everything’s an...

Everything’s An Argument

Chapter 1: Everything Is

an Argument

Arguments to…

Inform

Convince

Explore

Make Decisions

Meditate/Pray

Arguments to INFORM

Presenting specific information to inform

readers

– Example:

Political ad

Movie poster

Arguments to CONVINCE

Focuses on readers –

– trying to satisfy or convince them that you have

thoroughly examined and presented information

that merits attention.

Example:

– Writing a research essay on the causes of soil erosion in

southeast Alabama

Arguments to EXPLORE

Usually show that there is merit in looking

into a subject – that there is an argument to

be made.

“Opponent” can be the status quo or current

trend.

Problem does exist – writer or reader needs

to solve it.

Arguments to EXPLORE

Problem does exist – writer or reader needs

to solve it.

– Example:

“We have a problem with litter on campus.”

Arguments to MAKE DECISIONS

Closely allied with Exploratory arguments.

Argue for a particular decision.

– Example: From the essay addressing soil erosion

in Southeast Alabama, you might write a proposal

which focuses on a possible solution to the

problem.

Arguments to MEDITATE/PRAY

Arguments can take form of meditation on a

theme or of prayer.

Pausing to consider or to gain peace of mind.

God is the fountain whenceten thousand blessings flow;

To Him my life,my health, my friends

And every good, I owe.

Occasion for Argument

Past

Present

Future

Arguments about Past

Forensic arguments: debates about what

has happened in the past.

– Present evidence from past to justify conclusions.

– Rely heavily on precedents – actions or decisions

in past that influence policies or decisions in the

present.

Arguments about Future

Deliberative argument

– try to establish policies or project future outcomes

Arguments about Present

Often about contemporary values

– Ethical premises/assumptions widely held within a

society

Kinds of Arguments

Arguments of Fact

Arguments of Definition

Arguments of

Evaluation

Proposal Arguments

Did something happen?

What is its nature?

What is its quality?

What action should be

taken?

Arguments of Fact

Facts can be proved or disproved with

evidence or testimony.

Concern: if something can easily be proven,

it can’t be argued.

– “Joe has 32 teeth. Count ‘em.”

Arguments of Definition

Often involves categorizing or defining terms.

– “Is a human embryo a human being?”

– “Is abortion murder?”

Arguments of Evaluation

Common type of argument

Argument of quality

– Makes some kind of judgment about topic

Tahoe vs. Expedition: which is the better SUV for the

price?

Parks’ evaluation of Martin Luther King Jr.

Noonan’s evaluation of Ronald Reagan

Proposal Arguments

Present evidence to show there is a problem;

then, propose a solution.

Recommend most viable course of action.

Everything’s an Argument

Chapters 2 & 3

Key Issues Regarding Arguments

Making a connection to readers

Understanding lines of argument

Making a claim

Shaping an argument

Giving an argument style

Managing the conventions of argument

Making a Connection to Reader

Writers do not write in a cultural vacuum.

Writers’ works are influenced by who they

are.– Race

– Religion

– Gender

– Ethnicity

– Class

– Intelligence


Readers’ perceptions of writer influence their

reception of what has been written.

Must think about readers’ perceptions,

values, possible prejudices.

Establish some connection with readers.

– Familiarity

– Presenting yourself as authority


Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed

and planted, and gathered into barns, and no

man could head me. And ain’t I a woman?... I

have borne thirteen children, and seen most all

sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my

mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me. And

ain’t I a woman?

Sojourner Truth

“Ain’t I a Woman?”

Four Types of Appeals

Arguments based on Emotion

Arguments based on Values

Arguments based on Character

Arguments based on Fact and Reason

Emotional Arguments

Designed to appeal to the readers’ emotions

and feelings.

Can cause readers to think more carefully

about subject.

– Persuading reader not to drink and drive

telling a story of a teen or young mother killed by drunk

driver

Emotional Arguments

Sometimes we have to be wary because

emotions can lead to unwise or impulsive

judgments.

– Advertising

Driving a certain car will make you feel superior to others.

Wearing a certain brand of clothing will make you feel good

about yourself because you are in style

Value-Based Arguments

Closely related to emotional appeals

Writer either– Asks reader to live up to higher principles,

respected traditions, or new values

– Complains that they have not done so

Close ties with ceremonial arguments.– Define or celebrate values/ideals of a society

Be aware of the values/ideals of community.

Character-Based Arguments

As writer, must seem honest, sincere, and trustworthy.

Look for evidence of character in arguments Who is the author?

Is writer an authority on topic/knowledgeable about topic?

Is evidence presented full/complete, not slanted to writer’s agenda?

Does writer acknowledge and address opposition?

Are sources documented?

REMEMBER: these same questions will be used to analyze your writings.

Character-Based Arguments

As author, you must consider

– Language

– Organization & structure

– Sense of authority

Facts and Reason-Based Arguments

Writer must provide enough evidence to

support argument.

Test all assumptions and claims.

Question every source and authority cited.

– data and information from reliable sources

Making a Claim

Claim: statement of belief or truth

– Can be plainly stated (more traditional arguments).

– Can be inferred (in stories, anecdotes, etc.).

Claims must be attached to reasons that

support it and premises that uphold it to be an

argument.

Can have several claims in one essay.

– Look at relationship among them

Shaping an Argument

Arguments must have logical structure, even

if appeal uses emotion, values, or character.

Aristotle asserted arguments had only 2

parts:

– Statement (claim)

– Proof (evidence)

Giving an Argument Style

Have to think of the way the evidence is presented.

Even logical, well-planned argument can be boring.

Have to tailor your style to the topic– What is most appropriate

Style can tell readers what to expect– Examples on pg. 40

1st is straightforward and to-the-point

2nd is humorous/tongue-in-cheek

READERS & CONTEXT

Must always think about audience or readers

when you present arguments.

Must always address an intended audience.

SUBJECT

WRITER READER

PURPOSE

READERS & CONTEXT

Different kinds of readers

– Ideal reader (exists in author’s mind)

– Invoked reader (represented in the text)

– Real reader (ones who actually read text)

READERS & CONTEXT

If potential readers do not feel connected to

text in some way, then…

– They will (probably) not be affected by your

argument or

– They will not even continue to read.

Establish Credibility

Ways to establish credibility:

– Demonstrate you are knowledgeable

– Highlight shared values

– Refer to common experiences

– Use language to build common ground

– Respect reader

Almost impossible to guarantee credibility

because readers are varied.

Establishing Credibility

Demonstrate Knowledge

– Show readers you know what you are talking

about

Facts/statistics


Highlight Shared Values

– Find common values with the potential readers

What community do you share?

Refer to Common Experiences

Build Common Ground

– Closely related to common experiences

– Establish a connection with readers

Use pronouns


Respect Readers

– Do not speak down to readers

– Do not use offensive language

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