Feasibility of Land Reclamation using

Construction Wastes in Gaza

استخدام ركام المباني في طمر مساحات من المياه داخل جدوى البحر في غزة

Hassan Nezam Ziara

Supervised by

Dr. Mazen Taha Abualtayef

Associate Professor in Civil/Environmental Engineering

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Civil Engineering – Infrastructure

November, 2016

زةــغ – تــلاميــــــت الإســـــــــبمعـالج

شئىن البحث العلمي والدراسبث العليب

قسم الهندست المدنيت – الهندستت ليــــــك

هندست بنيت تحتيتمبجستير

The Islamic University–Gaza

Research and Postgraduate Affairs

Faculty of Engineering

Master of Infrastructure Program

إقــــــــــــــرار

أنا الموقع أدناه مقدم الرسالة التي تحمل العنوان:

Feasibility of Land Reclamation using

Construction Wastes in Gaza

جذوى استخذام ركام المباني في طمر مساحات من المياه داخل

البحر في غزة

أقر بأن ما اشتممت عميو ىذه الرسالة إنما ىو نتاج جيدي الخاص، باستثناء ما تمت الإشارة إليو حيثما ورد، وأن ىذه الرسالة ككل أو أي جزء منيا لم يقدم من قبل الآخرين لنيل درجة أو

أو بحثية أخرى. وأن حقوق النشر محفوظة لقب عممي أو بحثي لدى أي مؤسسة تعميمية فمسطين- مجامعة الإسلامية غزةل

Declaration

I hereby certify that this submission is the result of my own work, except

where otherwise acknowledged, and that this thesis (or any part of it)

has not been submitted for a higher degree or quantification to any other

university or institution. All copyrights are reserves toIslamic University

– Gaza strip paiestine

:Student's name زيارةحسن نظام اسم الطالب:

زيارةحسن نظام التوقيع: Signature:

:Date 21/01/2017 التاريخ:

I

Abstract

The world experience rapidly growing in population density and lack of areas

especially coastal areas which is considered the most vital, economic and cultural areas

around the world. This force the experts investigating different suggestions such as sea

reclamation and its exploitation for many goals.

Gaza Strip is considered one of the most densely area in the world. Where the

population is nearly 2 million inhabitants by 2016 while the area is 365 km2. This

reflects on the availability of lands in the future that will raise the lands prices.

Moreover, the existing fishing harbor constructed in 1994 – 1998 period has locally

disturbed the coastal erosion and sedimentation pattern and resulting in sand erosion

problems. On the other hand, two million ton of debris have been accumulated in the

last aggression on Gaza Strip in 2014. This massive volume of concrete rubble is

considered huge burden on the landfills in the Gaza Strip which are already

overloaded. In this study, an investigation of the best way to dispose these debris by

land reclamation in Gaza Strip.

The aim of this study is to suggest solutions of the existing Gaza fishing harbor

problems and to present the possibility of using construction wastes in land

reclamation in Gaza.

In this study, it is proposed to relocate the construction features of the Gaza fishing

port for better sediment transport and hydraulic conditions. So the study methodology

started with estimation the construction waste quantity resulted from 2014 aggression,

then ensuring its testing results, specifications and possibility of using it in land

reclamation. Also, the existing Gaza fishing port sediment transportation and features

were studied and its bathymetry was identified. Based on that, the new proposed

reclaimed area was identified in west of the existing western breakwater at Gaza

fishing port and its area was estimated according to estimation the quantity of debris

resulted from removing the existing breakwaters in addition to construction wastes

resulted from 2014 aggression. The total estimated quantity of available debris is about

one million m3 which adequate to reclaim about 114.25 dunums. However, the new

reclaimed area should be surrounded by sheet piles, so the sheet pile type is assumed

to be PZC 28 and finally the total cost of the proposed reclaimed area was estimated

as 130$US of one square meter of reclaimed area. Finally, to facilitate transportation

and movement through this reclaimed area, the bridge is recommended to construct.

Based on this result, the cost of sea reclamation is very feasible especially that Gaza

fishery seaport is very vital and important place which will be as a fishery port for

recreational activities.

II

ملخص البحث

ث تعتبر بحي ،الساحلية على وجه الخصوصالأراضي في ومحدودية يشهد العالم نمو متسارع في التعداد السكاني

واق الأكثر حيوية سياحيا عدة بحث عن الخبراء الى ال دفع وهذابالإضافة الى كونها مظهرا حضاريا. ،تصاديا

طمر مساحات داخل البحار واستغلالها لأهداف عديدة. حلول من بينها

أراضي جديدة العالم بدأ التفكير في خلق مساحات حولفي قطاع غزة والتي تعتبر من أكثر المناطق كثافة سكانية

-1994ا بين موبما أن انشاء ميناء الصيادين في البحر وخصوصا أن المناطق الساحلية محدودة وعالية التكلفة.

رب نتجت من الح م المباني ركامليون طن من 2وإن حوالي ،الشاطئ انحسارقد تسبب بغزة م بمدينة 1998

لنفايات في سعة مكبات اتشكل عبئا على هائلة من النفايات . هذه الكمية ال2014الأخيرة على قطاع غزة في عام

ات في طمر هذه الكميستغال في هذه الدراسة تم اقتراح أفضل الطرق لات سعتها فعليا. لذا التي انتهقطاع غزة

مساحة من البحر.

ل ركام ودراسة جدوى استغلا ،ي اقتراح حلول لحل مشكلة ميناء الصيادين الحاليتكمن أهمية هذه الدراسة ف

نمليون ط 2 تي تقدر بوال 2014المباني التي تم تدميرها في العدوان الاسرائيلي على قطاع غزة عام .تقريبا

لرواسب. لتحسين حركة اعمل تغييرات على ميناء الصيادين الحالي في مدينة غزة في هذه الدراسة تم اقتراح

لتأكد من اعلى قطاع غزة ومن ثم 2014حيث تم اتباع منهجية بدأت بتقدير كمية ركام المباني الناتج عن حرب

سبقا. من صلاحيتها وامكانية استخدامها في ردم البحر وذلك بناءا على دراسة فحوصات ونتائج أجريت عليها م

له. ن الحالي وحركة الرواسب فيه وتحديد المناسيب والأعماقجهة أخرى تمت دراسة خصائص ميناء الصيادي

ن ثم تم تقدير وبناء عليه تم تحديد المنطقة المقترح طمرها وهي المنطقة الواقعة غرب كاسر الأمواج الغربي، وم

الحالية بعض كواسر الأمواجازالة مساحة المنطقة المقترح ردمها من خلال تقدير كميات الردم الناتجة عن

تي تكفي والتي قدرت محصلتها بمليون متر مكعب وال 2014بالإضافة الى كمية ركام المباني الناتجة عن حرب

ض نوع بي تم افترا يجب إحاطة المنطقة المقترح ردمها بجدران استناديةوبما انه دونم. 114.25 مساحة لطمر

وأخيرا مربع. مريكي للمتر الدولار أ 130والي الكلية وكانت حبالنهاية تم حساب تكلفة الردم لها . 28زيد سي

مقترح. بما يتناسب مع هذا البحث ال لتسهيل حركة العربات الناقلة للردم تم التوصية بتصميم وتركيب جسر

بر منطقة حيوية تكلفة الردم تعتبر مجدية خصوصا ان منطقة ميناء الصيادين في غزة تعت انبناءا على هذه النتائج

.استغلالها فيما بعد لانشاء ميناء وأماكن ترفيهيةويمكن

III

منبه ( كلوابر لأ حب ر ٱلب ي سخذ م وهو ٱلذ ا ا طري لب

منبه حلبية رجوا تخب وت وتسب رى ٱلبفلبك مواخر تلببسونهالهۦ ) كرون ولعلذكمب تشب فيه ولببتغوا من فضب

[ 14النحل: ]

IV

Dedication

I am dedicating this thesis to beloved people who have meant and continue to mean

so much to me.

First and foremost, to my mother for her continuous sacrifices, prays and big love.

Next, to my wife for her love, trust and great effort of create happiness and real life

for our small family.

I also want to dedicate this to my lovely and naughty son (Qusay) who is completed 9

months during writing this page.

Also, I am dedicating this to my father, my brother and my little sister Yasmeen for

their support and happy moments shared with them.

Last but not least I am dedicating this to my friend (Hasan) for his support and sincerity

in addition to my closely friend (Ali) who I always miss.

V

Acknowledgement

First and above all, I praise God, the almighty for providing me this opportunity and

granting me the capability to proceed successfully. This thesis appears in its current

form due to the assistance and guidance of several people. I would therefore like to

offer my sincere thanks to all of them.

I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor (Dr. Mazen Abualtayef)

for his encouragement, fruitful assistance and vision which inspired me in

accomplishing this research. He hasn’t hesitated helping me whenever I need his

experience and support.

I would like to express my grateful appreciation and thanks to everyone who gave me

support to complete this research. Especially Eng.Emran Elkharouby, Eng Hasan

Alnajjar and Eng.Hasan Shehada. This gratitude is for their generosity and kindness to

provide me with their time and all the necessary information and discussions which

helped me a lot in achieving this work.

My appreciation is also extended to the (IUG) for giving me the opportunity to carry

out this study. Furthermore, great thanks are also to my colleagues and lecturers in the

Engineering Faculty and the Civil Engineering Department in particular for their

continuous encouragement and support.

Also, I could not forget the role of my friends for their help, encouragement,

constructive and positive feedback.

Finally, I express my very profound gratitude to my parents and to my wife for

providing me with unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my

years of study and through the process of researching and writing this thesis. This

accomplishment would not have been possible without them. Thank you.

VI

Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... I

II .................................................................................................................... ملخص البحث

Dedication .................................................................................................................. IV

Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................... V

List of Tables ............................................................................................................. IX

List of Figures .............................................................................................................. X

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................. XI

Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 1

Background ......................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem .................................................................... 2

Research Objectives ............................................................................ 3

Research Significance ......................................................................... 4

Thesis Structure ................................................................................... 4

Chapter 2 Literature Review ......................................................................................... 5

Introduction ......................................................................................... 5

Alternatives and Properties of Land Reclamations Materials ............. 8

Financial and Environmental Benefits of construction waste ............. 9

Financial benefits ................................................................................ 9

Environmental benefits ..................................................................... 10

Impact on Marine Environment ........................................................ 11

Sheet Piles ......................................................................................... 11

Types of sheet pile walls ................................................................... 11

Sheet pile construction methods ....................................................... 13

Sheet pile basic categories ................................................................ 15

Case Study: Reclamation Project of Taparura- Tunisia .................... 18

Excavation of the phosphogypsum plate .......................................... 19

Under water excavation .................................................................... 19

Dry excavation and breakwaters construction .................................. 19

Deposit remodeling ........................................................................... 19

Works for the isolation of phosphogypsum deposit ......................... 20

Drainage system ................................................................................ 21

VII

Hydraulic fill ..................................................................................... 21

Construction works of drainage canal .............................................. 22

The environmental follow-up of the Taparura site ........................... 22

Chapter 3 Study Area .................................................................................................. 25

Introduction ....................................................................................... 25

Geology of Sea Bed .......................................................................... 27

Soil .................................................................................................... 29

Water Level and Tides ...................................................................... 29

Climate .............................................................................................. 30

Mean annual wave climate ............................................................... 30

Extreme wave climate ....................................................................... 30

Mean annual wind climate ................................................................ 31

Extreme wind climate ....................................................................... 31

Currents ............................................................................................. 31

Climatic characteristics ..................................................................... 32

Gaza Seaport ..................................................................................... 32

Sediment Transport and Shoreline Change ....................................... 34

Impacts of Gaza Fishery Seaport on sedimentation .......................... 40

Chapter 4 Materials and Methods ............................................................................... 50

Introduction ....................................................................................... 50

Site Bathymetry ................................................................................. 50

Materials and Quantities ................................................................... 51

Characteristics Analysis of Debris .................................................... 52

Sieve analysis .................................................................................... 52

Analysis of gradation ........................................................................ 53

The Study Methodology .................................................................... 55

Bridge Configuration ........................................................................ 56

Types of Bridges According to Superstructure System .................... 56

Chapter 5 Results and Discussion ............................................................................... 56

Introduction ....................................................................................... 56

Existing Breakwaters Quantity Estimation ....................................... 56

Estimation of the Proposed Reclaimed Area (Gaza Fishery Port) .... 59

VIII

Cost Estimation of Proposed Reclaimed Area .................................. 60

Proposed Reclamation Process ......................................................... 64

Chapter 6 Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................ 69

Conclusion......................................................................................... 69

Recommendations ............................................................................. 69

References ................................................................................................................... 71

IX

List of Tables

Table (2.1): Allowable stress for steel sheet piles ..................................................... 12

Table (3.1): Astronomical measurements for tidal levels .......................................... 29

Table (3.2): Return periods wave height over 100 years ........................................... 31

Table (3.3): Winds speed return periods .................................................................... 31

Table (3.4): Environmental impact of various mitigation alternatives ...................... 35

Table (3.5): Accretion analysis for the study area ..................................................... 38

Table (4.1): The bathymetry features of the Gaza fishing port ................................. 51

Table (4.2): Detailed quantity of generated rubble .................................................... 52

Table (4.3): Physical properties of concrete aggregate fraction ................................ 53

Table (4.4): Course and fine aggregate contents ....................................................... 53

Table (4.5): Test results of essential characteristics of concrete rubble .................... 54

Table (5.1): The main estimated results ..................................................................... 63

X

List of Figures

Figure (2.1): The influence of breakwater on living organisms with and without

breakwater on Kochi coast ................................................................................. 11

Figure (2.2): Example of waterfront sheet-pile wall .................................................. 12

Figure (2.3): A typical steel sheet pile ....................................................................... 13

Figure (2.4): Sequence of construction for a backfilled structure ............................. 14

Figure (2.5): Sequence of construction for a dredged structure ................................ 15

Figure (2.6): Cantilever sheet pile wall stress diagram ............................................. 16

Figure (2.7): Free earth support method .................................................................... 16

Figure (2.8): Fixed earth support method .................................................................. 17

Figure (2.9): Reclaimed Taparura project, Tunisia .................................................... 18

Figure (2.10): The concrete wall to isolated the phosphogypsum deposit ................ 20

Figure (3.1): Location of Gaza fishing port ............................................................... 26

Figure (3.2): Population growth in Gaza Strip .......................................................... 26

Figure (3.3): Seabed characteristics for Gaza coast ................................................... 28

Figure (3.4): Monthly sea level variations at Hadera GLOSS station no. 80 between

1992 and 2002 .................................................................................................... 30

Figure (3.5): Gaza fishing harbor .............................................................................. 33

Figure (3.6): Gaza shoreline change from 1972 to 2010 ........................................... 37

Figure (3.7): North to Gaza fishery port: a) dunes and mitigation measures such as b)

revetments, c) gabions and d) groins ................................................................. 39

Figure (3.8): Marine structures along Gaza coast: a) Two groins built in 1972, b) Nine

detached breakwaters built in 1978 (Zviely and Klein, 2003), and c) Gaza fishing

harbor built in 1994~1998 ................................................................................. 41

Figure (3.9): Offshore fishing harbor model test: a)Wave heights b)Currents

c)Bathymetry before modelling d) Bathymetry after one year modelling ......... 42

Figure (4.1): The bathymetric features of the Gaza fishing port ............................... 51

Figure (4.2): The proposed reclaimed area ................................................................ 56

Figure (4.3): Types of bridges: a) A typical rolled-beam bridge, b) Slab bridge, c)

Reinforced concrete T-beams bridge ................................................................. 58

Figure (5.1): The existing Gaza fishing harbor .......................................................... 56

Figure ( 5.2): Illustration of the existing Gaza fishing harbor dimensions ................ 57

Figure (5.3): Dimensions and the depth of Breakwater (a) ....................................... 58

Figure (5.4): Breakwater (b) dimensions ................................................................... 58

Figure (5.5): Breakwater (c) dimensions ................................................................... 59

Figure )5.6): Dimensions of proposed reclaimed area ............................................... 60

Figure )5.7): The proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28) ............................................ 61

Figure )5.8): The characteristics of the proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28) ......... 62

Figure (5.9): The real shape of the proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28) ................ 62

Figure (5.10): Illustration of the proposed reclaimed area location and method ....... 64

Figure (5.11): Installation of sheet piles .................................................................... 64

Figure (5.12): The trucks movement during reclamation process ............................. 65

Figure (5.13): Reclamation activities ......................................................................... 65

Figure (5.14): The general view of proposed reclamation and bridge installation .... 66

XI

List of Abbreviations

AEL Association of Engineers Laboratory

CBD Biodiversity Convention

CDW Construction and Demolition Wastes

GCT Tunisian Chemical Group

HDPE High-Density Polyethylene

IUL Islamic University Laboratory

MEPA Malta Environment & Planning Authority

PCBS Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics

RCR Recycled Concrete Rubble

UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

UNDP United Nations Development Program

UNEP United Nations Environment Program

UNOSAT United Nations Operational Satellite

UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency

UXOs Unexploded explosive Ordnance

WFP World Food Program

Chapter 1

Introduction

1

Chapter 1 Introduction

Background

More than one-third of the world’s population resides in coastal areas, which account

for just 4% of Earth’s total land area. Coastal population densities are nearly three

times that of inland areas and are increasing exponentially. Coastal human settlements

usually exploit their position by reclaiming tidal and shallow sea areas through land

reclamation. This phenomenon can be observed in many coastal countries and cities,

such as Korea, Japan, Singapore, the Netherlands, Hong Kong and Macau (Feng et al.,

2014).

Reclamation in coastal zones is effective for relieving population pressure and

ensuring food safety. Since the 1950s, the development of coastal zones has entered a

peak period. At present, the reclamation of coastal zones mainly occurs in developing

countries. The coastal reclaimed lands are mainly used for agricultural production,

urban and industrial development, and port construction (Li et al., 2014).

Land reclamation is a process to create new land from the sea which can be achieved

with a number of different methods. The simplest method involves simply filling the

area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement, then filling with clay and dirt

until the desired height is reached (Nadzir et al., 2014).

As coastal area is a very sensitive area, any development needs to be highly evaluated

for its possible disturbances. It is because the coastal reclamation comes with its

adverse impacts to the land. Hazard in the coastal area found through erosion activity

and also caused by environmental change and human actions. If ecosystem

undermined, the ability of the coastal areas to adapt and regenerate would erode

(Nadzir et al., 2014).

The conversion of sea to land permanently changes the natural characteristics of the

ocean and coastal environment and cause considerable damage to the marine

ecosystems upon which human-kind depends. The impacts of reclamation not only

limited to the area where damped/dredged and reclaimed occurred, but impacts felt

over a larger area where siltation or change in current happened (Azwar et al., 2013).

This research investigates in focus the feasibility of sea reclamation practices in the

Gaza Strip where due to the lack of lands for several activities pushes the decision

makers toward sea reclamation. Actually, Gaza Strip is considered as one of the highly

populated density area around the world, where the population is nearly 2 million

inhabitants by 2016 while the area is 365 km2 (PCBS, 2016). The implementation of

2

such reclamation projects can be considered as an urgent to Gaza Strip, for a number

of reasons. The main of these reasons are the increasing in population growth, the

economic recession and lack of areas.

Indeed, the coast of Gaza was affected by man-made structures prior to the

construction of fishing harbor. In the early 1970s two groins, 120 m long each 500 m

apart were built in Gaza City (Zviely and Klein, 2003). In 1994, extended 500 m into

the sea, the construction of Gaza fishing harbor started in 1994 and completed in 1998.

The fishing harbor has locally disturbed the coastal erosion and sedimentation pattern

and resulting in sand erosion problems. Furthermore, the building and roads adjacent

to the shoreline are facing a stability problem and it is expected to have a serious

erosion problem in the coming few years specially in the region of Beach camp that

locates to the north of the port`s site (Abualtayef et al., 2013).

As a counter-measure to this, the construction waste was deployed in the eroded area,

which works as a beach revetment, to mitigate the severe beach erosion and protecting

the hotels. UNRWA has constructed gabions along the Beach camp with a total length

of 1650 m to protect the main coastal road. Several short groins have been constructed

along the Beach camp for shoreline preservation. Actually, these mitigations are not

effective and hence significance measures should be undertaken to protect the beaches

against coastal processes due to the fishing harbor (Abualtayef et al., 2013).

Statement of the Problem

Gaza Strip is considered one of the most densely area in the world. This reflects on the

availability of lands in the future that will raise the lands prices. Moreover, the fishing

harbor has locally disturbed the coastal erosion and sedimentation pattern, resulting in

local coastal sand erosion problems. Buildings and roads that have been constructed

close to the shoreline are already faced stability problems and other related negative

impacts. It is expected to have serious erosion problems in the coming years.

Generally, deposits are in balance with erosion, however changing the shape of the

present coastal line by building barriers, wave breakers and sea ports can prevent the

movement of sand and therefore cause beach erosion. Recently after the construction

of the fishing harbor, the need to protect the coastal zone of Gaza is increased.

On the other hand, due to the three aggressive invasions that occur in Gaza Strip in

2008, 2012, and 2014, about two million ton of debris have been accumulated in the

lands from damaged buildings and facilities. However, the last war on the Gaza Strip

was one of various rationales that played big role in deteriorating infrastructure

conditions in the Strip. The ten-year closure had already left most of infrastructure

facilities inadequate to function. Hence, people are not able to exercise many of their

3

most basic rights and severely reduced their access to services, amidst collapsing

infrastructure and acute shortages of power, water, shelter, food and medical services.

In particular, municipal services, especially solid waste and solid waste treatment, had

to be curtailed, leading to the accumulation of hundreds of tons of rubbish on the streets

each day. Restrictions on the imports of essential consumables (diesel and spare parts)

and other materials also reduced the efficiency of the operation of sanitary landfills

and garbage collection trucks. (UNDP, 2014).

To overcome solid waste storage problem, Municipality of Rafah was the first who

carried out crushing activities in relatively large quantities. Funded by Italian

Government, the municipality was supplied by a small scale crusher capacity of 70

tons per hour and started crushing of concrete rubble generated in the south of the Gaza

Strip. The produced crushed material was used by the municipality in agricultural

roads. Later on a small quantity was used by UNRWA in some roads in Tal El Sultan

area in Rafah. The next large scale crushing of concrete rubble was followed by UNDP

after disengagement of Israeli occupation from Gaza ex-settlements. In 2006, UNDP

was assigned by quartet to remove and crush more than 700,000 tons of mixed concrete

rubble from Gaza ex-settlements. Nearly 400,000 tons of this rubble was removed in

very good and clean conditions (UNDP, 2014).

In general, two million tons of construction waste that was generated from the last war

on Gaza. One of these problems is how and where to dispose this massive volume of

concrete rubble taking into consideration that almost all available landfills in the Gaza

Strip are already overloaded. The Palestinians ministries proposed many ideas to

effective disposal for these debris. In this study, an investigation of the best way to

dispose these debris by land reclamation in Gaza Strip especially that the huge need to

mitigate the problem of the existing Gaza fishing port.

Research Objectives

The aim of this study is to present the feasibility of using construction wastes in land

reclamation in Gaza in order to achieve the following objectives:

To relocate the construction features of the Gaza fishing port, for better

sediment transport and hydraulic conditions.

To provide enough areas for recreational activities.

To highlight the possibility of using the construction wastes materials that

resulted from destroyed buildings in land reclamation.

Mitigate the erosion/accretion problems in the areas locate in the vicinity of the

sea port.

4

Research Significance

This study provides a significantly addition to research library, where the study gives

the officials good indicators on the possibility of implementation the reclamation

projects and to solve the problems of Gaza fishing port.

Thesis Structure

Chapter One / Introduction: this chapter contains a general overview about the trend

of land reclamation around the world as an option to increase the land use in response

to the increasing in urbanization. In this regard, this chapter provides overview about

the needed for land reclamation in Gaza Strip.

Chapter Two / Literature Review: this chapter provides in some details literatures

about land reclamation process, environmental impact, filling materials, etc.

Chapter Three / Study Area: this chapter contains port’s site, bathometry,

environment.

Chapter Four / Materials and Methods: this chapter contains data collection, site

description, materials quantities, basic design port, and etc.

Chapter Five / Results and Discussion: this chapter contains the main outputs of this

study of reclamation and its process.

Chapter Six/ Conclusion and Recommendations: this chapter provides

recommendations about fishing port reclamation.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

5

Chapter 2 Literature Review

This chapter describes many of countries experience in reclamation projects and the

trials of reusing of construction waste in land reclamation and its financial and

environmental impacts. Also, the main international legal instrument addressing

coastal and marine resources in addition to dumping waste in sea are shown. Moreover,

the Taparura case study is detailed and discussed in this chapter.

Introduction

Coastal erosion is an ongoing hazard affecting Gaza beach, but is worsening due to a

wide range of human activities such as the construction of Gaza fishing harbor in 1994-

1998. The net annual alongshore sediment transport is about 190×103 m3, but can vary

significantly depending on the severity of winter storms (Abualtayef et al., 2013).

In recent years, many countries (including China, Japan and others) have tried to

overcome land-based bottlenecks with the design and construction of new offshore

lands (Yan et al, 2013). In Singapore a small project in 1963 to reclaim 19 ha of land

at 14 km east coast road, the east coast reclamation scheme was launched in April

1966. The whole scheme carried out in seven phases and until end of 1986, 1525 ha

has been reclaimed at a cost of $613 million. That’s means about 40$/m2. Phase VII,

which involved the reclamation of 360 ha of land had been completed in 1986 and

added about 1000 m of shoreline (Lin Sien, 1988).

In Netherlands a reclamation project for 2000 ha was taken place between 2008 and

2014 to establish Rotterdam Port, which is estimated to require nearly 400 Mm3 of

sand (Wikipedia, 2015).

Recently, in the United Arab Emirates, the Palm Island in Dubai is considered as one

of the most attractive reclamation project in the world. The artificial palm island is a

series of three artificial islands. The design of each of the three islands, Palm Jumeirah,

Palm Jebel Ali, and Palm Deira, is in the shape of a palm tree with an encircling

crescent. The islands added approximately 520 km of beach area to the city of Dubai

(Kevin, 2011).

In Japan, after the Second World War, an increase in food production, to become self-

sufficient, had a high political priority. Some laws relating to reclamation and land

development, such as the guideline of urgent reclamation (1945) and the act for

comprehensive development of the national land (1950) were enacted. Most Japanese

principle larger reclamation projects were a result of these acts such as Kojimawan

(Okayama), Hachirogata (Akita), Kahokugata (Ishikawa), Isahayawan (Nagasaki),

6

Nakaumi-Shinjiko (Tottori and Shimane). The initiative was begun by the

government, as they had planned to develop in total about 100,000 ha of new lands

(Graaf and Hooimeijer, 2008).

In Gaza Strip, many researchers have investigated the feasibility of reusing

construction wastes in roads and construction fields. Rustom et al. (2007) investigated

the possibility of utilizing the recycled crushed aggregates of the construction and

demolition wastes (CDW) in engineering applications in Gaza Strip. The

characteristics of the crushed aggregates were determined and compared to

international standards. The reuse alternative is investigated in concrete mixes and

road construction throughout the testing program. Eight representative samples were

selected from different locations in Rafah and Khan Younis. In general, the test results

showed that the recycling of the CDW aggregates and its use in both concrete and road

sub-base give acceptable results. Most of the characteristic test results were within the

standard limits. The results of the tests that concern road applications were good and

verified the adequacy of materials. The results of the tests for concrete applications

were also desirable and proved that these materials, CDW, could be used in some

concrete applications.

Qreaq'a (2011) investigated the reuse of recycled aggregates of demolition building

debris as an asphalt binder. Under number of aggregate and bitumen tests to investigate

the applicability of using the recycled aggregates of demolition building debris as an

asphalt binder in road pavements. The results showed that it is possible to use the

recycled aggregates in preparing the asphalt binder course taking into account the need

to increase the bitumen content (about 0.4%) more than the asphalt binder course using

the conventional aggregates. However, the economic study in this research shows that

using the recycled aggregate is feasible and has less cost than using the conventional

one.

Also El Dada (2013) studied the possibility of using mixtures of reclaimed asphalt

pavement and demolition debris in pavement base layers. The properties of these

mixtures were tested. Results showed that some properties are improved with adding

reclaimed asphalt pavement as Los Angeles value, sand equivalent and absorption, but

other properties decreased specially California bearing ratio.

Beside that the possibility of using recycled aggregate concrete in the structural usages

in lieu or mixed with natural aggregates has been investigated by Zuhud and et al.

(2008). The experimental tests of physical properties, and mechanical properties

shown that the workability of recycled aggregate is lower than the workability of

natural aggregate concrete, the slump test increases as the percent of recycled

aggregate decreases. The compressive strength increases as the percent of recycle

aggregate in concrete mixes decreases. The concrete of recycled aggregate exactly

7

behaves as natural aggregate concrete in flexural tests and the flexural strength have

same percent of corresponding compressive strength.

The majority of reclamation projects carried out elsewhere are constructed on relative

shallow waters to facilitate construction works and keep costs at its lowest possible

level. This applies to cases such as the land reclamation in Holland, airport of Hong

Kong, reclamation in Shanghai and creation of islands in Malaysia. In deeper waters,

the use of land has been designated to very high value activities. E.g. the reclamation

at 30 m depth in Singapore expanding the container port, which represents an essential

cornerstone in the country economy (MEPA, 2005).

The main purpose of any land reclamation is to create high value land, the value of

which is above the construction cost. The value of the land is hence tied to the

subsequent activities to be placed on the land. The Maltese government has decided,

not to provide financial support to any land reclamation projects, but rather promote

private developers to initiate any such reclamation activities, based on economically

self-sustainable projects. The activities foreseen on the reclaimed land, are hence

required to create revenues that enable both land reclamation and the cost of

establishing the activities on the reclaimed land. The location of a land reclamation

project close to the shore is likely to cause environmental impact in coastal areas which

sustain ecologically sensitive benthic habitats. The impacts will most probably be

largest during the implementation of the land reclamation project, but since any impact

depends on the construction, the construction methods applied and the location, the

magnitude of the impact is at present not assessable. At least three likely types of

impacts are envisaged to arise from land reclamation, namely increased turbidity of

the water column, obliteration of the benthic environment1 on the land reclamation

site and smothering of benthic habitats from the settlement of suspended particles. The

spatial extent of these impacts will amongst others depend on local current conditions

(MEPA, 2005).

The main international legal instrument addressing coastal and marine resources is the

Biodiversity Convention (CBD) adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and

Development in Rio 1992. Aiming to adopt a broad approach to conservation, it

requires Contracting Parties to adopt national strategies, plans or programs for the

conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and to integrate the

conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral

plans, programs and policies (article 6). The establishment and maintenance of marine

protected areas for conservation and sustainable use is one of the main tools for

attaining the objectives of the CBD.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS) gives a

framework for the determination of the rights and obligations of States relating to

oceans. Part XII contains provisions with regard to protection and preservation of the

8

marine environment. States are obliged to undertake measures in preventing and

controlling pollution of the marine environment. The Convention makes provisions for

individual States by invoking them to use the best practicable means at their disposal

and in accordance with their capabilities (Art 194). This is not a loophole through

which States can carry out activities that may cause pollution in the marine

environment. The Convention still calls for States to design measures that will

minimize to the fullest possible extent the release of toxic, harmful or noxious

substances, especially those which are persistent, from land-based sources, from or

through the atmosphere or by dumping (Art 194). Recognizing that appropriate waste

management strategies can provide measures which reduce those sources of marine

pollution, the Convention calls for Party States to act so as not to transfer, directly or

indirectly, damage or hazards from one area to another or transform one type of

pollution into another (Art 195). Moreover, the London Dumping convention, to which

Malta has acceded, regulates the disposal of material at sea. While dumping of a

number of specific hazardous substances is prohibited, dumping of substances which

do not in themselves constitute an environmental hazard, are not considered prohibited

by the convention, subject to certain restrictions. The dumping of such materials is

regulated by the national legislation. According to the convention, the dumping

activity is required to be preceded by an assessment of the environmental

consequences, assuring that no significant environmental impact can be expected from

the dumping of the material (MEPA, 2005).

Alternatives and Properties of Land Reclamations Materials

The reuse of recycled materials derived from construction and demolition waste is

growing all over the world. Many researchers are therefore actively promoting policies

aimed at reducing the use of primary resources and increasing reuse and recycling.

One of the most environmentally responsible ways of meeting the challenges of

sustainability in construction is the use of recycled concrete and masonry waste as

aggregate in new construction.

There is a misconception in the field of civil engineering materials that recycled

aggregate is a waste product which has substandard quality and so there is little drive

in recycling this material. The strength of resulting filling materials usually depends

on the strength of parent materials, i.e. the recycled aggregates, their strength level

determination is very important. Traditionally, engineers have experienced lower

compressive strength and workability in the use of recycled aggregate in the concrete

filling material and it was determined that 20% was the maximum amount of recycled

aggregate fines as a rule of thumb that would be allowed in the concrete. Initially, there

was a lack of information on the cost benefits and performance of recycled aggregate

and the lack of quantitative data. The recycled aggregate could be considered as an

9

option with the economics of the low bid system drives the use of recycled aggregate

coupled with the environmental impact on sustainability would give rise to the use of

this material. Benefits could be realized where there is an ample supply of quality

recycled aggregate. Actually, using recycled aggregate as reclamation filling material

could provide engineering, economic, and environmental benefits to our society (De

Brito and Saikia, 2013).

Research and experimental works on the use of recycled aggregates for road works

and concrete production have been conducted all over the world and it is proven

that high quality could also be achieved with recycled aggregates. Many European

countries, Japan and the United States have modified their specifications to make

provision for the use of recycled aggregates in different construction works. The

construction industry in Hong Kong generates about 11 million tons of construction

waste each year. In recent years, a major portion of this construction waste (around

80%) is reused as fill material in land reclamation and the rest is dumped in landfills.

In view of the scarcity of land for new landfills and the finishing of major reclamation

projects in near future, it is necessary to consider the recycling of inert construction

waste. The use of aggregates produced from recycled construction waste is proven in

other parts of the world and there is no technical reason to restrain their use in

Hong Kong (Cheng, 2000).

No doubt that the Post-war generated rubble was a big challenge for all population of

the Gaza Strip as well as for all institutions dealing with environment and construction

industry. The huge volume of the rubble accompanied with limited places and landfills

to store the rubble had seriously threatened the overall environment in the Gaza Strip.

In addition, the shortage of construction materials beside the high prices of very limited

available construction materials especially natural aggregate made the recycle of

concrete rubble as one of top priority for reconstruction process after the war.

Fortunately, during removal and crushing process of post–war rubble in Gaza, almost

all actors had taken into consideration the main principles to obtain best financial and

environmental benefits from the whole recycle process such as protection of public

health and insuring sustainability of recycling achievements (El Kharouby, 2011).

Financial and Environmental Benefits of construction waste

These benefits could be summarized in two main domains: financial and

environmental benefits.

Financial benefits

After removal of a large amount of post-war generated rubble from affected sites in

the Gaza Strip, the prices of sorting, removal and crushing of this material showed that

the recycling of concrete rubble could be very competitive to natural crushed stone

10

that has been using in roads and concrete industry. The removal process showed that

the collected rubble contained nearly 10% of non-concrete reusable materials such as

steel, wood, aluminum and others. The cost of these materials varied from US$15-20

per ton that reduced the total cost of removal and crushing process. In addition, the

sale price for crushed concrete rubble that used in roads construction was around

US$7.5 per ton. This price was much higher and exceeded US$30 per ton after

screening of crushed concrete and producing aggregate for concrete construction.

Therefore, from economic point of view, the removal and crushing process as a whole

has several advantages (Mulder, 2008). The most illustrative advantage could be

summarized as follows:

Closing the material cycles for concrete rubble within its own chain. With regard

to the framework of sustainable development, this fulfils one of the objectives of

required sustainability.

Recovery of suitable raw materials for construction industry that reduces the

excavation of primary materials such as sand and gravel and reduces the export of

expensive aggregate.

Generated new job opportunity.

The removal and crushing process finally implies a reduction in transport costs and

reduced the damping fees and landfill’s running costs. This means less fuel

consumption and less exhaust gases.

Environmental benefits

In this time of increasing attention to the environmental impact of construction and

sustainable development, recycled crushed concrete has much to offer because of its

efficiency to minimize depletion of natural resources and its direct positive impact in

reducing the total area for storing huge volumes of concrete rubble (Environmental

Council of Concrete Organization, 1999). As the available solid waste landfills are

already overloaded in the Gaza Strip, any additional quantities will only make the

problem more complicated. Reducing the amount of concrete rubble and reusing it in

construction industry will facilitate storing of other solid waste quantities produced by

residents of the Strip and will facilitate the process of collecting and transporting

organic waste from households. Moreover, sorting of non-concrete and hazardous

materials from concrete rubble before crushing decreased the effect of such material

on human welfare. To identify the quality of generated concrete rubble from

construction and economical point of view it was essential to make both visual and

sample inspections of all possible pollutants and contents of non-concrete materials.

For this purpose, site visits carried out in the rapid as well as in detailed survey of

damages. Detailed tests for hazardous materials, asbestos, and heavy metals was

carried out by UNEP team that visited Gaza after the war and the tests showed that the

post-war rubble concrete contained around 10% of asbestos and some UXOs that were

a big threat for human health, also no heavy metals were found and the amount of other

hazardous materials were within standard for reuse of concrete rubble in construction

11

industry (El Kharouby, 2011). Removing these items and materials and storing them

in a proper way had reduced this hazard to the minimum.

Impact on Marine Environment

Construction of breakwater is environmentally the friendliest protection alternative. It

has the least impact on adjacent properties and the environment, and instead of

harming the surroundings, a beach fill will benefit adjacent eroding properties.

Artificial nourishment in most areas becomes a beach maintenance solution.

Figure (2.1): The influence of breakwater on living organisms with and without

breakwater on Kochi coast

(Source: Kamphous, 2000)

Sheet Piles

Connected or semi-connected sheet piles are often used to build continuous walls for

waterfront structures that range from small waterfront pleasure boat launching

facilities to large dock facilities Figure (2.2). In contrast to the construction of other

types of retaining wall, the building of sheet pile walls does not usually require

dewatering of the site. Sheet piles are also used for some temporary structures, such as

braced cuts.

Types of sheet pile walls

Several types of sheet pile are commonly used in construction: (a) wooden sheet piles,

(b) precast concrete sheet piles, and (c) steel sheet piles. Aluminum sheet piles are also

marketed (Braja M. Das, 2014).

12

Wooden sheet piles are used only for temporary, light structures that are above the

water table. The most common types are ordinary wooden planks and Wakefield

piles. The wooden planks are about 50×300 mm in cross section and are driven

edge to edge. Wakefield piles are made by nailing three planks together, with the

middle plank offset by 50 to 75 mm. Wooden planks can also be milled to form

tongue-and-groove piles. Metal splines are driven into the grooves of the adjacent

sheeting to hold them together after they are sunk into the ground.

Figure (2.2): Example of waterfront sheet-pile wall

(Source: Braja M. Das, 2014)

Precast concrete sheet piles are heavy and are designed with reinforcements to

withstand the permanent stresses to which the structure will be subjected after

construction and also to handle the stresses produced during construction. In

cross section, these piles are about 500 to 800 mm wide and 150 to 250 mm

thick.

Steel sheet piles in the United States are about 10 to 13 mm thick. European

sections may be thinner and wider. Sheet-pile sections may be Z, deep arch,

low arch, or straight web sections. The interlocks of the sheet-pile sections are

shaped like a thumb-and-finger or ball-and-socket joint for watertight

connections. The allowable design flexural stress for the steel sheet piles is

shown in Table (2.1).

Table (2.1): Allowable stress for steel sheet piles

Type of steel Allowable stress (MN/m2)

ASTM A-328 170

ASTM A-572 210

ASTM A-690 210

(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)

13

Steel sheet piles are convenient to use because of their resistance to the high driving

stress that is developed when they are being driven into hard soils. Steel sheet piles are

also lightweight and reusable.

Figure (2.3): A typical steel sheet pile

(source: WIKI, 2016)

Sheet pile construction methods

Sheet pile walls may be divided into two basic categories: (a) cantilever and (b)

anchored. In the construction of sheet pile walls, the sheet pile may be driven into the

ground and then the backfill placed on the land side, or the sheet pile may first be

driven into the ground and the soil in front of the sheet pile dredged. In either case, the

soil used for backfill behind the sheet pile wall is usually granular. The soil below the

dredge line may be sandy or clayey. The surface of soil on the water side is referred to

as the mud line or dredge line. Thus, construction methods generally can be divided

into two categories:

1. Backfilled structure

2. Dredged structure

The sequence of construction for a backfilled anchored structure is as follows (see

Figure (2.4):

14

Step 1) Dredge the in situ soil in front and back of the proposed structure.

Step 2) Drive the sheet piles.

Step 3) Backfill up to the level of the anchor, and place the anchor system.

Step 4) Backfill up to the top of the wall.

For a cantilever type of wall, the sequence of construction for a dredged structure is as

follows (see Figure (2.5):

Step 1) Drive the sheet piles.

Step 2) Backfill up to the top of the wall.

Step 3) Dredge the front side of the wall.

Figure (2.4): Sequence of construction for a backfilled structure

(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)

15

Figure (2.5): Sequence of construction for a dredged structure

(source: Braja M. Das 2014)

Sheet pile basic categories

2.5.3.1 Cantilever sheet pile walls

Cantilever sheet pile walls are usually recommended for walls of moderate height

about 6 m or less, measured above the dredge line. In such walls, the sheet piles act as

a wide cantilever beam above the dredge line. Because the hydrostatic pressures at any

depth from both sides of the wall will cancel each other, we consider only the effective

lateral soil pressures. Figure (2.6) shows the stress diagram on a cantilever sheet pile

(Braja M. Das, 2014).

In this project, this type of sheet piles will not be effective because of depth of the sea

and the high stresses applied on the sheet pile, so we are going to use the other type of

sheet piles which will be discussed in the following section. Also the second types is

better for economic considerations.

16

Figure (2.6): Cantilever sheet pile wall stress diagram

(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)

2.5.3.2 Anchored sheet pile walls

When the height of the backfill material behind a cantilever sheet-pile wall exceeds

about 6 m tying the wall near the top to anchor plates, anchor walls, or anchor piles

becomes more economical. This type of construction is referred to as anchored sheet

pile wall or an anchored bulkhead. Anchors minimize the depth of penetration required

by the sheet piles and also reduce the cross-sectional area and weight of the sheet piles

needed for construction. However, the tie rods and anchors must be carefully designed

(Braja M. Das, 2014).

The two basic methods of designing anchored sheet-pile walls are (a) the free earth

support method and (b) the fixed earth support method. Figure (2.7) and Figure (2.8)

show the assumed nature of deflection of the sheet piles for the two methods.

Figure (2.7): Free earth support method

(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)

17

Figure (2.8): Fixed earth support method

(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)

The free earth support method involves a minimum penetration depth. Below the

dredge line, no pivot point exists for the static system (Dfree>Dfixed). Fixed earth support

will have smaller deflection and therefore smaller moment and smaller cross section.

In this project, we are assuming that the earth support is free.

18

Case Study: Reclamation Project of Taparura- Tunisia

The project of Taparura consists of two Phases 1 and 2 with a total reclaimed area of

380 ha. The objective of Taparura was sit to improve, cleanup and rehabilitate the

northern coasts of the City of Sfax as shown in Figure (2.9). These works are a single

batch and the main components are the following:

Figure (2.9): Reclaimed Taparura project, Tunisia

(Source: Photos by Abualtayef, 2014)

19

Excavation of the phosphogypsum plate

The deposit of phosphogypsum is surrounded by a plate covering an area of

approximately 90 ha and whose volume was estimated at 1.1 million m3. The spatial

and vertical area of the phosphogypsum plate was determined and confirmed by the

company before starting the excavation works. The excavation of the plate is carried

out through isolated compartments. In this way, it is easier to pump the inland waters

and the non-excavated limits enable access from one area of the site to another.

Under water excavation

In under water excavation works, the used material consists in two stations each

consisting of a backhoe mounted on a pier and a barge. The barges are moved by means

of a tug. The backhoes are equipped with sophisticated and precise computer systems

for the follow-up of underwater excavation operations of contaminated materials.

Besides, these backhoes are equipped with a high performance positioning system.

These systems enable operators to visualize the shovel bucket of the machine on a

computer screen mounted in the cabin. The excavated materials are placed in the

barges that are routed to a temporary pier once they are filled. At the quay, a giant

shovel with a long arm enables the transfer of materials in the dumpers. The latter carry

the materials to the phosphogypsum deposit where they are drained and spread out.

Dry excavation and breakwaters construction

Dry excavation works are carried out through the use of earth-moving engines and

equipment. These works include the excavation of contaminated soils located within

the contractual line separating the dry excavation from the underwater one. All dry

excavated material of the phosphogypsum plate or of the contaminated soil of the site

were taken to the phosphogypsum deposit where they were placed and deposited in

successive layers. To enable the dry excavation of the above-mentioned areas and the

hydraulic fill works, main breakwaters on the sea side have been constructed. These

breakwaters limit to some extent the site on the seaside and help protect the

downstream area against currents and swells. Other secondary breakwaters have also

been constructed. A pumping system was set up to pump the pools water behind the

main breakwater towards the sea to dry them up. These breakwaters equally allow

access to different parts of the site and facilitate the pumping in areas to be cleaned up.

All construction works of the breakwaters are completed.

Deposit remodeling

The work of remodeling the phosphogypsum deposit began from the second fortnight

of September 2006, in the form of a cone trunk having a diameter of 880 m wide and

a height of 16 m. Given the reduction in the quantities of contaminated soil, it was

decided to reduce the diameter of the phosphogypsum deposit to only 810 m and to

implement it in two platforms.

20

Works for the isolation of phosphogypsum deposit

The phosphogypsum deposit and the polluted underlying soil will be isolated through

the use of a Waterproof barrier made up of a 0.6 m-wide trench filled with a mixture

of bentonite - cement in which d 3 mm-thick high-density polyethylene {HDPE} sheet

is inserted, see Figure (2.10). This barrier will extend from the backfill platform up to

the clay layer situated at a depth of 11 to 13 m from the projected level of the ground.

The construction of the barrier started on July 3, 2008. With a view to protecting the

barrier and to drain the runoff to the drainage ditch, the construction works of the head

of the barrier started in December 2008. The barrier system- exhaustion system- must

always maintain the level of the groundwater inside the area of the phosphogypsum

deposit below the level of the groundwater outside the barrier. This condition is

important to avoid any possibility of pollutants spreading to the outside of the barrier.

According to the current plans, the groundwater is pumped from a level located below

the clay layer, which is located below the deposit. After having implemented two

pumping tests, 105 geotechnical investigation drilling tests, 22 piezometers and

processing of test results, the choice was to increase the number of pumping wells

from 7 to 10 and a drain was also to be set up around the deposit inside the barrier.

The pumping rate of the 10 wells is 5 m3 / hr. The effect of the pumping system on the

groundwater is continuously monitored by 30 piezometers installed on the deposit, as

well as on both sides near the barrier.

Figure (2.10): The concrete wall to isolated the phosphogypsum deposit

(source: Photos taken by Abualtayef, 2013)

21

Drainage system

The system added following the new conditions of permeability of subsoil. It is

designed to ensure that the level of the groundwater does not exceed the level specified

in the vicinity of the deposit. The drainage system will lead to a quicker initial lowering

of the water table inside the barrier. When the specified groundwater level is reached

inside the entire deposit, the drainage system will catch only the runoff from

exceptional rainfall for a limited period.

Hydraulic fill

The hydraulic fill works have a field to reclaim from the sea and whose surface will

be about of 380 ha. The amount of sand needed for the creation of this platform is

about 7 million m3. The borrowing lodging identified by the pre-project studies is

located at the Canal of Kerkennah limited in the west by the herbarium, in the east by

the Kerkennah plateau, and in the north and south by the isobaths -10 m.

The hydraulic fill includes:

Borrowing sand

Discharging sand

Spreading out sand to the required levels

Compacting the sand to the prescribed densities in the contract in the areas

where compaction can be carried out

For the discharge of dredging sand, a system of floating and land delivery mains has

been installed. The dredge is located in the basin of the Commercial Port opposite the

quay of the Tunisian Chemical Group (GCT). Floating pipes of 900 mm have been

installed in the basin. Land pipes have been installed above the railway located along

the basin and under the pavement of the beach road. In the work site area, land pipes

have been installed in order to discharge the dredged sand directly on the backfilling

site. The setting up of the land pipes in the work site area were changed as the setting

up of the hydraulic fill progresses. The hydraulic fill works can be considered as cycles

that repeat continuously 24H/24H. Three main tasks that can be distinguished in the

hydraulic fill are:

Sand extraction

Sand transport

Sand discharge

For the basins north of the backfilling, and given the importance of the discharge

distance, a provisional stock of materials was placed near the dredge to transport it by

land to the basins to be backfilled.

22

Construction works of drainage canal

The implementation plans relating to the covered part of the drainage canal in precast

culvert. Completion of works for coast protection: The jetties are used for two

purposes:

Prevent the transported sediments which come from the North to settle on the

beaches. In the absence of jetties, these sediments, consisting of fine particles,

lead to the silting up of the beach.

Avoid the recovery of sand from the new coast through transport capacity,

sediments halted by the jetty, thus contributing to the stability of the beach.

The environmental follow-up of the Taparura site

Given the importance of environmental aspects of the project, some ambitious

programs have been established. They include in particular:

1. Radiological follow-up of the site and workers during and after works

The Centre National de Radio protection (National Centre for Radiation

Protection), the Centre National des Sciences et Technologies Nucleaires

(National Center for Nuclear Sciences and Technology and the French Company

ALGADE have been hired to carry out radiation monitoring program of the site

before, during and after works. This program includes the following activities:

Analysis of the initial situation of the site

radiological monitoring of the environment

Analysis of the final situation.

2. Follow-up of the quality of surface water and groundwater at the site

In this respect, follow-up campaigns have been conducted by two different

laboratories in order to analyze the following parameters: ALCONTROL

(Belgium): pH / conductivity / Arsenic / Cadmium / Chrome / Mercury / Lead /

Copper / Nickel /Zinc every two weeks. CITET (Tunisia]: pH / Temperature /

Conductivity / Salinity / Color / NTK / Nitrate / Phosphorus T / Chlorophyll a /

Arsenic / Cadmium / Chrome / Lead / Nickel / Zinc: on a monthly basis.

3. Follow-up of sea water quality and ecology in the deposit of the marine backfill

during dredging operations

The environmental follow up program in the Kerkennah canal consists of the

following: Analysis of water quality

10 sampling stations

Samples at 1 and 5 m of depth

Sampling before, during and at the end of the dredging period

Analysis of material in suspension

23

Surface follow-up

Distribution of the herbarium area and fragmentation through the analysis of

satellite images before and after the dredging campaign

Indication of five model areas for characterization Characterization of the

vegetation and macro benthos met per quadra from 1 m2 to 0.4m2.

4. Follow-up of the quality of sea water and ecology along the coast of the project

during the dredging operations

At the level of the coast of the project area, the environmental follow-up consists

in the following:

Analysis of water quality:

Three stations 700m away from one another located at 1km from the future

beach

Sampling before, during and at the end of the dredging period

Weekly sampling and analysis during the backfilling works

Analysis of suspended material Characterization of vegetation and macro

benthos met per quadra of 1 m2 or 0.4 m2

Finally, Taparura is important reclamation project aim to protect the environment by

disposing of the phosphogypsum by sea reclamation. This case study considered the

environment protection like Gaza Strip case which aim to dispose the construction

waste resulted from the 2014 aggression on Gaza Strip on one hand, especially that the

existing landfills capacity is overloaded. On the other hand, land reclamation in Gaza

Strip will mitigate the environmental problems resulted from the existing Gaza fishing

port and its negatively impact on sediment transportation.

Chapter 3

Study Area

25

Chapter 3 Study Area

In this chapter, data about oceanographic characteristics of Gaza seaport were

described in order to define the nature of the study area. Also, sediment transport and

shoreline change were discussed and finally the impact of Gaza fishery seaport on

sedimentation was shown.

Introduction

The characteristics of study area are the major factors that affect the process of land

reclamation. The choice of the site that the artificial island will be created is critical

from environmental and structural views. The site must be as far as possible from the

districts that have high volumes of people. However, the location of Gaza Sea Port has

the following merits:

• flexible for expansion

• land ownership is mainly Government

• no hinder to urban settlements

• in the center of Gaza Strip

• excellent transport track.

The method of land reclamation is mainly affected by the type of reclamation site. The

type of soil and its characteristics below the sea is critical for the reclamation of the

island structures. Also choice of site affects the weather conditions that will dealt with.

Wind, tides, and temperature of the site are the main weather conditions that affect the

design process. In spite of the importance of site conditions, a degree of uncertainty of

all conditions should be noticed. Hence, enough studies on the sea and seabed can

higher the implementation of reclamation.

Gaza Strip, shown in Figure (3.1), is a small part of area, 365 km2, locates along the

eastern coast of the Mediterranean and it is considered as one of the most populated

area in the world.

26

Figure (3.1): Location of Gaza fishing port

The population growth is highly increase in Gaza Strip as shown in Figure (3.2).

Figure (3.2): Population growth in Gaza Strip

(source: PCBS, 2016)

Gaza coastal zone is growing fast, and the growth rate is attributed to its potential for

several economic activities and the existing pressure of urban expansion.

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

1.60

1.80

2.00

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

27

Geology of Sea Bed

The south eastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea is at the junction of Africa, south-

west Asia (the Arabic peninsula) and Eurasia. The area is tectonic active and its

geology contains some particularly interesting information. The coastal area of Gaza

is a fault zone, which consists of several coast parallel faults, approximately between

the coastline and 15 km offshore, with a total cumulative (post Jurassic) vertical

displacement of some kilometers. The coastline itself is bordered by a continuous

linear escarpment (10-50 m in elevation), running from Rafah to the Carmel mountain

in Haifa. This cliff arose due to a vertical fault, the "coastal fault". During the transition

from the Pleistocene to the Holocene (approximately 10 thousand years ago) the

eastern Mediterranean was subsiding while the continental crust became uplifted. The

coastal belt functioned as a hinge for this differential vertical movement. The coastal

cliff did not seem to exist at that time. The fall of the Mediterranean basin may have

been caused by the enormous amount of sediments that are transported by the Nile and

deposited in the area during the geological history. Consequences of the above are:

The Artificial Island is located in the fault zone; this results in extra uncertainties

considering the subsoil conditions, as well as unpredictable variations. Due to the

recent tectonic activities the area is seismically active; the risk and magnitude of

earthquakes, however, are limited because the movements seem to have a creeping

nature rather than catastrophic faulting. The slope of seabed for a distance of 3.5

kilometers from the coast ranges between 0.5 m to 2 m for each 100 m distance from

the shoreline, depending on the position of the area along the coast of Gaza strip. After

this distance, the slope becomes much higher (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).

Coast and Seabed Geological Features

Going from land to sea, the coastal profile can be divided into the seabed, the beach,

the dune faces or Kurkar cliffs, and the adjacent body of the dune or cliff plateau.

The coastal profile does not only consist of sand, but locally also erosion-resistant

formations of rock and Kurkar protrude, on the seabed, on the beach, and in the cliffs.

The geophysical survey for the Port of Gaza demonstrated the presence of non-erodible

layers at a mean distance of about 3 m below the alluvial seabed. Further, a detailed

bathymetric survey of the area where the Gaza Sea Port is planned revealed that

between the shoreline and 10 m depth; the seabed is characterized by areas of rock

outcrops and linear features of sand bars (Sogreah, 1996). On the beach and near the

waterline of the Gaza shoreline on many places Kurkar outcrops and rocky ridges can

be seen (Al-Agha, 2000).

These hard ridges are important coastal features in that they form natural breakwaters

which tend to mitigate an eroding trend. Where these hard layers are covered only by

28

a relatively thin layer of sand, a retreating coastal profile will gradually consist of an

increasing amount of erosion-resistant surface (Al-Agha, 2000).

Defining the credibility and composition of the steep Kurkar cliffs along the Gaza

coastlines is another important challenge. These cliffs themselves are to an (un-)certain

extent able to retard an erosional tendency. If they are attacked by waves and locally

collapse, the eroded Kurkar material will feed the beach with a mixture of very fine to

very coarse sediment. The fines will soon be transported to deep water, whereas the

coarse particles will act as an armor layer, protecting the freshly exposed Kurkar cliff

face during some time. Figure (3.3) shows the characteristics of Gaza strip seabed to a

contour of depth of 700m (Al-Agha, 2000).

Figure (3.3): Seabed characteristics for Gaza coast

(source: Ministry of Environmental Affairs, 2000)

29

Soil

The Holocene and Pleistocene deposits in the Gaza terrestrial area are approximately

160 m thick and cover the underlying Pliocene sediments. These deposits consist of

marine Kurkar formation, shell fragments and quartz sands cemented together, and

sometimes calcareous sandstone. Due to its high porosity and permeability the marine

Kurkar forms a good ground water aquifer. Most of the groundwater in the Gaza Strip

is extracted from this layer. The thickness of the marine Kurkar varies between 10 m

and 100 m showing a tendency to be thicker near the coast. The continental Kurkar

formation varies from friable to very hard, depending on the degree of cementation.

Alluvial and windblown sand deposits are found on top of the (Pleistocene) Kurkar

formations and can locally reach a thickness of 25 m. Four types of alluvial deposits

can be distinguished (Al-Agha, 2000).

• Sand dunes especially in the south near Rafah, oriented mainly ENE to WSW. More

to the north dunes become sporadic and the sand accumulations are scattered in a

zone of 2 to 3 km from the coast.

• Wadi fillings consisting of sandy loess and gravel beds, which can reach a thickness

of10 to 20 m.

• Alluvial and Aeolian deposits of varying thickness. In the northern part from the

Wadi Gaza alluvial deposits are widely distributed and are dominated by heavy,

loamy brown Clay.

• Beach formation consisting of a fairly thin layer of sand and shell fragments.

Water Level and Tides

The required data of High Annual Tide (HAT), and Low Annual Tide (LAD) with

respect to the Mean Sea Level (MSL) are obtained from the astronomical tidal tables

of 1988 and shown in Table (3.1) (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).

Extreme water level variations are commonly caused by barometric pressure variation

rather than by tides. These meteorological variations may often have more effect on

the sea level than tides. Figure (3.4) shows the monthly sea level variations (Delft

Hydraulics, 1994).

Table (3.1): Astronomical measurements for tidal levels

State Water level

HAT + 0.45 m

MSL 0.00

LAT - 0.35 m

(source: Delft Hydraulics, 1994)

30

Figure (3.4): Monthly sea level variations at Hadera GLOSS station no. 80 between

1992 and 2002

(source: Delft Hydraulics, 1994)

Climate

The climate is subtropical with well-defined climatic periods, i.e. prolonged hot and

dry summers and short mild winters, during which, most of the rain falls. The climate

is officially classified as Mediterranean-type climate. Temperatures during June-

September rise to 30° and in the winters fall to about 15° on average. The average

meteorological conditions during the summer seasons are related to the almost

permanent low pressure region north-east of Cyprus, with increasing pressure towards

the west. These atmospheric pressure conditions result in predominantly westerly wind

directions over the eastern part of the Mediterranean. These winds are usually weak,

rarely exceeding 15 m/s. The waves in the summer are low and consist mostly of swell

waves. The weather in the winter season is dominated by cyclones passing in easterly

directions. This results in rather unstable conditions with the most frequent winds

occurring from directions between south-east and north-east (through north-west).

These high winds generate high waves during the winter season (Delft Hydraulics,

1994).

Mean annual wave climate

As waves travel to the shore, a number of processes like refraction, shoaling, breaking,

friction and generation change the characteristics of the wave, generally towards lower

waves and a tendency to direct the wave more perpendicular to the coast (Delft

Hydraulics, 1994).

Extreme wave climate

On the basis of ships' observations, extrapolation to a 100 year occurrence was carried

out. The relation between the significant wave height Hs and the peak period Tp of the

31

wave energy spectrum was estimated upon HsTp 5 .Results for return periods

between one and 100 years are tabled below in Table (3.2) (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).

Table (3.2): Return periods wave height over 100 years

(source: Delft report, 1994)

Where:

Hs: Significant wave height.

H1000: Highest of 1000 waves in a storm characterized by Hs value above.

Hs: for return period of 50 years and contour of 18 m can be considered as 3.5 m.

Mean annual wind climate

Due to land and sea breeze the onshore wind climate is different from the offshore

wind climate, where in winter the prevailing wind direction is SW. During summer the

prevailing winds are from NW directions (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).

Extreme wind climate

For the extreme winds, it is expected that the dominantly westerly extreme winds

onshore and offshore produce similar results. The complete data set is given below in

Table (3.3) (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).

Table (3.3): Winds speed return periods

(source: Delft report 1994)

Currents

The general current pattern in the east Mediterranean Sea is a counter-clockwise flow

around Cyprus. However, when winds from unusual directions are strong and

persistent, local drift current opposed to the general circulations may develop.

return period 1 5 10 25 50 100

Open sea Hs (m) 6.5 7.8 8.3 9.0 9.6 10.0

10m contour Hs (m) 4.9 5.8 6.2 6.6 7.0 7.4

10 m contour H1000 (m) 7.9 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.5

Return period (year) 1 hour (m/s) 6 hours (m/s)

1 23.6 19.6

50 31.5 27.8

100 32.6 29.0

500 35.7 __

32

Flow velocities due to the tide and the large-scale anti-clockwise gyre in the SE corner

of the Levantine Basin are small in the near shore zone. In the deeper regions their

maximum magnitude is about 0.2 m/s. Wave-induced currents in the breaker zone,

under extremely severe wave conditions, might reach maximum velocities of 1.0 m/s

according to numerical model results. These values are so low that currents have no

significance for nautical consideration (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).

Climatic characteristics

For wind magnitude and direction, we've got a study that was made by the Ministry of

Transportation for the wind direction and magnitude for year 1993 and 2006. Also we

found a study on the magnitudes of waves on monthly basis. In our design process, we

are going to consider these studies.

Gaza Seaport

The Mediterranean coast of Gaza strip, which is covered about 40 km in length, is rich

by coastal resources. The development that occurred along the coastal lines has led to

the host of problems such as increased erosion, siltation, loss of coastal resources.

The primary sediment source of the Eastern Mediterranean is the Nile River. Nile

sands have been transported from the outlets of the river to the Palestinian coast by

consistent west-to-east and southwest-to-northeast alongshore currents generated by

westerly approaching waves (Goldsmith, 1980). In recent decades, the coast has been

plagued by a serious shortage of sand and by erosion. The sand shortage results from

the building of coastal structures that are acting as sediment traps and therefore causing

sand shortages on adjacent beaches. Construction of the low Aswan dam in 1902 and

the high Aswan dam in 1964 has almost completely interrupted the Nile River

sediment discharge to the sea. Fortunately for Gaza, the Bardawil lagoon sandbar

continues to act as a significant source and supplier of sand to Gaza coast (Inman,

1976).

The coast of Gaza was affected by man-made structures prior to the fishing harbor. In

the early 1970s two groins, 120 m long each 500 m apart were built in Gaza City. Sand

accumulation occurred south of the southern groin to a distance of 1.1 km. On the other

hand, erosion took place north of the northern groin to a distance of 1.2 km. The

erosion was controlled by a series of nine detached breakwaters built in 1978. The

detached breakwaters, 50-120 m long, were built 50 m from the coast line at a depth

of 1 m (Zviely and Klein, 2003).

Gaza fishing harbor, shown in Figure (3.5), is located on the Mediterranean coast of

Palestine. It was built between 1994 and 1998 on a straight sandy beach backed by

33

sand dunes. The length of the existing main breakwater is 1,000 m and that of the lee

breakwater is 300 m. The head of the main breakwater is at water depth of 9 m, and

the entrance of the harbor was 6 m deep when it was built. The harbor penetrates

seaward from the shore to a distance of about 500 m (Abualtayef et al., 2013).

Figure (3.5): Gaza fishing harbor

(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)

The development that occurred along the coastal lines has led to the host of problems

such as increased erosion, siltation, loss of coastal resources and the destruction of the

fragile marine habitats. In order to conserve the depleting coastal resources, the

changes due to development and associated activities must be monitored. Studying the

temporal pattern of shoreline change is considered one of the most effective means of

monitoring the cumulative effects of different activities. The analyses identified the

erosion and accretion patterns along the coast. The shoreline was advanced south of

the Gaza fishing harbor, where the wave-induced littoral transport was halted by

southern breakwater and the annual beach growth rate was 15,900 m2. On the down-

drift side of the harbor, the shoreline was retreating and beaches erode at an annual

rate of -14,000 m2. The coastal band is considered as a critical area, it is therefore

necessary to monitor coastal zone changes because of the importance of environmental

parameter and human disturbance. In particular, the projections of future shoreline

erosion and accretion rates are considered important for long-term planning and

environmental assessment for a variety of projects, including the construction and

tourism facilities (Abualtayef et al., 2013).

34

Sediment Transport and Shoreline Change

The rapid increase of the population on and near the coastal areas leads to an increase

of coastal resources exploitation. Thus, coastal zone areas are under great pressure

from both the human activates and geomorphologic coastal processes. Coastal erosion

is evidenced by collapsed trees, buildings, roads and other structures, including groins

which prompting the need for immediate and local protection to prosperities, there is

a need to ensure the long term protection for the overall coast from serious problems

such as erosion.

The fishing harbor has locally disturbed the coastal erosion and sedimentation pattern,

resulting in local coastal sand erosion problems. Buildings and roads that have been

constructed close to the shoreline are already faced stability problems and other related

negative impacts. It is expected to have serious erosion problems in the coming years.

Generally, deposits are in balance with erosion, however changing the shape of the

present coastal line by building barriers, wave breakers and sea ports can prevent the

movement of sand and therefore cause beach erosion. Recently after the construction

of the fishing harbor, the need to protect the coastal zone of Gaza is increased.

Gaza coastal zone is growing fast, and the growth rate is attributed to its potential for

several economic activities and the existing pressure of urban expansion.

As a counter-measure to this, the construction waste was deployed in the eroded area,

which is working as a beach revetment, to mitigate the severe beach erosion and

protecting the hotels. UNRWA has constructed gabions along the Beach Camp with a

total length of 1650 m to protect the main coastal road. Several short groins have been

construction along the Beach Camp for shoreline preservation. However, these

mitigations are not effective. Therefore, significance measures should be undertaken

to protect the beaches against coastal processes due to the fishing harbor (Abualtayef

et al., 2013).

In response to the negative impacts of Gaza fishing harbor, Abualtayef et al. (2012)

evaluated several mitigation measures which are:

Relocation of Gaza fishing harbor to offshore,

Groins,

Detached breakwaters,

Wide-crested submerged breakwaters and

Beach Nourishment

Several numerical model tests associated with coastal structures are conducted to

investigate the influence on morphodynamics. The results is presented in Table (3.4)

show that the relocation of the harbor is the best alternative to stop trapping of the

35

sediments. If for any reason the relocation was not carried out, the wide-crested

submerged breakwater alternative is an effective structure for preventing sandy beach

erosion. The artificial reef type of submerged breakwaters with beach nourishment is

recommended for Gaza beach, because it is an environmentally friendly and improving

the ecosystem of marine life (Abualtayef et al., 2013).

The environmental impact on the morphodynamic of the five scenarios of Gaza fishery

harbor show that the offshore harbor model test has the most positive impact on the

environment in which nearly no sand trapping or erosion is taken place at the study

area.

Table (3.4): Environmental impact of various mitigation alternatives

Mitigation alternative Annual rate

[m3 km-1] Remarks

Relocation of harbor + 4×103 Accretion

Detached Breakwater -23×103 Erosion

Submersed Breakwater +28×103 Accretion

Groins field system -22×103 Erosion

(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)

The incident waves at the deep sea are almost normal to the shoreline and accordingly

the cross-shore sediment component will be dominated and less amount of sediment

transport will be transported alongshore. Therefore, offshore breakwater will

decelerate the cross-shore current and then reducing the amount of sediment to be

transported. For the time being, the submersed breakwater (artificial reef type) shows

an attractive protection from both morphological and environmental points of view

(Abualtayef et al., 2013).

Based on the sediment transport, the environmental impact and the numerical model

analysis, the recommended alternative is the relocation of harbor. Abualtayef et al.

(2012) studied the variation in the shoreline along the Gaza coast during 38 years from

1972 to 2010. the analyses identified the erosion and accretion patterns along the coast.

The shoreline was advanced south of the Gaza fishing harbor, where the wave-induced

littoral transport was halted by southern breakwater and the annual beach growth rate

was 15,900 m2. On the down drift side of the harbor, the shoreline was retreating and

beaches erode at an annual rate of -14,000 m2.

Most of the soft sandy coasts are subject to the dynamics of sediment transport which

is supplied to the coast by valleys or rivers and then redistributed along the shore and

seashore by the action of waves, tides and winds. The littoral active zone is therefore

a dynamic area, where sand is stored, transported and exchanged. Sandy beaches are

the central element of this sedimentary system and are considered as buffer zones,

protecting the coast from sea attack and erosion. Therefore, reduction in sand supply

36

or increase in sand loss, by natural or anthropogenic factors, can result in the long term

change in beach morphology. Human activities like harbor’s construction on beach

can modify and upset the fluxes in the beach mechanisms. These changes cause the

localized erosion or deposition of sediments or their shifts along the coastline

(Abualtayef et al., 2012).

The shoreline is the interface between land and sea. This is not a fixed or stationary

line since it is affected by various factors such as storms, tides, waves, current,

sediment transport, morphology of sea bed and sea level rise, which vary in time. A

natural shoreline can therefore accrete or erode depending on the prevailing forces or

elements of nature in the coastal processes. A stable shoreline is one where its mean

position remains unchanged over a period of time. This is also described as being in a

state of dynamic equilibrium. When one or more of these natural forces or elements

are disturbed or changed, it results in imbalance in sediment transport in the coastal

system and the coastline will no longer be in dynamic equilibrium and a net erosion or

accretion will take place.

One can understand the proportion of beach erosion by comparing the width of the

beaches south and north of the Gaza harbor. The lack of data and regular monitoring

constitutes a serious obstacle in assessing the erosion rate and observe any trends in

erosion and accretion. Therefore, the accuracy of the computed results is heavily

leaning on the quality of the input. Figure (3.6) demonstrates the shoreline change and

the rate of erosion and accretion extent during the period of 1972-2010.

37

Figure (3.6): Gaza shoreline change from 1972 to 2010

(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)

38

The average annual accretion and erosion rates from 1972 to 2010 were 5.3 m and 4.7

m, respectively. Detailed analysis for the four intervals of times is as follows:

Table (3.5): Accretion analysis for the study area

Image

period

Erosion Accretion

total ×103

[m2]

rate ×103

[m2 year-1]

average

[m year-1] total ×103

[m2]

rate ×103

[m2 year-1]

average

[m year-1]

1972-1984 180 15.0 5.0 122 10.2 3.4

1984-1998 200 14.3 4.8 224 16.0 5.3

1998-2003 8 1.6 0.5 190 38.0 12.7

2003-2010 143 20.4 6.8 70 10.0 3.3

Total 531 14.0 4.7 606 15.9 5.3

(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)

The post-classification change detection image Figure (3.6) reveals a total accretion of

122×103 m2 with a rate of 10.2×103 m2 year-1, and a total erosion of 180×103 m2 with

a rate of 15.0×103 m2 year-1 (Abualtayef et al., 2013).

Table (3.5). After the construction the two groins and nine detached breakwaters, the

advancing shoreline and accretion occurred on the up drift side of these structures that

was constructed in 1972 and 1978. These structures have interrupted the prevailing

north ward flowing alongshore current; consequently, its load of sediment has been

deposited south of the structures. When the alongshore current reaches the down drift

side of the breakwaters, it becomes active and thus erosion and retreat of the shoreline

occurs.

Gaza fishing harbor was completely constructed in 1998, and its effect on the shoreline

was examined during this interval of period. The analysis of Landsat images indicated

that a total of 224×103 m2 of land (accretion) has been added to this site. The post-

classification change detection image Figure (3.6) indicates the location and

magnitude of coastal change. The shoreline south of Gaza harbor has advanced as a

result of the interruption of the dominant north ward flowing alongshore current by the

harbor breakwater. Consequently, its sediment load was deposited and the shoreline

has advanced. The new land has been added on the up drift side of the breakwater

south of Gaza harbor, at a rate of 16.0×103 m2 year-1.

Table (3.5). On the other hand, severe erosion has occurred on the down drift side of

the breakwater south of the harbor, where wave-induced alongshore currents become

active leading to greater erosion. The result has been shoreline retreat with a total loss

of land approaching 200×103 m2 with a rate of 14.3×103 m2 year-1.

Moreover, foreshore dunes have been removed and many roads and building close to

the shore have been faced instability problems Figure (3.7.a). To mitigate this erosion,

beach revetment from construction waste, gabions and series of short groins were

39

constructed Figure (3.7); however, these measures failed to diminish erosion and the

beach erosion is still continuing.

Figure (3.7): North to Gaza fishery port: a) dunes and mitigation measures such as

b) revetments, c) gabions and d) groins

(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)

The Landsat image analyses shown in Figure (3.6) estimated a 190×103 m2 have been

added to the beach area in 5 years Table (3.5) with a rate of 38.0×103 m2 year-1, which

represents the highest rate of accretion. However, the erosion is the minimum rate in

38 years. This is due to the dumping of construction waste as a revetment. The

revetment protection was active for a short period and the erosion rate was increased

after 2003.

The analyses result showed that the total erosion between 2003 and 2010 was 143×103

m2 with a rate of 20.4×103 m2 year-1. The erosion rate during this period was the highest

and this was due to the continuous wave actions and the mitigation of revetment and

groins were no longer being active. Furthermore, because of large quantities that

trapped behind the harbor (at the updrift side) may redirect the alongshore currents to

deep water and

40

Consequently, large amount of sediments were redirected into deep sea. The total

accretion area was 70×103 m2 with a rate of 10.0×103 m2 year-1. During 38 years, a

total added land at the up drift side of Gaza harbor was 606×103 m2 with an average

rate of 15.9×103 m2 year-1 and the total erosion at the down drift side was 531×103 m2

with an average rate of 14.0×103 m2 year-1. From these figures, it was found that

negative rates are taken place and the erosion was the predominant process. Gaza

harbor caused a serious damage to the northern beaches and it prevents the free

movement of sediments that lead to sedimentation in the south and erosion in the north.

Comparing aerial images from 1972 and 2010 show that the southern side of the beach

was enlarged by 0.75 m per year and the northern side of the beach was eroded by 1.15

m per year over a beach length of 6 km.

Impacts of Gaza Fishery Seaport on sedimentation

Coastal erosion is an ongoing hazard affecting Gaza beach, but is worsening due to a

wide range of human activities such as the construction of Gaza fishing harbor in 1994-

1998. The net annual alongshore sediment transport is about 190×103 m3 , but can vary

significantly depending on the severity of winter storms. According to the observed

wave heights and directions, the net waves are cross-shore, therefore vast quantities of

sediments may transfer to deep sea. Abualtayef et al. (2012) provide various models

to mitigate the erosion problem of Gaza coast. Change detection analysis was used to

compute the spatial and temporal change of Gaza shoreline between 1972 and 2010.

The results show negative rates in general, which means that the erosion was the

predominant process. Gaza fishing harbor caused a serious damage to the Beach Camp

shoreline. Consequently, several mitigation measures were considered in this study,

which are: relocation of Gaza fishing harbor to offshore, groins, detached breakwaters,

wide-crested submerged breakwaters and beach nourishment. Several numerical

model tests associated with coastal structures are conducted to investigate the

influence on morphodynamics. The results show that the relocation of the harbor is the

best alternative to stop trapping of the sediments. If for any reason the relocation was

not carried out, the wide-crested submerged breakwater alternative is an effective

structure for preventing sandy beach erosion. The artificial reef type of submerged

breakwaters with beach nourishment is recommended for Gaza beach, because it is an

environmentally friendly and improving the ecosystem of marine life.

41

Figure (3.8): Marine structures along Gaza coast: a) Two groins built in 1972, b)

Nine detached breakwaters built in 1978, and c) Gaza fishing harbor built in

1994~1998

(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)

Offshore fishing harbor model test: Figure (3.9 (a, b) shows the computed results of

wave height distribution and depth average current velocity around the offshore

harbor, respectively. From these figures, it was found that two vortices are formed

between the harbor and shoreline. Clockwise vortex and counter-clockwise vortex are

formed at the right side and at the left side, respectively. The strongest currents of 1.0

ms-1 are observed near the harbor’s entrance. The wave height decreases toward the

shoreline and nearly calm behind the harbor. Figure (3.9 (c, d) shows the initial

bathymetry and computed one after one year beach revolution, respectively. It was

found from these figures that slight changes of the morphodynamic were taken place

in which the shoreline was advanced and forming two small salients, siltation was

accumulated at the harbor’s entrance and erosion up to 4 m water depth was taken

place near the edge of northern breakwater. In general, no significant morphodynamic

changes were taken place within the study area (Abualtayef et al., 2013).

42

Figure (3.9): Offshore fishing harbor model test: a)Wave heights b)Currents

c)Bathymetry before modelling d) Bathymetry after one year modelling

(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)

Based on the sediment transport, the environmental impact and the numerical model

analysis, the recommended alternative is the relocation of harbor. In case the relocation

could not be implemented, the submerged artificial reef breakwater would be selected.

However, the artificial reef breakwater will transfer the problem to the north.

Therefore, combination of nourishment alternative and submerged breakwater is

required. The nourishment is used to maintain the shoreline and the erosion at the

down-drift side while submerged breakwaters are used as a protection structure. The

annual amount of nourishment of 110×103 m3 is required at the down-drift side (i.e.

82×103 m3 due to trapping of sediments behind the existing harbor and 28×103 m3

due to the trapping of sediments behind the artificial reef).

Chapter 4

Materials and Methods

50

Chapter 4 Materials and Methods

Introduction

Producing of reusable crushed material was an essential step to obtain the best bene-

fits from generated post-war rubble such as reducing the total volume of the rubble in

already overloaded landfills and bridging the gap between demand and supply of

construction aggregates in construction demand industry taking into consideration

performing required tests that approve the application of such recycled materials.

This chapter provides detailed analysis for the quantities of the debris materials, soil,

and conceptual design for the recommended offshore fishery port by Abualtayef et al.

(2013). Also, this chapter shows the detailed study methodology.

In 2009, the quantities of debris were gathered from UNDP and other relevant

authorities in the Gaza Strip. Then, the samples were taken by two teams from IUL

and AEL labs arranged for taking a sample from 30,000 tons of crushed materials from

post-war rubble. All tests were performed according to the international standards.

The objective of testing crushed materials was to determine the technical

feasibility/applicability of using the recycled concrete rubble collected from post-war

affected sites in Gaza Strip in road construction as an alternative for the natural

aggregate in road construction or other applications. Generally, the performed tests

aimed to highlight the possibility of producing recycled aggregates from concrete

rubble. The characteristics of such aggregates were determined and compared to

international standards. The reuse alternative was investigated in road and concrete

construction throughout all performed tests.

The test results showed that the recycling of the concrete rubble aggregates and its use

in road sub-base gives acceptable results. Thus, recycled aggregates can be considered

as a good alternative to natural aggregates especially in road constructions.

Site Bathymetry

The bathymetric features of the Gaza fishing port were gathered by real field survey

using sonar as it shown in Figure (4.1). Sonar is a technique that uses sound propagat-

ion underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigate, communicate with or detect

objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels. According to the

bathymetric survey, the water depth was taken at every 250 meter along the fishing

port shoreline and these data are shown in Table (4.1).

51

Table (4.1): The bathymetry features of the Gaza fishing port

Offshore (m) 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Depth (m) 0 -4 -7 -9.5 -11 -14 -16

Figure (4.1): The bathymetric features of the Gaza fishing port

Materials and Quantities

The 51-day July-August 2014 military operation in the Gaza Strip has brought tragic

consequences to all 1.8 million Gaza residents and caused the destruction of social and

public basic infrastructure. In order to verify the preliminary infrastructure damage

assessment findings and to further inform on the actual damages, the Higher Inter-

Ministerial Committee tasked UNDP to conduct a detailed infrastructure damage

assessment in collaboration with line ministries, UNRWA, UNOSAT and WFP.

UNDP estimated that around two million tons of rubble have been generated during

the 51 days Israeli military operation on Gaza, which is three times more than the

amount of rubble generated during 2008-09 Gaza war. The detailed quantity of

generated rubble according to the Gaza Strip governorates is shown in Table (4.2)

(UNDP, 2016).

52

Table (4.2): Detailed quantity of generated rubble

No. Governorate North Gaza Middle Khan

Younis Rafah

Total

(Actual)

Total

(UNDP

Target)

1 Total Rubble

(ton) 547,526 611,225 148,205 382,342 286,816 1,976,115 2,000,000

2 No. of

Buildings 352 352 121 329 341 1,495

The analysis results of specific gravity for the crushed material is 2.35, accordingly

the available volume of filling material for reclamation is about 850,000 m3 (UNDP,

2016).

Characteristics Analysis of Debris

UNDP (2009) conducted testing program on samples were taken from concrete rubble

collected from post-war rubble. Beside these practical tests, many other researches and

tests for research purposes were performed. The results show good opportunities for

using crushed concrete rubble in construction industry. In parallel with recycling

concrete rubble, many researches and tests were conducted focusing on potential reuse

of this material in construction industry. Most of conducted tests were performed

taking into consideration previous international experience in this field where more

than 900 million tons of concrete rubble is annually generated and partially reused in

USA, Europe and Japan (El Kharouby, 2011).

For this purpose, United Nations Industry Development Organization (2005)

conducted a testing program to investigate the application of construction and

demolishing wastes in construction industry in the Gaza Strip. The performed testing

program aimed to highlight the possibility of producing recycled aggregates from the

construction and demolition wastes (CDW) and was performed on a sample taken from

concrete rubble in Rafah area. The characteristics of such aggregates were determined

and compared to international standards. The reuse alternative is investigated in

concrete mixes and road construction throughout comprehensive testing program. The

test results showed that the recycling of the CDW aggregates and its use in both

concrete and road subbase gives acceptable results (El Kharouby, 2011).

Sieve analysis

The collected samples of crushed concrete rubble were sieved and the results were

plotted on a logarithmic scale in order to compare the test results of the samples with

the standard values of AASHTO for base course and sub-base materials grade (A).

According to both labs, both samples showed that they were going down to lower

standard limit which represents the course limit. Some of the samples were courser

than the standard limits and others were slightly matching these limits. From technical

point of view, this gradation is acceptable to some extent. The large particles, greater

53

than 2.5 cm are suitable for road applications However, for concrete application it is

recommended to use small particles, smaller than 2.5 cm (El Kharouby, 2011).

For concrete application it was recommended to conduct three tests: Compressive

Strength Test at 7 and 28 days, Slump Test and Air Content test by using small

particles, smaller than 2.5 cm. These particles were available in the sieve analysis of

the studied samples. In addition, the sieved particles are preferred to be classified

according to the prevailing local market sizes and local common names in Gaza Strip

which are: Folia, Adasia and Semsemia. Physical properties of these fractions as

obtained from previous studies are shown in Table (4.3) (El Kharouby, 2011).

Table (4.3): Physical properties of concrete aggregate fraction

Commercial

Name

Used in Gaza

Size

Fraction

(mm)

Fineness

Modulus

Unit Weight

kg/m3

B.S.G Absorption %

Type1 (Folia #5) 25.0-4.75 7.42 1478.5 2.65 3.13

Type2 (Adasia) 12.5-4.75 6.89 1468.1 2.60 3.00

Type3 (Semsemia) 9.5-2.36 5.72 1526.6 2.55 2.00

(source: El Kharouby, 2011)

Analysis of gradation

Results of the sieve analysis for the collected samples in comparison with AASHTO

standards for road applications showed that the crushed material is classified as coarse

material greater than 4.75 mm (sieve no. 4). As shown in

Table (4.4) , the coarse and fine materials in the samples were on average of 76.68%

and 23.32% respectively. The amount of course materials according to AASHTO

should not exceed 70% and for fine materials 40%. This means that an additional

amount of fine materials should be added to increase the percentage of this material.

Table (4.4): Course and fine aggregate contents

LAB Coarse

Aggregate (%) Fine Aggregate (%)

Islamic University Laboratory (IUL) 82.00 18.00

Association of Engineers Laboratory (AEL) 71.36 28.64

Average of two labs 76.68 23.32

(source: El Kharouby, 2011)

Table (4.5) shows the test results for other essential requirements of crushed concrete

comparing to international standards

54

Table (4.5): Test results of essential characteristics of concrete rubble

Test Name Standard Average

Result Standard Requirements

Liquid Limit

BS 1377

20.25%

According to AASHTO and ASTM

for sub-base and base materials, this

value should not exceed 25%.

Specific Gravity ASTM-854 2.35 Lower than crushed natural rock stone

Absorption ASTM-2216 5.55 %

Finer than #200

sieve (%)

ASTM-1140

1.95

Clay lumps &

Friable Particles

(%)

ASTM-142

0.15

According to BS 882:1992, this value

is very low which this is advantage

for construction application.

Flakiness Index

BS 812

24.5%

According to BS 882: 1992, this

value should be less than 40% for

road construction.

Elongation Index

BS 812

9.1%

According to BS 882: 1992, this

value should be less than 40% for

road construction.

Max. Dry

Density ASTM-1557

1.97

gm/cm3 Local CODE 2.15%

Optimum Water

Content ASTM-1557 10.25%

Los Angeles

Abrasion Test

ASTM-131

41.75%

AASHTO maximum allowed value,

to be used in the road construction as

base course material is 45% at 500

Rev.

California

Bearing Ratio

“CBR” at 100

Rev.

ASTM-1883

163%

Minimum required value (80%) for

base course at 100% compaction

according to AASHTO (T180-D)

and T193.

Sand Equivalent

ASTM-2419

66.6%

local standards for base course:

Minimum 35% sand equivalent at any

stage of road construction.

Impact Value BS 812 28% According to BS 882: 1992, this

value is SUITABLE.

Crushing value BS 812 26.15%

(source: El Kharouby, 2011)

55

Recycled Concrete Rubble (RCR) seems to have satisfying properties for the most

common exposure conditions. It can solve many of the basic problems concerning

shortage of construction materials in roads and concrete construction and reclamation.

In addition, as natural resources diminish, the demand for recycled concrete aggregate

is likely to increase, making concrete recycling the economically and environmentally

preferable alternative to traditional “smash and trash” demolition. Wherever good

natural aggregates are not locally available, where natural aggregate costs exceed

removal and recycling costs or where disposal of existing concrete pavement or

concrete structures is problematic, concrete recycling should be evaluated. Moreover,

concrete recycling appears to be profitable. In most cases, it can meet demand

requirements of lower value product applications such as land reclamation.

Finally, the detailed tests for hazardous materials, asbestos, and heavy metals was

carried out by UNEP showed that the post-war rubble concrete contained around 10%

of asbestos and some UXOs that were a big threat for human health and no heavy

metals were found and the amount of other hazardous materials were within standard

for reuse of concrete rubble in construction industry (El Kharouby, 2011). Removing

these items and materials and storing them in a proper way had reduced this hazard to

the minimum. Generally, based on the results of all performed tests, it is recommended

to utilize of this material in land reclamation.

The Study Methodology

Based on the problems of the existing Gaza fishing harbor and the lack of lands and

its high cost on one hand and the large quantity of rubble resulted from the last 2014

war on Gaza Strip on the other hand. Moreover, the results of characteristics of

concrete rubble showed the possibility of using it in sea reclamation. Therefore, sea

reclamation will be the best solution to alleviate these problems. The study

methodology was implemented as it shown in the following steps:

Estimation the total quantity of rubble resulted from the 2014 war on Gaza Strip.

Testing characteristics of concrete rubble for sea reclamation possibility.

Studying the existing fishing harbor area and characteristics to determine the suitable

interventions and which tongues will be removed.

Defining the bathymetric features of the Gaza fishing port by real field survey using

sonar to determine the sea water depth at different points as it shown in Figure (4.1).

Estimation the rubble quantity resulted from removing the existing breakwaters of

the Gaza fishing harbor.

Estimation the total rubble quantity will be reclaimed by adding the previously

estimated removed rubble quantity to the resulted from the 2014 war on Gaza Strip

Defining the proposed reclaimed area dimensions and estimating its area as it shown

in Figure (4.2).

56

Figure (4.2): The proposed reclaimed area

Choosing the suitable sheet pile needed to reclamation based on the soil type, sea

water depth and loads.

Cost estimation of the proposed area reclamation.

Defining the trucks movement and routes during reclamation implementation.

Bridge Configuration

According to the view of this research, the recommended offshore port should be

connected by an appropriate bridge to the nearest shore’s bank. actually, in the design

process trial should be carried out to make a solution so that the tides cannot affect the

bridge span between the port and the shore line. That solution would be a bridge that

is high enough so that the tides are free beneath it. In this section, different types of

bridges were discussed to provides the designer with the suitable type to be used in

this project.

Types of Bridges According to Superstructure System

Generally, there are two types of bridges, which are steel bridges and reinforced

concrete bridges.

For the steel bridges, there are two main types of beam bridges: the simple span beam

supported at its ends and the cantilever, or a beam which substantially overhangs its

main supports. There are variations of both kinds of beam. The most common is the

truss, generally a combination is linked triangles or other various configuration, while

beam bridges of both types exert a vertical downward thrust on their supports, the

cantilever, owing to its inherent tendency to pivot when the overhangs are loaded, exert

an additional upward thrust at the other end. The piers for both beam types normally

have to support vertical load only, and are therefore comparatively simple in design.

But the forces with in a beam vary in its different parts, and include both thrust and

57

tension. The material used in a beam bridges must be capable of withstanding both

tension and compression. This type of bridges is called Rolled-Beam Bridges. (Figure

(4.3-a) shows a typical shape of this type of bridges.

However, the reinforced concrete bridges can be classified into: slab bridges, Deck-

Girder bridges, T-beams bridges and etc.

The slab bridges (Figure (4.3-b) are A simply supported highway slab bridge

consists of a monolithically placed slab which spans the distance between

supports without the aid of girders or stringers. The slab bridge is an efficient

structure for short span. Because of the weight of the solid slab, it is not

economical for long spans. Slab bridges have been used for simple spans up to

35 ft, but many designers find them most economical when they are not more

than 20-25 ft. continuity over the supports increases the economical span

length, but at the expense of simplicity in design and field procedures. For

simple spans, the span is the distance to the center of supports. Concrete slab

bridges are longitudinally reinforced and should also be reinforced transversely

to distribute the live loads laterally. The slab should be strengthened at all

unsupported edges. In the longitudinal direction, strengthening may be consist

of a slab section additionally reinforced, a beam integral with and deeper than

the slab, or an integral reinforced section of slab and curb.

The deck-girder bridges are A deck-girder bridge consists of longitudinal

main girders with concrete slabs spanning between the bridges. The spacing of

longitudinal girders or floor beams should be close enough to permit the use of

thin slabs so that the dead load remains relatively small. Deck-girder bridges

have many variations in design and fabrication. Deck-girder bridges are simple

to design and relatively easy to construct. They are economical to a

considerable range of span length. Some variations of deck-girder bridges in

design and fabrication are:

a) Reinforced-concrete T-beams, which is mostly used

b) Beams and floor cast monolithically

c) Precast beams and floor cast in place

d) Precast beams and precast floor section

e) Prestressed concrete

f) Prestressed girders and floor cast in place

g) Precast Prestressed girders with reinforced concrete floor slab cast in place.

h) Precast Prestressed girders with many possible methods of fabricating and

placing the floor.

The Reinforced Concrete T-beam This type of bridge, widely use in highway

construction, consists of concrete slab supported on and integral with girders.

It is especially economical in the 50 to 80 ft range where false work is

prohibited. Because of traffic conditions or clearance limitations, precast

construction of reinforced or pre stressed concrete may be used. But adequate

bond and shear resistance must be provided at the junction of slab and girder

58

to justify the assumption that they are integral. Figure (4.3-c) shows a typical

reinforced concrete T-beam.

(b) (a)

(c)

Figure (4.3): Types of bridges: a) A typical rolled-beam bridge, b) Slab bridge, c)

Reinforced concrete T-beams bridge

(source: T. R. Jagadeesh, 2009)

Chapter 5

Results and Discussion

56

Chapter 5 Results and Discussion

Introduction

Gaza fishing harbor considers the only port for the ships and boats of Gaza’s fishers,

but unfortunately this port causes significant problems of erosion/accretion along

Gaza’s coastline. In this regard, the coastal researchers studied in deep several

alternatives to relocate/redesign the port in order to mitigate its impacts on the

coastlines and nearby structures.

In this effort, Abualtyef et al. (2013) recommended that relocating the current situation

of Gaza fishing harbor into offshore fishing harbor is the most suitable alternative to

mitigate the erosion/accretion impacts, but the main obstacle of this design is the

generation of strong current of 1 m/s at the entrance of the harbor. However, this

obstacle can be overcome by some arrangements of structures. So, this chapter

explains and discuss the estimation process of the proposed reclaimed quantity and

area in addition to estimate the reclamation cost.

Existing Breakwaters Quantity Estimation

The quantity of construction wastes that intent to be used in relocating the current

design into offshore fishing harbor is 850,000 m3. Fortunately, the reclaimed area can

be increased if we exploit the used materials in the 300 m and 500 m breakwaters as

shown in Figure (5.1).

Figure (5.1): The existing Gaza fishing harbor

(source: Google earth, 2016))

57

To calculate the volume of rubble resulted from removing the 300 m and 500 m

breakwaters of the offshore fishing harbor, it assumed that this area is divided to three

different segments areas; a, b and c, then their dimensions is shown in Figure ( 5.2).

After that, the area of each segment is calculated separately as the following:

Figure ( 5.2): Illustration of the existing Gaza fishing harbor dimensions

Segment (a) area and volume estimation:

As segment length and width are 300m and 20m respectively, then

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

=300×20= 600m2

As the existing breakwater ground is 2m above sea water level and according to the

contour map of the sea water depth is shown in Figure (4.1) , the sea water depth at

the end of 300m breakwater away from the beach is -5m. Therefore, the volume of this

segment is calculated based on the dimensions is shown in Figure (5.3).

58

Figure (5.3): Dimensions and the depth of Breakwater (a)

Because of the resulted segment shape is trapezoidal, the volume is calculated by the

following equation:

The trapizoidal area = ((2 + 7) ÷ 2) × 300 = 1,350m2

Then, Segment (a) volume = 1350×20 = 27,000m3

Segment (b) area and volume estimation:

It assumed that the segment (b) is tringle shape with base 180m and the height 325m

as it shown in Figure (5.4).

Figure (5.4): Breakwater (b) dimensions

59

The segment surface area = ½ × 180 × 329 = 29250 m2

According to triangles calculation, the center of tringle considered within the closest

third to the triangle base, so the center is about 108m away from the beach. As it shown

in Figure (4.1), the sea water depth at this point is -3m and the existing breakwater

ground is 2m above sea water level. So,

The volume of the segment (b) = 29250× (2+3) = 146,250 m3

Segment (c) area and volume estimation:

It is assumed that the segment (c) is rectangular shape with base 175m length and 20m

width as it shown in Error! Reference source not found.) . So the area of segment

(b) = 175×20 = 3,500m2

Figure 5.5): Breakwater (c) dimensions

According to the contour map is shown in Figure (4.1), the sea water depth is -6 and -

7 at the distance 325m and 500m far away the beach respectively. Also, the existing

breakwater ground is 2m above sea water level. So,

The area of the trapezoidal = ((9+8)÷2)×175 = 1487.5 m2. Then,

The segment (c) volume = 1487.5×20 = 29,750 m3

Based on the calculated volume for each segment, the total volume of rubble produced

from removed these three segment is 203,000 m3. In addition, the available volume of

rubble accumulated from the last 2014 war on Gaza Strip is approximately 850,000 m3

as it shown in the section three in chapter four. So, the total available rubble volume

for proposed reclaimed area is 1,053,000 m3.

Estimation of the Proposed Reclaimed Area (Gaza Fishery Port)

In this section, the required area for proposed reclamation is calculated by using the

total amount of produced rubble which previously estimated as 1,053,000 m3.

60

According to the contour map is shown in Figure (4.1), the sea water depth at 500m,

600m and 700m away from the beach are -7m, -8m and -9m respectively. However,

the existing breakwater ground is 2m above sea water level.

Figure )5 6. ): Dimensions of proposed reclaimed area

To calculate the required area as it shown in Figure )5 6. ) , the following equation is

used:

The volume of new reclaimed area = [(𝒅𝟏+𝟐)+(𝒅𝟐+𝟐)

𝟐] × 𝒙 × 𝒍

D1 is the sea water depth at 500m away from the beach 7m (at the existing tongue)

D2 is the sea water depth at the end limit of the proposed reclaimed area away from

the beach

X is the distance from the existing 500m breakwater to the end limit of the proposed

reclaimed area away from the beach

l is the existing 500m breakwater length

by substitution with the variables values, the resulted equation with two

variables is solved by goal seek on excel program.

1,05,3000𝑚3 = [(7 + 2) + (𝑑2 + 2)

2] × 𝑥 × 500𝑚

So, the resulted value of d2 and x are 9.2m and 208.5m respectively.

As the existing 500m breakwater width is 20m approximately, so its area is 10000m2.

The proposed reclaimed area that will be added to the existing 500m tongue is

208.5 × 500 = 104,250 𝑚2

Cost Estimation of Proposed Reclaimed Area

Rubble transportation cost estimation

Based on the coordination with rubble relevant sectors, the accumulated rubble from

the last war in 2014 on Gaza Strip is considered available. So, the accumulated rubble

61

will be transported to the project site by assumption that the truck capacity is 16 m3.

As the cost of one truck trip is about 65$ and as the total quantity need to transport is

1,053,000m3, so the required trips number is 1053000÷16= 65813 trips

The total transport cost = 65813×65$= 4,277,812 USD

The filling and damping cost is estimated to be 200% of transport cost, so the total

needed cost= 4.3M USD×2 = 8.6M USD

Sheet piles cost

It is assumed that the need sheet pile section is PZC 28 as it shown in Figure )5 7. ). So,

the characteristics of the proposed sheet pile section is shown in Figure )5 8. ). However,

the real shape of the proposed sheet pile is clarified in Figure (5.9).

Figure )5 7. ): The proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28)

(source: Grand Piling, 2016)

62

Figure )5 8. ): The characteristics of the proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28)

(source: PilePro. 2016)

Figure (5.9): The real shape of the proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28)

(source: GERDAU, 2016)

Regarding to Figure )5 8. ), the weight of 1 square meter of PZC 28 section is 166.1

kg/m2.

63

Based on the previous calculation of the new reclaimed area with 500m length and

208.5m width in addition to the 20m width of the existing 500m breakwater, the total

width of the new reclaimed area is 228.5m.

The resulted shape is rectangular, so the total perimeter is (500+228.5) × 2 = 1457m

By assumption that the average of sea water depth at the new reclaimed area is 8m and

as the existing breakwater ground is 2m above sea water, the sheet pile will be installed

at 5m underground, so the total height of the installed sheet pile is 15m.

The total required sheet pile area = 1457×15 =21,855 m2

As the weight of 1 square meter of PZC 28 sheet pile section is 166.1 kg/m2, the total

needed weight of sheet pile is 166.1×21,855 = 3,630,115 kg ≈3630 tons

The global cost of PZC 28 sheet pile section is about 550$/ton. So,

the total cost of need sheet pile steel is 550×3,630 = 2M USD

Sheet pile installation cost

In common the sheet pile installation cost at the site is about 300% of the sheet pile

steal cost. So the installation cost is 2M ×300%= 6M USD

Finally, the total cost of the new reclamation area is equal to summation of rubble

transportation to the site project cost and installation of sheet pile steel cost. Therefore,

the total project cost is 8.6M + 6M = 14.6M USD.

In conclusion, as the total reclaimed area is 500 × 2285= 114,250m2, the cost of one

square meter of reclaimed area is 14,600,000/114,250 =130 USD/m2.

The results of all estimations and calculations discussed in this chapter are summarized

in Table5.1).

Table5.1): The main estimated results

Estimated item Result

The rubble quantity available from the 2014 aggression on Gaza 850,000m3

The rubble quantity from removing the existing breakwaters 203,000m3

The total quantity of rubble for reclamation 1,053,000m3

The total reclaimed area 114,250m2

Rubble transportation and dumping cost 8.6M USD

Sheet piles installation cost 6M USD

The total cost of the proposed reclamation area 14.6M USD

The cost of one square meter of reclaimed area 130 USD/m2

64

Proposed Reclamation Process

Defining the proposed reclaimed area that is the area located in the west of the

existing western breakwater.

Figure 5.10): Illustration of the proposed reclaimed area location and method

(source: DEME, 2014)

Choosing the suitable sheet pile needed to reclamation based on the soil type, sea

water depth and loads. Therefore, the chosen sheet pile type is hot rolled steel sheet

pile PZC 28. The sheet pile installation will be around the proposed reclaimed area.

Figure (5.11): Installation of sheet piles

(source: WIKI, 2016)

65

Defining the trucks movement and routes during reclamation implementation which

will be through segment b to segment c to fill the area is located in west segment d.

See Figure (5.12).

Figure (5.12): The trucks movement during reclamation process

Source: (Yin Pumin, 2014)

The reclamation steps will start with using the rubble resulted from 2014 war on

Gaza Strip, then continuing reclamation by using the rubble from removing the

existing tongues a, b and c respectively. Trucks movement during reclamation

process is considered, so the removing will be started by segment a then b and will

be finished by segment c. See Figure (5.13).

Figure (5.13): Reclamation activities

(source: BART CALLAERT, 2016)

66

Due to the problem of erosion and corrosion that previously discussed previously,

it is proposed that removing a, b and c existing breakwaters. So, it is recommended

that replacing them by a bridge as it shown in Figure (5.14).

Figure (5.14): The general view of proposed reclamation and bridge installation

(source: Xinhua, 2016)

Chapter 6

Conclusion and

Recommendations

69

Chapter 6 Conclusion and Recommendations

The fishing port of Gaza is an essential infrastructure to the Palestinian people

however, this port causes several accretion/erosion problems along Gaza shoreline. So,

this study provides an overview about using crashed construction materials in

relocating the existing port into an offshore port.

Conclusion

The following concluding remarks of the study are:

The implementation of such reclamation projects can be considered as an

urgent to Gaza Strip because of the increasing in population growth, the

economic recession and lack of areas.

Land reclamation in Gaza Strip is significant choice to mitigate problems of

massive volume of concrete rubble that was generated from the last war on

Gaza especially that almost all available landfills in the Gaza Strip are already

overloaded. On the other hand, the shortage of natural aggregate beside the

high prices made the recycle of concrete rubble as one of top priority for land

reclamation process.

Sea reclamation is the best solution for many problems, main of these is solving

problem of the area located in the north of Gaza fishery seaport. Reclamation

process will permit to sediments transport to the northern area.

Steel sheet piles are convenient to use because of their resistance to the high

driving stress that is developed when they are being driven into hard soils. Steel

sheet piles are also lightweight and reusable.

The total cost of reclamation 114 dunums area is 15M USD. So, the cost of one

square meter of reclaimed area is 130 USD. Based on this result, the cost of

sea reclamation is very feasible especially that Gaza fishery seaport is very

vital and important place which will be as a commercial port for goods

transportation.

Recommendations

On the light of all the discussions above, there are the research recommendations:

For the offshore seaport of Gaza, it is highly recommended to use the rubbles

as a filling or back up materials between several concrete tripods.

Because of the waves and tides, the borders of the reclamation area maybe

exposed to abrasion. So it is proposed that construction of water breaker in

front of the reclaimed area.

70

Same concrete blocks can be put beside the sheet pile on the other side. These

blocks also strengthen the sheet pile and makes it safer.

The concrete that must be used in the construction of bridge is pre-cast

concrete. It is easier in construction and requires less labor force.

This research recommends the researchers to increase their investigations on

modelling the proposed seaport against several scenarios by taking the change

in the characteristics of seawater and erosion and corrosion along several years.

This research recommends the researchers to carry studies about exploitation

of the Gaza fishery seaport as a commercial seaport for goods import and

export instead of paying enormous costs for goods exchange which are not

beneficiary to the Palestinian economy.

This research recommends the researchers to investigate on expansion of the

sea reclaimed area in the future and utilizing it for creational goals, football

playground and airstrip.

It is recommended that study feasibility of generating electricity from wave

energy surrounded the reclaimed area.

It is recommended to design a strong and economical bridge that shows the

exactly dimensions and details of all the bridge elements.

References

71

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Al-Agha, M.R. (2000). Access to the coast and erosion control: use of wastes on local

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Delft Hydraulics, (1994).Port of Gaza, basic engineering study. Final report, part II,

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