factors influencing students' voting mohammed nur' …
TRANSCRIPT
FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS' VOTING BEHAVIOUR: THE CASE OF INTERNATIONAL
ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA (IIUM)
BY
MOHAMMED NUR' AYN AL-SUMATERANI BIN MOHAMMED AMIRUDDIN
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences
(Political Science)
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
AUGUST2012
ABSTRACT
University students are future leaders of our country. However, most undergraduate students are not eligible to vote in_general elections except those in the final year who have reached the minimum age of 21 years old. This study is about the factors that influence IIUM students in their voting choices. The aim of this study is to determine the students' perception on voting and election and to consider what would interest the students to vote. This study benefits from data collected in a research project entitled "A survey of nation-building: Attitudes and expectations of university students in Malaysia" carried out by the Electoral Studies Research Unit, International Islamic University Malaysia in 2011. The findings suggest that all the factors studied in this
· research have a positive influence on students' interests to vote and these factors are important in their perception on voting. This study also .suggests that IIUM students have high interests to vote, therefore, it can assist the Ministry of Higher Education to evaluate the importance of students' perception on elections, and at the same time, assist political parties in deciding their focus during general elections.
11
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iii
APPROVAL PAGE
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).
Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd. Mokhtar Supervisor
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).
M~h~~~···············
This thesis was submitted to the Department of Political Science and is accepted as a folfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).
. ' 1ruzzaman Head, Department of Political Science
This thesis was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requiremen · r the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).
Abd. Majid f Revealed Knowledge
iv
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except
where otherwise stated. I also declared that it has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Name: Mohammed Nur'ayn Al-Sumaterani bin Mohammed Amiruddin
Signature: ...... . Date: ... IJ./2(/.?:~/~ ....... ..
V
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
Copyright© 2012 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All right reserved.
FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS' VOTING BEHAVIOUR: THE CASE OF INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA (IIUM)
I hereby confirm that The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) holds all
rights in the copyright of this work and henceforth any reproduction or use in any form
or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of IIUM. No part of
this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Affirmed by Mohammed Nur'ayn Al-Sumaterani bin Mohammed Amiruddin
.... .1.~/1./ ~~ !.?-: ..... .
Signature Date
VI
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Alhamdullilah to Allah for the strength and wisdom that have been given in me to finish this dissertation to fulfill the requirement of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science), Kulliyyah of Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University of Malaysia.
A thousand thanks to my supervisor, Dr. T~nku Mohar Tunku Mohd. Mokhtar, for his patience, guidance, opinion, cooperation and time that have enabled me to complete this dissertation. Thank you also to Dr. Muhamad Fuzi Omar, Dr. Muhamad Azman bin Shahadan, Professor Dr. Abdul Rashid Moten and Associate Professor Dr. Ishtiaq Hossain which have also helped me in through their guidance and information. Not forgetting to all Department of Political Science lecturers and colleagues that have helped me in during my time as an IIUM student.
To my beloved mom and dad .
•
Vll
TABLES OF CONTENTS
Abstract ••••••••••••••••••• •••·• .••••••.••••••••••••• •••••••••• •••••••• ••• ....................... 11
Abstract in Arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..... .. ..... 111
Approval page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1v Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. v Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. ...... ... .. vii Tables of Content .................. _......................................................... viii List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . ... .. .. ..... .. x List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. ... 1 1.1 Statement of problem ......................................................... 2 1.2 Justification of the study ...................................................... 3 1.3 Objectives of the study......................................................... 4 1.4 Literature review
Studies on elections in Malaysia ........... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Student activism and political participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
1.5 Framework of analysis Candidate and party image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Media influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 Current issues . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . 14 Government policies ....................................................... 14
l.6 Hypothesis ...................................................................... 15 1. 7 Methodology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . ... 15 1.8 Chapter outline .................................................................. 16
CHAPTER 2: STUDENT ACTIVISM IN MALAYSIA AND ITS POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT
2.0 Introduction ..................................................................... 18 2.1 Student activism before Malaysia's independence ........................ 20 2.2 Student activism after independence ........................................ 23 2.3 University of Malaya Students Union (UMSU) ........................... 23 2.4 University of Malaya Malay Language Society ((PBMUM) ............ 29 2.5 National Association of Muslim Students of Malaysia (PKPIM) ...... 31 2.6 Present-Day student activism ................................................ 33 2.7 Conclusion ..................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DEMOGRAPHY
3.0 Introduction .................................................................... 39 3.1 Sampling ........................................................................ 39
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3.2 Instrument of analysis ......................................................... 39 3 .2 Research procedure ............................................................ 41 3.3 Statistical proposal ............................................................ 41 3 .4 Demography .................................................................... 42 3.5 Voter registration .............................................................. 48 3.6 Conclusion ..................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction ..................................................................... 51 4.1 The mass media ................................................................ 51 4.2 Support for political party .................................................... 53 4.3 Candidate and party image ................................ : . .................. 55 4.4 Government policies .......................................................... 60 4.5 Current issues ................................................................... 66 4.6 Conclusion ...................................................................... 74
CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION
5.0 Hypothesis analysis ........................................................... 77 5.1 Candidate and party image ................................................... 77 5.2 Media influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 81 5.3 Government policies ........................................................... 84 5 .4 Current issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . 89 5.5 Summary
Candidate and party image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Media influence ............................................................ 95 Government policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Current issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.6 Conclusion ..................................................................... 98
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... .. . . ..... ... ... . .. . ... .. . .. . ..... ... ... ... . . . . .. ....... .. ... . .... ...... 101
APPENDIX I: TABLES .................................................................... 105 APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................... 110
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LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page No.
3.1 Race 44
3.2 Courses taken in IIUM 45
3.3 Registered as a voter 48
4.1 Factors for respondents voting decision 55
4.2 Important characteristics in party and candidates 57
4.3 People's support for Barisan Nasional since 2008 general election 58
4.4 People's support for Pakatan Rakyat since 2008 general election 59 .
5.1 Model fitting result 77
5.2 Variables dropped from the full model 78
5.3 Parameter Estimates for Candidate and Party Image 79
5.4 Model fitting result 81
5.5 Parameter Estimates for Media influence 83
5.6 Model fitting result 84
5.7 Variables dropped from the full model 85
5.8 Parameter Estimates for Government policies 86
5.9 Model fitting result 89
5.10 Variables dropped from the full model 89
5.11 Parameter Estimates for Current issues 91
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Page No.
3.1 Gender 43
3.2 Age 43
3.3 Club member 46
3.4 Type of club joined 47
3.5 Factor influencing respondent to register as voter 49
4.1 Mass media usage in a week 52
4.2 Mass media level of trust 53
4.3 Mass media level of influence 54 . 4.4 People's support of political parties/coalitions 60
4.5 The federal government administrative system are based on the principles of democracy 62
4.6 The federal government is successful in lessening the incidences of corruption 63
4.7 The federal government is successful in administrating the nation fairly 64
4.8 The elections are free and fair 65
4.9 The public service's delivery system is transparent and efficient 65
4.10 The New Economic Model (NEM) is fair to all Malaysian 67
4.11 Malaysia's economic condition at the moment is satisfactory 68
4.12 The price of daily needs' items is reasonable 69
4.13 The federal government's subsidy rationalization effort would make the national economy more efficient and competitive 70
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4.14 Social issues such an abandonment of babies and "Mat Rempit" is at alarming level 71
4.15 The University and University College Act (UUCA) stifle students from being actively involved in society 72
4.16 The crime rate in the country is still not alarming 73
4.17 Respondent's perception in a year's time 74
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CHAPTER!
INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The 12th general election of Malaysia in 2008 produced significant and important
events in the history of Malaysia as for the first time, the opposition gained much
ground in this election. The Barisan Nasional only got a 51.4 percent of the votes, just
enough to form a majority government. Of those 10,740,227 registered and eligible
Malaysian voters, about 8,161,039 or roughly 76 percent went out to cast their vote in
the 2008 election, indicating a high political participation· of the people. 1
•
However, those numbers excluded around 70,000 students who could not vote
because of age limit. According to statistics, 51,517 students were registered in local
universities in 2005.2 That number has increased to 76,597 in 2009 indicating an
increase number of students in the society. The International Islamic University of
Malaysia (IIUM) is no exception. With 16,000 undergraduate students, it could
provide a significant impact towards the future administration of Malaysia. The role of
these youths cannot be denied as they are one of the elements in the nation's
development.
The perception of IIUM students could also be considered as a fragment of
what Malay university students in Malaysia perceive voting as a whole. Perception is
a process of assigning the meaning to stimuli. It involves the stimuli from the
1 Search for "Statistik Pilihan Raya" in <http://www.spr.gov.my>(accessed on 12th March 2012). 2 See "Jadual 2.4: Kemasukan Pelajar Peringkat Sarjana Muda Ke IPTA Mengikut Bidang, Tahun 2002 - 2007'', Kuala Lumpur, 2009, <http://www.mohe.gov.my/web _statistik/statistik_pdf_2008_ 05/ipta_2· 4.pdt> (accessed on 8th August 2009).
1
environment, organizing them and finally interpreting their meaning that would relate
to our daily lives. 3
In this case, the perception of students involve the organization of
meaning from an information (such as candidate and party image, media and
government) and finally interpreting them into either positive perception or negative
perception, depending on those stimuli.
Factors that are related to general election are tested on students. This is to
determine which, among these factors, influence them the most in their voting
behaviour. Their interest towards the factors is a big indication towards the progress of
Malaysia in the future.
1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
In 2008, Barisan Nasional was seriously challenged by the opposition parties, and the
elections had shown how the mindset and politics of Malaysia have gone through a
changing phase whereby people did not simply vote because of the party's name, but
also on who represent them in the government.
Undergraduate students are not eligible to join the political world and political
parties when they are studying. According to the Act A295, University and University
Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1975 in Section 15, "no person, while he is a student of
the University, shall express or do anything which may be construed as expressing
support, sympathy or opposition to any political party ... "4 This means students are not
allowed to actively join any political party although according to Article 119 of the
Constitution, the eligible voting age for Malaysians is 21. Most of the final year
undergraduate students are eligible to vote.
3 Daniel M. Dunn, Communication Embracing Difference (Boston: Pearson Education, 2008), 57. 4 Government of Malaysia, Laws of Malaysia Act A295 University and University Colleges (Amendment) 1975 (Kuala Lumpur: Ketua pengarah percetakan dan diterbitkan dengan perintah, 1975), 3.
2
Because of the University and University Colleges Act (UUCA), students also
do not have the right to show any approval or disapproval of any political issue even if
they have their own opinion. In IIUM, the interaction between local and foreign
students makes IIUM students special as their exchange of information and
experiences of different government conducts could provide better insights as to what
is important in a government. Furthermore, labeled as an Islamic University, the
perception of what is good governance in Islam definitely be an advantage.
Thus, this study investigates the factors that would influence IIUM students in
an election and how they react to the world of politics and governance. The study does
not focus on the selection of voting choices by the students, but rather on students'
interest to vote. The study is expected to answer the following questions:
1. How do students perceive the voting and election process?
11. How do students perceive factors that are related to voting and elections?
iii. What is the student level of political awareness?
1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
This study is chosen for a number of reasons. An election is seen as the main focus in
deciding the future of the country and it is considered as one of the political events
that actually involves every citizen. Through elections, most candidates are being
subjected to early scrutiny with the manifesto that they carry. Therefore, the
perspective on general elections can change the mindset of the people of Malaysia and
this provide the basis for an interesting research as it would provide a prediction of
future electoral behaviour.
Students are future leaders being molded inside the comfort of intellectual
institutions like a university. They are taught how the world and the environment are
3
organised. Despite all these, Malaysian students are prohibited from joining the
political process due to the concern that it might interrupt their studies as well as
concern of its impact as it shown from the past. This policy is conducted in every
higher education institution including IIUM.
Besides that, as an Islamic university, it represents a umque interaction
between the government and the opposition party. IIUM is publicly funded by the
government and their teachings revolve around the fundamentals of Islam. In
Malaysia, for decades the main opposition for the government has been the Malaysian
Islamic Party (PAS) whose core also focuses on Islamic foundation. In addition, IIUM
undergraduate students in majority consist of malay students in all courses, thus
representing high level of malay students voting behav.iour pattern.
Therefore, the factors that may influence IIUM students would give a glimpse
of what is important to them in their voting behaviour. How much of the electoral
influences affect the students are the main focus of this study. Their young minds
certainly have vigorous ideas and as they are not yet involved in the political world,
they are most likely to be highly motivated to be part of this exciting world.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The tnain objectives of the study are:
1. To determine the students' perception on voting and election.
11. To determine and evaluate factors that influence students' interest to vote.
111. To determine students' political consciousness.
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1.4 LITERA TORE REVIEW
Studies On Elections In Malaysia
Malaysia is considered a democratic nation and as a state that is democratic, election
is an important instrument of political science that has to be studied. Research and
work on political participation in election are not new and have been done numerously
in many countries. Each democratic country in this world has different types of
election and party system in practice. A government could in itself divide the election
system into multiple directions in different countries and the change the effect
electoral system brings towards the formation of the party and voter selection. 5
It is however important to look first into the nature of the ruling party or the
government. An analysis of the interactions between the judiciary, executive and .
monarchy system has led to various forms of leaks in terms of checks and balances . . . .
within the government. 6 For example, in some of the cases which involve high
ranking ministers, the court institution sometimes is pressured in their judgments as in
the case of Anwar Ibrahim. The case was seen as an effort by the government to throw
out Anwar from his office. 7
Studies are also being done on the 'controlled electoral' carried out by the
government towards the opposition through the use of coercion, repression and
gerrymandering. 8 One of the tactics is the promise of development in the area but only
5 Giovanni Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering (London: Macmillan Press LTD, 1994), 77. 6 Kershaw, Roger, "Shattered Symbiosis: The Road to Conflict between Malay Nationalism and Monarchy", International Asian-forum, Vol 24, (1993): 283 , David A. Wishart, "Malaysia: Dr Mahathir's Thinking on Constitutional Issues", Law Asia, (n.p., 1993): 48. 7Marzuki Mohamad, "Legal coercion, legal meanings and UMNO's legitimacy" in Politics in Malaysia, edited by Edmund Terence Gomez (New York: Routledge, 2007), 26. 8 Chandra Muzaffar, Freedom in Fetters: An Analysis of the State of Democracy in Malaysia, (Penang: Aliran Kesedaran Negara, 1986), James Gomez, Self Censorship Singapore's Shame, (Singapore: THINK Centre, 2000), Harold Crouch, Government& Society in Malaysia, (United States: Cornell University Press, 1996).
5
if the people elect the government's candidate; if the opposition wins, development
would cease to exist. 9
Another set of analyses focuses on the elite group of the government that
emerged during the rapid development of Malaysia in the 1980s. 10 During this time,
Mahathir Mohamad's effort to develop Malaysia was tainted by the subject of
cronyism which caused middle class Malays to feel dissatisfied in the distribution of
wealth; dominated only by those linked to high administration. Following these
studies are cases of money politics which were used to subdue shifting coalitions of
politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen, especially within the framework of the NEP
(New Economic Policy) introduced by the then Prime Minister. 11
Elections are traditionally associated with the effect of campaign and
candidates towards persuading voters to agree to the pr~positions given. 12 A study by
Globe has indicated three main interactions that are considered important in an
election: campaign, candidates and citizens. 13 The study also emphasizes the
importance of candidates during the election period. In this case, the author maintains
that voters' behaviour has only recently changed towards candidates. Before,
candidates did not have the ability to persuade voters on their own without the
consensus of the party or better labeled as 'party identification' .14
Following that is a study on party image playing a vital role in people's
decision to elect the governing state. The achievement and the ability of the party are
9 Ibid. 10 Johan Saravanamuttu, "The State, Authoritarianism and Industralisation: reflections on the Malaysia Case", Kajian Malaysia, vol. 5, (1987): 44. 11 Edmund T Gomez, Politics in Business: UMNO 's Corporation Investments (Kuala Lumpur: Forum, 1990), 47. 12Campbell. Angus, Philip E. Converse, Warren E.Miller and Donald E.Stokes. The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960). 13 Hannah Globe, "Inside the Echo Chambers: The Dynamic Interactions of Candidates, Campaigns and Citizens" (Master thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2009). 14 Ibid.
6
detenninants for the people in choosing the right party. 15 Malaysian political
environment mainly surrounded the image of the party and people chose because of
the party. This trend is derived from past political environment structures of the 1960s
where rural people chose UMNO because it was seen as a strong party and a good
government that provided facilities. Neighbors and families acted as the yard stick for
children and friends in influencing their vote. 16 However, again Globe has also shown
that people now also choose on the basis of the candidate that is· placed by the party
rather than just the party's image. 17
Furthermore, a different study insists that var10us factors influence the
decision which varies in its stability over time. Evaluations of candidate qualities and
government performance are distinctly short-term impact, capable of substantial shifts
from one election to the next. Party identification and ideology are much more stable
in the long term. A strong party would be able to dictate and withstand until the next
election, providing voters with more confidence in their choice. 18 Not many voters
change their party identification or ideology from one election to the next, and the
changes that do occur are often fairly small ones. While specific issues crucial in
candidates' elections can change dramatically, voters evaluate the candidates mainly
on the issues of policy. 19
Events occurring before general election also psychologically influence the
people that something is occurring in their government and they are studied closely.20
15Muhamad Nadzri Mohamed Noor, Politik Malaysia di Persimpangan. Praktik Politik dalam PRU 2008 dan Kontemporari (Petaling Jaya: SIRD, 2009), 24. 16 Marvin L.Rogers, Local Politics in Rural Malaysia.Pattern of Change in Sungai Paya (Colorado: Westview Press, 1992). 17Hannah, 12. 18 Donald D.Barry, Russian Politics : The Post-Soviet Phase, (New York: Peter Lang Publishing,
2002). 19Sobri Sudin Mohd. Hafidz Hussein, Globalisasi & Budaya Politik di Malaysia, (Sintok: Penerbit Universiti Utara Malaysia, 2006), 33. 200oi Kee Beng. March 8 Eclipsing May 13, (Singapore: !SEAS, 2008), Hannah, 12.
7
Example of these events prior to the 2008 electio_n incl_ude the rally of Bersih which
consisted of 64 NGOs and 5 political parties that demanded electoral reforms and the
rally of Hindraf organization which demanded a better social life for the Indian
community. Besides that, there were also cases of major events involving ill conduct
and conspiracy such as the Altantuya case, VK Lingam video tape and also the sex
scandal involving the Minister of Health.
During the 2008 general election, one catalyst was labeled as the cause for
how the election results turned out; that is the use of the media by the government and
the opposition party. The government used the media's fullest capability by utilizing
the nation's television, newspapers and radio stations to promote and propagate their
campaign issues. The use of these traditional media is restricted to the government
only and was guaranteed by a minister who commented that the government is the one
sponsoring the media and so the opposition has no right to use them. 21
For the opposition, having been prevented from using the traditional media,
they turned to new methods of campaigning. The use of information technology (IT)
and the Internet had certainly brought out a surprising result for the opposition. The
use of new technology in Malaysia's general election is not totally new, as it has been
used in America's general election, first in 1996 and then more integrally in 2004.22
Furthermore, the population is more engaged by redirecting their information sources
towards the Internet rather than the traditional media as it is considered more reliable.
According to a study, around 57 percent of the people aged between 21 and 29 used
the internet to gather information and news in the United States.23 Malaysia statistic
21Muhamad Nadzri Mohamed Noor, Politik Malaysia di Persimpangan. Praktik Politik dalam PRU 2008 dan Kontemporari, (Petalingjaya: SIRD, 2009), 14. 22Diana Owen, "The internet and youth civic engagement in the United States" in The Internet and politics, edited by Sarah Oates, Diana Owen and Rachel K. Gibson (Oxon: Routledge. 2006), 22. 23 Ibid.
8
are no different. From a number of 37.9 percent of Internet user in 2005, the number
rise to 62.8 percent in 2008, almost double in just three years.24
Elections involve multiple interactions between the people, government,
media and many more. Studies on these interactions have also produced various
outcomes and brought out new understanding of what an electorate means to the
elector and how important an election that represents democracies is. But at the same
time, manipulation of the election game seems to be so common that it indirectly
advocates the meaning of democracy. All those factors which influence voting
behaviour are usually directed towards the ruling party. Still, which factor that truly
gives the most impact is still unidentified as the factors collide with each other to
produce a single outcome in an election.
Student Activism and Political Participation
While most studies on elections focus on general electorate, this study concentrates on
students' perception on voting. Students are young adults who are normally passionate
about the surroundings. The image of the government would reflect the interests of the
students where by the desire to change the world is ever present in their young and
vibrant hearts. However, a research in America has shown that 73 percent of non
voters are aged between 18 to 44 years old.25 This gives the impression that students
have low interest in elections and political environment including lack of interest in
choosing a government. Taking into consideration Muhammad Abu Bakar's statement
24 See "Malaysia internet usage stats and marketing report" ,2010, http://www.internetworldstat.com/asia/my.htm (accessed on 13 Mei 2010). . . . . 25 Jack C. Doppelt and Ellen Shearer, Nonvoters: America's No-Shows, (Cahfomia: Sage Pubhcat1ons,
1996), 17.
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that the movement of students in the world is universal in nature, it could be
generalised that students in Malaysia also have low interest in elections.26
Student involvement is in fact a major occurrence in some countries. Japan,
one of the countries that has a high level of education and literacy, has a population
that is mostly college and university based students. A sample involving college and
university students is often large; sometimes they overshadow that of the nation as a
whole. India also faces the same situation as a country that· has the fastest IT
university development; students tend to multiply and occupy various regions in the
country. This implication indicates that the population of student grows as the world
gets more developed; Malaysia is no exception. This could eventually lead to student
activism as they gain more ground. 27
Student activism was common in Malaysia in the past. During the early 1970s,
according to Muhammad Abu Bakar, university students put some pressure on the
authorities through demonstrations, dialogues and debates. It was later when the
government felt that this could lead to a bigger scenario that the University and
College University Act was introduced in 1971. This certainly did not happen only in
Malaysia, but according to Moreno, student activism also happened in the University
of California during the early 1970s which left a profound effect until today. These
movements which evolve around the aspect of education have lead to a milder
environment in the surroundings as well as better student quality today. But some of
. 26Muhammad Abu Bakar, Mahasiswa Menggugat: Satu Analisa dan Peninjauan Dari Da/am Terhadap Kegiatan Mahsiswa-mahasiswa Negeri lni, (KL: Pustaka Anta'ra, 1973). 27See University cooperation in India: Report of the National Seminar, (New Delhi: International Cooperative Alliance, Regional Office for Asia & the Pacific, 1991 ).
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the past activism still leaves a trace of hope for the younger generation to pick up
where they have left.28
In India however, the perception that university students are generally
'naturally aggressive' and their ability to express their opinion without severe
penalties have contributed to the existent of politicization of campus; a feature that
distinguishes Indian universities and colleges from most of other countries'
counterparts. High degrees of interaction between student leaders ·and politicians have
been the cause for the stable student movement which contributes to the fact that this
interaction forms a symbiosis link between students and politicians.29
The level of activism usually can be defined by the level of activity
participated by that individual in the university. In fact, according to Beck and
Jennings, activism can be traced back to the high school year where previous
involvement in high school activities could either directly or indirectly influence
people into joining the political sphere later.30 In Geake's study there was also a
mention of Parent Civic Orientation Model which basically studies the involvement of
parents in influencing the participation of their children through everyday discussion
and engagement in politics and the result was at par with the theory. Thus it could be
considered that both parents and social activity could· be the sources of ·students'
political involvement.
In conclusion, studies on the nature of the government have led to multiple
studies on its relationship with the electoral system being used in the country. The
electoral manipulation played by the government through repression and coercion is to
28 Marisol Moreno, "Of the Community, For The Community": The Chicana/a Student Movement in California's Public Higher Education, 1967-1973, (University of California: UMI, 2009). 29K. S. Jomo, Student Political Activism, An International Reference Handbook, ed.Philip G. Altbach, (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1989), 150. 30Beck, P.A. & Jennings, M. K, "Pathways to participation", American Political Science Review, Vol. 76,(1982): 94-108.
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make sure that theoretically, democracy is upheld while power is maintained by the
government. Because of this, the opposition would always be at a disadvantage. All of
these factors which influence the voting selection would definitely have an impact on
students. Students in Malaysia, however, are not allowed to be involved in politics.
But before 1971, student activism had certainly shaken the politics of the country
through rallies and demonstrations. Thus, as future elites of the country, their
perception as to what influence them in their electorate conduct would be important in
elections.
1.5 FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSIS
Based on the literature review, we can suggest that there are four elements that are
most highly regarded as the major factors that influence voting behaviour of students.
These elements are:
Candidate and Party
Media Influence
Current Issues
Government Policies
i. Candidate and party image
Influence Students voting behaviour
There have been many times where a party would be able to fill the gap
left by the candidate during the election but the trend has moved to a
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