum polymorphum A large shrubby or semi- Northeast India, Sikkim.

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

(Munro) Majumdar (Pseudostachyum polymorphum Munro)

arborescent bamboo with single culms. Culms 7 m tall, 2 cm in diameter, thin walled.

Bhutan, Myanmar.

91. Schizostachyum rogersii Brandis Culm tufted, weak, upto 9 m high, 2 cm in diameter.

A very rare species, endemic to Andaman Islands, India.

92. Schizostachyum seshagirianum Majumdar

A scandent bamboo with tufted branches. Culms 5-8 m tall, 7-10 cm in diameter, thin walled.

Endemic to Arunachal Pradesh, India.

93. Sinarundinaria anceps (Mitf.) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria jaunsarensis Gamble; Chimonobambusa jaunsarensis (Gamble) Bahadur & Naithani)

A graceful bamboo, with single stem from creeping rhizome. Culms 2-6 m tall, 1.3-2 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Uttar Pradesh Hills.

94. Sinarundinaria arunachalensis Naithani (Chimonocalamus longispiculatus Majumdar)

Plant unarmed. Leaves with setaceous apices. Spikelets green, many flowered in terminal panicles.

Endemic to Arunachal Pradesh, India.

95. Sinarundinaria densifolia (Munro) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria densifolia Munro)

A small densely gregarious shrubby bamboo. Culms 2-2.5 m tall, upto one cm in diameter, thin walled.

Anamalais hills, Kerala. Sri Lanka.

96. Sinarundinaria elegans (Kurz) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria elegans Kurz)

An evergreen, slender, tufted bamboo. Culms green, yellow to dark purple, 4-7 m tall, about 1.5 cm in diameter.

India (Manipur, Nagaland), Myanmar.

97. Sinarundinaria falcata (Nees) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria falcata Nees; Arundinaria khasiana Munro; A. gracilis (Hort. Ex Riv.) Blan.)

A gregarious shrubby bamboo with annual culms from a central rootstock. Culms usually 2-4 m high, 1-2 cm in diameter.

Himalaya from Kashmir to Bhutan and Meghalaya, Mizoram. Myanmar.

98. Sinarundinaria griffithiana (Munro) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria griffithiana Munro)

An erect gregarious bamboo. Culms 3-10 m tall, olive green, 2.5-5 cm in girth, nodes circled with 2 cm long spines.

Eastern Himalaya, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram. Myanmar.

99. Sinarundinaria hirsuta (Munro) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria hirsuta Munro)

A shrubby bamboo with single stem from the rhizomes. Culms 1-2.5 m tall, 5-7.5 mm in diameter.

Endemic to Meghalaya, India.

100. Sinarundinaria hookeriana (Munro) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria hookeriana Munro)

A caespitose bamboo. Culms 5-6 m tall, glaucous green, covered with a white scurf when young, 2-4 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Eastern Himalaya.

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

101. Sinarundinaria intermedia (Munro) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria intermedia Munro; Arundinaria suberecta Munro)

A slender caespitose bamboo. Culms smooth, greyish-green, 3-4 m tall, 1-1.5 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Eastern Himalaya.

102. Sinarundinaria longispiculata Chao & Renvoize

Rhizome not known. Culms erect, yellowish-valvety under the nodes, bearing thorns on the nodes.

Endemic to Mizoram, India.

103. Sinarundinaria maling (Gamble) Campbell (Arundinaria maling Gamble)

An erect shrubby bamboo. Rhizome stout, sub-terraneous producing single culms at intervals. Culms 3-9 m tall, 2-3 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Darjeeling hills (West Bengal) and Sikkim.

104. Sinarundinaria microphylla (Munro) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria microphylla Munro)

A gregarious, low, caespitose shrubby bamboo. Culms 60-120 cm high.

Bhutan.

105. Sinarundinaria naglandiana Naithani

Erect bamboo. Culms caespitose, 3-7 m high, olive-green, 2.5 cm in diameter; node bearing a circle stout short spines.

Endemic to Nagaland, India.

106. Sinarundinaria pantlingii (Gamble) Campbell (Arundinaria pantlingii Gamble)

An erect shrubb bamboo. Culms upto 9 m tall, slightly hairy below the nodes, 1.5 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Sikkim and Darjeeling hills(West Bengal)

107. Sinarundinaria polystachya (Kurz ex Gamble) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria polystachya Kurz ex Gamble)

A small shrubby bamboo. Culms rather soft, 7 m tall, 2 cm in diameter.

Sikkim, Darjeeling hills (West Bengal) and Meghalaya, India.

108. Sinarundinaria rolloana (Gamble) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria rolloana Gamble)

A shrubby bamboo with stoloniferous distant culms. Culms 2.5 m tall, 2 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Nagaland, India.

109. Sinarundinaria walkeriana (Munro) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria walkeriana Munro)

A shrubby bamboo. Culms slender 4 m tall, dark green.

Hills of Kerala and Tamil` Nadu. Sri Lanka.

110. Sinarundinaria wightiana (Nees) Chao & Renvoize (Arundinaria wightiana Nees)

An erect gregarious shrubby bamboo. Culms slender, 1.5-3 m tall, dark green, 2 cm in diameter.

Endemic to Nilgiris and Palni hills of South India.

111. Thamnocalamus aristatus (Gamble) Camus (Arundinaria aristata Gamble)

A tufted shrubby bamboo. Culms at first mealy white, then green, turning to shining yellow, 2-5 m high, 12-15 mm in diameter.

Himalaya from Eastern Nepal to Arunachal Pradesh.

112. Thamnocalamus falconeri Hk.f. ex Munro

A tall shrubby bamboo. Culms fistular, 12-15 m tall, olive green, 1.2-2 cm in diameter.

Himalaya from Uttar Pradesh to Arunachal Pradesh.

Sl. No.

Name of bamboo Description Distribution

113. Thamnocalamus spathiflorus (Trin.) Munro (Arundinaria spathiflora Trin.)

A gregarious caespitose shrubby bamboo. Culms 4-6 m high, 1-2 cm in diameter, glaucous-green first, afterwards turning yellow.

Endemic to Northwest and Central Himalaya.

114. Thyrsostachys oliveri Gamble A handsome, densely caespitose bamboo. Culms 5-20 m tall, 5 cm in diameter, with whitish silky surface when young, green or yellowish at maturity.

Native of Myanmar.

115. Thyrsostachys regia (Munro) Bennet (Thyrsostachys siamensis Gamble)

A caespitose deciduous bamboo. Culms usually 8-10 m tall, 4-5 cm in diameter, thick walled.

Native of Thailand. Cultivated in many parts of India.

Wood structure The culms of bamboos have a smooth outer surface, and are jointed at intervals, the nodes showing more or

less prominent rings. At the nodes wood is solid whereas in the internodes, the culms are hollow, the cavity

being cylindrical. In the transverse section, a bamboo shows the form of a ring, whose outer portion is hard,

and made up of the fibro vascular bundles, very little intervening parenchyma.

Proceeding from the exterior towards the interior the wood becomes softer. The Shapes and arrangement

of fibro-vascular bundles are variable in different species of Bambusa.

Genetic Diversity of Bamboo

As already stated, India has 124 species of bamboo distributed through out the length and breadth of the

country. North-east India supports about 50% of the total genetic resources which is followed by peninsular

India where the Eastern and the Western Ghats are located which accounts for about 23% of the genetic

resources occurring naturally. North-western India, Indo-Gangetic plains and the Andaman & Nicobar

Islands account for the remaining diversity. More than 50% of bamboo species occurring in India are

endemic, and roughly 19 species are rare and threatened.

Ecology & Conservation of Bamboo Bamboos thrive best in monsoon forests where they attain their maximum development. They dwindle into

under shrubs in temperate regions, and at high altitudes up to 3600 m some species look almost like

grasses.

Both In-situ and ex-situ conservation measures are being adopted to preserve the genetic resources of

bamboos. In-situ conservation measures include establishment of preservation plots in every state, where

the biodiversity is being periodically monitored. In addition, there are 10 biosphere reserves (Maikhuri et

al., 1998), 85 national parks and 450 wildlife sanctuaries (Anon., 1997), which include the natural habitat

of bamboo. These species are protected by the local people in sacred groves. However, in-situ conservation

sites with specific emphasis on conservation of bamboo are yet to be established. The major limitations of

in-situ conservation is that natural stands of bamboo are scattered in pockets over large areas making it

difficult to declare several bamboo reserves.

Ex-situ conservation activities for preservation of important genetic resources of bamboo and rattan need

more emphasis. So far these activities are limited to establishment of bambusetum and canarium. The live

collections of bamboos are now available only in a few centres in India (Subramaniam, 1998). Some of

these centres are :

(i) Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (37 species)

(ii) Van Vigyan Kendra, Chessa, Arunachal Pradesh (35 species)

(iii) Arunachal Pradesh Centre Bamborium, Bashar, Siang district )31 types)

(iv) Botanical Garden, Punjab University, Chandigarh (20 species)

(v) Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, (Sub-centre at Nilambur) (21 species)

(vi) Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, (Sub-centre at Palappilly) (51 species)

(vii) Kerala Forest Research Institute Campus, Peechi, Kerala (13 species)

(viii) Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Kerala (32 species)

(ix) Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore (26 species)

(x) Forest Department, Begur, Wynaad Division, Kerala (12 species)

Production and Propagation India is one of the leading countries in the world in bamboo production. In addition to their natural

occurrence, bamboos are also planted on private lands particularly in homesteads, field bunds and other

marginal lands available. Because of the versatile uses of bamboos there is great demand for this resource

throughout India. Annual production of bamboos in India is about 4.5 m tons out of which about 1.9 m tons

is supplied to the paper mills (Singhal and Gangopadhyay, 1999).

Under natural conditions, bamboo seeds germinate in rainy season after gregarious flowering. The

seedlings spring up and survive in large numbers on bare ground. Some of the seedlings develop into

clumps after 6-12 years.

Plantations of bamboo are either raised from seeds or by vegetative propagation. The major hurdle in

cultivation of bamboo from seeds is the poor availability of planting material. Most of economically

important bamboo species bear seeds only 2 to 3 times in a century. Moreover, the viability of seeds is only

for a short period. Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun has developed methods of storage, which

considerably prolongs the viability of bamboo seeds. For example, Dendrocalamus strictus stored at 15oC

over silica gel by reducing its moisture content to 5% retained viability for 34 months with 59% of

germination.

Bamboo seeds germinate within 5 to 10 days of sowing and seedlings attain solitary leaf stage within 7

days in polythene bags or nursery beds. Planting in the field is done as soon as the rains set in. The earth is

sloped around the plants to avoid water logging. Proper weeding is done during the first year.

When seeds are not easily available, bamboo is propagated by the following mentioned vegetative methods:

(i) Planting offsets: This is the easiest and commonest method. One season old culms are

cut through with a slanting cut about 90-120 cm from the ground and the rhizomes are

dug out along with the intact roots and are cut off to a length which is sufficient to

include a well-developed bud. These offsets are planted out at a spacing of 7.0 x 7.0 m,

sufficiently deep to cover the first 2-3 nodes. The planting out of offsets is done after pre-

monsoon showers or just before the beginning of rainy season. The earth above the

ground is well rammed around the offsets to prevent water logging. The top of the culms

are cut and sealed with earth or cow dung to prevent rotting. Weeding is done during the

first season.

(ii) Rhizome cuttings: Sections of fresh living rhizomes of the preceding year measure about

15-30 cm long, containing at least one bud. These are planted in small pits of 30x30x30

cm size. The villagers for propagation of monopodial bamboos commonly adopt this

method.

(iii) Stem cuttings: Stem cuttings or culm segments without rhizomes but with buds when

planted horizontally or vertically give a high rate of propagation in case of bamboo. In

some bamboos a notch is cut to allow water into the hollow internodes. Succes in

successfully regeneration of Dendrocalamus strictus is achieved by planting horizontally

cuttings of 90 cm long from two-year-old culms (Tewari, 1992).

(iv) Macro-proliferation: A method has been developed at Forest Research Institute, Dehra

Dun for growing of field plantable saplings of Bambusa bambos, B. tulda,

Dendrocalamus strictus and D. hamiltonii through macro-proliferation on a large scale

(Adarsh Kumar, 1989). In this technique, each propagule possesses the shoot, root and

rhizome parts at the time of tiller separation itself, which ensures rapid establishment and

excellent survival rate.

(v) Tissue culture: Tissue culture provides an important tool for faster multiplication of

superior clonal material of bamboos. The nodes bearing axillary bud are used as explant

for this purpose. Single nodes with axillary buds when inoculated on MS medium with

0.5 mg/l BAP and 0.1 to 1.0 mg/l of NAA produce multiple shoots with good rooting

success (Preetha et al., 1991).

Flowering:

The flowering in most species is either gregarious or sporadic at fixed intervals. All culms including those

of the current year die soon after flowering has occurred. Some species die within two year after flowering

e.g. Bambusa bambos while others do not die but there is a significant slowing down in their growth e.g.

Phyllostachys sp. Most of the bamboo falls between two physiological states of constant flowering (e.g.

Bambusa atra) and constant sterility (e.g. Bambusa vulgaris). A distinct flowering cycle is seen in the case

of most bamboo species in India. This may vary from 3,7,11,15,30,48,60 to 120 years. The flowering cycle

works with clockwork precision. All populations of a given species belonging to the same seed source, no

matter where they are situated, tend to flower simultaneously.

Dendrocalamus strictus, which is the principal bamboo species of India, tends to flower both sporadically

and gregariously at long intervals varying from 20 to 65 years. The period of time between two gregarious

flowerings over the same area for a particular species is known as the physiological cycle. It is more or less

constant for clumps of the same seed source. In case of sporadic flowering, only the culms that flower die;

though the entire clump will die after gregarious flowering has taken place.

The flowering and seeding cycle of some species are given in Table 2.

Table 2: Flowering and seeding cycle of some bamboo species

Name of the Species Flowering and fruiting cycle (years)

Arundinaria racemosa 30 Bambusa atra Annual Bambusa bambos 32-45 Bambusa tulda 35-60 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii 30 Dendrocalamus strictus 30-45 Melocanna baccifera 45 Ochlandra travancorica 7 Sinarundinaria falcata 28-30 Sinarundinaria wightianus Annual Thamnocalamus falconeri 30 Thamnocalamus spathiflorus 16-17

Regeneration from seed:Profuse natural regeneration comes up after gregarious flowering. Seed viability

varies from species to species they generally remain viable for one to two months. Seeds that fall on the ground

germinate immediately after the beginning of the rainy season. If seeds have fallen in moist river and streambeds they

may germinate even earlier.

Germination is usually complete within 1 or 2 weeks. Hundreds of seedlings come up and there is intense

competition amongst them for survival. The natural thinning out process spaces out the seedlings. The

better growing individuals may develop into clumps after 6 to 12 years.

The young seedlings are unable to thrive under conditions of heavy shade. They may die due to heavy

shade particularly that caused by weeds though a light shade protects them from drought and frost and

helps the young seedlings to develop into full-fledged clumps. Fire and grazing are extremely harmful to

the young regeneration.

Planting: The seedlings are planted at 6 x 6 m spacing with a total of about 250 seedlings per ha. The seedlings are

irrigated immediately after transplanting. Weeding is generally required during the first year (Shanmughavel et al.,

1997). Most villagers generally cultivate bamboos by planting offsets or rhizomes as seeds are not readily available.

Rhizomes or offsets are dug out carefully so that the buds are not damaged and then transported to planting sites.

Planting work is done immediately after the first showers of the monsoon. The plantations are ready for exploitation

within 4-12 years, depending upon the prevailing climatic conditions (Negi and Naithani, 1994).

Harvesting: The bamboo forests are managed on a four-year cutting cycle employing selective felling

system. Extraction of the culms starts from 4-12 years after planting.

The following felling rules are generally prescribed:

(i) Immature culms less than 2 years old should not be cut and removed.

(ii) Young twisted culms are cut so that new culms grow.

(iii) All the new culms and 25% of the old culms should be retained.

(iv) Cutting should begin from the side opposite to where new sprouts are emerging

(v) No clump should be clear felled except after flowering and when seeding has been completed.

(vi) Culms should be cut as long as possible leaving two internodes above ground, in any case not

higher than 30 cm above ground level.

(vii) Rhizomes are not dug out and exposed.

(viii) No felling to be done during growing season viz. 1st July to 30th September in north India.

(ix) In a clump containing 12 culms or more, at least 6 mature culms over one year old should be

retained.

(x) No culm should be cut from periphery of the clump even if they are mature or malformed.

Traditional users opt for selective felling system, as mature culms are unsuitable for basket weaving.

However, with the emergence of the pulp a paper industry as the major consumers of bamboo, the system

has been affected badly as parameters have changed with payment being based on weight. This has resulted

in indiscriminate exploitation.

Bamboo Utilisation Bamboo is utilized for various purposes depending upon its properties. It plays an important role in the

daily life of people; for house construction, agricultural tools and implements, as food material and

weaponry etc. Besides being a convenient source of cellulose for paper manufacture and rayon, it supports

a number of traditional cottage industries. Bamboo craft is one of the oldest of traditional cottage industries

in India. The origin of this rural craft is traced from the beginning of the civilisation when man started

cultivation of food crops thousands of years back. People started making baskets, mats and many other

products of household use with bamboo that was abundantly available in nearby forests. Later, tribal and

rural people in the vicinity of bamboo forest took up this as a means of livelihood. Now bamboo craft is

spread in all rural areas of the country and it feeds millions of traditional workers.

Chinese have the practice of carving, Culms may be cut and hollowed into vases or drinkware, tubes, or

pipes for liquids.Culms can also serve as pipes. The Bamboo are also used in making musical instruments.

Bamboo canes are normally round in cross-section, but square canes can be produced by forcing the new

young culms to grow through a tube of square cross-section and slightly smaller than the culm's natural

diameter, thereby constricting the growth to the shape of the tube. Every few days the tube is removed and

replaced higher up the fast-growing culm.

The fibre of bamboo has been used to make paper in China since very early days. A high quality hand-

made paper is still produced in small quantities.

The wood is used for knitting needles and the fibre can be used as yarn. Sharpened bamboo is also

traditionally used to tattoo in Japan, Hawaii and elsewhere.

Bamboo is emerging as a major source of raw material for several processed products primarily due to its

fast growth, wide spread occurrence and its multiple uses. The ten major species used in India for

commercial purposes are Bambusa bambos, B. balcoa, B. nutans, B. tulda, Dendrocalamus strictus, D.

hamiltonii, Melocanna baccifera, Ochlandra ebracteata, O. scriptoria and O. travancorica.

The consumption pattern of bamboo (Tewari, 1992) is given in Table-3.

Table 3: Consumption pattern of bamboos in India.

Uses Per cent consumption Pulp 35.0 Housing 20.0 Non-residential 5.0 Rural uses 20.0 Fuel 8.5 Packing, including basket 5.0 Transport 1.5 Furniture 1.0 Others, wood working industries 1.0 Others, including ladders, mats etc. 3.0

Specific uses of some bamboo species are listed in Table 4.

Table 4: Important bamboo species and their uses

SL. NO.

SPECIES USES

1. Sinarundinaria falcata Basket work, fishing rods, Hooka pipes 2. Thamnocalamus spathiforus Pipes, mats and basket making. 3. Arundinaria racemosa Roof construction and matting for house. 4. Sinarundinaria wightiana Matting. 5. Bambusa bambos Rafters, house posts, ladders, tent poles, shafts of

tongas, mat and basket making, scaffoldings, chicks, etc. besides pulping. Seed and shoots are used as food.

6. B. balcooa Pulping. 7. B. tulda Building material, scaffolding and roofing. Mats

and baskets. Tender shoots used as food, paper making.

8. B. polymorpha Construction work and for thatching/roofing. 9. B. vulgaris Furniture, toys, cages and construction works.

Scaffolds and for roofing. Paper making. 10. Schizostachyum pergracile Building, mat making, fishing rods besides being

an important source of paper pulp. 11. Dendrocalamus giganteus Building and for masts for boats. The culms when

cut into sections can be used for water buckets and boxes.

12. D. hamiltonii Paper manufacture, construction work, basket works, mats etc.

13 D. longispathus Basket making. 14 D. strictus Universally used, house construction, basket

making, mats, furniture, agricultural implements, tool handles and chicks. Paper and rayon manufacture.

15 Gigantochloa macrostachya Matting and basketwork. 16. Melocanna baccifera Building as well as for basket works, house

constructions, matting and other purposes. 17. Ochlandra travancorica Agricultural implements and tool handles, paper

pulp. Temporary huts and thatching. 18. O. scriptoria Mats and basket making sticks, baskets and

umbrella handles.

19. Pseudoxytenanthera ritcheyi Tent poles, walking sticks, baskets and umbrella handles.

20. Gigantochloa rostrata Building huts and basketwork besides papermaking.

21. Schizostachyum polymorphum Baskets, umbrella handles and walking sticks.

The major products and uses of bamboo in India are mentioned below:

Pulp and Paper: In Asia, India leads in the utilization of bamboo for paper manufacture. About 2

million tons of raw bamboo, which constitute over 40 per cent of annual production, was used for

pulp. Dendrocalamus strictus is the main species, which is used for paper pulp in India and it,

produces pulp of acceptable quality.

House Construction: Bamboo has been used for house construction, especially in earthquake

prone areas. It is employed in different ways as a building material for roof structure in form of

purlins, rafters, reapers, as reinforcement in foundations, flooring, doors/windows, walling,

ceiling, water storage tanks, man-hole covers and even for roads in slushy areas (Punhani and

Pruthi,1991).

• Roofing: Bamboo trusses form a good substitute for supporting roof loads and

transmitting them to the foundations through columns. Bamboo trusses are fabricated

using culms having an outer diameter of 50-80 mm. Selected culms are placed in position

and joining ends/faces are cut in such a way that the gap between any two members is

minimum. The web and chord connections are fabricated with different devices.

• Bamboo reinforced mud wall: Mud wall gives protection against heat and cold. Now-a-

days mud walls are constructed by reinforcing, with quartered split bamboo culms

properly treated with hot bitumen. Properly kneaded mud mixed with rice husk, cinder and

a little lime and water are fused layer by layer keeping the bamboo grid in the center

which is later plastered and smoothened then white washed.

• Light bamboo wall: Common walls of rural housing in the form of bamboo boards are

prepared by using flattened bamboo culms, which are then battened and nailed to form the

wall. Mats made with skins from the outside of the bamboo are used for the exterior wall

after applying a coat of coal tar on the outer surface for protection.

• Flooring: Rural houses on raised platforms use bamboo for flooring while bamboo culms

used as floor joints and beams act as framework. Over this framework, covering sheathing

of split bamboo, bamboo boards/mats, small full culms or flattened bamboo strips are

suitably fastened.

• Doors and windows: Shutters made of bamboo mats, fixed on wooden or bamboo frame is

common in rural housing. Small openings framed with bamboo or wood is provided in the

walls to serve as windows.

• Scaffolding: The platforms made of timber planks can be replaced with bamboo culms.

Bamboo poles lashed together have also been successfully used as scaffolding in high rise

buildings.

Bamboo Mat Boards (BMB) and Bamboo Mat Veneer Composites (BMVC): Indian Plywood

Industries Research and Training Institute, Bangalore, has developed a technology for

manufacturing BMB and BMVC utilising bamboo mats produced manually by traditionally skilled

artisans. About 85,000 cum of BMB were manufactured during 1998 from 8 factories with an

installed capacity of 133,000 cum/annum. It is estimated that if 100,000 cum of timber is replaced

with BMB or BMVC, 4,000 ha of forests would be saved while an employment of 10 million

person-days is likely to be generated (Bansal 1999). This technology has been expanded further to

produce Bamboo Mat Corrugated Sheets as a substitute for Asbestos corrugated sheets, which are

considered to be health hazard and environment unfriendly.

• Handicrafts: A large number of cottage industries like manufacturer of tablemats, bamboo wares,

trays are dependent on bamboo as raw material. Many articles of common domestic use like mats,

baskets, toys, nets, wall plates, wall hangers, trays etc. are made from bamboo. Various bamboo

species utilised for these items are given in Table 4. Bamboo articles with different sizes and

shapes are made with bamboo strips for decorative arrangement of flowers and fruits. Flute, a

common musical instrument in India is made out of bamboo. Dried and mature bamboo leaves are

used for deodorizing fish oils. Sinarundinaria falcata and Schizostachyum pergracile are used for

making fishing rods.

Bamboo Markets There is a high demand of bamboo in different markets. It is normally marketed either as commercial

bamboo or as industrial bamboo. The former is produced from live culms that are more than 2.5 m in

length. The bamboo pieces that are less than 2.5 m. in length are classified as industrial bamboo. Bamboo

of 2 m and 1 m length, known as bahi and sarava, respectively, are sold in the northern states. However, in

most states, bamboo with lengths varying from 3 m to 9 m finds use in construction of houses.

India has been exporting bamboos on a large scale. The export of bamboo as raw material is generally not

permitted but value added products are allowed to be exported as well as imported.

Table 5: Market channels of bamboo and constraint

NAME OF THE MARKET CHANNELS MODE OF CONSTRAINTS

STATE MARKETING EXPERIENCED IN

MARKETING

Himachal Pradesh Depots of HPSFC Open auction Lack of proper competition,

buyers is mostly people

from same place. Bamboo

reaches market after Diwali

when prices are low.

Karnataka State Forest Department Sold from Forest Depots. Transport and decay during

storage.

Kerala Kerala State Forest Department Sold from Forest Depots. Fluctuation in rates of raw

material.

Madhya Pradesh Paper Mill, Industries, SC/ST

Corporation.

Open market (commercial

bamboo)

Agreement with the Forest

Department and direct

purchase from the private

growers.

-

Maharashtra Bamboo sale is periodically

done in open auctions held at

various Govt. Depots.

Traders purchase bamboo

from the auctions and sale

them in open market.

The timber associations

modulate the prices of

bamboo.

Pondicherry (UT) Private merchant, cooperative

society.

Wholesale and Retail. Storage of bamboo,

transportation, seasonal

changes in rates of raw

material.

Tamil Nadu Retail outlets.

Wholesale dealers through

cooperative society, sericulture

department

Domestic and industries. Fluctuation and variations

in price from season to

season and place to place.

Lack of transport facilities

and shortage of raw

material.

West Bengal Building construction

Companies

Household use

Paper pulp Companies

Contract and bargaining.

Contract and bargaining.

Local purchase.

Local purchase and

bargaining. (Producer to

Small and diffused markets.

Due to poverty of the

grower, the latter suffers

most.

Communication gap

between the producer and

Handicrafts

Companies/individuals

middle men to retailer to

purchaser).

seller.

Bamboo is a raw material not only for big industries, like paper and pulp but also for cottage and small-

scale industries. A large number of people from poorer sections of the society depend on bamboo for their

daily livelihood. In Madhya Pradesh alone nearly 40,000 bansods depend entirely for their livelihood on

bamboo. In Karnataka Medars a community depending on bamboo for livelihood have an association and

demand proper supply of raw materials.

Policy

Bamboo in India has been called "Poor man’s Timber". Therefore, in all parts of the country, the local

communities are generally given certain rights or privilege of access to these resources, either free or at

concessional rates, to meet their bonafide needs. These customary and traditional rights and their regulation

in some of the states, as compiled by Singhal and Gangopadhyay (1999), are given below:

• Madhya Pradesh: The villagers are supplied up to 250 pieces of bamboo per family per year at a

subsidised rate of Rs.0.25 per bamboo from the nistar depots. These depots are located in the middle

of cluster of villages. Bansods, the artisan community earning their livelihood through manufacture

of bamboo articles, get up to 1,500 pieces of bamboo per family per year at concessional rates of

Rs.0.60 per piece for the first 500 pieces and Rs.0.75 per piece for subsequent pieces.

• Maharashtra: Bamboo is supplied at concessional rates to the agriculturist and basket and mat

makers, either from the forest coupe under working or from the departmental depots after extraction.

• Orissa: Depending on availability, each rural family is supplied 250 bamboos and each bansod

family 1,500 bamboos per year. The allotment is done by the state forest department on a certificate

from the Head Man of the village. At the time of flood or cyclones, 50 bamboos are provided to

each affected family.

• West Bengal: Forest Protection Committees, established under the Joint Forest Management, which

help the forest department in protection and rejuvenation of the forests are given 25% of the net

sales proceeds of the usufructs.

• Himachal Pradesh: The local population has the right to meet their bonafide requirements from the

bamboo bearing forest compartment. For those residents whose requirements can not be met from

these compartments conveniently, bamboo supply is made from forests other than the closed ones.

• Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka: People in and around forest enjoy the privilege of free use of

bamboo for fencing, agricultural requirements, hutment and other bonafide uses.

• Uttar Pradesh: Bamboo is made available to the villagers for their domestic and agricultural

demands provided they have been enjoying this privilege for long and their livelihood depends on it.

The supply is made at reasonable rates, but not less than the schedule rates fixed by the forest

department.

• Tripura: As per rules framed in 1952, the population engaged in shifting cultivation (about 20,000)

was entitled to bamboo collection free of cost for construction of their huts and other uses. In

addition, bonafide householders and cultivators from the villages adjoining reserved forests were

also entitled to free permit to the extent of 250 pieces of bamboo per family per year. Royalty for

making bamboo baskets, mats, etc. has been discontinued since 1990 as a concession to the bamboo

craftsmen.

In fact the current National Forest Policy has clearly laid down that meeting the needs of the local

communities will get priority over the commercial use of such species. This is facilitating active

community participation in the upkeep of local forests. With short term maturity and higher economic

returns from bamboo and rattan, these can act as focal points in reviving community participation in forest

protection and management.

Legislation Bamboo and rattan are categorized under Non Timber Forest Produce in India. However, under Indian

Forest Act (1927) and for enforcement of its provisions they are legally clubbed with trees as per Section 2

of the Indian Forest Act. Accordingly all movement of above products for trade is regulated under transit

rules framed under the Act. Many species are now being grown outside the forest area in agro forestry

systems. In order to promote agro forestry and trade, many states are liberalizing transit restrictions on

these produce. Unfinished bamboo species figure in the negative list of exports from the country.

References & Further Reading (i) Adarsh Kumar (1989). Some experiences in Vegetative Propagation of Bamboos. Seminar on

Vegetative propagation, July 27-28, 1989, Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore.

(ii) Anonymous (1997). Compendium of Environment Statistics 1997. Central Statistical Organisation. Planning Commission (Govt. of India).

(iii) Balaji, S. (1991). Agro-forestry for Prosperity. Forest News Tamil Nadu Forest Department (1) (3) : 9-11.

(iv) Banik, R.L. (1986). Macro-propagation of Bamboos by Pre-rooted and Pre-rhizomed Branch Cutting. Bano Bigyan Patrika 13(1/2): 67-73.

(v) Champion H.G. and Seth, S.K. (1968). Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India 1-402, Manager, Publications, Delhi.

(vi) Dabral, S.N. (1950). A Preliminary Note on Propagation of Bamboos from Culm segments. Indian For. 76(7): 313-14.

(vii) FSI. (1997). State of Forest Report 1997. Forest Survey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests), Dehra Dun.

(viii) Gamble, J.S., (1922) A Manual of Indian Timbers, Sampson, Low, Martson & Co. Ltd., London

(ix) ICFRE. (1998). Timber/Bamboo Trade Bulletin. March 1998, No. 14. Directorate of Statistics, ICFRE, Dehra Dun. 31 pp.

(x) Maikhuri, R.K., Rao, K.S., Palni, L.M.S. and Rai, R.K. (1998). Biosphere Reserve Programme in India 1-7. In : R.K. Maikhuri, K.S. Rao and R.K. Rai (Eds.) : Biosphere Reserve and Management in India, Himavikas Occassional Publication No. 12. G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora.

(xi) Moore, H.E. Jr. (1973). The Major Groups of Palms and their Distribution. Genetes Herb. 11(2) : 27-141.

(xii) Naithani, H.B. (1993). Contributions to the Taxonomic Studies of Indian Bamboos. Ph.D. Thesis, Vol. I. H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal.

(xiii) Negi, S.S. (1996). Bamboos and Canes 1-118. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

(xiv) Negi, S.S. and Naithani, H.B. (1994). Hand Book of Indian Bamboos, 1-234. Oriental Enterprises, Dehra Dun.

(xv) Preetha, N., Yasoda, R. Sumanthi, R. and Gurumurti, K. 1991. Continuous Mass Propagation of Bamboo. Bamboo Newsletter (xi), Bamboo Society of India, Bangalore.

(xvi) Punhani, R.K.and Pruthi, K.S. (1991). Substitution of Wood in Building some alternative Forest based Materials and their Technology. National Symposium on Substitution of Wood Building (SWOB) Roorkee.

(xvii) Rai, S.N. and Chauhan, K.V.S. (1998). Distribution and Growing Stock of Bamboos in India. Indian For. 124(2):89-98.

(xviii) Seshadri, P. (1985). Intercropping of Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus Nees) with Soybean (Glycine max L.) Herill An Agroforestry Study. Ph.D. Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

(xix) Shanmughavel, P.; Francis, K. and George, M. (1997). Plantation Bamboo. pp 1-199. International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun.

(xx) Singhal, R.M. and Gangopadhyay, P.B. (1999). Bamboo and Its Database in India. ICFRE Publications (in press).

(xxi) Subramaniam, K.N. (1998). Bamboo Genetic Resources in India. In : K. Vivekanandan, A.N. Rao and V. Ramanatha Rao (Eds.) : Bamboo and Rattan Genetic Resources in Asian Countries, IPGRI-APO, Serdang, Malaysia.

(xxii) Tewari, D.N. (1992). A Monograph on bamboo. pp 1-498. International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun.

(xxiii) Varmah, J.C. and Bahadur, K.N. (1980). Country Report and Status of Research on Bamboos in India. Indian For. Rec. (Botany), 6(1) : 1-28.

(xxiv) Wagh, R. and Rajput, J.C. (1991). Comparative Performance of Bamboo with the Horticultural Crops in Konkan. In : Bamboo in Asia and Pacific. Proc. IVth Intl. Bamboo Workshop, 27-30 Nov. 1991. Chiangmai, Thailand, FORSPA Publication-6. Canada. IDRC and FORSPA, Bangkok, Thailand, 1994 : 85-86.