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Part 2: Simulation Examples

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Agenda

1. General guideline of simulations

2. Discrete event simulation

3. Steps to follow

4. Simulation of Queueing systems• 4.1 Single Channel Queue• 4.2 Queueing with Multiple Channels

5. Simulation of a bombing mission

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1. General guideline of simulations (1)

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1. General guideline of simulations (2)

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1. General guideline of simulations (3)

•Problem formulation: Every study should begin with a statement of the problem.

•Setting of objectives and overall project plan: The objectives indicate the questions to be answered by simulation. A determination should be made concerning whether simulation is the appropriate methodology for the problem as formulated and objectives as stated.

•Model conceptualization: The construction of a model of a system is probably as much art as science. The art of modeling is enhanced by an ability to abstract the essential features of a problem, to select and modify basic assumptions that characterize the system, and then to enrich and elaborate the model until a useful approximation results

•Data collection: There is a constant interplay between the construction of the model and the collection of the needed input data

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1. General guideline of simulations (4)

•Model translation: Most real-world systems result in models that require a great deal of information storage and computation, so the model must be entered into a computer-recognizable format. General purpose or special purpose simulation languages or packages to be used is determined here.

• Verified?: Verification pertains to the computer program prepared for the simulation model. Is the computer program performing properly?

•Validated?: Validation usually is achieved through the calibration of the model, an iterative process of comparing the model against actual system behavior and using the discrepancies between the two, and the insights gained, to improve the model.

• Experimental design: The alternatives that are to be simulated must be determined. Often, the decision concerning which alternatives to simulate will be a function of runs that have been completed and analyzed. For each system design that is simulated, decisions need to be made concerning the length of the initialization period, the length of simulation runs, and the number of replications to be made of each run.

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1. General guideline of simulations (5)

•Production runs and analysis: Production runs, and their subsequent analysis, are used to estimate measures of performance for the system designs that are being simulated.

• More Runs?: Given the analysis of runs that have been completed, the analyst determines whether additional runs are needed and what design those additional experiments should follow.

• Documentation and reporting: There are two types of documentation: program and progress.

•Program documentation is necessary for numerous reasons. If the program is going to be used again by the same or different analysts, it could be necessary to understand how the program operates and what parameters used.

•The result of all the analysis should be reported clearly and concisely in a final report. This will enable the model users (now, the decision makers) to review the final formulation, the alternative systems that were addressed, the criterion by which the alternatives were compared, the results of the experiments, and the recommended solution to the problem

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2. Discrete event simulation

1. This course is about Discrete Event Simulations. Therefore, the models considered are discrete, dynamic, and stochastic

2. Discrete-event systems simulation is the modeling of systems in which the state variable changes only at a discrete set of points in time

3. The simulation models are analyzed by numerical methods rather than by analytical methods

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3. Steps to follow (1)Determine the characteristics of each of the inputs to the

simulation. Quite often, these are modeled as probability distributions, either continuous or discrete.

Construct a simulation table. Each simulation table is different, for each is developed for the problem at hand.

Each column in the table is one of the following:

• An activity time associated with model input• Any other random variable defined by a model

input• A system state• An event, or the clock tie of an event• A model output• A model response

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3. Steps to follow (2)A Generic simulation Table:

• Let there are p inputs, xij, j = 1,2,... ,p, and one response, Yi, for each of repetitions (or, trials) i = 1,2, . . . , n.

• Initialize the table by filling in the data for repetition 1

• For each repetition i, generate a value for each of the p inputs, and evaluate the function, calculating a value of the response Yi.

• The input values may be computed by sampling values from the distributions chosen in step 1.

• A response typically depends on the inputs and one or more previous responses.

Step Activities and system states Output

xi1 xi2 xi3 … xij… .xip yi

1

n

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4. Simulation of Queueing Systems (1)A queueing system is described :• by its calling population, the nature of arrivals, the

service mechanism, the system capacity and the queue and any priorities within the queue or service

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4. 1 Single Channel (Server) Queue (1)In the single-channel queue, the calling population is infinite; that is, if a unit leaves the calling population and joins the waiting line or enters service, there is no change in the arrival rate of other units that could need service.

Arrivals for service occur one at a time in a random fashion; once they join the waiting line, they are eventually served.

In addition, service times are of some random length according to a probability distribution which does not change over time.

The system capacity has no limit, meaning that any number of units can wait in line

Finally, units are served in the order of their arrival (often called FIFO: first in, first out) by a single server or channel.

Arrivals and services are defined by the distribution of the time between arrivals and the distribution of service times, respectively.

For any simple single or multi-channel queue, the overall effective arrival rate must be less than the total service rate, or the waiting line will grow without bound.

When queues grow without bound, they are termed "explosive" or unstable.

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4.1 Single Server Queue (2)Prior to our introducing several simulations of queueing systems, it is necessary to understand the concepts of system state, events, and simulation clock.

The state of the system is the number of units in the system and the status of the server, busy or idle.

An event is a set of circumstances that causes an instantaneous change in the state of the system.

In a single-channel queueing system, there are only two possible events that can affect the state of the system. • The entry of a unit into the system (the arrival event)• The completion of service on a unit (the departure event).

The queueing system includes the server, the unit being serviced (if one is being serviced), and the units in the queue (if any are waiting).

The simulation clock is used to track simulated time

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (3) – Departure EventIf a unit has just completed service, the simulation proceeds in the manner shown in this flow diagram

Server has only two possible states: It is either busy or idle.

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (4) – Arrival EventThe arrival event occurs when a unit enters the system. The flow diagram for the arrival event is shown below.

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (5)- Unit Status

Arrival Event

Departure Event

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (6)- Simulated ClockHow can the events described above occur in simulated time?

Simulations of queueing systems generally require the maintenance of an event list for determining what happens next.

The event list tracks the future times at which the different types of events occur.

Simulations using event lists are described in Chapter 3.

Here the simulation is simplified by tracking each unit explicitly.

In simulation, events usually occur at random times, the randomness imitating uncertainty in real life

The randomness needed to imitate real life is made possible through the use of “Random Numbers”

Random numbers are distributed uniformly and independently on the interval (0, 1)

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (7) -Random NumbersRandom numbers also can be generated in simulation

packages and in spreadsheets (such as Excel).

For example, Excel has a macro function called RAND() that returns a "random" number between 0 and 1.

When numbers are generated by using a procedure, they are often referred to as pseudo-random numbers• Because the procedure is fully known, it is always

possible to predict the sequence of numbers that will be generated prior to the simulation

We will discuss random number generation later

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (8) – Interarrival TimesIn a single-channel queueing simulation, interarrival times and service times are generated from the distributions of these random variables.

For simplicity, assume that the times between arrivals were generated by rolling a die five times and recording the up face. Table below contains a set of five interarrival times generated in this manner.

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (9)- Interarrival Times (continued ..)These five interarrival times are used to compute the arrival times of six customers at the queueing system.

The first customer is assumed to arrive at clock time 0. This starts the clock in operation.

The second customer arrives two time units later, at clock time 2.

The third customer arrives four time units later, at clock time 6; and so on

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (10) – Service TimesThe second time of interest is the service time.

Table below contains service times generated at random from a distribution of service times.

The only possible service times are one, two, three, and four time units, all four values are equally likely to occur

These random numbers are generated by placing the numbers one through four on chips and drawing the chipsfrom a hat with replacement, being sure to record the numbers selected

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (11) – Simulation TableNow, the interarrival times and service times must be meshed to simulate the single-channel queueing system

Table 2.7 was designed specifically for a single-channel queue that serves customers on a first-in-first-out (FIFO) basis

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (12)- Chronological Ordering of EventsThe following table is ordered by clock time, in which case the events may or may not be ordered by customer number. The chronological ordering of events is the basis of the approach to discrete-event simulation

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (13) - Number of Customers in the System

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (14) - Grocery Store Example (1)A small grocery store has only one checkout counter.

Customers arrive at this checkout counter at random times that are from 1 to 8 minutes apart, each possible value of interarrival time has the same probability of occurrence, as shown in Table 2.9

The service times vary from 1 to 6 minutes, with the probabilities shown in Table 2.10

Simulate up to 100 customers (too small a data for good analysis)

Average Service time = s.p(s) = 3.2 minutes

Average Interval Arrival Time = (1+8)/2 = 4.5 minutes

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (14) - Grocery Store Example (2)

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (14) - Grocery Store Example (3)

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (14) - Grocery Store Example (4)

minutes 4.91 3.171.74 timeservice average time waitingaverage system in the spendscustomer timeAverage

Or

91.4100

491

customers ofnumber total

system in the spend customers timetotal system in the spendscustomer timeAverage

22.354

174

that waitcustomers ofnumber total

queuein wait customers timetotal wait who thoseof time waitingAverage

19.499

415

1- arrivals ofnumber

arrivalsbetween timesall of sum arrivalsbetween Time Average

17.3100

317

customers ofNumber Total

Time Service Total Time Service Average

24.0418

101

simulation of run time total

server of timeidle Total Server Idle ofy Probabilit

54.0100

54

customers of numbers total

wait whocustomers ofnumber (wait)y Probabilit

74.1100

174

customers of numbers total

(minutes) queuein wait customers timetotal time waitingAverage

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (14) - Grocery Store Example (6)Waiting time in queue for the first trial of 100 customers is shown below

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4.1 Single Channel Queue (14) - Grocery Store Example (6)Average waiting time over 50 trials is = 1.5

Histogram of 50 average waiting times over 50 trials is shown below

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4.2 Queuing with Multiple Servers (1): Able-Baker Call Center ProblemTwo Service Channels (or Servers)

A computer technical support center where personnel take calls and provide service. The time between calls ranges from 1 to 4 minutes, with distribution as shown in Table 2.12 of the textbook.

There are two technical support people-Able and Baker. Able is more experienced and can provide service faster than Baker.

The distributions of their service times are shown in Tables 2.13 and 2.14

Policy: A simplifying rule is that Able gets the call if both technical support people are idle. Able has seniority.

The solution would be different if the decision were made at random or by any other rule

How well this policy is working??

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4.2 Queuing with Multiple Servers (2): Distributions

Average=2.25

Average=3.29

Average=4.25

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4.2 Queuing with Multiple Servers (3): Simulation Steps

Step 1:

• For Caller k, generate an interarrival time Ak. Add it to the previous arrival time Tk-1 to get the arrival time of Caller k as Tk = Tk-1+Ak.

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4.2 Queuing with Multiple Servers (3): Simulation Steps

Step 2:• If Able is idle, Caller k begins service with Able at the current time

Tnow.

• Able's service completion time, Tfin.A is given by Tfin.A = Tnow + Tsvc.A where Tsvc.A is the service time generated from Able's Service Time Distribution.

• Caller k's time in system, Tsys, is given by Tsys = Tfin.A - Tk.

• Because Able was idle, Caller k's delay, Twait, is given by Twait = 0• If Able is busy, but Baker is idle, Caller k begins service with Baker

at the current time Tnow.

• Baker's service completion time, Tfin.B is given by Tfin.B = Tnow + Tsvc.B where Tsvc.B is the service time generated from Baker's Service Time Distribution.

• Caller k's time in system, Tsys, is given by Tsys = Tfin.B - Tk.

• Because Baker was idle, Caller k's delay, Twait, is given by Twait = 0

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4.2 Queuing with Multiple Servers (3): Simulation StepsStep 3:• If Able and Baker are both busy, then calculate the

time at which the first one becomes available, as follows: Tbeg = min(Tfin.A, Tfin.B).

• Caller k begins service at Tbeg. When service for Caller k begins, set Tnow = Tbeg.

• Then compute Tfin.A or Tfin.B as in Step 2.

• Caller k's time in system, Tsys, is given by Tsys = Tfin.A - Tk or Tsys = Tfin,B - Tk, as appropriate.

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4.2 Queuing with Multiple Servers (4): Simulation TableTotal Customer Delay = 211 or about 2.11 minutes per caller

Total time in system = 564 or 5.64 minutes per caller

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4.2 Queuing with Multiple Servers (5): Caller DelayOne trail with 100 callers

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4.2 Queuing with Multiple Servers (5): Average Caller DelayExperiment with 400 trials each with 100 callers

19% average delays are longer than 1 minute (78 of 400)

only 2.75% (11 of 400) are longer than 2 minutes

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4.2 Queuing with Multiple Servers (6): Further InvestigationWhat happens if the policy is changed?

Is it cost effective to add another server?

Can one server handle all calls in this example?

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5. Simulation of a Bombing Mission (1)A bomber attempting to destroy an ammunition depot, as

shown in Figure. (This bomber has conventional rather than laser-guided weapons). The bomber flies in the horizontal direction and carries 10 bombs. The aiming point is (0,0).

If a bomb falls anywhere on the target, a hit is scored; otherwise, the bomb is a miss.

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5. Simulation of a Bombing Mission (2)The point of impact is assumed to be normally distributed around the

aiming point with a standard deviation of 400 meters in the direction of flight and 200 meters in the perpendicular direction

The problem is to simulate the operation and make statements about the number of bombs on target.

Recall that the standardized normal variate, Z, having mean 0 and standard deviation 1 is distributed as Z=(X-)/ , where X is a normal random variable, is the mean of distribution X and is the standard deviation of X

Then X=ZX and Y=ZY where (X,Y) are the simulated co-ordinates of the bomb after it has fallen (What is the Mean???)

With X=400 and Y=200 we have X=400.Zi and Y=200.Zj

The i and j subscripts have been added to indicate that the values of Z should be different. (Why???)

We will see later how to generate Normal Random Variables

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5. Simulation of a Bombing Mission (3)RNNx (RNNY) stands for "random normal number to compute the X (Y) coordinate" and corresponds to Zi (Zj)

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5. Simulation of a Bombing Mission (4)An experiment was run with 400 trials (each trial 10 bombs)

The results range from two hits to ten hits. Average is 6.72 hits

44% [(175/400) x 100%] of the bombing runs there are six or fewer hits. In about 71 % of the cases, [(283/400) x 100%] there were six, seven, or eight hits