FamilyFamily

Basic ConceptsBasic Concepts

Family–A social institution found in all societies that unites people into cooperative groups to oversee the bearing and raising of children

Kinship–A social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption

Marriage–A legal relationship, usually involving economic cooperation, sexual activity, and childbearing

Families of affinity–People who think of themselves as a family and wish others to see them that way

Families: Global VariationsFamilies: Global Variations

Extended family–A family consisting of parents and children as well as other kin

◦Also called "consanguine families"

Nuclear family–A family composed of one or two parents and their children

◦Also called "conjugal family"

◦The predominant family form

Marriage PatternsMarriage Patterns

Endogamy–Marriage between people of the same social category

Exogamy–Marriage between people of different social categories

Monogamy–Marriage that unites two partners

Marriage PatternsMarriage Patterns

Polygamy–Marriage that unites a person with two or more spouses

◦Polygyny–Marriage that unites one man and two or more women

◦Polyandry–Marriage that unites one woman and two or more men

Residential PatternsResidential Patterns

Patrilocality◦With or near the husband’s family

Matrilocality◦With or near the wife’s family

Neolocality◦Setting up house apart from both families

Structural-Functional AnalysisStructural-Functional Analysis

The family performs many vital tasks◦Socialization–Creating well-integrated

members of society

◦Regulation of sexual activity–Maintenance of kinship order and property rights, incest taboos

◦Social placement–Births to married couples are preferred.

◦Material and emotional security–Home can be a haven.

Structural-Functional AnalysisStructural-Functional Analysis

Critical evaluation◦Glosses over great diversity of family life,

how other institutions are taking over its roles, and negative aspects like patriarchy and family violence

Social-Conflict &Social-Conflict &Feminist AnalysisFeminist Analysis

The family perpetuates social inequality.

◦Property and inheritance–Concentrates wealth and reproduces class structure

◦Patriarchy–To know their heirs, men must control women’s sexuality.

◦Racial and ethnic inequality–Racial and ethnic categories persist over generations because most people marry others like themselves.

Critical evaluation

◦Ignores that families carry out functions not easily accomplished by other means

Applying Theory Applying Theory FamilyFamily

Micro-Level AnalysisMicro-Level Analysis

Symbolic-Interaction◦Opportunities for sharing activities helps

build emotional bonds.Social-Exchange

◦Courtship & marriage as a negotiation to make the “best deal” on a partner.

Critical evaluation◦Misses the bigger picture; family life is

similar for people in similar social backgrounds and varies in predictable ways

Stages of Family LifeStages of Family Life

Courtship◦Arranged marriages vs. romantic love◦Homogamy–Marriage between people with

same social characteristicsSettling in

◦Ideal vs. real marriageChild rearing

◦Industrialization transformed children from assets to liabilities.

Later life◦Empty nest

Class, Race, and GenderClass, Race, and Gender

Social class◦Social class determines both a family’s financial

security and its range of opportunities.Ethnicity and race

◦American Indian Families◦Latino Families◦African American Families◦Ethnically and racially mixed marriages

Gender◦Bernard: Marriage benefits men more than

women.

Figure 18.2 Figure 18.2 Divorce Rate for the United Divorce Rate for the United States, 1890-2005States, 1890-2005

DivorceDivorce

In the US, nine out of 10 people will marry. Four in 10 marriages end in divorce. Why?◦Individualism on the rise◦Romantic love often subsides.◦Women are less dependent upon men.◦Many of today’s marriages are stressful.◦Divorce is socially acceptable.◦Legally, a divorce is easier to get.

Figure 18.3 Figure 18.3 Payment of Child Payment of Child Support after Support after DivorceDivorce..

RemarriageRemarriage

Four out of five people who divorce remarry, most within five years.

Remarriage often creates blended families.

Offer both young and old the chance to relax rigid family roles

Alternative Family FormsAlternative Family Forms

One-parent families◦Single parenthood increases a woman’s risk

of poverty because it limits work and education.

◦Poverty raises the odds that a young woman will be a single mother.

Cohabitation–The sharing of a household by an unmarried couple

Alternative Family FormsAlternative Family Forms

Gay and lesbian couples◦The trend in public opinion is toward greater

support for homosexual relationships.Singlehood

◦Increasing numbers of people are choosing to live alone.

Looking AheadLooking Ahead

Divorce rates remain high.◦More equality between sexes

All kinds of units will be called families.Men will continue to play a limited role

in child rearing.◦Many will remain absent from household

scenes.

Looking AheadLooking Ahead

Economic changes will affect families and reform marriage.◦Less quality time as work demands more

from parentsNew reproductive technologies

◦Ethical concerns about what can and what should be done

ReligionReligion

Basic ConceptsBasic ConceptsEmile Durkheim

◦Religion involves things that surpass the limits of our knowledge.

Profane–Ordinary elements of everyday life

Sacred–Set apart as extraordinary, inspiring awe and reverence

Religion–The social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the sacred

Ritual–Formal, ceremonial behavior

Religion and SociologyReligion and Sociology

Faith–Belief based conviction rather than scientific evidence

Sociology asks why religions take a particular form in one society or another.◦Asks how religious activity affects society as

a whole

Structural-functional AnalysisStructural-functional AnalysisDurkheim: Religion has 3 major

functions.◦Social cohesion

Totem–An object in the natural world collectively defined as sacred

◦Social control◦Provides meaning and purpose

Critical Evaluation◦Downplays religion’s dysfunctions such as

generating social conflict and violence

Symbolic-interaction AnalysisSymbolic-interaction Analysis

Religion is socially constructed. Berger: “Cosmic frame of reference” gives

us the appearance of “ultimate security and permanence.”

Critical Evaluation◦Downplays religion’s link to social inequality

Social-conflict AnalysisSocial-conflict Analysis

Religion serves the elites by legitimizing the status quo and diverting attention from social inequities.◦Disrupts cultures with attempts to “convert

heathens”◦Marx: “Opium of the people”

Critical Evaluation◦Downplays religion’s efforts to promote social

equality

Applying Theory Applying Theory ReligionReligion

Religious OrganizationsReligious OrganizationsChurch–A type of religious organization

that is well-integrated into the larger society

State church–Church formally allied with the state

Denomination–A church, independent of the state, that recognizes religious pluralism

Religious OrganizationsReligious OrganizationsSect–A type of religious organization

that stands apart from the larger society◦Charisma–Extraordinary personal qualities

that can turn people into followersCult–A religious organization that is

largely outside a society’s cultural traditions

Religion in HistoryReligion in HistoryIn pre-industrial societies

◦Animism–Elements of the natural world are conscious life forms that affect humanity

◦Belief in a single divine power responsible for creating the world began with pastoral and horticultural societies.

Religion in HistoryReligion in HistoryIn industrial societies

◦The Industrial Revolution introduced a growing emphasis on science.

◦Science: How does the world work?◦Religion: Why are we here?

Figure 19.1 Figure 19.1 Religiosity in Global PerspectiveReligiosity in Global Perspective

Table 19.1 Table 19.1 Religious Identification in the United States, 2004Religious Identification in the United States, 2004

Religion in the USReligion in the US

Religious affiliation◦New England, Southwest: Mostly Catholic◦South: Mostly Baptist◦Northern plains: Mostly Lutheran ◦Utah: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day

SaintsReligiosity–The importance of religion in

a person’s lifeReligious affiliation is related to social

class, ethnicity, and race.

National Map 19.1 National Map 19.1 Religious Membership across the United StatesReligious Membership across the United States

National Map 19.2 National Map 19.2 Religious Diversity across the United StatesReligious Diversity across the United States

Figure 19.2 Figure 19.2 Religious Nonaffiliation among Religious Nonaffiliation among First-Year College Students, First-Year College Students, 1970-20061970-2006

Religion in a Changing SocietyReligion in a Changing Society

Secularization–Historical decline in the importance of the supernatural and the sacred

Civil religion–A quasi-religious loyalty binding people in a basically secular society

Religion in a Changing SocietyReligion in a Changing SocietyReligious revival

◦New Age spirituality flourishes◦Interests increases in fundamentalism–A

conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism and worldly accommodation in favor of restoring traditional, otherworldly religion

The Electronic Church◦“Prime-time preachers” on television

EducationEducation

Education vs. SchoolingEducation vs. Schooling

Education–The social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge, including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values

Schooling–Formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers

Global Map 20.1 Global Map 20.1 Illiteracy in Global PerspectiveIlliteracy in Global Perspective

Functions of SchoolingFunctions of SchoolingSocialization

◦Primary schooling: Basic language and mathematical skills

◦Secondary schooling: Expansion of basic skills to include cultural values and norms

Cultural innovation◦Educational systems create as well as

transmit cultureSocial integration

◦Brings a diverse nation togetherSocial placement

◦The enhancement of meritocracy

Table 20.1 Table 20.1 Educational Achievement in the United States, 1910-2006Educational Achievement in the United States, 1910-2006

Latent Functions of SchoolingLatent Functions of SchoolingSchools as child-care providersEngages young people at a time in their

lives when jobs are not plentifulSets the stage for establishing

relationships & networksLink between particular schools and

career opportunities

Critical AnalysisCritical Analysis

Functionalist approach overlooks that the quality of schooling is far greater for some than for others.

US educational system reproduces the class structure in each generation

System transforms privilege into personal worthiness and social disadvantage into personal deficiency.

Schooling and Social InequalitySchooling and Social InequalitySocial control

◦Schooling reinforces the status quo.

◦Bowles & Gintis: The 19th-century rise of public education came when factory owners needed obedient, disciplined workers.

Standardized testing

◦Biased based on race, ethnicity, or class?

Schooling and Social InequalitySchooling and Social Inequality

School tracking

◦Tracking–Assigning students to different types of educational programs

◦Disadvantaged students typically end up in lower tracks.

School inequality

◦Public vs. private schools

◦Even public schools are not all the same.

Critical AnalysisCritical Analysis

Social-conflict approach minimizes the extent to which schooling enhances upward social mobility for talented men and women from all backgrounds.

Today’s college curricula (including sociology courses) challenges social inequity on many fronts.

Access to Higher EducationAccess to Higher Education

Money is largest stumbling block to higher education.

Family income is still best predictor for college attendance.

Those with the most schooling are likely to come from relatively well-off families to begin with.

National Map 20.1 National Map 20.1 Teachers’ Salaries across the United StatesTeachers’ Salaries across the United States

Figure 20.1 Figure 20.1 College Attendance and Family College Attendance and Family Income, 2005Income, 2005

Figure 20.2 Figure 20.2 Educational Educational Achievement for Achievement for Various Various Categories of Categories of People, Aged 25 People, Aged 25 Years and Over, Years and Over, 20062006

Expanding Higher EducationExpanding Higher Education

The government makes money available to help certain categories of people pay for college.

Community colleges◦Low tuition◦Special importance for minorities◦Attract students from abroad◦Faculty focuses on teaching.

Applying Theory Applying Theory EducationEducation

Problems in SchoolsProblems in Schools

Discipline and violence◦Many believe schools need to teach

discipline because it isn’t addressed within the home setting.

◦Students and teachers are assaulted.◦Weapons are brought to school.◦Society’s problems spill into schools.

Student passivity◦Many students are bored.

BureaucracyBureaucracy

Rigid uniformity◦Insensitive to cultural character of community

Numerical ratings◦Success defined in terms of numbers on test

scores

Rigid expectations◦Age and grade-level expectations

Specialization◦Many courses, many teachers; no one teacher

knows a student

Little individual responsibility◦Students not encouraged to learn on their own

College: The Silent ClassroomCollege: The Silent Classroom

Passivity is also common among college and university students.

Karp and Yoels: Most students think classroom passivity is their fault.

Students find little value in classroom discussion.

Dropping OutDropping OutThe dropout rate has declined slightly in

recent decades.Dropping out is least pronounced

among non-Hispanic whitesResearchers: Actual dropout rates are

probably at least twice the government's numbers.

Some reasons for dropping out:◦Problems with the English language ◦Pregnancy◦Must work to help support their family

Academic StandardsAcademic Standards• Functional illiteracy–A lack of reading and

writing skills needed for everyday living

• The US spends more on schooling than almost any other country, but teens still show low science and math skills.

• US students generally are less motivated and do less homework than Japanese students.

• Japanese students spend 60 more days in school each year than US students.

Figure 20.3 Figure 20.3 Grade Inflation Grade Inflation in U.S. High in U.S. High SchoolsSchools

School ChoiceSchool ChoicePro: School choice creates a market for

schooling so parents and students can shop for the best value.

Con: Such programs erode national commitment to public education, especially in urban schools.◦Magnet schools–Schools that offer special

facilities and programs to promote educational excellence in a particular area.

◦Charter schools–Public schools with more freedom to try new policies and programs

◦Schooling for profit–School systems operated by private, for-profit companies

Home SchoolingHome Schooling

• Gaining popularity

• Involves more school-age children than magnet schools, charter schools, and for-profit schools combined

• Pro: Better results

• Con: “Takes some of the most affluent and articulate parents out of the system”

Schooling People Schooling People with Disabilitieswith Disabilities

About half of all children with disabilities are schooled in special facilities; the rest attend public schools.

Mainstreaming–Integrating students with disabilities or special needs into the overall educational program◦Works best for physically impaired students who

can keep up academically

The Teacher ShortageThe Teacher Shortage

Schools have adopted new recruitment strategies.

Incentives: Higher salaries and signing bonuses

States could make certification easier.

School districts are actively recruiting in such countries as Spain, India, and the Philippines.

Schooling: Looking AheadSchooling: Looking Ahead

The last decade has seen many new ideas about schooling.

Significant changes in mass education are likely.

New information technology will reshape schools

But it won’t solve all the problems, including violence and rigid bureaucracy

Health and MedicineHealth and Medicine

HealthHealth

Health is as much a social as a biological issue.

Patterns of well-being and illness are rooted in social organization.

A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being

Health and SocietyHealth and Society

1. Cultural patterns define health.2. Cultural standards of health change over

time.3. A society’s technology affects people’s

health.4. Social inequality affects people’s health.

Health: A Global SurveyHealth: A Global SurveyHealth in low-income countries

◦Relatively short life expectancy ◦Most die before reaching their teens.◦Poor sanitation is a killer.

Health in high-income countries◦By the early 20th century, death rates from

infectious diseases had fallen sharply.◦Now chronic illnesses cause most deaths,

usually in old age.

Table 21.1 Table 21.1

Leading Leading Causes of Causes of Death in the Death in the United States, United States, 1900 and 20041900 and 2004

National National Map 21.1 Map 21.1 Health across Health across the United the United StatesStates

Figure 21.1 Figure 21.1 Life Expectancy of U.S. Life Expectancy of U.S. Children Born in 2004Children Born in 2004

Who Is Healthy?Who Is Healthy?Social epidemiology–The study of how

health and disease are distributed throughout a society’s population

Factors include:◦Age◦Gender◦Social class◦Race

Age & GenderAge & Gender

Death is now rare among young people.

Across the life course, women fare better than men.

Our cultural conception of masculinity pressures men.

Social Class and RaceSocial Class and Race

Higher income and wealth boosts health:◦better nutrition◦better health care◦safer and less stressful surroundings

Infant mortality◦Twice as high for disadvantaged children as

for children born into privileged families.◦Poorest US children are as vulnerable to

disease as those in low-income nations

Cigarette SmokingCigarette Smoking

Most preventable health hazardBy 2005, only 21% of Americans smoke

◦ Smokers: Divorced, separated, unemployed, in the military, and less schooling

440,000 people die prematurely each year as a direct result of smoking◦ Exceeding the combined deaths from alcohol,

cocaine, heroin, homicide, suicide, auto accidents, and AIDS

ObesityObesityMany adults are overweight.

Obesity can limit physical activity and raises the risk of serious diseases

Odds of being overweight go up among people with lower incomes

Social causes of obesity

◦Lack of physical activity

◦Poor diet

National National Map Map 21.2 21.2 Obesity Obesity across the across the United United StatesStates

Sexually Transmitted DiseasesSexually Transmitted Diseases

1960s sexual revolution saw a rise in STD rates, generated sexual counter-revolution

Because our culture associates sex with sin, some people regard STDs as marks of immorality.

Gonorrhea & syphilisGenital herpesAIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency

Syndrome)

Figure 21.2 Figure 21.2 Types of Transmission for Reported U.S. AIDS Cases as of 2005Types of Transmission for Reported U.S. AIDS Cases as of 2005There are several ways in which people can be infected with HIV.There are several ways in which people can be infected with HIV.Source: CDC (2007).Source: CDC (2007).

Global Global Map 21.1 Map 21.1 HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS Infection of Infection of Adults in Adults in Global Global PerspectivePerspective

Ethics & DeathEthics & Death

When does death occur?◦When there is an irreversible state involving

no response to stimulation, no movement or breathing, no reflexes, and no indication of brain activity

Do people have the right to die?◦About 10,000 Americans are in a permanent

“vegetative state.”What about mercy killing?

◦Euthanasia–Assisting in the death of a person suffering from an incurable disease

◦Active euthanasia–Allowing a physician to help a sick person die

The Medical EstablishmentThe Medical Establishment

Medicine–The social institution that focuses on fighting disease and improving health.

The rise of scientific medicine◦American Medical Association founded in

1847◦Other healers kept tradition but occupy

lesser role. Chiropractors, herbalists, midwives

◦Conflict between scientific medicine and traditional healing continues today.

Holistic MedicineHolistic Medicine

Holistic medicine–An approach to health care that emphasizes prevention of illness and takes into account a person’s entire physical and social environment

Three foundations of holistic health care:1. Treat patients as people2. Encourage responsibility, not dependency3. Provide personal treatment

Medicine in Socialist NationsMedicine in Socialist Nations

China◦Government controls most health care

operations.◦“Barefoot doctors” in rural areas practice

traditional healing arts.Russian Federation

◦Medical care is in transition, but all citizens have a right to basic medical care.

◦Setbacks in health care, partly because of a falling standard of living

Medicine in Capitalist Medicine in Capitalist SocietiesSocieties

Sweden◦Socialized medicine–A medical care system

in which the government owns and operates most medical facilities and employs most physicians

Great Britain◦Also has socialized medicine, but citizens

may choose public or private health care.Canada

◦Single-payer model; government is like an insurance company

Japan◦Doctors operate privately, but government

pays most expenses.

Figure 21.3 Figure 21.3 Extent of Extent of Socialized Socialized Medicine in Medicine in Selected CountriesSelected Countries

Paying for Care in the USPaying for Care in the USDirect fee system–Medical care system in

which patients pay directly for the services of physicians and hospitals

Private insurance: Few programs pay all costs.Public insurance programs

◦Medicare for those over 65◦Medicaid for impoverished and veterans

Health maintenance organizations–An organization that provides comprehensive medical care to subscribers for a fixed fee◦No HMO provides full coverage

Nursing ShortageNursing Shortage

Shortage of nurses as fewer people enter the profession

Nurses cite heavy patient loads, too much overtime, stressful work environment, lack of respect.

Working nurses say they wouldn’t recommend the field to others.

Theoretical AnalysisTheoretical Analysis

Structural-functional analysis: Parsons’ role theory◦Sick role–Patterns of behavior defined as

appropriate for people who are ill◦Doctors expect patients to cooperate.

Social-conflict analysis: Health and inequality◦Access to medical care, the effects of the

profit motive, and the politics of medicine

Theoretical AnalysisTheoretical Analysis

Symbolic-interaction analysis: Meaning of health◦Ideas of health and stress are socially

constructed.◦How people define a condition might actually

affect how they feel.◦Surgery can affect social identity.

Figure 21.4 Figure 21.4

Self-Assessment Self-Assessment of Physical of Physical Health by First-Health by First-Year College Year College Students, 1985-Students, 1985-20062006

Future of Health and Future of Health and MedicineMedicineToday, Americans take good health and

long life for granted.Individuals taking responsibility of their

own healthDouble standard of health between rich

and poor peopleHealth problems are greater in low-

income countries.

Applying Theory Applying Theory HealthHealth