MEDICINAL FERNSOf The Upper Delaware River

Nathaniel Whitmore, Herbalist

Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood Fern

2016 SEMINAR WORKBOOKWith Sections On:

FERN BOTANY (PTERIDOLOGY): IDENTIFICATION KEYS & DESCRIPTIONS NATIVE AMERICAN MEDICINE & MEDICINAL USE OF FERNS

TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE ~ HOMEOPATHY ~ FOLK MEDICINE

FERN ETHNOBOTANY

A Pteridological and Ethnobotanical Study of Our Natural Areain the Upper Delaware River Valley

by Nathaniel WhitmoreMay 2016

Rock Cap Polypodium virginianum

Here is a botanical exploration of the upper Delaware River valley area. As the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) are the natives of the area, their particular uses of ferns would be the focus if the information could be easily found. I chose to focus on the Iroquoian uses, as theirs is near the region; and the Cherokee uses, as there is much information from them and they are in the east and are related to the Lenape. Western uses are considered to some extent, but not so much and sometimes simply omitted from the main text, as this is intended to be first and foremost a look at our local wild areas. Western uses are, of course, important and noteworthy, but without knowing about variations in the nature of the ferns that can be expected with different growing conditions, I chose to mostly leave this information out except for a bit to shed light on the nature of our local species. Included is a little information on non-Native uses of local ferns, and for additional perspective I included some notes about relatives of our native ferns that are used in other parts of the world. I have also included a small section on Chinese medicine in order to explain some related theory. It is my hope that the document in hand will stimulate dialogue on the subject of local medicinal ferns, the recovery of information that is almost lost, and experimentation to move us forward toward a more wholesome relationship with our surroundings and their health-promoting properties. Truly, a sincere approach towards holistic healing must turn to the local plants. Please forgive my mistakes and take the time to make me aware of them. Any leads to information on the Native American use of ferns would be greatly appreciated, especially regarding the Lenni Lenape uses.

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CONTENTS

Introduction 4Descripition of Medicinal Uses of Local Ferns by Native Americans 6

Maidenhair 6Walking Fern 7Maidenhair Spleenwort 7Lady Fern 7Rattlesnake Fern 8Fragile Fern 8Hay-scented Fern 9Mountain Wood Fern 10Spinulose Wood Fern 10Crested Wood Fern 10Marginal Wood Fern 10Ostrich Fern 11Sensitive Fern 12Cinnamon Fern 13Interrupted Fern 13Royal Fern 13Rock Cap 14Christmas Fern 14Bracken 15Marsh Fern 15

Major Medicinal Categories of Ferns Used By Native Americans 16Fern Identification

Pteridology Terms to Know 19Keys to Ferns of Our Area 19

Key One 20Key Two 22Key By Size (Key Three) 24Key By Sori (Key Four) 26

Botanical Descriptions of Native American Medicinal Ferns of Our Area 29Local Ferns & Relatives Used in America, Europe, Asia, & Africa 32Preparation of Medicine 36Lenni Lenape Medicine 37Iroquois Medicine 39Cherokee Medicine 41Ferns & the Energetics of Chinese Herbal Medicine 42Homeopathic Use of Ferns 45Bibliography 46Index 47

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INTRODUCTION

Generally ferns are mildly toxic and besides a few exceptions they are not utilized much as food or medicine. My own experience with their medicinal uses is limited, but historical references clearly indicate that they were once used traditionally in medicine. This coupled with their frequency in the wild warrants some research. Several species can be consumed as food, but even so it is recommended that you do so in moderation. Those that are not bitter are the safest. A few are overtly toxic or emetic. Bracken Ferns (potentially others) can lead to beri beri if consumed regularly or in excess. And it is believed that ferns can contribute to stomach cancer. The only species that was in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia is Dryopteris filix-mas, which was listed as a vermifuge (indicating some toxicity).

Perhaps it is because of the toxicity of ferns or perhaps it is because of our loss of tradition and knowledge that ferns have fallen out of common use. As you will see in the list of species below, ferns were used by Native Americans for medicine; their uses falling into a few specific areas. Ferns address stomach concerns, intestinal parasites, rheumatism, pain, lung disorders, blood disorders, gynecological disorders (including after labor), problems with lactation, and venereal disease. The association with Venus (as with Maidenhair) fits into the feminine association made by the American Natives (an example of multi-cultural confirmation).

The use of ferns for diseases of the blood shows some similarities between Native American medicine and traditional Chinese medicine. Well-established concepts in Chinese medicine, such as blood deficiency and toxic heat in the blood, are only mentioned in passing from ethnobotanical sources about Native use, but I assume that Native American herbalists had an equally sophisticated understanding of blood disorders and how to treat them.

Ethnobotanical texts and popular “Native American herb” books tend to lack the practical details required to put ferns to use as medicine. We are left to wonder about the when and how of the emetics and fever remedies. When is Maidenhair most appropriate for rheumatism (compared to the other remedies)? How does one use Rattlesnake Fern for snakebite? What kind of back pain responds to Ostrich Fern?

Chinese medicine is more systematic and documented than Native American medicine. Dryopteris crassirhizoma is considered bitter and cool, affecting the liver and stomach channels, and is taken for parasites. Various formulas are indicated for specific uses. It is also known that one should avoid eating fatty foods while taking this herb in order to avoid absorbing the toxin. Drynaria fortunei (Gu Sui Bu) and Cibotium barometz (Gou Ji) are both classified as herbs that tonify yang. Drynaria tonifies the kidneys and mends connective tissue, while Cibotium additionally tonifies the liver and expels wind and dampness.

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While Chinese medicine relies very much on books, Native knowledge has only begun to be written down. We are a bit late, considering how much knowledge is already lost, but better late than never. Herbalists today are working to preserve Native American wisdom and knowledge, before even more is lost. The majority of my own research at this time is into the Native use of native plants.

Ethnobotanical summaries leave us wanting for more than recipes and practical instruction. The dry world of “this-herb-for-that” neglects the spiritual realities of the Native. Perhaps it is such disposition that has also resisted the written word. Medicine of the Native American was and is holistic in its inclusion of spiritual realities. The practitioner was so very aware of such a world and looked for help from the spirits.

My teacher Taterbug used a shamanic trance to conjure up help in deciding what herbs to use. At the same time that shamans look to the spirits, their approach is largely intuitive. As individuals with a strong sixth sense become intimate with wild plants, they will tend to be drawn to certain plants for reasons with little obvious rational. Such practice proves difficult to explain in books.

So, the study of Native American herbal medicine proves to have many obstacles. This booklet on the use of ferns is only a minor compilation of recorded information regarding Native uses of ferns and is a glimpse into the botany of our particular area of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey along the upper Delaware River. It is my hope that this work will stimulate common people to become more interested in the natural world and its herbal medicines, that it will encourage dialogue on the subject amongst my peers, that it will help to preserve knowledge, and that it will help to refine this knowledge towards practical aim.

Maidenhair Spleenwort Asplenium tricomanes

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Adiantum pedatum MAIDENHAIR

Cherokee used Maidenhair for rheumatism (the effect on contracted muscles likened to the uncurling fiddleheads)- the compound decoction or decoction of root applied with warm hands as external rub, or infusion internally. Infusion or decoction of whole plant was used as an emetic for fever and ague (fever with chills). Powdered leaves are smoked for heart trouble and snuffed or smoked for asthma. They used it for paralytic attacks, as from pneumonia in children. Sacred preparation of whole plant was used specifically for women’s irregular heartbeat. Cherokee considered Maidenshair a powerful medicine for the heart, and as such it is associated with the direction of East.

Costanoan of California used the decoction to purify the blood and for stomach troubles. Hesquiat of western Canada mixed the ashes in formula for shortness of breath, and to produce strength and endurance. They likewise used the green fronds. The northwestern Makah chewed the fronds for weak stomach. Menomini (Wild Rice People) used a compound decoction of the root for dysentery. They used the blade, stem, and root in gynecology. Fox used a compound containing the root and stem for children. Micmac, Algonquian of eastern Canada, used in decoction for fits. Potawatomi of the upper Mississippi River used an infusion of the root for caked breasts. Natives applied

poultice of plant to sore back of babies. Wet fronds poulticed for snakebite. Decoction used as wash for venereal disease such as gonorrhea. Used topically by Native Americans as a poultice or wash for bleeding, insect stings, snakebites, arthritis, and for hair.

Hesquiat use of Maidenhair for endurance played out in ceremonial dancing, for which the infusion would be used, especially in winter, to prevent fatigue. Nitinaht also used Maidenhair for ceremonial dancing. Such uses along with the sacred preparation practiced by the Cherokee indicate that this beautiful fern was regarded as a sacred medicine. Additionally, the black stems of Maidenhair were used by Potawatomi as a hunting charm.

The subspecies pedatum was used by the Iroquois for children’s cramps, as decoction. A compound decoction of the green roots used as a foot soak for rheumatism and taken internally. Decoction of roots taken as a diuretic for the cessation of urine due to stones. Infusion of plant used as an emetic for love medicine. Compound decoction or infusion taken for excessive menstruation. Decoction of roots used to bring on menses and for abortion. Plant used for abortion or delivery pains.

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Therefore, Maidenhair is anti-rheumatic, emetic, diaphoretic, cardiotonic, stimulant, alterative, astringent, antispasmodic, emenagogue, and antiseptic. Energetically, Maidenhair appears dry and (cool?), with an affinity for the heart and reproductive system.Asplenium rhizophyllum WALKING FERN

Cherokee used the decoction topically and as emetic, and in compound for swollen breasts.

Asplenium tricomanes MAIDENHAIR SPLEENWORT

Cherokee used for irregular menses, breast diseases, coughs, and liver ailments.

Athyrium filis-femina LADY FERN

Iroquois used subspecies angustum for mothers with intestinal fevers, to prevent water breaking, and for men with venereal disease. Other varieties used by tribes of other areas also used for pain, cancer, sores, caked breasts, vomiting blood, and for sore eyes. Root tea used as diuretic, for breast pains caused by childbirth, and for caked breasts. Stem tea used to ease labor.

Cherokee used for women’s headaches. Although I have not uncovered details of this use, it seems likely that we are considering headaches of a hormonal nature

Used in formula with Willow and other plants for calming female anxiety.

Chippewa, or Ojibwa, used Lady Fern root in compound decoction for stopped urine; grated and dried for sores. Cowlitz of the northwest used stem infusions for pain. Hesquiat used unfurling fronds for internal ailments as with women’s womb. Makah used the decoction of pounded stems to ease labor pains. Meskwaki used the

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root decoction for bosom pains caused by childbirth. Potawatomi used root infusions for caked breasts and other female disorders.

It is interesting that the female association surrounding the used of this fern is found from different cultures. Botrychium virginianum RATTLESNAKE FERN Iroquois used subspecies virginianum as a cough medicine for tuberculosis as cold infusion of root.

The Algonquian (northeast) Abnaki used as a demulcent and for children’s medicine. Cherokee used root decoction as emetic and as concentrated syrup for external use on snakebites (including from dream snakes), and used the juice from the frond for insect bites and stings. Chippewa used a poultice of fresh root for snakebite and as a repellant. Chicksaw (southwest) used as a diaphoretic and expectorant, and the root decoction as emetic. Ojibwa used for lung trouble, such as tuberculosis; and used the poulticed root on cuts. Potawatomi also used medicinally.

Astringent property used for open wounds.

Cystopteris fragilis FRAGILE FERN

Navajo used Fragile Fern in compound infusion topically for injury. Yet another example of the Doctrine of signatures.

Considering the high variability of local species, I assume the southwest species to be of a slightly different nature than out own.

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Rattlesnake Fern Botrychium virginianum Fragile Fern Cystopteris fragilis Dennstaedtia punctilobula HAY-SCENTED FERN Cherokee used in compound infusion for chills. Mahuna used for lung hemorrhages.

This is a common fern, forming thick patches in the forest under-story. It is a sign of an imbalanced ecosystem, as excessive growth is due to deer overbrowse. Hay-scented and New York Ferns along with invasive plants like Barberry (Berberis) and Japanese Knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum) can be harvested without concern for over-harvesting. Reducing their population actually benefits competing plants, which could be endangered or threatened. Doesn’t it seem, in the grand scheme of things, to make sense for us to be using such herbs as medicines? Could they be here in abundance for our benefit?

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In my experience invasive plants are very useful. (Hay-scented Fern is not alien, but is a native-invasive, a native plant found in abundance because of other environmental imbalances and not because it was introduced from a foreign area). Barberry, for instance, is probably one of the most important wild medicinal herbs. While antibiotic use becomes more rampant and destructive to our health, Barberry spreads with vigor as though offering itself as a replacement of our favorite drugs. And it has been pointed out that Japanese Knotweed seems to spread like crazy in areas that struggle with high rates of Lyme disease. Could it actually be that Nature offers us the remedies that we need?

It is well worth it for the herbalist to consider why such plants grow in abundance.

By our material / mechanical worldview it does not make sense that a fern would show up in our neighborhoods in order to cure certain diseases for us. Native Americans and other indigenous people, however, lived in awe of Nature and according to different laws of cause-and-effect (energetic / spiritual). In fact, the word “medicine” generally translates to mean “mystery”. All of nature comes from the Great Mystery, the mystery of life. Who is to say, therefore, that there is not a design beyond everyday comprehension that brings forth certain plants in abundance for the sake of healing?

“Everything happens for a reason.” There must be a reason why Hay-scented Fern grows in such abundance. There also must be a reason why deer avoid it in favor of other food. Perhaps it has some toxic properties, which would relate to medicinal properties. Although the list of uses is not long, the uses listed are important. Diaphoretics (herbs for fevers) are among the most important remedies of any traditional material medica. Dryopteris campyloptera MOUNTAIN WOOD FERN

Cherokee used with tree bark for cuts and other skin problems. Considered medicine of the South.

Inuits used leaves in compound decoction for stomachache and intestinal discomfort. Hesquiat used young shoots for cancer of the womb.

Dryopteris carthusiana SPINULOSE WOOD FERN

Nuxalk ate root as an antidote for poison from eating early summer shellfish.

Dryopteris cristata CRESTED WOOD FERN

Ojibwa used root infusion for stomach trouble.

Dryopteris marginalis MARGINAL WOOD FERN Spinulose W. F. Dryopteris carthusiana

Cherokee used infusion of root for rheumatism and toothache, and as an emetic. And in formula for rheumatism. Used as a medicine of the South, specifically for rheumatism

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that was exacerbated by cool, damp weather. Such use indicates a warm, dry energetic nature (at least in the formula).

Dryopteris cristata Crested Wood Fern

Matteuccia struthiopteris OSTRICH FERN

Cree (Algonquian) used a decoction of sterile leaf stalk base for expulsion of afterbirth and for back pain. Menomini used as a poultice and as an infusion for whitish urine. Ostrich Fern, therefore, seems to be parturient, analgesic, and diuretic, with an affinity to the reproductive and urinary systems. Perhaps kidney tonic, as the kidneys rule the back, reproductive system, and urinary system in Chinese medicine.

This is the well-known fiddlehead fern. As a delicious springtime food it has a both nourishing and cleansing quality.

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Onoclea sensibilis SENSITIVE FERN

Iroquois used Sensitive Fern for arthritis, infection, blood disorders (blood deficiency, cold in the blood, and others), intestinal troubles, weakness (root decoction) and pain (root infusion) after childbirth, tuberculosis (decocted formula), infertility, and venereal disease. For venereal disease a compound decoction was taken; for gonorrhea a compound infusion; and men with venereal disease used the infusion of the plant and female rhizomes. Externally used for sores (cold compound infusion), deep cuts (poultice), non-flowing breasts (infusion of whole plant or roots), and venereal disease.

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The root decoction was specifically used for intestinal troubles “when you catch cold and get inflated and sore”, which indicates a warming effect on the digestive system.

This fern shows an affinity to the blood. It builds, regulates, and invigorates (warms and moves) the blood. The fermented compound decoction was used by the Iroquois to

“make blood”, taken before meals and bed. It was also used as a hair wash and for blood that causes the hair to fall out. In Traditional Chinese Medicine hair loss is considered to be a sign of “blood deficiency”, because the blood nourishes the hair. Perhaps the use of the root decoction for fertility and the blood is also a result of the blood building nature of Sensitive Fern. The use of the rhizome infusion for children “when blood doesn’t have a determined path” indicates blood regulation properties. Additionally it also has blood-moving properties. The decoction of root is used to start menses (which could be both for building and moving); and for swellings, cramps, and sore abdomen (presumably premenstrual and indicating blood stagnation, that requires treatment with blood moving herbs). A decocted formula that included the roots was taken for “cold in the blood”. I assume that the use of the poultice on deep cuts was for staunching the blood.

Herbs that regulate the blood, such as Tienchi Ginseng (Panax notoginseng) and Yarrow (Achillea millifolium) can be used for a wide array of blood disorders. Like Tienchi, Sensitive Fern is used for paradoxical conditions, such as blood stagnation and bleeding. It can build (nourish), regulate, move, and stop blood. It most likely has a warming property, as it is used for cold in the blood, which means that it is possibly specifically indicated for blood stagnation due to cold. By building and warming, it can create and move blood as required for the system.

Ojibwa used decoction of powdered dried root for caked breasts.Osmunda cinnamomea CINNAMON FERN Iroquois used externally for rheumatism (decoction) and venereal disease (compound infusion); internally the decoction was taken for headache, joint pain, colds, venereal disease, and malaise. Roots were used for women’s troubles. Used as a diaphoretic.

Supposedly, Cherokee cooked the fronds as a spring tonic. They used the decoction of roots (sometimes in compound, such as with Christmas Fern) externally for rheumatism. Compound decoction used for chills. For snakebites, the root would be chewed so that some could be swallow and the rest applied as a poultice.

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Menomini used Cinnamon Fern to promote the flow of milk and for caked breasts.

Cinnamon Fern O. cinnamomea Interrupted Fern O. claytoniana Royal Fern O. regalis

Osmunda claytoniana INTERRUPTED FERN Iroquois used Interrupted Fern in cold, compound decoction for weak blood and in compound decoction for gonorrhea.

Supposedly, the roots are used as an adulterant for Male Fern (Dryopteris felix-mas), which is used for the treatment of intestinal worms.

Osmunda regalis ROYAL FERN

Iroquois used for children with convulsions from intestinal worms, as an infusion with Wild Ginger (Asarum). Women used the decoction (small handful of fronds in 1½ cup of water down to ½ cup, to be used up in a day) for “when a woman catches cold in her kidneys and her blood gets like water”; and the decoction was for when “girls leak rotten; affected women can’t raise children”. Such use indicates an understanding of the reproductive system that parallels Traditional Chinese Medicine, by relating the kidneys and the reproductive organs. Polyopdium virginianum ROCK CAP

Iroquois used compound decoction for cholera. Abnaki used decoction of whole plant for stomachaches. Quebec Algonquin used for heart disease. The Algonquian Malecite used infusion of pounded roots for pleurisy. Cree used decoction of leaf for tuberculosis. Nuxalk used simple or compound decoction for stomachaches and chewed roots for sore, swollen throat. Cherokee used poulitice for inflamed swellings and wounds, and infusion for hives (considered a medicine of the South). Cowichan of western Canada used rhizome for colds, stomachache, and sore throats. Cowlitz used infusion of crushed stems for measles. Green River Group used baked or raw roots for coughs. Klallam of

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the northwest used baked or raw roots for cough. Makah used peeled stems for coughs. Quinault used baked or raw roots for cough. Saanich used rhizomes for colds, stomach ailments, and sore throats. Skagit used for lung congestion and as a laxative.

Definitely a lung medicine. It is interesting to find so many forms of use; from whole plant, decoction, compound decoction, leaf decoction, to crushed stem infusion, peeled stems, to chewed raw roots, pounded root infusion, baked roots…

Polystichum acrostichoides CHRISTMAS FERN

Iroquois used for children’s cramps (decoction), children’s convulsions (poultice), diarrhea (compound decoction), rheumatism (foot soak), weak blood (cold compound decoction), toxic blood, red spots on children’s skin (poultice), fevers (decoction of frond with small leaves), listlessness (decoction), tuberculosis (root infusion as emetic), dyspepsia (root infusion as emetic), and venereal disease. Roots used as a “lady’s medicine” and plant taken after birth to clean the womb. The powder was inhaled and coughed up by men who could not talk. Poultice applied to back and feet of children with back troubles. Poultice of smashed roots was applied to the back and head for children’s convulsions and red spots.

Cherokee used for rheumatism, chills, fever, stomachache, bowel problems, pneumonia, and toothache. Decoction or cold infusion with Dogwood used as a wash or poultice for rheumatism. It was also combined with Cinnamon Fern for rheumatism as well as cuts.

Malecite and Micmac used roots for hoarseness.

While so many of the ferns discussed in this booklet are used for Mom, Christmas Fern seems to be more of a remedy for children. It still has use in gynecology, along with rheumatism, blood disorders, fevers, and lung disorders (as we have come to expect from the Indigenous use of ferns); but stands out as a remedy for children’s ailments.

That it finds a high percentage of its uses external, internally it is emetic, and that at least one use of the fronds specifies that small leaves should be used indicates that there is some toxicity. However, Cherokee ate the fiddleheads.

Pteridium aquilinum BRACKEN FERN

Iroquois used the decoction for diarrhea, in compound for rheumatism, for weak blood (cold, compound decoction), in compound decoction for uterine prolapse, for suffering after birth (decoction), in compound decoction

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for tuberculosis (during the early stages), and in compound infusion for venereal disease. The decoction was taken to make “good blood” after menses and after birth, probably a combination of blood building and blood purifying. Compound decoction taken by men to retain urine. Also used in witchcraft.

Cherokee used the root as a tonic and for nausea and vomiting, infections, and “cholera-morbus”. Bracken was also used for stomach cramps and kidney disorders. Recent Cherokee use mixed Bracken with Fennel for children’s colds and females with nursing or bladder problems (as a medicine of the East). Mixed with Balsam Fir, Horse Chestnut, and Seven Bark, Bracken was used (as a medicine of the South) for burns and sores. Combined with Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) Bracken treated intestinal worms (medicine of the West).

Hesquiat used fiddleheads for cancer. The southwestern Koasatsi used decoction of ground roots for chest pain. Menomini used root decoction for caked breast. Micmac used fronds for weakness in babies and elderly. Montagnals of Canada used P. aquilina fronds as bedding to strengthen the backs of babies and for the elderly. Ojibwa used root infusion for stomach cramps and used smoke from dried leaves for headaches. Yana used P. aquilina roots for burns (pounded and heated).

Worn to repel black flies.

Thelypteris palustris MARSH FERN

Iroquois used as a gynecological medicine. Since plantsthat grow in wet, marshy areas tend to have an affinity with body fluids, my guess is that Marsh Fern either removes dampness or builds fluids (yin), or both. Certainly it can be noted that the reproductive system is an aspect of the traditional Chinese concept of the water element (in the five element theory), or of the kidneys. However, it is possible that this reference is a confusion and that this particular Iroquoian use really belongs to Cinnamon Fern (which grows in similar places).

CATEGORIES OF MEDICINAL FERNS USED BY NATIVE AMERICANS

Native American medicinal uses of ferns can be categorized into five major groups: those used for rheumatism, those used for the lungs, those used for gynecology, those used for the blood, and those used for digestion. The following list is organized according to these five categories of materia medica. When a fern species is listed more than once, the Latin name is only used the first time. Some additional uses, such as Cinnamon Fern’s use for snakebite and Maidenhair’s use for heart trouble, go unmentioned in order to keep this categorization simple.

Ferns used for Rheumatism

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Maidenhair (Adiantum pedatum) for rheumatism.

Marginal Wood Fern (Dryopteris marginalis) for rheumatism.

Sensitive Fern (Onoclea sensibilis) for arthritis.

Cinnamon Fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) externally for rheumatism and internally for joint pain.

Christmas Fern (Polystichum acrostichoides) for rheumatism.

Bracken Fern (Pteridium aquilinum) for rheumatism.

Ferns used for Lungs

Maidenhair smoked for asthma.

Maidenhair Speenwort (Asplenium tricomanes) for coughs.

Rattlesnake Fern (Botrychium virginianum) as a cough medicine for tuberculosis.

Hay-scented Fern (Dennstaedtia penctilobula) for chills and lung hemorrhages.

Rock Cap (Polyopdium virginianum) for sore throat, colds, measles, tuberculosis, cough, and lung congestion.

Christmas Fern for chills, fever, pneumonia, red spots on skin, listlessness, tuberculosis, and hoarseness.

Bracken Fern for tuberculosis, infections, and chest pain. Ferns for Gynecology (including menstrual, postpartum, and breastfeeding)

Maidenhair for venereal disease.

Walking Fern (Asplenium rhizophyllum) topically and as emetic for swollen breasts.

Maidenhair Speenwort for irregular menses and breast diseases.

Lady Fern (Athyrium filis-femina) for mothers with intestinal fevers and to prevent water breaking.

Mountain Wood Fern (Dryopteris campyloptera) for disease of the womb.

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Ostrich Fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris) as decoction of sterile leaf stalk base for the expulsion of afterbirth and for back pain.

Sensitive Fern (Onoclea sensibilis) for infection, blood disorders (blood deficiency, cold in the blood, and others), and to restore the female system after childbirth. Externally used for sores.

Cinnamon Fern for women’s troubles, caked breasts, and malaise.

Interrupted Fern (Osmunda claytoniana) for weak blood and gonorrhea.

Royal Fern (Osmunda regalis) for menstrual problems.

Bracken Fern for weak blood, uterine prolapse, suffering after birth, caked breast, weakness, and headaches.

Marsh Fern (Thelypteris palustris) as a gynecological medicine.

Ferns used for the Blood

Maidenhair as a wash or poultice for bleeding.

Lady Fern for vomiting of blood.

Hay-scented Fern for lung hemorrhages.

Sensitive Fern for blood deficiency, cold in the blood, and other blood disorders.

Christmas Fern for weak blood and toxic blood.

Interrupted Fern for weak blood.

Bracken Fern to make good blood after menses or childbirth.Ferns used for Digestion

Mountain Wood Fern for stomachache.

Crested Wood Fern (Dryopteris cristata) as root infusion for stomach trouble.

Royal Fern for intestinal worms.

Rock Cap for stomachaches and cholera.

Christmas Fern for stomachache, bowel problems, toothache, cramps, and diarrhea.

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Bracken Fern for diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, infections, diarrhea, weakness, stomach cramps, and headaches.

Sensitive Fern for intestinal troubles.

Interrupted Fern for intestinal parasites.

Please see the main descriptions for more information. These lists were kept basic in a preliminary attempt to categorize the ferns according to properties and to begin to see patterns among the variety of uses. Observing such generalizations can help one tune into the signatures of the plants and begin to know them more intimately and intuitively.

Relearning medicinal ferns poses the obvious obstacle of toxicity. Who wants to experiment with toxins? Especially if there is the threat of some low-level toxin that will only show symptoms with time, how do we even know if we are being poisoned? (And our poor livers are already overwhelmed!) Possibly it was partially our increasing awareness of the toxicity of ferns that diminished their use. I also assume, however, that Native Americans were aware of the potential toxicity. Perhaps they knew how to prepare the medicine in order to render it non-toxic. (See page 4 on Chinese use of Dryopteris crassirhizoma for an example of avoiding toxicity through diet.) Perhaps they only used ferns for special cases when they were precisely indicated. Maybe even the ferns of the past were less toxic, their chemistry having changed with global warming or increased pollution (such as heavy metals). Or maybe people of the past were more able to process “toxins” when they were consumed (being less burdened by them in general).

The above categories are general and the uses mentioned only gleaned from historical and ethnobotanical sources. Details are missing. We would like to know the indications, the harvest times (particular seasons or stages of growth?), the dosage, et cetera. And when the ferns are used in formulas, were they primary or supporting ingredients? This pulication is just a start (as well as a testimony of how much has been lost). Future editions of this publication will, if grace supports the project, contain much more thorough information.

FERN IDENTIFICATION

Pteridology Terms to Knowbipinnate – pinnae are cut all the way to the costa into pinnulesblade – leafy portion of frondcosta – midvein of a pinnacostule – midvein of a pinnulecrozier – fiddlehead entire – margin smooth (without teeth or lobes) fiddlehead – the early growth of true fronds when still in spiralic shapefrond – the “leaf”, the above ground blade and stipe of a ferngametophyte – tiny body producing egg and sperm that will join to form the sporophyteindusium (pl. indusia)– flap of tissue that covers the sorus

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pinna (pl. pinnae)– division of blade (not just lobed, but cut all the way to the rachis)pinnatafid – deeply lobed (but not cut all the way to the costa or rachis)pinnate – blade is divided fully into separate pinnaepinnate-pinnatifid – the pinnae are deeply lobed but not divided to the costapinnule – pinna subdivision divided to the costa (not just lobed)pinnulet – pinnule subdivision divided to the costulerachis (pl. rachises, rachides) – axis of blade bearing pinnaesorus (pl. sori) – cluster of sporangiasporangium (pl. sporangia) – small case bearing sporesspore – tiny offspring of a fern (sporophyll) that produces the gametophytesporophore – fertile leaf that bears sporangia (of Botrychium and Ophioglossum)sporophyte – spore-bearing growth stage of fernsstipe – the stem arising from the rhizome and below the leafy bladetripinnate – blade has pinnae divided into pinnules that are divided into pinnuletstrophophore – sterile blade (of Botrychium and Ophioglossum)

Keys to the Ferns of Our Area:

A botanical key is a tool used to identify plants. It gives you choices (in these there is always two choices) of characteristics to observe. By choosing the description that matches your fern (or the opposite if a choice is clearly not the fern at hand) you are led either to the name of the fern in question or to the next step of the key. Eventually you will arrive at an answer. Since keys are not foolproof, you should check your answer however possible- such as by reading the description and making sure it matches, looking at a picture, or testing it with another key. Often keys demand you observe a stage of growth that is not current (for instance, n the case of ferns this could be the fiddlehead). In order to make it likely for you to be able to identify our ferns I have included four primary keys. As you become familiar with them, you will find interesting sections within each that focus on a certain genera (such as Dryopteris) or characteristic (such as whether they have fiddleheads or whether or not their fertile portions are of similar form as their sterile).

Remembering key characteristics will allow you to systematically organize your thoughts in order to identify plants and understand their relationships. These fern keys may take time to familiarize, but as you do you will be able to use them efficiently when in hand and to remember them when in the field.

There are 48 species in 23 genera. 20 of them are described above as medicinal species. Dryopteris has 7 species in the list. The genus represents the quintessential fern and they are quite common, though they hybridize and can be tricky to identify. Botrychium also has 7 species on the list, but are usually small and hard to find. Other genera have 1, 2, or 3 species on the list. All of these species are native ferns.

One should use the pteridology books listed in the bibliography to learn these ferns.KEY ONE (Adapted from Plants of Pennsylvannia) A. vinelike Lygodium palmatum Climbing FernA. not vinelike

B. frond single not from fiddleheadC. sterile portion of frond undivided Ophioglossum pusillum Northern Adder’s TongueC. sterile portion of frond pinnate to bipinnate

D. sterile blades triangular, 5-50 cm long; fronds >2.5dm: fertile segments sometimes absentE. sterile blade thin; deciduous Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake FernE. sterile blade leathery; frond appearing in late summer; evergreen

F. terminal seg. w/ acute tip; pointed teeth B. dissectum Cut-leaved Grape FernF. terminal segments rounded at tip; margins with rounded teeth

G. term. seg. not elongate; fields & open woods B. multifidum Leathery G. F.G. term. seg. elongate; alluvial woods B. oneidense Blunt-lobed Gape Fern

D. sterile blades oblong to narrowly triangular; fronds <1dm; fertile segments always presentH. sterile blade triangular, sessile; seg. acute B. lanceolatum Triangle MoonwortH. sterile blades elliptic or ovate, short stalked; segments obtuse or rounded

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I. sterile blade pinnate to bipinnate B. matricariifolium Daisy-leaved MoonwortI. sterile blade entire to pinnatifid; seg. w/out midrib B. simplex Least Moonwort

B. fronds several to numerous arising from fiddleheadsJ. sterile and fertile fronds dimorphic

K. fertile frond separateL. fertile fronds in early spring, cinnamon brown Osmunda cinnamomea Cinnamon FernL. fertile fronds later than vegetative fronds, green when young and brown when mature

M. sterile fr. whorls from rt crown; fert. fr. inside Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich FernM. sterile fronds with broad, deeply pinnately lobed blade; fertile fronds scattered

N. sterile fr. w/ opp. lobes; fert. fronds persistent Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive FernN. sterile fronds with alternate lobes; fertile fronds much reduced

O. sterile fronds pinnately lobed Woodwardia areolata Netted Chain FernO. sterile fronds pinnate-pinnatifid W. virginica Virginia Chain Fern

K. fertile pinnae occurring in the middle or at the end of 1 or more of the vegetative frondsP. fertile portion interrupting vegetative frond Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted FernP. fertile portion consisting of the terminal 1/3-1/2 of the otherwise vegetative frond

Q. frond to 7 dm tall, pinnate Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas FernQ. frond >7 dm tall, bipinnate Osmunda regalis Royal Fern

J. sterile and fertile fronds weakly to not at all dimorphicR. sori near the edge of the blade; indusia, if present, never kidney shaped

S. cup-shapped indusia; bipinnate-pinnatifid Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented FernS. sporangia covered or partly so by rolled margin; fert. fr. slightly more slender than veg.

T. fronds broadly triangular Pteridium aquilinum Bracken FernT. fronds smaller; basal pinnae not as large as the rest of the blade

U. fronds wider than long Adiantum pedatum MaidenhairU. fronds longer than wide, bipinnate-pinnatifid Cheilanthes lanosa Hairy Lip Fern

R. sori usually near the veins of the pinnae; indusia variusV. blade deeply lobed, leathery; sori lacking indusia

W. blades triangular; seg. m. acute Polypodium appalachianum Appalacian PolypodyW. blades narrowly ellciptic; segments rounded P. virginianum Rock Cap

V. blade once or more pinnately compound, or if merely pinnatifid, then indusia presentX. sori about as broad as long; indusia varius or lacking

Y. stipe on rachis w/ small, silvery-white, transparent hairs; no or sparse stipe scalesZ. fronds broadly triangular; sori lacking indusia

1. lowest pinna pair w/ rachis wing Phegopteris connectilis Long Beech Fern1. lowest pinna pair w/out rachis wing P. hexagonoptera Broad Beech Fern

Z. fronds lanceolate-elliptic to narrowly triangular; sori w/ kidney-shaped indusia2. frond elliptical overall Thelypteris noveboracensis New York Fern2. base of frond only slightly narrower than in middle

3. veinlets of pinnae lobes unbranched T. simulata Bog Fern 3. veinlets of pinnae lobes forked T. palustris Marsh Fern

Y. stipe lacking hairs as above, maybe other hairs; stipe scales sparse to abundant4. plants >4 dm tall; blades thick and leathery; scales abundant on lower stipe

5. indusia peltate; ultimate seg. of blade spine tipped Polystichum braunii Braun’s Holly Fern5. indusia kidney-shaped; ultimate segments crenate to serrate, w/out spines

6. blades pinnate-pinnatifid throughout or bipinnate at the base only7. sori at or near margin of segments Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood Fern7. sori midway between margin & midrib or closer to midribs

8. low pinnae ovate, scales dark D. goldiana Giant Wood Fern8. lowest pinnae triangular; scales at stipe base tan

9. basal pin. 1.5-2x longer than wide D. clintoniana Clinton’s Wood Fern9. basal pinnae about as long as wide D. cristata Crested Wood Fern

6. blades bipinnate to tripinate throughouta. indusia & axes of segments glandular; evergreen D. intermedia Fancy Ferna. indusia & axes of segments not glandular; fronds deciduous

b. blades ovate-lanceolate; fronds erect D. carthusiana Spinulose Wood Fern

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b. blades ovate-triangular; fronds spreading D. campyloptera Mountain Wood Fern4. plants <4 dm tall; blades thin; scales on basal portion of stipe few, scattered, tan

c. blades broad triangular; stipe slender longer than blade Gymnocarpium dryopteris Oak Fernc. blades narrower, mostly lance-elliptic; stipe equal to or shorter than blade; indusia present

d. blade veinlets not to margins; sori w/ bag-like indusia when young, splitting into scalese. stipe w/joint, lower scales tan; frond lanceolate Woodsia ilvensis Rusty Cliff Ferne. no joint on stipe, scales with stripe; frond ovate W. obtuse Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern

d. blade veinlets to margins; sori w/ hood-like indusia when young, opening to one sidef. fronds narrowly triangular, glandular Cystopteris bulbifera Bulblet Bladder Fernf. fronds lanceolate to narrowly elliptic, glabrous or w/few glands; bulblets rare

g. pinnae diverging from rachis at acute, often curving C. tenuis Brittle Ferng. pinnae diverging at 90 deg., not curving toward blade tip C. fragilis Fragile Fern

X. sori much longer than broad; indusium a flap attached along one sideh. plants <4 dm tall, growing on shaded rock outcrops or rocky soil

i. frond undivided Asplenium rhizophyllum Walking Ferni. frond divided into pinnae

j. pinnae not deeply subdivided; frond oblong-elliptic k. pinnae oblong, 3 or more times long as wide A. playtyneuron Ebony Spleenwortk. pinnae broadly ovate to round A. tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenwort

j. pinnae bipinnate or bipinnate-pinnatifid; frond triangular A. ruta-muraria Wall Rueh. plants >4 dm tall, growing in soil in rich woods or swamps

k. sori near pinnae midveins , parallel to them; blade veins anastomosing Woodwardia- see step Ok. sori parallel to the lateral veinlets of the pinnae; blades lacking anastomosing veins

l. fr. pinnate; pinn. narrowly lance-oblong Diplazium pycnocarpon Narrow-leaved Glade Fernl. fronds pinnate-pinnatifid or bipinnate-pinnatifid

m. frond pinnate-pinnatifid Deparia acrostichoides Silvery Glade Fernm. frond bipinnate-pinnatifid Athyrium filis-femina Lady Fern

Bulblet Bladder Fern Cystopteris bulbifera

KEY TWO A. vinelike Lygodium palmatum Climbing FernA. not vinelike

B. fronds with netted veinsC. oval, entire blade Ophioglossum pusillum Northern Adder’s TongueC. fernesque blades divided at least into pinnae

D. sterile frond with lobed pinnae, fertile frond not leafy Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive FernD. sterile frond with wavy or finely toothed edges, sori chainlike & paralleling midvein

E. sterile fronds pinnately lobed Woodwardia areolata Netted Chain FernE. st. fr. pinnate-pinnatifid, full sun, tolerates pollution W. virginica Virginia Chain Fern

B. fronds with free or branched, un-netted veins F. separate fertile stalk branches well above ground, with beadlike sporangia

G. sterile blades triangular, 5-50cm long; fronds >2.5dm: fertile segments sometimes absentH. sterile blade thin; deciduous Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake FernH. sterile blade leathery; frond appearing in late summer; evergreen

I. terminal segment w/ acute tip; pointed teeth B. dissectum Cut-leaved Grape Fern

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I. terminal segments rounded at tip; margins with rounded teethJ. term. segment not elongate; fields & open woods B. multifidum Leathery G. F.J. term. segment elongate; alluvial woods B. oneidense Blunt-lobed Grape Fern

G. sterile blades oblong to narrowly triangular; fronds <1dm; fertile segments always presentK. sterile blades triangular, sessile; segments acute B. lanceolatum Triangle MoonwortK. sterile blades elliptic or ovate, short stalked; segments obtuse or rounded

L. sterile blade pinnate to bipinnate B. matricariifolium Daisy-leaved MoonwortL. sterile blade entire to pinnatifid; seg. w/out midrib B. simplex Least Moonwort

F. sori on “regular” leafy frond or special fertile frond that is separate at rhizome (not just branched)M. sori elongated and attached to vein; fr. <20in, long tapering, entire or lobed (inc featherlike)

N. frond undivided Asplenium rhizophyllum Walking FernN. frond divided into pinnae

O. pinnae not deeply subdivided; frond oblong-elliptic P. pinnae about 3 times long as wide A. playtyneuron Ebony SpleenwortP. pinnae broadly ovate to round A. tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenwort

O. pinnae bipinnate or bipinnate-pinnatifid; frond triangular A. ruta-muraria Wall Rue M. sori not elongated or if elongated frond >20in

Q. blades pinnatifidR. blades triangular; seg. m. acute Polypodium appalachianum Appalacian PolypodyR. blades narrowly ellciptic; seg. rounded P. virginianum Rock Cap

Q. blades at least pinnateS. blades pinnate with lance-shaped pinnae

T. pin. w/ lobe; sori oblong, crowded Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas FernT. sori enlongated along vein Diplazium pycnocarpon Narrow-leaved Glade Fern

S. blades at least pinnate-pinnatifidU. sterile and fertile fronds dimorphic

V. fertile portion distinct section on frond otherwise like sterile frondW. fertile portion in the middle of vegetative frond Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted FernW. fertile portion at the tip of vegetative frond O. regalis Royal Fern

V. fertile frond separateX. fertile fronds in early spring, fiddlehead w/ fuzz O. cinnamomea Cinnamon FernX. fert. fronds later than sterile fronds, fiddlehead w/o fuzz Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern

U. sterile and fertile fronds weakly to not at all dimorphicY. rachis wings or pinnae fused at connection with rachis

Z. lowest pinna pair with rachis wing Phegopteris connectilis Long Beech FernZ. lowest pinna pair without rachis wing P. hexagonoptera Broad Beech Fern

Y. rachis without wings1. blades pinnate-pinnatifid or bipinnate

2. new fronds surrounded by stubble of older stipes3. stipe w/joint, lower scales tan; frond lanceolate Woodsia ilvensis Rusty Cliff Fern3. no joint on stipe, scales with stripe; frond ovate W. obtuse Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern

2. stubble of older stipes not present around new growth4. stipes slender with few or no scales; blades with minute, sharp hairs

5. frond elliptical overall Thelypteris noveboracensis New York Fern5. base of frond only slightly narrower than in middle

6. veinlets of pinnae lobes unbranched T. simulata Bog Fern6. veinlets of pinnae lobes forked T. palustris Marsh Fern

4. stipe hairy or scaly7. stipe & blade with dense whitish hairs Deparia acrostichoides Silvery Glade Fern7. stipe stout and scaly Dryopteris – see key below

1. blades bipinnate-pinnatifid or tripinnate8. lowest pinnae pair much larger than those above; blade triangular

9. frond delicate <18 in. Gymnocarpium dryopteris Oak Fern9. frond leathery often >30 in. Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern

8. lowest pinnae pair smaller or not much larger than those abovea. lower pinnae w/ pinnules above costa shorter than those below Dryopteris – see key below

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a. lowest pinnae symmetrical about costab. pinnae, rachis, & stipe without hair or scales Adiantum pedatum Maidenhairb. pinnae, rachis, and/or stipe with hair or scales

c. stipe without scales, hairyd. stipe dark brown to purplish, densly hairy Cheilanthes lanosa Hairy Lip Fernd. stipe dark at base, reddish above Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented Fern

c. stipe with scalese. stipe and rachis scaly

f. stipe and rachis densely scaley Polystichum braunii Braun’s Holly Fernf. rachis w/ few scales or short hairs Athyrium filis-femina Lady Fern

e. scales only present on lower stipeg. fr nar. triangular, glandular Cystopteris bulbifera Bulblet Bladder Ferng. fr lanceolate to nar. elliptic, glabrous or w/few glands; bulblets rare

h. pin. diverging from rachis at acute, often curving C. tenuis Brittle Fernh. pinnae at 90 deg., not curving toward blade tip C. fragilis Fragile Fern

Dryopteris:A. blades pinnate-pinnatifid throughout or bipinnate at the base only

B. sori at or near margin of segments Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood FernB. sori midway between margin & midrib or closer to midribs

C. low pinnae ovate, scales dark D. goldiana Giant Wood FernC. lowest pinnae triangular; scales at stipe base tan

D. pinnae of fertile fronds twisted almost horizontally D. clintoniana Clinton’s Wood FernD. pinnae of fertile fronds twisted horizontally D. cristata Crested Wood Fern

A. blades bipinnate to tripinate throughoutE. lowest medial pinnule shorter than pinnule next to it; evergreen D. intermedia Fancy FernE. lowest medial pinnule longer than pinnule next to it; deciduous

F. lowest medial pinnule subopposite of only one above D. carthusiana Spinulose Wood FernF. lowest medial pinnule subopposite of two pinnules D. campyloptera Mountain Wood Fern

Giant Wood Fern Dryopteris goldianaKEY BY SIZE (KEY THREE)

A. fronds greater than 12 inches (when full grown- often much smaller)B. fronds greater than 3 feet (when full grown- often much smaller) - large ferns

C. distinct fertile section or fertile frond separate from sterile frondD. fertile portion distinct section on frond otherwise like sterile frond

E. fertile portion in the middle of veg.; can be >5ft Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted FernE. fertile portion at the tip of vegetative frond, up to 5 feet tall O. regalis Royal Fern

D. fertile frond separateF. fiddlehead w/ fuzz; fertile fr. in e. spring; frond to 3 ft O. cinnamomea Cinnamon FernF. fiddlehead and stipe w/o fuzz; frond 3 to 9 ft Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern

C. fertile fronds similar to sterile frondsG. frond divided into three branches, to 6 ft tall Pteridium aquilinum Bracken FernG. frond with single central rachis

H. stipe with scales

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I. pinnules rounded or slightly toothedJ. fronds 1.5 to 5 feet ___________ Dryoperis clintoniana Clinton’s Wood FernJ. fronds 2 to 4 feet ______________ D. goldiana Giant Wood Fern

I. pinnules with definite bristles, just > 3 feet Polystichum braunii Braun’s Holly FernH. stipe blackish, shiny, w/ two fine grooves Woodwardia virginica Virginia Chain Fern

B. fronds less than or up to 3 feet - moderate sized fernsK. stipe with scales

L. quite scalyLady Fern

M. blades pinnate (pinnae with lobes) Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas FernM. blades at least bipinnate

N. blades bipinnate at the base onlyO. frond 10 to 39 in Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood FernO. frond 14 to 30 in D. cristata Crested Wood Fern

N. blades bipinnate-pinnatifid to tripinate throughoutP. ind. & axes of seg. glandular; evergreen, 13-35 in D. intermedia Fancy FernP. indusia & axes of segments not glandular; fronds deciduous

Q. bl. ovate-lanceolate; fr. erect, 8-30 in D. carthusiana Spinulose Wood FernQ. bl. ovate-triangular; fr. spreading, 10-36 in D. campyloptera Mountain W. F.

L. slightly scaly or scales only at base of stipeR. rachis winged

S. veins netted, pinnae wideT. fertile frond persisting, beadlike; 8-16 in. tall Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive FernT. fert fr thinner, elongated sori, 24 in. Woodwardia areolata Netted Chain Fern

S. veins branched Phegopteris hexagonoptera Broad Beech FernR. rachis without wings, veins branched

U. blade pinnate Diplazium pycnocarpon Narrow-leaved Glade FernU. blade bi-pinnate

V. frond up to 3 feet Deparia acrostichoides Silvery Glade FernV. frond less than 30 inches

W. frond elliptical overall Thelypteris noveboracensis New York FernW. frond with flattened base T. simulata Bog Fern

K. stipe without scalesX. stipe hairy

Y. dense on forest floor, stipe dark at base Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented FernY. growing on cliffs, rock ledges, and slopes

Z. slightly hairy when young Woodsia obtuse Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern Z. stipe dark brown to purplish, densly hairy Cheilanthes lanosa Hairy Lip Fern

X. stipe smooth, without hairs1. blade branching; 12 – 26 in. Adiantum pedatum Maidenhair1. blade with one central rachis

2. blade pinnate; 12 – 20 in. Asplenium playtyneuron Ebony Spleenwort2. blade bipinnate

3. growing in wet soil, frond 18-24 inches Thelypteris palustris Marsh Fern3. growing on limestone cliffs, 12-36 in. Cystopteris bulbifera Bulblet Bladder Fern

A. fronds less than or up to 12 inches - small ferns4. separate fertile stalk branches well above ground, with beadlike sporangia

5. sterile blades triangular, 5-50cm long; fronds >2.5dm: fertile segments sometimes absent6. sterile blade thin; deciduous; 6-30 in. Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake Fern6. sterile blade leathery; frond appearing in late summer; evergreen

7. terminal segment w/ acute tip; pointed teeth B. dissectum Cut-leaved Grape Fern7. terminal segments rounded at tip; margins with rounded teeth

8. term. segment not elongate; fields & open woods B. multifidum Leathery G. F.8. term. segment elongate; alluvial woods B. oneidense Blunt-lobed Grape Fern

5. sterile blades oblong to narrowly triangular; fronds <1dm; fertile segments always present9. sterile blades triangular, sessile; segments acuteB. lanceolatum Triangle Moonwort

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9. sterile blades elliptic or ovate, short stalked; segments obtuse or roundeda. sterile blade pinnate to bipinnate B. matricariifolium Daisy-leaved Moonworta. sterile blade entire to pinnatifid; seg. w/out midrib B. simplex Least Moonwort

4. fertile portion otherwiseb. frond undivided, entire, unlike typical ferns

c. frond arrow-shaped; 1-12 in. Asplenium rhizophyllum Walking Fernc. frond tongue-shaped Ophioglossum pusillum Northern Adder’s Tongue

b. frond divided like typical fernsd. frond divided into three branches, delicate <18 in. Gymnocarpium dryopteris Oak Fernd. frond with single central rachis

e. frond pinnate or pinnatifid f. blades triangular; seg. m. acute Polypodium appalachianum Appalacian Polypodyf. blades narrowly ellciptic; segments rounded P. virginianum Rock Cap

2 – 10 in. Asplenium tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenworte. frond bipinnate or bipinnate-pinnatifid

g. frond 3 – 7 inches Asplenium ruta-muraria Wall Rueg. larger fronds greater than 8 inches (possibly)

h. rachis attached at an angle; 12 in. Phegopteris connectilis Long Beech Fernh. stipe & rachis on continuum

i. frond 3-12 in., stipe 2/3s as long as blade Woodsia ilvensis Rusty Cliff Ferni. larger fronds possibly over 12 inches

j. 6-14 in., lower pinnae longer than above Cystopteris tenuis Brittle Fern j. 6-18 in., lower pinnae shorter than above Cystopteris fragilis Fragile Fern

(not included in this key is the vine-like Lygodium palmatum Climbing Fern that can get 15 feet long)

Rusty Cliff Fern Woodsia ilvensis KEY BY SORI (KEY FOUR)

A. fertile portion or frond distinctly different in appearance from sterileB. fertile frond distinctly different from sterile frond

C. fertile frond brownD. fertile frond cinnamon brown Osmunda cinnamomea Cinnamon FernD. fertile frond dark brown, beadlike, persisting Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive Fern

C. fertile frond greenE. appearing in summer Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich FernE. fert fr thinner than sterile w/ elongated sori; spring Woodwardia areolata Netted Chain Fern

B. fertile frond like sterile but with distinct fertile sectionF. fertile section of frond distinct but not branching

G. fertile portion interrupts sterile-like frond midway Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted FernG. fertile portion at top end of frond H. frond legume-like O. regalis Royal Fern

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H. frond leathery, pinnate Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas FernF. separate fertile stalk branches well above ground, with beadlike sporangia

I. sterile blades triangular, 5-50cm long; fronds >2.5dm: fertile segments sometimes absentJ. sterile blade thin; deciduous Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake FernJ. sterile blade leathery; frond appearing in late summer; evergreen

K. terminal segment w/ acute tip; pointed teeth B. dissectum Cut-leaved Grape FernK. terminal segments rounded at tip; margins with rounded teeth

L. term. segment not elongate; fields & open woods B. multifidum Leathery G. F.L. term. segment elongate; alluvial woods B. oneidense Blunt-lobed Grape Fern

I. sterile blades oblong to narrowly triangular; fronds <1dm; fertile segments always presentM. sterile blades triangular, sessile; segments acute B. lanceolatum Triangle MoonwortM. sterile blades elliptic or ovate, short stalked; segments obtuse or rounded

N. sterile blade pinnate to bipinnate B. matricariifolium Daisy-leaved MoonwortN. sterile blade entire to pinnatifid; seg. w/out midrib B. simplex Least Moonwort

A. fertile portion or frond not distinctly different from sterile (sporangia on underside of “normal” frond)O. sorus without indusium

P. blades triangular; seg. m. acute Polypodium appalachianum Appalacian PolypodyP. blades narrowly ellciptic; segments rounded P. virginianum Rock Cap

O. sorus with indusiumQ. indusium attached under sorus

R. indusium cup-like Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented FernR. indusium star-shaped Woodsia ilvensis Rusty Cliff Fern

Q. indusium attached on one sideS. indusium curved

T. indusium eyelash shaped Athyrium filis-femina Lady FernT. indusium kidney-shaped

U. sori at or near margin of segments Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood FernU. sori midway between midvein and margin

V. fronds up to 5 feet W. sori midway b. margin and midvein D. clintoniana Clinton’s Wood FernW. sori near midvein; evenly spaced D. goldiana Giant Wood Fern

V. fronds up to 4 feet X. indusia without glands

Y. sori small D. carthusiana Spinulose Wood FernY. sori prominent; on upper pinnae D. cristata Crested Wood Fern

X. indusia with glands (sometimes in D. campyloptera)Z. sori small D. intermedia Fancy FernZ. sori prominent D. campyloptera Mountain Wood Fern

S. indusium straight or slightly curved1. under inrolled margins

2. sori nearly round Cheilanthes lanosa Hairy Lip Fern2. sori oblong / elongated

3. fertile fronds rare, sporangia in continuous marginal line Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern

3. crescent inverse-indusium, at intervals along segment margins Adiantum pedatum Maidenhair1. not under inrolled margin

4. sori chainlike Woodwardia virginica Virginia Chain Fern4. sori otherwise

5. sori oblong / elongated6. short sori, indusium attached on one side along vein

7. 6 sori per segment, not paired Asplenium ruta-muraria Wall Rue 7. sori in pairs

8. 1-5 sori pair per pinna, ind. translucent tan A. tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenwort8. 1-12 sori pairs per pin., indusium translucent white A. platyneuron Ebony Spleenwort

6. long sori9. sori silvery, then blue-gray Deparia acrostichoides Silvery Glade Fern

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9. mature sori dark brown Diplazium pycnocarpon Narrow-leaved Glade Fern5. sori round

10. indusium present11. indusium star, cupped at first, w/ 5-6 segments Woodsia obtuse Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern11. indusium not star-like

12. indusium like hood / pocket / bladder , quickly fading13. without glandular hairs Cystopteris tenuis Brittle Fern13. indusium w/ short-stalked glands Cystopteris bulbifera Bulblet Bladder Fern

12. indusium attached at center or kidney-shaped14. indusium kidney shaped

15. ind. ciliate, sori submarginal Thelypteris noveboracensis New York Fern15. indusium glanded (reduced in T. palustris)

16. sori spaced, closer to margin than midvein T. simulata Bog Fern16. sori mostly upper pinnae in rows near midvein T. palustris Marsh Fern

14. indusium round, attached at center Polystichum braunii Braun’s Holly Fern 10. indusium absent; sori small, round

17. sori at end of vein Phegopteris connectilis Long Beech Fern 17. sori just before end of vein Phegopteris hexagonoptera Broad Beech Fern

(not included in this key is the vine-like Lygodium palmatum Climbing Fern with spores at top of plant)

Ebony Spleenwort Asplenium platyneuron

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Daisy-leaved Moonwort Botrychium matricariifolium Narrow-leaved Glade Fern Diplazium pycnocarpon

Braun’s Holly Fern Polystichum braunii New York Fern Thelypteris noveboracensis

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Botanical Descriptions of Native American Medicinal Ferns

These are supplemental, not stand-alone descriptions - little notes about distinctions that can function as quick reminders if you are carrying this document and not your fern identification books. In order to be practical, these descriptions require some familiarity with the material. That is with the exception of a few species, such as Maidenhair and Christmas Fern, that are so distinct that just a couple simple notes should suffice for the careful reader to figure out. (Maidenhair tends to like rock ledges that many do not hike through much, but Christmas Fern is very common throughout our woodlands and is likely seen by readers on a regular basis.) Only the species included in “Descriptions of Medicinal Uses of Ferns by Native Americans” (p. 6) are included here. However, much information can be gained from the keys about the species not described here. Again, this is only supplemental – refer to the bibliography.

The identification of ferns is easy as there are a relatively small number of species in any given area; though difficult as the species are highly variable and similar to each other.Considering that there are only, in my estimation, about 50 ferns (the 48 listed above plus a couple hybrids and perhaps rare ferns) in 23 genera growing in our area it should be relatively easy to get to know them.

Adiantum pedatum Maidenhair – This distinct species has purplish stems that branch into a kind of fan shape, with fan-shaped pinnules that are incised at one edge. It likes the moist woodlands with Ginseng and the other pointer plants.

Asplenium rhizophyllum Walking Fern – This small fern has arrowhead shaped fronds that taper thinly to a point that sprouts another fern where it touches the ground.

Asplenium tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenwort – This small pinnate fern grows in shaded rock crevices from short-creeping rhizomes with 15 – 35 pairs of crenate-serrate, oblong pinnae. Blade 2 dm long. Stipe and rachis reddish-brown to black. We have two subspecies: ssp. trichomanes has its fronds arching away from the rock face upon which is grows with mostly alternate pinnae, while ssp. quadrivalens has its fronds pressed to the rock face upon which it lives with mostly opposite pinnae.

Athyrium filis-femina Lady Fern – A scaly, creeping rhizome produces bipinnate fronds (pinnules deeply lobed with toothed margins) about 16 – 36 inches long and 4 – 14 wide, upon a greenish to reddish stipe with dark brown scales. Rachis sometimes has short hairs or a few scales. Sori elongated and attached to indusia on the long edge. Indusia toothed and with hairs, curved- like an eyelid (for which it is named). Common and growing in moist woods, swamps, and fields. This fern is highly variable.

Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake Fern – This fern appears in spring without fiddleheads (erect vernation). The fertile section (sporophore) branches from the top of the stipe away from the base of the sterile blade; which is bright green, triangular, and divided into pinnae that are divided into pinnules with few, simple viens and toothed or lobed edges. Sporophore with six or more branches with bright yellow sporangia.

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Cystopteris fragilis Fragile Fern – This small (4-10 inch fronds) bright green fern prefers shaded cliffs. Fronds dry up in drought, but can return or will remain if moist. Highly variable pinnules lobed with toothed (veins ending at tips) or smooth margins. Brittle stipe a little shorter than blade with few scales near reddish brown base; becoming green or straw-colored above.

Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented Fern – Large patches of these yellowish green fronds covering forests floor indicate deer over-browse. Coming from a thin horizontal rhizome, the stipe is very dark at the base and covered with white hairs, supporting the tripinnate blade. Cup-shaped indusium at margin of pinnules.

Dryopteris campyloptera Mountain Wood Fern – This endangered fern has triangular tripinnate-pinnatifid blades that are wider than others in the genus. Fronds 10 – 36 inches long with 15 – 20 pairs of pinnae. Pinnules have toothed margins with bristles on the teeth. Basal pinnae with lower pinnules longer (3-5 times) and offset compared to the upper. Rachis and stipe are scaly, as is the rhizome. Sori halfway between midvein and margin. Rare.

Dryopteris carthusiana Spinulose Wood Fern – This lacy bipinnate-pinatafid fern tends to grow in clumps from a short creeping, scaly rhizome. Rachis and stipe also covered in scattered pale brown scales. Frond is 8 – 30 inches, with stipe 1/4 - 1/3 of frond. Lower pinnules on basal pinnae are twice as long as the upper. Sterile fronds may stay green in winter.

Dryopteris cristata Crested Wood Fern – Also called Narrow Swamp Fern, this pinnate-pinnatifid fern has fertile fronds that are slightly more narrow than sterile. Fertile fronds deciduous while smaller sterile fronds are evergreen. Fronds are 14 – 28 inches long and 3 – 5inches wide, with blunt basal pinnae. Pinnae of erect fertile fronds are widely spaced and tilted horizontally. Rachis is green and only scaly on the lower part. Scaly stipe is 1/4 - 1/3 of frond.

Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood Fern – This leathery evergreen fern has fronds 12 – 39 inches long with 15 – 20 pairs of pinnae that are divided into deeply cut lobes without teeth. Stipe is swollen at the base and has many long scales. Rachis scales are smaller. Sori near margins in well-spaced rows.

Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern – This is a source of edible fiddleheads. Distinctive sterile fronds large (20 – 50 inches long, 10 inches wide) and oblong, tapering toward base, and arising from clump. Fertile fronds are light green when young, becoming dark brown, and persisting though winter. Sterile blades pinnate-pinnatafid.

Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive Fern – This fern is common in swamps and other wet places. Sterile fronds are light green and covered with netted veins, divided into wide, wavy-margined pinnae. Fertile fronds compact and persist through winter (dried and dark brown), a common sight in swampy areas.

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Osmunda cinnamomea Cinnamon Fern – This large (commonly 1 m), clump-forming fern has sterile blades with pinnae that are divided into lobes and fertile fronds that become cinnamon colored. The fiddleheads are bitter and covered with dense hair (white when young and turning cinnamon brown as fronds uncoil). Grows in wet places.

Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted Fern – This large fern has distinctive fertile blades that are “interrupted” in the middle by the fertile pinnae, which are dark green and dense.

Osmunda regalis Royal Fern – This large fern has bipinnate blades with distinctly stalked entire pinnules (unusually large and legume-like for ferns). Fertile blades have a cluster of dense fertile pinnules at their tips.

Polyopdium virginianum Rock Cap – This small fern (fronds usually less than 16 inches) likes to grow on the top of boulders and rock ledges via a thin, scaley, creeping rhizome. The dark green, leathery blade is divided into entire lobes that almost reach the rachis.

Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas Fern – This dark green evergreen fern has stocking-shaped pinnae. It grows in clumps as one of the most common ferns in our area.

Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern – This fern is another source of edible fiddleheads. The fiddleheads are claw-like, for they unfold into a three-sectioned blade. New fronds are produced all season from thick rhizomes in poor soil, often spreading extensively. Stipe and rachis grooved on upper surface, dark maroon at base.

Thelypteris palustris Marsh Fern – This rare pinnate fern is found in wet areas (preferring areas wetter than the New York Fern). Fronds 7 – 36 inches growing from a widely creeping and branching, black rhizome with a few scales. Its stipe has no scales. Its blade is wide above the base. Sori mostly on upper pinnae in rows near midvein with kidney-shaped indusia.

Ostrich Fern Matteuccia struthiopteris

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LOCAL FERNS & RELATIVES USED IN NORTH & SOUTH AMERICA, EUROPE, ASIA, & AFRICA

This section is offered in order to further shed light on the nature of the ferns in our area by considering the uses of related species. Also included are some descriptions of how our native ferns have been used in other lands.

Adiantum capillus-veneris Southern Maidenhair

To some this is the Common Maidenhair, but for us it is the Southern relative of our Maidenhair. It is used by the Peruvian Natives in the Amazon for coughs, colds, fevers, rheumatism, heartburn, hair loss, gallstones, and stomach ailments; prepared as an infusion or syrup from the fronds. Natives in the Peruvian Andes use the rhizome decoction for hair loss, gallstones, and jaundice. In the Brazilian Amazon used for bronchitis and coughs. In Europe it was used for coughs, bronchitis, sore throat, alcoholism, kidney imbalances, and worms. It is also used in Nepal and India for coughs and the like. Skenderi considers it demulcent, antitussive, astringent, bitter, and hypoglycemic; especially for inflammation of the upper respiratory system in bronchitis, laryngitis, and cough (including whooping cough).

Asplenium adiantum-nigra Black Spleenwort

This European fern was used like Maidenhair for coughs and as a hair rinse.

Asplenium ceterach Common Spleenwort

This European relative (by genus) of our Walking Fern, Ebony Spleenwort, and Wall Rue has been used for enlarged spleen, lung congestion, constipation, urinary gravel, and gravel of the gall bladder.

Asplenium horridum Lacy Spleenwort

This non-local Spleenwort is used in Hawaii for blood impurities, sore mouths, fainting, and muscle stiffness.

Asplenium nidus Birdnest Fern

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This Hawaiian relative of our Spleenworts is used for ulcers, mouth sores, tuberculosis, and for general weakness. It is especially used for sores or weakness in children.

Asplenium ruta-muraria Wall Rue

This native to both Europe and America was used by Europeans for coughs, spleen disorders, kidney stones, ulcers, sores, and hair loss. It was used to rectified the blood.

Asplenium scolopendrium Hart’s Tongue Fern

This relative of our Spleenworts (Walking Fern and Wall Rue) is considered astringent, wound-healing, demulcent, and diuretic. The full-grown fronds are used for digestive, respiratory, and urinary inflammations, including kidney gravel. Mouthwash is used for the mouth and throat. Externally (wash, poultice, compress, or ointment) Hart’s Tongue Fern is used for wounds and hemorrhoids.

Athyrium filis-femina Lady Fern

Used in Europe for intestinal worms as a milder remedy than Male Fern. Nuxalk of Western Canada used subspecies cyclosorum (which is not in our area) as a wash for sore eyes as a simple or compound root decoction.

Botrychium virginanum Rattlesnake Fern

This native fern is used in India for dysentery. A poultice or lotion made from the roots is applied to snakebites, bruises, cuts and sores. A tea made from the roots is emetic, induces sweating and is expectorant. It is used in the treatment of lung ailments.

Diplazium meyenianum Meyen’s Twinsorus Fern

This relative of Narrow-leaved Glade Fern (D. pycnocarpon) is used in Hawaii for boils.

Dryopteris crassirhizoma Thick-stemmed Wood Fern / Guanzhong

The rhizome and leaf stalk base of this Wood Fern is used in Chinese medicine for parasites. It is used for colds due to pathogenic heat in the blood, blood in the stool, vomiting blood, bleeding irregularly between menses, and red spots due to fever. It is classified as slightly bitter and cold, with an effect on the liver and spleen meridians.

Dryopteris felix-mas Male Fern

This a main medicinal for intestinal worms. It is recommended to avoid for children under three, pregnant and lactating women, and for those with cardiovascular, liver, or kidney disorders, anemia, or diabetes. Alcohol should be avoided during use.

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Cheilanthes fendleri Fendler’s Lipfern

The Keres used this relative of our Hairy Lip Fern as a douche after childbirth.Cheilanthes wootonii Beaded Lipfern

This southwestern Lipfern is used by the Navajo for life medicine and was used for gunshot wounds.

Gymnocarpium disjunctum Pacific Oak Fern

This relative of our local Oak Fern was used as a demulcent by the Abnaki.

Lygodium flexuosum Maidenhair Creeper

This relative of our Climbing Fern is used in India for gonorrhea and piles.

Lygodium japonicum Japanese Climbing Fern / Hai Jing Sha

The spores of this relative of our Climbing Fern is used to clear heat from the urinary system and for sore throat. It is considered sweet and cold, with an effect on the bladder and small intestine meridians.

Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern

This favorite edible is used in Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Ophioglossum vulgatum Adder’s Tongue

This relative of our O. pulsillum, Northern Adder’s Tongue, was used in Europe externally for wounds, either fresh or in preparation. In Nigeria the dried rhizome is used externally for burns, wounds, and sores.

Osmunda japonica Japanese Flowering Fern / Ziqiguanzhong

This relative of our Osmunda is used in Chinese medicine like Dryopteris crassirhizoma.

Osmunda regalis Royal Fern

In Europe the root decoction was used for gallstones and spleen disorders, and a salve or ointment from the root was applied to cuts, bruises, broken bones and other inflictions due to trauma. Such indications suggest some therapeutic similarity to Sensitive Fern, as a fern that affects the blood. Often herbs that are used in the treatment of bruises and injury have a blood-moving property. The uses listed here could therefore seem paradoxical, as agents used for cuts are often selected because they stop bleeding. As discussed in the section on Sensitive Fern, this paradoxical quality is not uncommon. To a certain degree it is to be expected from a spleen tonic

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Used for wound healing, gout, consumption, and jaundice.

Phegopteris Ako-lea

This relative of our Beech Fern is used in Hawaii during childbirth and for poor appetite.

Pleopeltis polypodioides Ressurrection Fern

This mostly Southeastern fern was formerly named Polypodium. Cherokee used in formula for sores. The formula included our Rock Cap Fern and Plaintain.

Polypodium vulgare Polypody / Brake Fern / Rock Brake

This rhizome is used as a cholagogue, laxative, and expectorant for minor hepatobiliary problems and for respiratory problems. It is recommended to avoid during pregnancy, which is probably good advice regarding all ferns.

Polystichum munitum Western Swordfern

Native Americans used this relative of Christmas Fern and Braun’s Holly Fern for sores, boils, dandruff, sore throats, disease in the womb, and to facilitate childbirth. The Kwakiutl placed fronds under the bed of young girls numbering the amount of children to be had.

Pteridium aquilinum Bracken

Europeans used for worms, swelling and hardness of the spleen, and stomach ailments. Used by the Chinese as a contraceptive and to reduce the male sex drive.

Thelypteris arida

This relative of our Thelypteris species is used in India as paste for wounds and cuts.

Woodsia neomexicana New Mexico Cliff Fern

This Woodsia of the southwest, relative of our Rusty Cliff Fern and Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern, was used by the Navajo in cold, compound infusion and as lotion for injury. The Keres used as a douche at childbirth.

Woodwardia japonica Japonica Chain Fern

This relative of our Chain Ferns is used in Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Woodwardia radicans Chain Fern

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Used in Europe for injuries. Are members of the genus are Netted Chain Fern and Virginia Chain Fern.

PREPARATION OF MEDICINES

Technically, tea is made out of tea (Camellia sinensis). Green tea, black tea, white tea, and twig tea are all from tea. Herbal “tea” is not really tea, but is generally either an infusion or decoction. An infusion is when the herb is steeped in water that has been heated (usually to a boil or near boil) and then taken off the flame. A decoction is when the herb is simmered in the water. Herbalists refer to short infusion and long infusions as well as short decoctions and long decoctions. Green tea is prepared by short infusion, which means a short steeping time. For medicinal herbs medium and long infusions are usually preferred for full strength preparations. A short decoction of around or less than a quarter of an hour is often sufficient, while many preparations use a long decoction time of several hours. A cold infusion is when the herb is soaked in water without the use of heat.

In Native American medicine the preparation begins with the desire for help and then with the harvesting of herbs, at which point a conversation takes place during which the herbalist explains to the herbs and to the Creator the reason for wanting to harvest (the story of the sick person) and asks permission from the plant to harvest.

Tantaquidgeon offers this example of a Lenape medicine gathering prayer:

Grandfather, I come now for medical treatment. Your grandson ____ needs your aid. He is giving you a smoke-offering here of tobacco. He implores you that he will get well because he, your child, is pitiful. And I myself earnestly pray that you will take pity on him the sick one, I wish for him to get well forever of that which is causing pain in his body. For with you alone rests the spiritual power sufficient to bless anyone with, and hear now him our Grandfather tobacco, I beg of him that he will help me when we plead with earnest heart that you will take pity on your grandchild and that you will accept this appeal. I am thankful, Grandfather, also Creator, that you grant our appeal this day that we ask. I am thankful Grandfather. That is enough for this time.

You will notice that many of the ferns discussed in this document are used in formulas, or compounds, which are combinations of herbs. It is typical of traditional practices to combine herbs, which helps to emphasize certain desired medicinal properties as well as negate undesired properties, buffer strong effects, and avoid side-effects. The combining of herbs is a highly sophisticated art form that can not be easily described in introductory material. While it is difficult to explain hard fast rules for doing such, it can be equated to cooking (which also is an art) where some ingredients combine well with others, but it also depends on the skill of the cook.

It is interesting to note that Native Americans would have often used herbs fresh, as their ability to store dry herbs was limited and their lifestyle was traditionally nature-based. In

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contrast, today’s herbal medicine utilizes primarily dried herbs. In many cases drying distinctly alters the medicinal action or potency of the herbs (which has been understood for ages in spite of being largely ignored by today’s supplement industry).

LENNI LENAPE MEDICINE

Lenni Lenape herbalists amazed settlers with their knowledge of medicinal herbs. Most people would have had some common knowledge of medicinal herbs and how to use them. Herbalists were of different kinds based on their knowledge level.

As was taught to me by Taterbug and confirmed by my research, a central part of Lenni Lenape medicine was the medicine bag or medicine bundle. Within such a bundle are power objects such as stones, feathers, and special herbs. These bags or bundles carried personal significance for the owner (magical, sentimental, etc.) and could have special healing properties. One of the first things Taterbug told me was to find a stone to keep in my medicine bag. He also at a later time gave me a stone of his selection along with helping me make a medicine bag. These stones were central to his meditation.

Through the medicine bundle, which almost everyone had, one could diagnose and treat illness. The Lenape’s world was a world of spirit. The medicine bundle and other magical objects and practices allowed for communication with the spirits.

Consistent with our idea of the “primitive” concept of disease, the Lenni Lenape considered spirits and supernatural energies to be a major cause of disease. Meteinu were a certain kind of herbalists that worked with the spiritual and energetic causes of illness and utilized divination as a form of diagnosis.

Dreams would also be considered when attempting to understand the cause for illness. This is consistent with the general Native regard for dreams, which was high, and with the spiritual and shamanistic disposition of the Native. Shamanism is largely centered around the induced trance and dreaming as a source of other-worldly information. Apparently visceral realization of the limit of the senses and of the ordinary waking mind is natural for those who live close to Nature and are subject to Her whims, and this leads to seeking out transcendental sources of information and help from the spirits and from the Great Spirit.

As with other Native people, the Lenape would make an offering of tobacco and perform certain ceremony while harvesting medicinal herbs. Care was taken to not weaken the medicine’s power or reverse its curing properties with improper harvesting.

In addition to honoring the herbs and asking their permission for harvest, the Lenape had certain interesting practices, such as stripping bark downward to use as a cathartic and stripping upward to use as an emetic. Bark would usually be gathered from the east side of the tree.

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The sweat lodge (which was a small lodge- sapling-framed dome or stick framed into an embankment in which red-hot stones would be placed and water pored over them) was an important adjunct to herbal medicine. Diaphoretic herbs might be taken for the sweat.

Lenape herbalists would not treat themselves, but would take medicine from another. This idea is consistent with my experience and belief that when one is in the midst of illness help is required from outside. This is seen in the use of prayer in medicine as well as in the help from others (healers, friends, and family) who assist in the changing of certain patterns. This is also similar to the idea in psychology that one needs help from outside sources (such as a therapist or loved one) to become conscious of unconscious patterns. Preventative approaches to health, on the other hand, must be the responsibility of the individual. No one can give completely to another the spirit, mindset, dedication, habits, and good luck that are necessary to create health and wholeness. This is seen in the Native lifestyle that was largely geared toward the perfection of certain survival skills. Ancient conditions were not favorable toward laziness like those of today.

Illness must be approached with humility. The sick has done something to bring about their illness and must be humbled in order to correct their faulty judgment and behavior. Even the herbs themselves are approached with humility and respect – permission is asked and offerings presented. God is appealed to for forgiveness, guidance, and healing. The spirits and relatives are called on for help. This humility is balanced with a mastery of the art of herbalism and a knowledge of the plants and practices related to healing.

The standard image of a Native is of someone with a superb comprehension of the environment and their position in it. This view was generated by early accounts of encounters with Native Americans by foreigners and is supported even today in pop culture. However, we fail to grasp the significance of such harmony.

It is said that a Lenape could travel 200 miles to a given destination. To modern man, dependant as we are modern technology (GPS, cell phones, etc.), this is unfathomable. Certainly the so-called primitive man had navagation abilities similar to that of migrating birds. It seems likely that such ability was found throughout Native life – not just in the navigation of the hills but also in the understanding of the intricacies of the forest, including herbal medicine.

The Lenape, like other people from all over the world (including the Chinese, Europeans, and to the best of my knowledge all others), used the doctrine of signatures. Many examples of this can be found above, such as the use of Rattlesnake Fern for snakebites. Although many think that the Doctrine of Signatures, which states that a plant has some perceivable indication of its use, is an outdated superstition it is indeed a highly sophisticated theory. American herbalism as it exists today is quite rudimentary and crude. Certainly as it evolves it will grow to once again include the Doctrine of Signatures as a central idea, just as many Native ideas will be brought back into practice.

It is certainly tragic that so much has been lost. It is my hope that future editions of this booklet will include more information from Lenape sources.

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IROQUOIS MEDICINE

The Iroquois are of New York State. Like the Lenape and other Natives, they considered sickness to be of spiritual origin. Acting out of balance with the Creator, Creation, spirits, and one’s own inner needs can cause illness.

Like the Lenape, care would have been taken when harvesting medicines to be sure that the power of the medicine was as effective as possible and that there would be no harm to pass as the result of improper harvesting. The Iroquois believed that gathering medicine without offering tobacco would cause the joints to swell and stiffen.

It is interesting that several recorded Iroquios formulas combine different ferns. For instance, a blood-building formula (used to treat weak blood) combined roots of Interrupted Fern, Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), Bracken Fern, Christmas Fern, and a Clubmoss (Lycopodium obscurum). Clubmoss is a fern ally. Another formula (for gonorrhea) utilizes another species of Clubmoss (Lycopodium lucidulum) and another fern ally called Horsetail (Equisetum hymale) with Cinnamon Fern and other herbs.

A formula used for the early stages of consumption included Sensitive Fern roots, Cherry (Prunus serotina), Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), Braken Fern roots, Fir (Abies balsamea), and Yew (Taxus canadensis).

As with other Native tribes and traditional people from around the world, the Iroquois understanding of the causes of disease was so deeply holistic that there was not a clear separation of body, mind, and soul as there is (more-or-less) in the dominant worldview of today. Iroquois etiology included taboo violation, witchcraft, and other notions related to energy and power objects. Much disease could be attributed to moon time (menstrual) taboo violations. (I have witnessed such Native considerations of moon time. For instance, menstruating women are forbidden to enter the sweat lodge ceremony.) Disease could also be due to “natural causes”; however, bad luck and good luck play into the course of illness and health. (In macrobiotics the ability to instinctually avoid accidents is seen as a sign of health). I assume that to the Native living the right way and observing certain laws of Nature would insure good luck, while the violation of natural order would create bad luck. Careful observance of ritualistic ways (including the taking of food and medicine, hunting practices, and performance of ceremony) would provide good health.

When studying Native American medicine it is important to recognize that our own worldview and understanding of cause-and-effect is profoundly limited. One strength of the Native mind that the modern man would do very well to adopt is the recognition of Mystery. Arrogance rules the world of disease care today. Modern medicine, with all its surgery and pharmaceuticals, is distinctly aggressive. The modern practitioner is often quicker to use the scalpel than to recommend a change in diet; and the modern patient is

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often more likely to consent to surgery or take a chemical drug than to consider a change in lifestyle or diet. Either arrogance is so thick that a person fails to recognize their own involvement in the disease process, or they are too unwilling to change the dietary or lifestyle factor to take a holistic route- it is much easier to take a pill.

Native medicine, in contrast, is one and the same with their life of prayer, ceremony, and adherence to unwritten laws of conduct. Consider, for example, the Native American sweat lodge ceremony, which is often (perhaps always) used for healing. Those who wish to enter the sacred lodge must get down on their hands and knees and crawl into the lodge that is perhaps only waste or chest high with a door that does not permit walking in with one’s head held high. Humility is a starting point for the healing path of the Native American, as it has been for traditional, spiritual people all over the world.

Iroquois, Lenape, and other Native people would pray for the sick person even while gathering the herbs to be used. This form of prayer is a kind of asking for help. It is a humble approach. Quite different in some ways from the “demand” of the surgical tools.

Many beliefs governed the practice of harvesting herbs. For instance, two plants growing close together were considered married and breaking the marriage (taking only one plant) would result in sickness. To the modern American, such ideas can seem silly. The Native, however, lived in a different world than modern man. Iroquois medicine did not include the theories of germs and did not separate physical and mental disease like the medicine of today – rather Native medicine acknowledged that each rock, plant, and person is made up of spiritual energy. While plant taxonomy and disease theory from such a worldview seems strange or even ignorant to modern man. I sincerely believe that modern man should deeply consider how our modern worldview and its theories falls short and learn what we can from the so-called primitive mind.

An interesting cough formula combines Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara), Rattlesnake Fern, Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), and Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) in liquor – one root of each (small root of Bloodroot) in a 50 cent flask. Coltsfoot is a standard cough remedy from Europe. I consider Bloodroot to be one of the strongest lung herbs, which I reserve for difficult cases. I am always interested to learn how it has been used (this formula is for consumption). Aralia has interested me for some time. Its common name indicates some medicinal property, but I know of very little modern use. As a relative of Ginseng, an herb used by Natives, and a common under-story plant, I am very interested in learning more about this plant. I bet this is a powerful formula.

Interrupted Fern is combined with Raspberry (Rubus idaeus), Clubmoss (Lycopodium),Buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolia), Horsetail (Equisetum), Blackberry (R. occidentalis), Honeysuckle (Lonicera dioica), Bush Honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera), and Larch (Larix laricina) for gonorrhea.

Rock Cap was combined with Oak (Quercus bicolor), Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), and Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana) to treat colera.

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A treatment for rheumatism combined Stoneroot (Collinsonia canadensis), Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides), Maidenhair, and False Solomon’s Seal (Smilacina racemosa).

CHEROKEE MEDICINE

Like the other tribes discussed here, the Cherokee had an excellent knowledge of medicinal herbs. The average Cherokee knew about 200 hundred herbs and an herbalist knew 800. That so many of our ferns are known by Cherokee attests to their knowledge, as well as to their ability to preserve it.

A formula for chills includes Maidenhair Fern, Christmas Fern, Fragile Fern, Hay-scented Fern, and Cinnamon Fern. Blown on patient from east, north, west, and south, in succession four times in morning for four days. A warm infusion is prepared from the roots.

The four directions is a common theme in Native American medicine, spirituality, and everyday life. Cherokee and other Natives call on the spirit helpers from the four directions. Sometimes help is requested from a particular direction because of the nature of the illness, such as in the following formula that is associated with West because of the association of snakebites and death.

A formula for when someone dreams of being bitten by a snake consists of Rattlesnake Fern roots, Virginia Snakeroot (Aristolochia serpentaria), or Tulip Tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) bark prepared as decoction. It is rubbed onto the place where the dream snake bit and given to the person to drink. The bite spot is breathed on four times and the decoction produces vomiting.

For swollen breasts an infusion of four plants is used four mornings to produce vomiting. Walking Fern, Horse Balm (Collinsonia canadensis), Wild Ginger (Asarum canadense), and Sharp-lobed Hepatica (Hepatica acutiloba) are combined as whole plants, except for Collinsonia from which either the root or leaf is used.

Emesis seems to have been a favorite therapy of Natives, and one that has largely fallen out of practice. One imagines that the therapy came about quite naturally from the observation of people feeling better after vomiting. While the logic of this in flu and food poisoning is obvious, moderners obviously see little reason to vomit for other illnesses. Again, this is an example of knowledge that has been largely lost for better or worse.

David Winston is an herbalist who practices Cherokee traditions along with incorporating Eclectic and Chinese knowledge. Although he runs a school and is quite interactive with the greater herbal community, he is protective of indigenous knowledge like many traditional practitioners. Even so, he has done a great job of introducing some of the Native materia medica to modern American herbalism.

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ENERGETICS OF CHINESE HERBAL MEDICINE

It may seem strange to include a section on Chinese medicine in a paper on Native medicine, but there are many similarities in both theory and practice. Moxabustion, for instance, (which is widely associated with Chinese medicine) is common in both traditions.

Traditional medicine uses theories of energetics. Greeks used humorism. Ayurveda (traditional East Indian medicine) uses theories such as the doshas. Energetics also plays a role in Native medicine. Herbs are classified by their thermal nature (hot or cold) and their moisture (moist or dry). In Chinese medicine these qualities are contained within the theory of yin and yang, with yang being hot and dry and yin being cold and moist. Heat represents the presence of activity- the movement of chi. When pathological, heat creates inflammation. Heat also balances or destroys the fluids (yin). Fluids cool the heat (the fire) and nourish the tissues. When stagnant, fluids create mucus.

In the Five Element system of Chinese medicine there are five flavors: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and pungent. Each of the flavors tends to produce a particular therapeutic effect. Sweet nourishes tissue. Salty nourishes minerals and balances fluids. Sour cools and constricts tissue. Bitter cools heat and dries dampness. Pungent disperses dampness and stimulates heat. Bitter is the predominant flavor of ferns. The Horsetails (Equisium), which are related to ferns but not included in this document (though they are commonly used medicinally) can be classified as salty. This classification is because of their mineral content- they are not what the average person thinks of as salty. And, likewise, with the ferns, many are not overtly bitter but are still bitter energetically or otherwise in quality. (“Bitter” generally refers to an actual taste, not just to something that tastes bad.)

Bitter herbs are generally drying in nature. This is probably the case with many of our ferns, but not entirely. I suppose many also have a salty nature and rather than just removing fluids they help to balance them. Further, some of the blood-building ferns have a sweet energetic nature. Ferns tend to have a cleansing (bitter) rather than building (sweet) nature, but could be thought of as a distinct food group that supplies a certain quality of nutrition (in the manner of a superfood).

Ferns tend to live in delicate balance. They want just the right amount of water and just the right amount of light. This reminds me of American Ginseng, which has a distinct yin tonic quality. Some, of course, are quite tolerant of dryness; such as the southeastern Resurrection Fern (Polypodium polypodioides) which lives on tree branches and dries up during dry times and then greens up and “comes back to life” when it rains, and our own Fragile Fern which can do the same. But again we find a certain affinity with water. The botanist certainly considers the moisture content of the soil when observing ferns and the Native Americans used ferns as a sign that there was water nearby. So, perhaps generally

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with the ferns the bitterness removes stagnant fluids while their yin nature replenishes healthy, vital fluids and balances water in the body.

Considering their appearance and habitat, ferns have a decidedly yin nature. Their lacey, delicate qualities are quite feminine. As is evidenced by the ancients’ association of ferns with Venus, this is a widely shared perspective. The feminine nature is expressed in their helping in childbirth, mother’s recovery, and for a large array of gynecological concerns.

There is also in the ferns some definite yang properties. Their particular hardiness has stood the test of time, and in many uses we find a warming or yang tonic action. For instance, Rhizoma Gusuibu (Drynaria fortunei, or “Gu Sui Bu” or “Mender of Shattered Bones”) is bitter, warm, tonifies kidneys and treats toothaches, bones, and hair. Also, consider Cibotium barometz, or Gou Ji, which is used as a yang tonic to treat lower back pain (considered to be due to a weakness of the kidneys.

There is an affinity to springtime in the ferns (hence our preoccupation with fiddleheads). In the Chinese five element theory, this aligns ferns with the element of wood. I have already mentioned the fern association with water. Their bitterness wants us to consider fire, but we do not see that they have been used much for heart conditions. We do see, however, that they have an affinity with the blood and help to regulate its flow, which is a function of the heart and vessels. There is also an association with the small intestines. A primary use of ferns is for parasites and Europeans used several ferns for gall bladder obstructions (which affect the intestines).

In Chinese medicine the organ names do not represent exactly the same thing as in western physiology. The spleen, for instance, in the chart above has little to do with our western concept of the spleen. It is sometimes said that it is more like the pancreas, but this still does not encompass the idea of the spleen in Chinese medicine. The Chinese spleen is a very different concept than the traditional Greek spleen, which is still different to a large extent from the modern spleen. (The Greek spleen stores black bile, as well as shares function with the Chinese and modern spleens.) I included the main yin/yang or solid/hollow organ correspondences. These are the primary associations, but there are many additional associations that relate the rest of the body to the five elements. The skin, for instance, is related to the lungs and to the metal element. Especially noteworthy for our subject is that the reproductive system is associated with the water element.

It is not enough to merely look at the chemical constituents (you might have noticed that I barely discuss this at all); we must consider the energetics of the plant. By this I mean that the plant has a certain overall quality and personality; and that it often speaks to us in signatures- specific qualities that indicate specific uses (as has been understood by all traditional people).

In Chinese medicine ferns tend to be associated with the liver, spleen, small intestine, and bladder meridians (energy channels).

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The Chinese spleen holds blood in place, and is a major factor in the consideration of menstrual disorders and any kind of bleeding (such as after childbirth). Spleen tonics tend to be sweet in flavor and help bleeding disorders. The Native American use of ferns in gynecology fits into the Chinese association with the spleen.

Also under the soil element umbrella is the stomach and the stomach meridian that runs from the face to the second and third toes, passing through the nipple. The 17th major point (tsubo) of the meridian is located at the nipple and is called, “breast center.”

When the spleen is out of balance, it tends to create weakness and dampness. Since it is the spleen’s job to transform food into nutrition, it plays its role in the creation of chi (vital energy) and blood. The use of Sensitive Fern, Christmas Fern, Interrupted Fern, and Bracken Fern to build blood reflects a spleen tonifying nature. As does uses for damp conditions like Bracken for diarrhea (Bracken is also used for uterine prolapse, and prolapse is due to spleen deficiency). Additionally, uses for bleeding and reckless blood such as Hay-scented for lung hemorrhage demonstrates some spleen tonic energy.

The nutritive effect of ferns also reflects a spleen association, as the spleen governs digestion and absorption. The “spleen” is the organ responsible for the absorption of chi from food, which nourishes blood and supplements energy. The sweet flavor and the ability to build blood and energy are considered to be tonic properties, as can be found in Sensitive Fern and Bracken. The use of Maidenhair to overcome fatigue and to provide energy for ceremonial dancing indicates some chi tonic or spleen tonic effect. Further, its use to darken the hair indicates some blood tonic effect.

It is as if the ferns are the crystallization of the forest energy in which they grow- a compilation of the order, purity, moisture, and vibrant energy of the natural world. Indeed, little gems as far as medicines can go. Some are more nutritive and building, while some are more cleansing.

It is often the case that an environment in which a plant lives acts as a “signature” of its medicinal properties. In the case of American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), for instance, it encapsulates both the vibrancy and moisture of its deep forest habitat to be one of the best chi and yin tonics. Herbs that live in moisture tend to either distinctly nourish moisture (yin) in the body or balance it. Those with a sweet flavor are more nourishing, such as Slippery Elm (Ulmus fulva) and Marshmallow (Althea officinalis); while those with a bitter or pungent flavor are more drying. Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum), a virtual cure-all of some tribes, is very bitter and counters damp-heat. Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus and A. americanus) has a more aromatic (pungent, spicy) flavor and is therefore used for damp-cold. Either way, whether they increase fluids or diminish them, all these herbs have a certain affinity with the yin of the body. This affinity can be understood more specifically by also considering the flavor. Sweet nourishes, spicy disperses and stimulates, and bitter drains downward.

This section on Chinese medicine was included not to distract from the discussion of Native American medicine, but to enhance it. Our popular modern worldview is not

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sufficient to enable one to grasp meaning in the ancient practices. Consider this monograph of Drynaria fortunei, Gu Sui Bu or Hou Jiang from Kung Fu Medicine:

Gu Sui Bu (Hou Jiang, Hu Sun Jiang, Kun Jiang, Shen Jiang Mao Jiang)Drynaria fortunei

Pharmaceutical Name: Rhizoma DrynariaeProperties: bitter, warmChannels Entered: kidney, liver

Indications: Gu Sui Bu promotes the mending of the sinews and bones. It is used for treating fractures, contusions, and sprains. It is especially useful for treating injuries to ligaments, tendons, muscles, and bone fractures.

Dosage: Use 6 – 18 grams in a formula either in the powdered or raw form.

Common Usage: Seldom used alone, Gu Sui Bu is a major ingredient in injury management formulas. Often referred to as the “mender of broken bones,” Gu Sui Bu is, without question, one of the most important herbs in Chinese herbology used to treat fractured bones.

The author (Joiner) later describes a formula that contains this fern in combination with Astragalus, Deer antler, Acanthopanax, and Epimedium. Known as Lu Rong Gu Sui Bu Tang. This formula has been known since the earliest publications on Chinese herbal medicine, first appearing in the ancient text The Classic of Herbal Medicine (Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing).

So here we can see the reverence for a medicine fern that has lasted over 2,000 years. Yet, here in this country we seem to have forgotten that ferns have virtues at all. If people continue to only listen to the medical establishment (which is married to the pharmaceutical industry), we risk losing this knowledge of how to heal with the humble plants that are all around us.

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THE HOMEOPATHIC USE OF FERNS

It is important to point out that homeopathy and traditional herbal medicine are two different practices and the names are not synonymous. Homeopathy grew from herbal medicine, but the remedies undergo a process of dilution.

Adiantum Maidenhair

This fern is reportedly used in homeopathy, perhaps for lungs like its use in herbal medicine. Even though herbal medicine tends to be, in theory, the opposite of homeopathy we find that in practice homeopathic remedies are often used for the same conditions as the herbal preparations of the same herb.

Asplenium adiantum-nigrum Black Spleenwort

This relative of our Spleenworts (Ebony Spleenwort and Maidenhair Spleenwort) is reportedly used in homeopathy, perhaps for reasons related to its use as an herb: for coughs, spleen disorders, jaundice, and eye inflammation. Since the fern is used to promote sterility in women, it stands to reason that the homeopathic preparation would be useful to cure just that.

Dryopteris felix-mas Male Fern

The homeopathic preparation is used for worms, especially with constipation; lymphatic inflammation; tuberculosis in young patients with no fever and limited lesions; blindness; abdominal ailments (bloating, gnawing pain, worse with sweets, diarrhea and vomiting; hiccough).

Osmunda regalis Royal Fern

Perhaps the homeopathic remedy from this fern could be used like the herbal preparation for gallstones, spleen disorders, menstrual disorders, and cold kidneys. It is interesting that Royal Fern was specific for trauma. I imagine that this association plays into the homeopathic application.

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BIBLIOGRAPHYNative American Ethnobotany by Daniel Moerman

Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian Indians by Gladys Tantaquidgeon

Iroquois Medical Botany by James W. Herrick

Plants of the Cherokee by William H. Banks

The Cherokee Herbal by J. T. Garrett

The Lenape by Herbert C. Kraft

History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations by John Heckewelder

William Penn’s Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians by William Penn

Indians of Pennsylvania by Paul A. W. Wallace

A Modern Herbal by Maud Grieve

Herbal Vade Mecum by Gazmend Skenderi

Ethnobotanical Studies of Some Important Ferns by Kamini Srivastava

Importance of Ferns in Human Medicine by Kamini Srivastava

Ethnomedicinal uses of Pteridophytes of Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India by Kanchan Upreti1, Jeewan S. Jalal1, Lalit M. Tewari1, G. C. Joshi, Y.P.S.Pangtey, and Geeta Tewari

Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica by Dan Bensky & Andrew Gamble

Pharmacology and Application of Chinese Materia Medica by Hson-Mou Chang & Paul Pui-Hay But

Homeopathic Materia Medica & Reperatory by William Boericke

Plants of Pennsylvania by Anne Fowler Rhoads

Manual of Vascular Plants of Northestern United States and Adjacent Canada by Henry A. Gleason & Arthur Cronquist

Illustrated Companion to Gleason and Cronquist’s Manual by Noel H. Holmgren

Eastern/Central Medicinal Plants and Herbs by Steven Foster & James Duke (Peterson Field Guides)

Ferns by Boughton Cobb, Elizabeth Farnsworth, and Cheryl Lowe (Peterson Field Guides)

The Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania by Thomas R. Lord & Holly J. Travis

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A Key to the Ferns of Pennsylvania by Elsie Deane Canon

Fern Finder by Anne C. Hallowell and Barbara G. Hallowell

Guide to Eastern Ferns & The Fern Guide by Edgar T. Wherry

How to Know the Ferns by Frances Theodora Parsons

Atlas of New York State Ferns by Richard S. Mitchell

The Gardener’s Fern Book by F. Gordon Foster

Drawings taken from online USDA Plant Database. Climbing Fern Lygodium palmatumINDEX

Appalachian Polypody 17, 20, 22, 25, 26Braun’s Holly Fern 18, 21, 23, 24, 27, 28, 34Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 34Blunt-lobed Grape Fern 20, 22, 25, 26 Bog Fern 20, 23, 24, 27Bracken Fern 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 23, 24, 26, 31, 34, 39Brittle Fern 18, 20, 23, 25, 27Broad Beech Fern 17, 20, 22, 24, 27, 34Bulblet Bladder Fern 20, 23, 25, 27Christmas Fern 14, 16, 17, 22, 24, 26, 31

34, 39, 41Cinnamon Fern 13, 16, 17, 23, 24, 26, 31, 39, 41Climbing Fern 17, 21, 25, 26, 27, 33, 34,

40Clinton’s Wood Fern 20, 23, 24, 26Crested Wood Fern 10, 15, 18, 21, 23, 24, 26, 30Cut-leaved Grape Fern 20, 22, 25, 26Daisy-leaved Moonwort 20, 22, 25, 26, 28Ebony Spleenwort 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 32, 39Fancy Fern 18, 21, 23, 24, 26Fragile Fern 6, 7, 8, 18, 20, 23, 28, 25, 30, 36, 41Giant Wood Fern 18, 21, 23, 24, 26Hairy Lip Fern 17, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27, 33Hay-scented Fern 9, 14, 16, 17, 20, 23,

24, 26, 30, 41Interrupted Fern 13, 17, 24, 26, 31, 38Lady Fern 7, 17, 18, 21, 26, 29, 33Least Moonwort 20, 22, 25, 26Leathery Grape Fern 20, 22, 25, 26Long Beech Fern 17, 20, 22, 25Maidenhair 2, 4, 6, 14, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26, 29, 32, 39, 41

Maidenhair Spleenwort 5, 7, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 25, 27, 29, 38, 39Marginal Wood Fern 1, 10, 15, 16, 18,

21, 23, 24, 26, 30Marsh Fern 10, 15, 17, 20, 23, 25, 27, 31Mountain Wood Fern 10, 14, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 26, 30Narrow-leaved Glade Fern 21, 24, 27, 28, 33Netted Chain Fern 20, 22, 24, 26, 35New York Fern 17, 20, 23, 24, 27, 28Northern Adder’s Tongue 22, 25, 27, 34Oak Fern 18, 21, 23, 25, 26, 34, 41, 47Ostrich Fern 2, 11, 14, 17, 20, 22, 24,

26, 30, 31, 34Rattlesnake Fern 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 13, 17, 20, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 41Rock Cap 2, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 24, 25, 26, 31, 34Royal Fern 13, 15, 17, 18, 24, 26, 31, 34,

39, 46Rusty Cliff Fern 21, 22, 25, 26, 34Sensitive Fern 9, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 30, 38Silvery Glade Fern 21, 23, 24, 27Spinulose Wood Fern 10, 21, 23, 24, 26, 30Triangle Moonwort 20, 22, 25, 26Virginia Chain Fern 20, 22, 24, 27, 35Walking Fern 7, 17, 20, 22, 25, 29, 32, 41Wall Rue 20, 22, 25, 26, 27, 32, 33

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Oak Fern Gymnocarpium dryopteris

~

It is a rare birdwho cares for ferns

and other wild things of nature

It is a rare birdwho cares to learn

about the wild world around him

This book is for youthe rare bird who

has opened up the eye inside you

This book is for youone of the fewrare birds who will listen to

the wild.

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