Expectations for Females Depicted in Japanese Job-Hunting Materials

Ayako Fukuda

1M151026-2

Supervised by: Prof. Graham Law

Seminar on History 51

Waseda University

School of International Liberal Studies

July 2019

Abstract

This dissertation will discuss how Japanese job-hunting materials reflect the highly

gendered job-hunting process as well expectations for women in the workplace. To show

evidence of this, materials such as Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu (book), a feature from the

online version of fashion magazine Ray, and an interview of career advisor Risa Ogiwara at

the Waseda University Career Center, as well as published materials from the career center

will be analyzed. These materials will be then analyzed by investigating the presence of

desired female traits in Japan determined in a study by Yoko Sugihara and Emiko Katsurada,

as well as if there are specific instructions regarding to marriage and taking care of children,

appearance, and behavior and mannerisms. These materials are then juxtaposed for

similarities and differences pertaining to how and what kinds of expectations for women

they portray. It can be seen that the book and the online material heavily portray desired

traits in a positive light. By emphasizing the importance of considering companies that

support life events such as marriage and childbirth however, these materials show the

reality that despite women in Japan are expected to wed and have children, companies may

not provide the benefits juggle both work and family; therefore many women feel pressured

to work in positions of less responsibility or quit all together. The university career center in

contrast takes a gender-neutral stance towards job hunting, as counselors provide advice

pertaining to an individual’s plans.

After the analysis of materials, this dissertation will discuss the history of

expectations for women in Japan, and its relation to the current Japanese work force as well

as its impact on legislation. As legislation is the only way to guarantee change, this

dissertation will lastly explain the changes in legislation that need to be made to laws such

as to the The Child Care Leave Law of 1992 and current tax legislation in order to create a

gender-equal workforce. In conclusion, the materials analyzed prove that the presence of

female expectations is prominent in job-hunting materials and reflects expectations for

women in the Japanese workforce. By changing legislation to create a gender-equal

workforce and changing these expectations, not only will it guarantee female-friendly work

environments, but also improved work environments for all individuals.

Table of Contents

Introduction

The Particularity of Japanese Job-Hunting ………………………………………………………………1

Expectations and Female Gender Roles in Japan ………………………………………………………2

I. Female Gender Roles in Written and Online Job-Hunting Materials

1.1 Analysis of Written Material- Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu ……………………………………4

1.2 Analysis of Online Material- Ray Magazine Job Hunting Section Investigation:

Job-Hunting Feature ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………9

1.3 Juxtaposition ……………………………………………………………………………………………………17

II. University Stance on Gender and Job-Hunting

2.1 The Interview ……………………………………………………………………………………………………21

2.2 Overall Stance ….………………………………………………………………………………………………26

III Changing the System

3.1 History and Causes …..………………………………………………………………………………………29

3.2 Legislation ..…….………………………………………………………………………………………………33

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………37

Appendices …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………40

Works Cited …………….………..………………………………………………………………………………………………47

List of Figures

1) What is Acceptable vs. Unacceptable for an Interview (Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.,”Kon'na Mitame Wa

Soku Fusaiyō!”)

2) Cover of Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu (Joshi Shūkatsu Netto, editor. Honne No Joshi Shūkatsu)

3) Title Page of Ray Magazine Job-Hunting Section Investigation: Job-Hunting Feature for Female

University Students (Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd., “`Hinkon Joshi Ni Naranaide'”)

4) Makeup products used in a tutorial (Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd., “`[Shūkatsu]" Jinji Uke’ Suru Keshō De

Mensetsu o Toppa!”)

5) M-Curve showing age-based female labor participation rates in 2016 (Gender, p. 7.)

6) Women’s Labor Participation Rates by Age Group Compared 2016 (Gender, p. 7.)

7) Employee Composition Ratio by Employment Status Excluding Company Executives 2016 (Gender, p.

9.)

8) Table showing who nurses bed-ridden senior citizens at home in 2007 (Sugimoto, 2010. p. 170.)

1

Introduction

The Particularity of Japanese Job-Hunting

There comes a time when all university students experience the process of job-

hunting. In Japan, overall this process is from March through June, in which fourth year

students can be seen wearing a distinctive black suit, white shirt, complete with matching

accessories and hairstyles. Everything that composes of this process, from the way to dress

to how many times to knock on a door is highly specified; those that do not conform to the

rules find themselves without employment after graduation. There is a tremendous

pressure on students as if they are not able to find employment during the specified

timeframe, they would have to wait an entire year to try again. As a student going through

the process of job-hunting myself, I have noticed that this process is not only restricting but

highly gendered as well. It is not uncommon for women to be asked questions based off of

their gender, to attend career seminars just for women, or to read pamphlets and books

specifically for women. In this dissertation, I will observe and analyze job hunting materials

that are specifically meant for women and connect my observations with female

expectations in Japanese society today. By doing so, I will find problems within the Japanese

career system that need to be improved in order to make working conditions less gendered

and therefore more equal. Gender equality in the workplace is extremely important

especially now as the Japanese labor force’s numbers are declining along with its

population. It is important for companies to provide working conditions in which supports

the individual.

2

Expectations and Female Gender Roles in Japan

According to American philosopher and gender theorist Judith Butler, gender is a

social construction, therefore a performance. 1 In society, those assigned as female are

expected to act as female, and those assigned as male are expected to act as male. In order

to observe the connection between Japanese female expectations and the content of the

materials observed, it is important to understand current expectations for females. In a

study done by researchers Yoko Sugihara and Emiko Katsurada involving gender role

development in Japanese culture, 200 participants (equally male and female) were asked

randomly to judge the social desirability of males and females out of a list of thirty-five

words. The traits dominantly socially desirable for women consisted of the following:

innocent, graceful, affectionate, have charm, amiable, cute, attentive to the need of others,

polite, calm, love children, like to care for others, and have neat habits.2 From this study, it

can be concluded that the traits mentioned above are those that Japanese society expects

women to be. I will use these traits as a guideline when observing the depiction of female

expectations in job-hunting materials. For this dissertation, I will utilize the traits mentioned

above to group my observations into expectations according to the following categories:

Marriage and Caring for Children, Appearance, and Mannerisms and Behavior.

The method of research of this dissertation will include the analysis of three

different types of job-hunting materials. I will analyze Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu- a book,

Ray Magazine’s online Job-Hunting Feature, and materials as well as an interview provided

1 Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. , 1999, p.33.

2 Sugihara, Yoko, and Emiko Katsurada. "Gender Role Development in Japanese Culture: Diminishing Gender Role Differences in a

Contemporary Society." Sex Roles, vol. 47, no. 9, 2002, p. 443-452.

3

by the Waseda University Career Center. These mediums of job-hunting materials were

chosen because gathered specified information tends to be consisted in books, online

articles are easily accessible, and students trust the university career center to guide them

during this important time. Because all materials are completely in Japanese, I will use my

own knowledge, as well as an electronic dictionary in order to translate the text for use in

this dissertation. By doing so, will analyze any specific sections or parts in which relate to

the reinforcement of Japanese female expectations.

4

I. Female Gender Roles in Written and Online Job-Hunting Materials

1.1 Analysis of Written Material- Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu

The 2016 version of Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu or The Truth of Women’s Job Hunting

published by Jitsumukyōiku Shuppan is a book that is marketed towards female college

students just starting job hunting3. This material was chosen because it is meant to serve as

a handbook for women, there is an updated version every year, and due to the contents of

the introduction. The title of the introduction reads: “Job Hunting is the Perfect Chance for

You to Grow! With This Opportunity, Increase Your Femininity as Well” (Appendix A).

According to the introduction, the goal of job-hunting should not only be to grow as a

person but to also increase femininity. This book claims that it will introduce tips in which

should not only be remembered “as a member of society” but also as a “woman”. This

specific comment indicates that there will be examples of content meant solely for females.

I will not analyze each and every section, as some sections contain neutral instructions and

information. Neutral content includes the job-hunting schedule, components of a resume,

etc.

3 Joshi Shūkatsu Netto 女子就活ネット, editor. Honne No Joshi Shūkatsu ホンネの女子就活 2016. Jitsumukyōikushuppan 実務教育出

版, 2014.

5

Marriage and Caring for Children

The most repeated expectation found in this book is the expectation of women to

wed and take care of children. The first example of this can be seen from the first section of

the book. This section includes experiences of former students whom have gone through

the job-hunting process (see Appendix B). One student claimed that, "During a group

interview, there was a time when I was the only female. When I was asked 'What will you do

when you get married?', I answered with a smile 'Of course I will continue.'" This student is

indicating that because she was the only female in the interview, she was the only person

asked this question. Because none of the males in the group interview were asked this

question, this indicates that females are expected to get married, and that marriage

undoubtfully interferes with having a full-time job.

Another example of this expectation can be seen in the section on page 28 that

compares two types of career paths for women: sōgō-shoku and ippan-shoku. According to

this book, sōgō-shoku or regular position is well paid and highly rewarding, and just as a

man, you are expected to ten-kin or work in a branch office for a couple of years and work

uninterrupted during life events such as marriage and childbirth. In short, sōgō-shoku

expects women to work the same schedule and positions as men. Ippan-shoku or clerical

position on the contrary is paid less, and workers are not expected to ten-kin. These

workers are usually expected to do general office work. According to the infographic in

Appendix C, women who decide to choose sōgō-shoku want to work in a rewarding

environment and be highly paid. Women in which decide ippan-shoku are thinking of

getting married, having children and may stop working for some time.

6

This section of this book is displaying the reality that women may have to decide

between having a family life and a rewarding career when it comes to deciding a career

path. Those that may want an emphasis on family life may see ippan-shoku as attractive

because although it is paid significantly less, women are able to return to work easily. Those

that want to pursue sōgō-shoku are usually aware that they may not be able to take as

much leave or may be worried about losing their positions after returning to the office.

Many women feel pressure about choosing between family life and a career when

oftentimes they are still unsure about their life goals. Men do not have to worry about

choosing because society expects women to raise children or take care of the household.

Even now when there is pressure more than ever for a parent to stay home due to the lack

of childcare facilities, men are not asked to do so and are not asked if they will quit their

jobs if they get married- the automatic assumption is that the wife will stay at home and

take care of the kids.

Appearance

It is widely agreed upon that one should look presentable for an interview. However,

what is the fine line between being simply “presentable” and expectations for being a

female? In this section, I will list observations in this book in which crossed the line between

presentability and expectation.

The clearest example of the emphasis of appearance in female expectations can be

found in the tutorials for hair and makeup. The makeup section on page 42 is titled “Level

Up Your Femininity 200%! Job-Hunting Makeup to Get an Offer”. With this title alone, this

book ties in the idea that being feminine and following the gender binary expectation

7

directly leads to success. Alongside the makeup tutorial includes “tips” to improve

femininity (see Appendix D). There are tip sections for how to choose makeup, and even on

how to change your makeup according to what kind of position you are applying for. This

implicates that appearance is an extremely important part of the job-hunting and

interviewing process.

This implication can also be seen in the section on page 63 in which includes a

tutorial on how to take an acceptable ID photo (Appendix E). According to this section,

wearing a dark suit and white blouse will make a person twice as pretty. Curling hair inwards

rather than outwards and having black hair will make a person three times prettier. By

putting a white handkerchief on their lap, white light will reflect off their face, therefore

making their complexion look fairer- making them four times as pretty. Finally, by having a

naturally pleasant expression, the person taking the photograph will be five times prettier

than when they first began. This section directly states that by having lighter skin, darker

hair, and a pleasant expression, a person is more attractive. It may be inferred that these

standards represent Japanese beauty standards.

Having a pleasant expression is emphasized once again in a separate section

depicting exercises in order to increase facial expressions. The section titled “First

Impressions are the Key to Success. Improve Your First Impressions by Increasing Your

Expressions” on page 70 claims that 55% of good first impressions are related to facial

expression. There is a tutorial on exercises in which help to increase facial expressions under

the title “Train Your Facial Muscles to Get the Offer” (see Appendix F). Page 74 suggests

that women should “smile from the heart”, and that they practice their smile in front of a

mirror. During an interview it is considered the basics to be perky and bright, therefore, it is

8

important to have a smile during the entire interview. This section again reinforces the fact

that appearance is an important factor in order to gain the success of passing an interview.

Behavior and Mannerisms

It is reiterated again and again in this book that a woman should be elegant and

beautiful. This not only applies to appearance but also to gestures. Page 96 introduces

“Beautiful Gestures that You Can Use When You Become a Member of Society”. This

section lists explicit steps in order to look “beautiful” while you are opening a door to giving

somebody an object. The existence of these instructions indicates that women are expected

to follow these steps in mannerisms in order to appear “elegant” and “proper”. By doing so,

they would be reinforcing the gender binary by “acting” as female. This particularly relates

to the traits of being polite, graceful and having neat habits according to Sugihara and

Katsurada’s study of desirable female traits in Japan.

Another expectation for behavior that can be seen in this book is again in section 1,

where there are comments given about experiences of students in the past (Appendix B).

This comment however, depicts the expectation of women in the workplace, instead of the

interview and job-hunting process itself. She states, "Even though I entered as a regular

position worker, because I was a female, I was expected to make tea and make copies.

Although I disliked this, I found that if I smiled and did the work, people paid for more and

more of my meals.” This particular woman implies in this comment that women are

expected to do extra tasks such as making copies and pouring tea. This is because women

are expected to be attentive to the need of others and like to care for others. In this

9

particular case, the former student disliked being treated this way, however, when she

submitted to society’s expectations for her as a woman, she was rewarded by having her

meals paid for. This comment not only shows that women are expected to submit, but by

doing so and acting “female” or in the manner in which society expects her to, she will be

more successful and be rewarded.

1.2 Analysis of Online Material- Ray Magazine Job-Hunting Section Investigation: Job-

Hunting Feature!

I will analyze several articles in the online version of Ray, in which according to

magazine-data.com is a fashion magazine published by Gekkan geared towards females

from their mid-teens into their twenties. Ray's main purpose is to provide “fashionable” and

“cute” fashion to female college students as well as to working women.4 This analysis will

analyze their online feature about job hunting, which consists 74 articles pertaining to

fashion, makeup, appearance, career advice and behavior. I will only analyze content

published up until January 2019 to keep the number of articles consistent during this

analysis as online content constantly updates. Consistent to the analysis of the written

material, I will only analyze articles in which contains material that can be isolated into

topics pertaining to marriage, appearance, and behavior. I chose this online publication

specifically because not only are a portion of the readers of this magazine the age range of

job-hunting, but because there is a specific feature on job-hunting that collectively contains

articles that are meant to help its readers. Since media such as magazines are strongly

4 magazine-data.com. “Ray.” Ray (rei) zasshi – fashion zasshi gaido, www.magazine-data.com/women-magazine/ray.html.

10

connected to popular culture, articles relating to job-hunting in a magazine may seem more

approachable than in contrast to books. More and more published materials have made the

switch to online formats, therefore access to information for readers has become easier and

faster than ever before. Some may even prefer looking at online materials in contrast to

print materials due because it has become so convenient.

Marriage and Caring for Children

When pertaining to the expectation of marriage and caring for children, this feature

focuses on the reality of the current job market and societal trends in Japan. For example,

"Go Getter Girls are Better at Job Hunting? We Asked a Cabin Attendant School What is

Important for Females to Consider for Employment" despite the puzzling title discusses the

importance of not only thinking about a personal career plan but also thinking about a life

plan.5 This article states that women have many major crossroads in life including marriage,

childbirth and the possible job transfer of a spouse. Because women experience more of

these major crossroads than men, this article emphasizes that it is important for a woman

to choose a company in which supports her life plans. Even if a woman starts off in the

company of her dreams, there may be circumstances in which may not allow her to work

there for a long time. It is also emphasized that because it is quite difficult for a person to

transfer jobs if they haven't been working for a very long time, it is important to choose a

5 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “Nikushoku Joshi Wa Shūkatsu Ni Tsuyoi? CA o Mezasu Ko Ga Kayou Sukūru Ni

Chokugeki. Joshi Shūkatsu-Sei No Kokoroe | Ray 肉食女子は就活に強い？CAを目指す子が通うスクールに直撃。女子就

活生の心得| Ray.” Ray Web, Shufunotomo Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社., 26 Feb. 2017, ray-web.jp/38969.

11

work environment (especially in the beginning) where working long-term is possible. This

article depicts the reality of a still male-dominated workforce, as well as the female double

standard of both being good employees and caretakers by stating that although the number

of companies that want to have mothers return to the workforce is increasing, companies

may not be welcoming to the idea of allowing a mother time off if her child falls ill. With

these ideas in mind, the article emphasizes the need to look for a company in which

supports working mothers by looking at the female and male ratio as well as speaking to

alumni and asking questions.

"Don't Be a Girl Stricken by Poverty! Learn from a Job-Hunting School

Representative- Advice for Job Hunting Females" in contrast to the previous article discusses

what is also important to consider in a career and life plan if a woman does not end up

getting married or having children.6 This article focuses on the trend in which women in

Japan are getting married later in life, and the importance of being independent and being

able to support oneself. This article discusses not ruling out sōgō-shoku because of the

importance of salary and warns the reader that although ippan-shoku seems attractive to

those that want a family, salary may not change even after working under the same

employer after 20, 30 years. That being said, this article emphasizes the importance of

earning a high enough salary to support herself. Even if she is able to live with her parents,

there is no guarantee that her parents will stay healthy forever and help support her.

6 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “`Hinkon Joshi Ni Naranaide' Shūkatsu Juku Daihyō Ga Oshieru! Shūkatsu Joshi e No

Adobaisu | Ray「貧困女子にならないで」就活塾代表が教える！就活女子へのアドバイス| Ray.” Ray Web, Shufunotomo

Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社., 4 Apr. 2017, ray-web.jp/41430.

12

Appearance

Out of 76 articles in the job-hunting feature, 12 pertain to fashion, and 14 are about

beauty and makeup. About a third of the articles in the feature pertain to appearance in the

context of job hunting. Not only does this fraction itself place an emphasis on the

importance of appearance, but the titles for these articles does as well. Some of the titles

include: “Get a ‘Win by Appearance’ Finish! Former Job Hunters Answer Makeup and Hair

Questions”, “Pass that Interview with Makeup that’s Liked by HR! How to Create a Look that

Leaves a Good Impression”, and “Job Hunting: Interview result is decided by appearance?!

Necessary items to get that offer”. These titles directly state that an “acceptable”

appearance alone guarantees successful results for interviews. Therefore, the

reinforcement of the gender binary results in reward.

The article, “Get a ‘Win by Appearance’ Finish! Former Job Hunters Answer Makeup

and Hair Questions” emphasizes the need to look flawless at any point during an interview. 7

For example, a former student recommends using long-lasting lip tint in order to keep

colored lips to “leave a good impression”. They also recommend 2-way items such as a two-

in-one blush and lip tint in order to leave space in your bag- which seems practical, however

they emphasize that you have to have these convenient items so that good face coloring will

leave a good impression. Former students also emphasize the importance of keeping your

bangs pinned down, that way even if you bow, you would appear to be “clean”. Looking

acceptable for an interview in this case means looking flawless all the way down to the

smallest details.

7Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “＂Mitame de katsu" no sō shiage! Shūkatsu heameiku no gimon ni senpai shūkatsu-sei

ga okotae| Ray 見た目で勝つ＂の総仕上げ！就活ヘアメイクの疑問に先輩就活生がお答え| Ray.” Ray Web,

Shufunotomo Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社., 15 Feb. 2018, ray-web.jp/47150.

13

According to “Pass that Interview with Makeup that’s Liked by HR! How to Create a

Look that Leaves a Good Impression”, simply applying natural makeup is not enough, but

having just the right balance between a “sweet and mature” look is the key to having an

appearance that is favorable to Human Resources.8 This portrays the Japanese beauty ideal

of looking youthful yet emphasizes the importance of “looking the part” of being able to do

a job. Again, this shows double standards for women. In this case, it shows the double

standard of women being expected to have the masculine traits of a “good worker” but at

the same time having feminine traits of cute, amiable, and have charm. This “sweet yet

mature” look is explained through the makeup tutorial that follows.

In contrast to other articles, “Such Appearance Leads to Immediate Unhiring!

MyNavi Editor Teaches Unacceptable Job-Hunting Looks” gives examples of what is not

acceptable to wear at an interview.9 The harsh wording of the title again is a strong

indication of the importance of having the right appearance at an interview. Some examples

that this article provides are: female job-hunting students should not have a skirt that is too

short, should not wear blouses that are too decorated, and should not over-curl their hair.

The ideal style to go to an interview would be to close all blouse buttons, have straight hair,

and hair tied back if hair is long. The text alone seems to be reasonable in looking

professional, however, the images associated with ideal vs. unideal appearances not only

8 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “[Shūkatsu]" Jinji Uke’ Suru Keshō De Mensetsu o Toppa! [Kōinjō Meiku] No

Tsukurikata | Ray【就活】“人事ウケ”する化粧で面接を突破！【好印象メイク】の作り方| Ray.” Ray Web, Shufunotomo

Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社., 22 Oct. 2018, ray-web.jp/49181.

9 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “Kon'na Mitame Wa Soku Fusaiyō! MyNavi Henshū-Chō Ni Osowaru [Shūkatsu Dame

LOOK] | Ray こんな見た目は即・不採用！マイナビ編集長に教わる【就活ダメ LOOK】| Ray.” Ray Web, Shufunotomo Co.,

Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社., 2 Nov. 2018, ray-web.jp/49235.

14

reflect appearance ideals for women, but also reflect the behavior ideals of females in

Japan. For example, the image for ideal appearance depicts a student with straight long

black hair, long skirt, and buttons buttoned all the way up her white blouse. In this image,

the student has her hands folded in front of her as if she works in the service industry, and

there are images of sparkles around her as if to depict that she is shining (see Figure 1). This

image positively depicts the female ideal of being clean, neat, polite, and attentive to one’s

needs. In contrast, the image which portrays the unideal appearance (Figure 1) depicts a

student with curly long brown hair, wearing a pink blouse that is not buttoned up all the

way, and wearing a short skirt. The student in this image is not in the same position as the

ideal student, as her overall posture is bent, her hand in her hair as if she is brushing it, and

her legs bent. The posture of the unideal student portrays the student as not as sharp, and

there are no sparkles around her.

Figure 1. What is Acceptable vs. Unacceptable for an Interview (Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.,”Kon'na Mitame Wa

Soku Fusaiyō!” )

15

Behavior and Mannerisms

Articles pertaining to behavior in this feature can fit into two categories: behavior in

social situations/interviews and career introductions. In the first category, there is a strong

emphasis on mannerisms for after entering the workforce. For example, “Things to Consider

During Nomikai: It’s Okay Even If You’re Shy! Useful Manners and Techniques” focuses on

how to socialize at a nomikai, or a company drinking party.10 According to this article, in

order to be liked at a drinking party, smiling no matter what is a must. This reflects the

expectation of females to be affectionate, have charm, be amiable and cute. According to

this article, you will be better liked by your female seniors if you inject full energy into

reactions to other co-workers and is absolutely necessary to order what everyone else

orders first to not hold up everyone else’s time. This relates to the expectation of females to

be attentive to the need of others, be polite, and like to care for others. This article also

emphasizes that a woman should not show too much skin at a drinking party because she

would be perceived as “slutty” from her female co-workers and seniors.

The article "We don't want to hire this kind of person! Mynavi editor in chief shares

bad manners during job hunting" focuses on what kind of behavior is not acceptable during

interviews.11 Along with each behavior, there is an illustration of what is considered to be

good behavior. This article discusses that girls with bad posture will not look as confident

and therefore would not leave a good impression. Females being interviewed should not

10 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “[Nomikai No Kokoroe] Hitomishiri Demo Daijōbu! Yakudatsu! ! Nomikai No Manā

Tekunikku | Ray【飲み会の心得】人見知りでも大丈夫! 役立つ!! 飲み会のマナー・テクニック| Ray.” Ray Web,

Shufunotomo Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社., 2 May 2017, ray-web.jp/42589.

11 Shufunotomosha Co,. Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “Kon'na Ko Wa Saiyō Shitakunai! MyNavi Henshū-Chō Ni Osowaru [Shūkatsu No

Damena Manā] | Ray こんなコは採用したくない！マイナビ編集長に教わる【就活のダメなマナー】| Ray.” Ray Web,

Shufunotomo Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社., 7 Nov. 2018, ray-web.jp/49293.

16

mumble but should have a bright and cheery expression. Females should also have a bright

expression and smile to leave a positive impression.

The careers introduced in this feature show what kind of careers women are

expected to go into or to be interested in. The careers featured include wedding planners12,

insurance agents13, film promotion14, makeup branding15, and female news anchors16. It is

quite easy to notice that none of the careers introduced in this feature pertain to the

sciences. All of the career introduction articles include an interview with a working woman

that other young women can look up to, however, because of a lack of an article in the

science field, young female readers do not have someone in the science field that they could

look up to and relate to, therefore would add to the uncertainty of the field in itself.

Because these careers are stereotypically female careers, it does not come as a surprise that

these occupations reinforce Japanese female ideals. For example, wedding planners and

insurance planners require one to be attentive to one’s needs, but to also be amiable, and

like to care for the needs of others. Wedding planning, makeup branding, and female news

12 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “[Akogare Oshigoto Taiken Repo] Joshi No Akogare uedingupuran'nā Ni Naru Tame Ni

Wa? | Ray【憧れお仕事体験レポ】女子の憧れウェディングプランナーになるためには？| Ray.” Ray Web, Shufunotomo

Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社., 13 June 2018, ray-web.jp/48401.

13 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “[Akogare Oshigoto Taiken Repo] Nihonseimeihokensōgogaisha o Hōmon! Shinrai o

Eru Tame No Sekkyaku to Wa? | Ray【憧れお仕事体験レポ】日本生命保険相互会社を訪問！信頼を得るための接客とは？

| Ray.” Ray Web, Shufunotomo Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社.,31 May 2018, ray-web.jp/48262.

14 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “[Ray Shūkatsu Taiken-Ki] Tōhō De 1-Nichi Intān! Eiga Puromōshon No Gyōmu to Wa? |

Ray【Ray就活体験記】東宝で 1日インターン！映画プロモーションの業務とは？| Ray.” Ray Web, Shufunotomo Co., Ltd.

株式会社主婦の友社., 6 Oct. 2018, ray-web.jp/49065.

15 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “[Akogare Oshigoto Taiken Repo] Utena o Hōmon! Keshōhin Kikaku No Oshigoto to

Wa? | Ray【憧れお仕事体験レポ】ウテナを訪問！化粧品企画のお仕事とは？| Ray.” Ray Web, Shufunotomo Co., Ltd.株式

会社主婦の友社., 28 June 2018, ray-web.jp/48426.

16 Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社. “Terebiasahi Masuda Sayaka-Ana Ni Kiita Joshi-Ana o Mezasu Tame Ni Surubeki Koto

| Ray テレビ朝日・枡田沙也香アナに聞いた 女子アナを目指すためにするべきこと| Ray.” Ray Web, Shufunotomo Co.,

Ltd.株式会社主婦の友社.,14 Oct. 2018, ray-web.jp/49127.

17

anchor careers are all perceived to be glamorous careers, which leads to the assumption

that women are and want to be graceful, affectionate, and cute. Out of all of these careers,

film promotion seems to be the most neutral.

1.3 Juxtaposition

When it comes to the first visual impression of these sources, both follow a

“feminine” pink theme- which indicates that both of these sources are meant for women.

Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu only contains illustrations which leaves a soft impression;

however, Ray Magazine’s online job-hunting feature not only contains illustrations but also

images in which is more relatable to the reader. Both materials contain voices and

interviews from former students and experts, which makes the content of both sources

seem convincing. It can be seen in both sources through former student testimonies that

female expectations for job-hunting are also depicted after employment, therefore the

expectations for women during job-hunting is simply a reflection of expectations for women

in the Japanese labor force.

Figure 2: Cover of Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu (Joshi Shūkatsu Netto, editor. Honne No Joshi Shūkatsu)

18

Figure 3: Title Page of Ray Magazine Job-Hunting Section Investigation: Job-Hunting Feature for Female

University Students (Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd., “`Hinkon Joshi Ni Naranaide'”)

When pertaining to contents of marriage, both materials depict that life events such

marriage and having children are common and women should keep these in mind when

considering a career path. Both materials depict the harsh reality of the current Japanese

work environment where companies may not be accommodating to benefits for women

despite the double standard. In both sources, it is depicted that the expectation of women

taking care of children is alive and well. It is not only depicted that society expects them to

do this, but women burden themselves by struggling to choose between ippan-shoku and

sōgō-shoku. Both sources focused on the double standard that companies have toward its

female workers when it comes to marriage and taking care of children. Upfront, companies

will say that they support their female employees by having the systems in place, however

may not even allow them to use it when these policies are needed. It can be concluded that

the Japanese ideology of salaryman/woman being corporate samurai, and the expectation

of women to take care of children does not mix well.

It can be seen in both materials that appearance is considered extremely important

for an interview. Titles of both materials pertaining to appearance were quite similar; they

both conveyed successes solely through appearance and the reinforcement of the gender

140g

BIEI

KIND & 嵜 PEACE MONKEY

♥

# , # , # , # , #

19

binary. Because the online material was from the online version of a fashion magazine, the

idea of “keeping up appearances” was heavily emphasized through its number of articles

pertaining to appearance. The articles pertaining to appearance especially seemed to be

following what was trending and can be said to be utilized as advertising space- as some

articles showcased certain products (Figure 4). Much of the advice given in these articles

pertained to portraying oneself as having certain desired female traits such as cleanliness,

and innocence. For example, in order to preserve the female ideal of innocence, many

articles pertaining to clothing warned showing too much skin. Portraying oneself as having

desirable female traits was also seen in Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu in the instructions

regarding ID photos and appearance. By following the beauty standards depicted in the

book, women would appear to be “cute, have charm and have neat habits.” By making sure

to smile during an interview, women would appear to be “amiable.” Following behavioral

instructions to seem “elegant” would reinforce the traits of being “graceful and polite.” By

seeming to have these desired traits through appearance and mannerisms, women would

seem to be functional members of society to the interviewer; therefore, leading to success

in job-hunting.

Figure 4: Makeup products used in a tutorial (Shufunotomosha Co., Ltd., “`[Shūkatsu]" Jinji Uke’ Suru

Keshō De Mensetsu o Toppa!”)

20

Both sources pertaining to behavior show the expectation of women to be good at

taking care of others and attentive of others needs. For example, a former student

interviewed in Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu mentioned that they were expected to pour tea

and make copies, while an article in the online source about company drinking parties

stated that you should always order what others are ordering to not waste everyone else’s

time. The reality of the Japanese patriarchal society is also depicted in both sources, as

according to the online source, women will be judged if they show too much skin, and

according to the interview in Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu women are expected to do menial

tasks that men are never expected to do.

21

II. University Stance on Gender and Job-hunting

Because the written and online materials previously analyzed heavily contained female

gender role expectations, I wanted to see what kind of stance the university holds towards

these expectations within the job-hunting process. The university career center is a place in

which students rely on to gain accurate information about the current job market,

internships, as well as advice according to their career interests. I will analyze Waseda

University’s stance on gender and job-hunting through an interview of Risa Ogiwara, a

career advisor at the Waseda University Career Center, and through the analysis of

materials provided by the career center, both physically in the career center and free to

access on Coursenavi, a course organization tool provided by the university.

2.1 The Interview

Risa Ogiwara answered the following questions pertaining to guidance given by the

university career center:

1) What kind of job-hunting guidance do you give to female students at the career

center? And what kind of documents and resources do you provide?

2) What kind of advice do you give about appearance and manners?

3) How important are appearance and manners during job hunting?

4) When you decide on a company as a woman, what benefits should you consider?

22

5) The documents for job hunting that I have analyzed so far are divided into “for

women” and “for general use”. Why do you think that this divide exists? Do you

think that this is necessary for today's workforce?

6) During job hunting, women are often asked, "Will you continue if you get

married?". Why do you think this is?

I will separate the answers to these questions in the same three categories in which

the online and written materials were analyzed: Marriage and Caring for Children,

Appearance, and Behavior. By doing so, the university stance on these three expectations

within the job-hunting process can be seen clearly. I will also utilize materials published by

the university such as their career guidebook and career seminar guides in order to

supplement Ogiwara’s answers to the questions above.

Marriage and Caring for Children

According to Risa Ogiwara, although many of the questions asked by students

pertain to job applications or interview practice, a common concern that female students

consult in with the Career Center is differentiating between sōgō-shoku and ippan shoku.

When students come to consult with advisors like Ogiwara, they will be explained the

differences between sōgō-shoku and ippan-shoku, then shown career data of female

Waseda graduates on page 33 in the job-hunting guide book, in which the Career Center

updates every year (Appendix G). Female students will be explained that roughly 65% of

female Waseda graduates end up in sōgō-shoku – which is high compared to some other

23

universities in Japan, according to Ogiwara. When students are shown this data, by seeing

what career paths alumni that they can relate to have chosen, it may provide some insight

as to what kind of career paths they themselves should take. After showing this data,

advisors “…will give guidance while listening to what students want to prioritize.” Since

there is an individual story that goes along to every student, Ogiwara states that “We do not

usually force our own ideals.” For example, if a student does not want to be transferred due

to family circumstances, they may be suggested to apply to junsōgō-shoku, in which consists

of the same work as sōgō-shoku, but no transfers are involved. Options of taking an exam to

move from ippan-shoku to sōgō-shoku, etc. are also discussed.

When guidance relates to benefits pertaining to life events such as marriage and

childbirth, etc. many students are asked to do their own research. Ogiwara states that,

“Many Waseda female students say that they want to work for the rest of their lives.

However, there are many students who want to work in the form of slowing pace in

response to child-raising, and then after settling back, wanting to go back to an increased

working pace.” Therefore, it is important to consider an environment that supports life

events such as childbirth and childcare- so that they can keep working. Ogiwara would

usually suggest looking at the annual version of the company information book, Shikisai or

Quarterly Report to see what kinds of benefits companies have, and most importantly, how

easy it is to obtain these benefits. She also would suggest speaking with working alumni and

listening to their stories.

When asked about interviewers asking questions pertaining to continuing work after

getting married, Ogiwara strongly stated that this is considered unacceptable behavior. She

in fact stated that “… companies cannot ask about such questions; questions that involve

privacy, religion, the jobs of parents and siblings, or even where they are from. Companies

24

receive information (about what questions not to ask) from the Ministry of Health, Labor

and Welfare.” According to Ogiwara, companies in which have a high compliance awareness

(especially large companies) will not ask these questions, however, she admitted that it was

plausible for smaller companies that want employees to work there for the rest of their lives

to ask this kind of question.

Appearance

According to Ogiwara, “cleanliness is the most important thing” when it comes to

appearance for an interview. As long as the student follows the company dress code, there

should not be a problem when it comes to appearance. For example, at most financial

companies, many of the employees including the interviewer will wear a suit; therefore,

students should not go to an interview dressed freely in this kind of environment, as they

will be perceived as “not being able to read the air”. Although the career center does not

provide seminars on appearance for Japanese students, they do provide seminars for

international students who may need a little more help understanding “reading the air”, as

this cultural component makes the job-hunting process, and appearance very particular.

Cultural seminars for foreign students can be found on Coursenavi, an online course

organization platform for Waseda Students under the caption “Career/Job Hunting Support

Seminars” (translated). I will look at materials that were previously given to students during

the “International Student Job Hunting Guidance- Interview Practice” held on February 28,

25

2019.17 The appearance section for this guide separates advice according to males and

females. The advice is separated into the following different categories for both genders:

hair, face, nails, clothing, shoes, bag, extraneous items. I will look at the female advice

section to see what is specifically expected from the university of women’s appearances

during job-hunting. The importance of cleanliness is emphasized in this section, as the hair

instructions state that long hair should be tied back, and that you should leave a clean

impression twice. Makeup should also leave a clean and natural impression. Clothing should

also appear clean, and skirt length should be appropriate. Women are also expected to wear

shoes with a 3 to 5cm heel. The expectation for a clean appearance seems to be equal for

both males and females, as both sections emphasize this, supporting Ogiwara’s statement

on the importance of cleanliness.

Behavior and Mannerisms

According to Ogiwara, because Waseda students seem to do well with business

manners, it is not necessarily something that the career center teaches. In my opinion, this

statement seems to be contradictory because the career center requires a mandatory

manner seminar for students that are about to start long-term internships (at least 15 days

according to the credit transfer program). This is because “interns will certainly work with

adults for the first time”. In Japan, rather than long-term internships, companies provide

short-term internships for students; therefore, many university students in Japan have

17 Iida , Maki 飯田真己. Gaikokujin Ryūgakusei Shūshoku Gaidansu Mensetsu Jissen Renshu~2018.2.6~外国人留学生就職ガイダンス面

接実践練習~2018.2.6~. Ryūgakuseishinroshien Sentā 留学生進路支援センター, 2018.

26

never done a long-term internship. When asked about where students learn business

manners if they have never done a long-term internship before, Ogiwara responded by

stating that many students turn to the internet for business manner advice. In my opinion,

the university should provide advice pertaining to manners to not just students that are

doing internships or to foreign students, but to all students. To get a better understanding

of what the university expects of its students, I will again look at materials given out at the

“International Student Job Hunting Guidance- Interview Practice.” What can be observed

through this material is that manners taught through this seminar are not particularly aimed

at males or females. There are instructions to manners pertaining to the following:

interviews, company information sessions, phone calls, emails, and paper mail. This

material provides basic manner advice to international students. If this content had

separate advice pertaining to gender, it may be quite overwhelming to international

students, as the job-hunting process is already quite particular.18

2.2 Overall Stance

It was quite relieving to see that the university’s stance on providing advice for job-

hunting was quite neutral in terms of gender. Rather than focus on gender roles and discuss

what is expected of them, the career center focuses on the student’s individual priorities

and finding work conditions that fit their individuality. This kind of advice applies to both

males and females. Ogiwara stated that in recent years, male students have been looking at

18 Iida , Maki 飯田真己. Gaikokujin Ryūgakusei Shūshoku Gaidansu Mensetsu Jissen Renshu~2018.2.6~外国人留学生就職ガイダンス面

接実践練習~2018.2.6~. Ryūgakuseishinroshien Sentā 留学生進路支援センター, 2018.

27

books that featured benefits for women, and how obtainable these benefits are. The reason

for this is that “A company that is kind to everyone and thinks about what enables each

individual to work with ease, is a company that is easy for not only women but also men to

work at.” That being said, males are also individuals and seek out companies that allow

them to work as individuals; therefore, males look at companies with benefits for women

and even openly friendly towards the LGBT community.

Although the job-hunting materials created by the university are quite neutral, the

separation of “female” and “general” job-hunting materials can be seen in the career

center’s private book collection. For example, multiple versions of Honne No Jyoshi

Shuukatsu could be seen, and there were many pamphlets from third party career events

that were specifically towards women. Ogiwara stated that she believes that the separation

between “female” and “general” materials exist because if all the information for females

specifically were combined in the book for “general use” the book would become too big.

Therefore, the cost and lack of efficiency of combining information for females is the very

reason why it is separate, therefore reinforcing the gender binary. The separation of these

materials reinforces certain expectations and certain traits just for women, and the lack of

information about childcare benefits, mannerisms in the general version of these books

subconsciously states towards males that “because information about childcare benefits

and elderly care benefits are not here, you don’t need to worry about it”. Because this kind

of information is only given in the female version of these books, this sends a message to

females that “you need to be thinking of these benefits, because you are expected to take

time off to take care of others”. Although the university seems to be neutral when it comes

to their own views of job-hunting, it can be inferred that the university provides these

gendered materials to help students do research on their own regarding company benefits,

28

etc. The job-hunting process itself is also a gendered one, so the university may be providing

these materials to help students live up to these gendered standards even if the university

does not necessarily believe in these gender expectations.

29

III. Changing the System

3.1 History and Causes

In order to understand how to change the gendered process of job-hunting in Japan,

it is necessary to understand how female gender role expectations came to be. According to

Shizuko Koyama, the expectation of women to wed and have children stems from the ideal

of ryosai kenbo, or “good wife, wise mother”. Because the term ryosai kenbo started to

appear in the Meiji era coinciding with modernization and the adoption of ideas from the

west, Koyama’s argues that the “good wife, wise mother” ideal or ryosai kenbo was the

result of the adoption of the modern concept of sexual division that originated in the west.

From the late 17th century in Europe, there was a rise in the ideal of women being

responsible for children- women’s education reflected this through its "manuals". This

ideology taught that “mothers are the ideal agents for the task of building up the strength of

the people of the nation.”19 There were schools with curriculums for raising children, which

supported the ryosai kenbo ideal centuries before the term first appeared in Japan. In the

19th Century, the idea of the nuclear family started to form in the United States and

“ideology extolling such qualities as “domesticity” and “femininity” was promulgated far

and wide.”20 Mothers as an educational presence in the home increasingly gained

importance, and many women started to have careers as educators. This rise of the

“domestic”, “feminine” and “wise” female ideal in Japan coincided with western influences

19 Shizuko, Koyama. Ryōsai Kenbo : The Educational Ideal of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother' in Modern Japan, BRILL, 2012, p. 6.

20 Shizuko, Koyama. Ryōsai Kenbo : The Educational Ideal of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother' in Modern Japan, BRILL, 2012, p. 7.

30

in post-war Japan, such as the reformation of Japanese education and politics due to the

American occupation.

According to Emiko Ochiai, the image of women as individuals was introduced by the

European feminist movement in the early 20th century, however, the “model of the

individualistic women was positioned as an image of Western women” and the “ideal image

of women’s modern domestic role promoted during Japan’s modernity, was repositioned as

a traditional East Asian image.” In the 1980’s, Japanese politicians praised these domestic

ideals for women. These ideals were also identical to that of conservative politicians in the

west. Ochiai discusses the irony of Japanese politicians creating policies to protect these

self-stereotyped ideals that were not Japanese to begin with.21 This ideal that was

promoted by politicians in the 1980’s can still be felt today through expectations for women

to be domestic and feminine- as well as the desirable traits that associate with these

expectations such as being innocent, graceful, affectionate, have charm, amiable, cute,

attentive to the need of others, polite, calm, love children, like to care for others, and have

neat habits.22

Japanese Women and the Work Force

According to Yoshio Sugimoto, surveys show that despite expectations for women to

be domestic and feminine, women want to work, and in fact ironically, females are an

extremely important contributor to the Japanese economy as they make up about 41.5% of

21 Ochiai, Emiko. “Leaving the West, Rejoining the East? Gender and Family in Japan’s Semi-Compressed Modernity.” International

Sociology, vol. 29, no. 3, May 2014, pp. 209–228, doi:10.1177/0268580914530415. 22 Sugihara, Yoko, and Emiko Katsurada. "Gender Role Development in Japanese Culture: Diminishing Gender Role Differences in a

Contemporary Society." Sex Roles, vol. 47, no. 9, 2002, pp. 443-452.

31

the total workforce.23 The rate of participation in the workforce differs with age, as life

events such as marriage, childbirth, and when children commence schooling. There is a

trend that many women quit their jobs after getting married and having children, but 75%

of women return to the workforce once this phase is over. Figure 5 demonstrates this trend

through an M-shaped curve. As the latent labor participation rate includes women that wish

to work, it can be seen that the desire to work is higher than the actual labor participation

rate in Japan. It can also be seen in Figure 7, that Japan has the steepest M-curve compared

to other developed countries around the world. The other countries shown in Figure 7

resemble an upside-down “U” shape- which indicates that women do not stop working

when they are of child rearing age in contrast to Japan.

Figure 5: M-Curve showing age-based female labor participation rates in 2016 (Gender, p.7.)

23 Sugimoto, Yoshio. Introduction to Japanese Society. Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, Vic;Cambridge;, 2010.

32

Figure 6: Women’s Labor Participation Rates by Age Group Compared 2016 (Gender, p. 7.)

43.9% of the Japanese female workforce works part time positions (See Figure 7).

Many married women that come back to the workforce in Japan tend to work part-time in

order to contribute to the family income. According to Sugimoto however, this amount

tends to be less than a quarter of the total family income- “an amount too small to achieve

economic equality with her husband in their household.”24 If this amount is so insignificant,

then why do women not return to their original occupations after giving birth? Why do they

choose to work part-time instead of full-time? The answer to this is very simple-because

full-time positions (especially sōgō-shoku) do not provide the benefits, nor the work

environment to juggle family life and work life at the same time. The cause of this is the lack

24 Sugimoto, Yoshio. Introduction to Japanese Society. Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, Vic; Cambridge;, 2010, p. 166.

33

of legislation to protect women in the workplace as well as legislation that has solidified the

gender binary.

Figure 7: Employee Composition Ratio by Employment Status Excluding Company Executives 2016 (Gender, p.

9.)

3.2 Legislation

Legislation for a gender-equal workforce is crucial for the growth of the economy

especially as numbers of workers dwindle coinciding with the declining population. In the

late 90’s early 2000’s, there was an attempt in to increase equality in the workplace through

reforms such as the Basic Law for a Gender-equal Society of 1999 and the Long-term Care

Insurance Act of 2000 implemented by the Hashimoto administration. According to Ochiai,

despite the creation of these laws there has been little progress made in the reconstruction

of the Japanese workforce. Hashimoto was forced to step down due to failed economic

policies, therefore his administration was unable to implement significant change regarding

34

female equality in Japan. Policies created in the 1980’s that preserved the role of the

housewife also strengthened the gender divide in the Japanese workplace.25

For example, the Child-Care Leave Law of 1992 requires companies to allow female

or male employees up to one year of unpaid leave and promise of return to their original

positions, however, there is no penalty clause therefore companies cannot be prosecuted if

they do not follow these regulations.26 Seemingly to cope with this lack of penalty, the

Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare administer the Kurumin Award, an award in which is

given to companies where 70% of female employees take child care leave and at least one

male employee has taken child care leave. Although this system may come off to be as

positive, it still does not enforce a gender-equal work environment. The award itself also is

not gender-equal because the requirements for female and male employees taking child

care leave to receive this award is extremely disproportional. Unfortunately, because of the

lack of penalty clause of the Child-Care Leave Law, women are forced to seek out companies

that have earned the Kurumin award so that they at least know that benefits are available

to them even if they have not figured out a life plan. They would not need to choose

between a highly rewarding job and a family life. There needs to be a penalty clause in this

law so that both male and females are protected in any industry when it comes to childcare.

Through this, the sōgō-shoku and ippan-shoku system can be abolished, therefore lessening

the gender divide in job type, as well as salary.

25 Ochiai, Emiko. “Leaving the West, Rejoining the East? Gender and Family in Japan’s Semi-Compressed Modernity.” International Sociology, vol. 29, no. 3, May 2014, pp. 209–228.

26 Sugimoto, Yoshio. Introduction to Japanese Society. Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, Vic;Cambridge;, 2010.

35

There is also a lack of protection for women in the case of if they were to take care

of a sick or elderly family member. According to Sugimoto, an overwhelming majority of

companies do not allow employees to take time off when the societal expectation is that

family should take care of the elderly and sick. In most cases, female family members are

expected to take care of these family members and many women do as in almost 69% of

cases, women take care of the elderly (see Figure 8). Because many companies do not allow

employees to take time off in cases such as these, many women are faced with the dilemma

of quitting their jobs if an elderly family member falls ill. Although there is legislation like

The Childcare Law of 1992 to require companies to allow employees time off in the case of if

a family member falls ill, again, there is no penalty for companies to protect all employees in

the case that they would have to take care of an elderly family member. Protection for

employees in this kind of situation is extremely important- especially as the Japanese

population is aging rapidly. 27

Figure 8: Table showing who nurses bed-ridden senior citizens at home in 2007 (Sugimoto, 2010. p. 170)

27 Sugimoto, Yoshio. Introduction to Japanese Society. Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, Vic;Cambridge;, 2010.

36

Japan’s tax legislation also needs to change in order to encourage married women to

work full-time instead of part-time. In Japan, if a person makes less than 1.5 million yen

then they do not have to pay taxes and can be listed as a dependent on their spouse’s tax

form and receive a deduction of 350,000 yen. However, if the wife makes more than 1.5

million yen, the deduction will decrease and will become a zero deduction if they earn over

2.01 million yen. After earning a certain amount, the wife would not be able to list

themselves as a dependent and would have to pay for the national pension program. In

some cases, the wife may be able to receive a better pension under the Category III

dependent status, rather than working part-time and earning more money.28 Because these

benefits exist for women if they earn less, women feel that the financial negative factors for

working full-time outweigh the financial benefits of being a dependent, therefore this tax

legislation by law confines women to work less, for less. Legislation needs to change so that

there would be more women in full-time jobs to recreate the ideal for females. By allowing

more women full-time jobs through changes in financial legislation and legislation regarding

to labor, the expectation for taking care of families can be distributed equally, and the

desirable traits for women stemmed from these expectations can be changed. Of course,

media may play an important role when changing these expectations, however changes in

legislation is the only thing that can guarantee direct changes in the Japanese workplace.

28 Brasor, Philip, and Masako Tsubuku. “Japan's Tax Laws Get in Way of More Women Working Full Time.” The Japan Times, The Japan

Times, 5 Mar. 2019, www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/03/05/national/japans-tax-laws-get-way-women-working-full-time/#.XM5rFy-B0dU.

37

Conclusion

The reiteration of female expectations in Japanese job-hunting materials depict the

reality of expectations for women in the Japanese workforce that are restrictive and prevent

having the same opportunities as men. Women are expected to present themselves as

functional members of society by displaying traits through appearance and behavior such as

being innocent, graceful, affectionate, have charm, amiable, cute, attentive to the need of

others, polite, calm, love children, like to care for others, and have neat habits.29 According

to Judith Butler, women who in turn express masculine traits according to the study such as

leadership ability, strong will, ability to implement action of one’s own accord, have a broad

perspective, ability to bring others together, have guts, become self-supportive, persuasive,

upstanding etc. would fall victim to gender policing and would result in negative response,

therefore would not seem to be ideal candidates for a job.30 It is also shown that the desired

traits in women such as “being attentive to one’s needs” results in extra tasks for women

such as pouring tea or making copies. By being expected to do these extra tasks or spending

more money on make-up to seem “cute and have charm”, women are being placed under

the position of men, in which reinforces the patriarchal system in Japanese society.

In reference to the expectation of women getting married, it is shown in an

interview with a former student in Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu that because of the

expectation to marry and take care of children, women are put into a position where little is

expected from them from the very beginning. Both Honne No Jyoshi Shūkatsu and Ray

29 Sugihara, Yoko, and Emiko Katsurada. "Gender Role Development in Japanese Culture: Diminishing Gender Role Differences in a

Contemporary Society." Sex Roles, vol. 47, no. 9, 2002, pp. 443-452.

30 Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. , 1999, p. 66.

38

Magazine’s online feature showed that not only society puts these expectations on women,

but the women burden themselves with this expectation by feeling conflicted in choosing

between sōgō-shoku and ippan-shoku. Not only should women be free from this

expectation all together- women should have a right to not having to choose between

bettering themselves and having a family. Although seeking out the Kurumin Award may

seem to be a good option for women, they may feel more limited in their career and

company choices. What if a company that matches their career goals does not have this

award? It should be the government’s responsibility to ensure that all companies provide a

work environment in which women have the same opportunity of reaching their career

goals without having to choose between a family life and a career. For example, there

should be penalties for companies for not allowing sufficient time off to take care of

children so that all companies are accessible for women wanting careers and a family life.

Japanese society’s attitude towards taking care of children also needs to change. Women

should not have the full burden of taking care of children.

Gender-equality and individualized policies in the workplace are not only important

for women, but also for men in order to improve the current systems in place. Japan is

notorious for having long work hours and the lack of freedom in the workplace. By creating

gender-equal policies that protect men and women when it comes to childcare and elderly

care, not only women but men may feel the expectation to take care of family as well.

Especially as the population is aging, these systems need to be put into place in order to

support the elderly population. By creating company policies that are more individually

focused, both men and women would not have to choose between their own family and

their career. Government intervention and policy is absolutely necessary to not only enforce

39

gender-equality in the workplace, but to also change the expectations given specifically

towards women and the desired traits associated with it.

40

Appendices

Appendix A: Job Hunting is the Perfect Chance for You to Grow! With This Opportunity,

Increase Your Femininity as Well

41

Appendix B: Job Hunting Experiences

42

Appendix C: It’s a Shame if You Don’t Know! The Reality of Sōgō and Ippan-shoku

43

Appendix D: Level Up Your Femininity 200%! Job-Hunting Makeup to Get an Offer

44

Appendix E: How to Take an ID Photo that Leaves a Good Impression

45

Appendix F: Train Your Facial Muscles to Get the Offer

46

Appendix G: Job Hunting Guidebook 2019- Career Path Organization

47

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