europeanmiddleages, · 2016-12-07 · europeanmiddleages, 500–1200 in 771, charlemagne took...
TRANSCRIPT
European MiddleAges,500–1200
In 771, Charlemagne took charge of the Frankish kingdom and
began building an empire. By the time of his death in 814, the
empire had reached its height. The map at the right shows
Charlemagne’s empire, and the way it was divided 29 years after
his death. Use the map to answer the questions below.
1. What bodies of water form the borders of Charlemagne’s empire?
2. What island is part of Charlemagne’s empire?
3. How and when was the empire divided?
Connect History and Geography
511Clovis unites Franksunder Christian rule.
732 Charles Martel stopsMuslim invasion.
For more information about the MiddleAges in Europe . . .
CLASSZONE.COM
While serving as pope from 590to 604, Gregory the Great woreonly a monk’s robe. He humblycalled himself “the servant ofthe servants of God.”
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From 771 to 814,Charlemagne ruleda vast kingdomlater called theHoly Roman Empire.
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Avars
Baltic Peoples
Bohemians
Danes
Scandinavians
Serbs
Slavs
Muslim Africa
Ebro
River
Rhine
R.
Elbe
R
iver
Danube RiverA T L A N T I C
O C E A N
N o r t hS e a
Ad r i a c t i c
S e a
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
B a l t i c
S e a
Balearic Is.
PYRENEES
AL P S
Corsica
B r i t i s hI s l e s
Sardinia
Sicily
Rome
Aachen
Venice
Paris
Tours
Cordoba
BAVARIABRITTANY
CALIPHATE OFCORDOVA
DENMARK
ENGLAND
LOMBARDY
SAXONY
SWEDEN
WESTFRANKISHKINGDOM
(Charlesthe Bald)
EASTFRANKISHKINGDOM
(Louis theGerman)
SLAVICSTATES
CENTRAL KINGDOM(Lothair)
40°N
10°W
10°W 20°E
20°E
0°
0°
50°N
N
0 250 Miles
0 250 KilometersRobinson Projection
Charlemagne's Empire, 814Division by Treaty of Verdun, 843
Europe About 843
800Charlemagne crownedemperor by the pope.
900sOutside invasions spurgrowth of feudalism.
962Otto the Greatcrowned emperor.
1190Holy RomanEmpire weakens.
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Interact with History
316
What is goodand bad aboutthe smallworld of apeasant’s life?
This peasant womancannot marry without herlord’s consent.
This peasant feelsthe right to stay onhis lord’s land ismore important thanhis freedom to leave.
Peasants owe their lord twoor three days’ labor everyweek farming his land.
Peasants retreat behind the castlewalls during attacks.
EXAMINING the ISSUES
• What is secure about your world?
• How do you view the world beyond your estate?
• How is your life limited?
• How do you cope with the manyhardships?
As a class, discuss these questions. In yourdiscussion, think about other people whohave limited power over their lives.
As you read about the lot of Europeanpeasants in this chapter, see how their livingarrangements determine their role in societyand shape their beliefs.
You are living in the countryside of western Europe duringthe 1100s. Like about 90 percent of the population, you
are a peasant working the land. Your family’s hut is located in asmall village on your lord’s estate. The lord provides your basicneeds, including housing, food, and protection.
Opportunities to leave the estate are rare. Within yourlifetime, you will probably travel no more than 25 miles fromyour home.
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European Middle Ages 317
SETTING THE STAGE The gradual decline of the Roman Empire ushered in an era ofEuropean history called the Middle Ages, or the medieval period. It spanned fromaround 500 to 1500. During these centuries, new institutions slowly emerged toreplace those of the fallen Roman Empire. Unified civilizations flourished in Chinaand Southwest Asia. Medieval Europe, though, remained fragmented.
Invasions Trigger Changes in Western EuropeBy the end of the fifth century, invaders from many different Germanic groups over-ran the western half of the Roman Empire. Repeated invasions and constant warfaresparked new trends. A series of changes altered government, economy, and culture:
• Disruption of Trade Merchants faced invasionsfrom both land and sea. Their businesses collapsed.The breakdown of trade destroyed Europe’s citiesas economic centers. Money became scarce.
• Downfall of Cities With the fall of the RomanEmpire, cities were abandoned as centers ofadministration.
• Population Shifts As Roman centers of trade andgovernment collapsed, nobles retreated to the ruralareas. Roman cities were left without strong leader-ship. Other city dwellers also fled to the countryside,where they grew their own food. The population ofwestern Europe became mostly rural.
The Decline of Learning The Germanic invaders whostormed Rome could not read or write. Among Romansubjects themselves, the level of learning sank sharply asmore and more families left for rural areas. Few peopleexcept priests and other church officials were literate.
Knowledge of Greek, long important in Roman cul-ture, was almost lost. Few people could read Greek worksof literature, science, and philosophy. The Germanictribes, though, had a rich oral tradition of songs and leg-ends. However, they had no written language.
Loss of a Common Language As German-speakingpeoples mixed with the Roman population, Latin beganto change. It was no longer understood from region to region. Different dialects devel-oped as new words and phrases became part of everyday speech. By the 800s, French,Spanish, and other Roman-based languages had evolved from Latin. The developmentof various languages mirrored the continued breakup of a once unified empire.
Vocabularydialects: variousways words from thesame language arepronounced or used indifferent regions.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. RecognizingEffects How did thefall of the RomanEmpire lead todisorder in westernEurope?A. Answer Stronggovernment vanished,economic life was inturmoil, cities wereabandoned, and learn-ing declined.
Germanic KingdomsUnite Under Charlemagne
1TERMS & NAMES
• Middle Ages• Franks• monastery• secular• Carolingian
Dynasty• Charlemagne
MAIN IDEA
Many Germanic kingdoms thatsucceeded the Roman Empire werereunited under Charlemagne’s empire.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Charlemagne spread Christiancivilization through northern Europe,where it had a permanent impact.
0
50
100
150
200
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Popu
latio
n (in
thou
sand
s)
Rome Lyon(in France)
Trier(in Germany)
City Populations around A.D. 100City Populations around A.D. 900
Population of Three Roman Cities
SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Graphs1. How much did Rome’s population
decrease from around A.D. 100 to 900?2. What does the bar graph suggest about
trends that occurred after the fall of theRoman Empire?
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Germanic Kingdoms EmergeIn the years of upheaval between 400 and 600, small Germanic kingdoms replacedRoman provinces. The borders of those kingdoms changed constantly with the for-tunes of war. The Church was an institution that survived the fall of the RomanEmpire. During this time of political chaos, the Church provided order and security.
The Concept of Government Changes Along with shifting boundaries, the entireconcept of government changed. Loyalty to public government and written law hadunified Roman society. Family ties and personal loyalty, rather than citizenship in apublic state, bound Germanic society together. Unlike the Romans, Germanic peopleslived in small communities. These were governed by unwritten rules and traditions.
Every Germanic chief led a band of warriors who had pledged their loyalty to him.In peacetime, these followers lived in their lord’s hall. He gave them food, weapons,and treasure. In battle, warriors fought to the death at their lord’s side. They consid-ered it a disgrace to outlive him.
Germanic warriors willingly died for a leader they respected. Yet they felt no obli-gation to obey a king they didn’t even know. Nor would they obey an official sent tocollect taxes or administer justice in the name of an emperor they had never met. TheGermanic stress on personal ties made it impossible to establish orderly governmentfor large territories.
In the Roman province of Gaul, a Germanic people called the Franks held power.Their leader, Clovis (KLOH•vihs), would eventually bring Christianity to this region.
The Franks Under Clovis Clovis’s wife, Clothilde, urged him to convert to her faith.She believed in a traditional form of Christianity. In 496 Clovis led his warriors into
battle against another Germanic army. Fearingdefeat, Clovis appealed to the Christian God.“For I have called on my gods,” he prayed, “butI find they are far from my aid . . . Now I call onThee. I long to believe in Thee. Only, pleasedeliver me from my enemies.” The tide of thebattle shifted and the Franks triumphed.Afterward, Clovis and 3,000 of his warriorsasked a bishop to baptize them.
The Church in Rome welcomed Clovis’s con-version and supported his military campaignsagainst other Germanic peoples. By 511, Clovishad united the Franks into one kingdom. Thestrategic alliance between Clovis’s Frankish king-dom and the Church marked the beginning of aspecial partnership between two powerful forces.
Germanic Peoples Adopt ChristianityPolitics played a key role in spreading Christianity. By 600, the Church, with the helpof Frankish rulers, had converted many Germanic peoples. These new converts hadsettled in Rome’s former lands.
Missionaries also succeeded in spreading Christianity. These religious travelersoften risked their lives to advance their beliefs. During the fourth and fifth centuries,they worked among the Germanic and Celtic groups that bordered the RomanEmpire. In southern Europe, the fear of coastal attacks by Muslims also spurredmany people to become Christians.
Monasteries and Convents To adapt to rural conditions, the Church built religiouscommunities called monasteries. There Christian men called monks gave up all their
This ivory carvingshows Clovis’sconversion toChristianity in 496.A bishop baptizeshim as his wife,Clothilde, looks on.
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European Middle Ages 319
private possessions. Monks became servants of God. Nuns, womenwho also followed this religious way of life, lived in convents.
Around 520, Benedict, an Italian monk, began writing a bookdescribing a strict yet practical set of rules for monasteries. Benedict’ssister, Scholastica (skuh•LAS•tik•uh), headed a convent. There sheadapted the same rules for women. These guidelines became amodel for many other religious communities in western Europe.Monks and nuns devoted their lives to prayer and good works.
Monasteries also became Europe’s best-educated communities.Monks opened schools, maintained libraries, and copied books. In731, Venerable Bede, an English monk, wrote a history of England.Scholars still consider it the best historical work of the early MiddleAges. In the 600s and 700s, monks made beautiful copies of religiouswritings, decorated with ornate letters and brilliant pictures. Themonks’ illuminated manuscripts preserved at least part of Rome’sintellectual heritage.
Gregory I Expands Papal Power In 590, Gregory I, also calledGregory the Great, became pope. As head of the Church in Rome,Gregory broadened the authority of the papacy, or pope’s office,beyond its spiritual role. Under Gregory, the papacy also became asecular, or worldly, power involved in politics. The pope’s palace wasthe center of Roman government. Gregory used Church revenues toraise armies, repair roads, and help the poor. He also negotiatedpeace treaties with invaders such as the Lombards. Gregory hadbegun to act as the mayor of Rome. Yet his influence extendedbeyond the city’s boundaries.
According to Gregory, the entire region from Italy to England,from Spain to western Germany, fell under his responsibility.Gregory strengthened the vision of Christendom. It was a spiritualkingdom that fanned out from Rome to the most distant churches.This idea of a churchly kingdom, ruled by a pope, would become acentral theme of the Middle Ages. Meanwhile, secular rulers settheir sights on expanding their own political kingdoms.
A European Empire EvolvesAfter the Roman Empire dissolved, small kingdoms sprang up all over Europe. Forexample, England splintered into seven tiny kingdoms. Some of them were no largerthan the state of Connecticut. The Franks controlled the largest and strongest ofEurope’s kingdoms in an area that was formerly the Roman province of Gaul. TheFranks’ first Christian king, Clovis, laid down the foundations for this kingdom.
By the time Clovis died in 511, he had extended his rule over most of what is nowFrance. Clovis greatly strengthened the Merovingian (mehr•uh•VIHN•jee•uhn) Dynasty,which was named after his legendary ancestor.
Clovis’s Descendants By 700, an official known as the major domo, or mayor of thepalace, had become the most powerful person in the kingdom. Officially, the mayor ofthe palace had charge of the royal household and estates. Unofficially, he commandedarmies and made policy. In effect, the mayor of the palace ruled the kingdom.
In 719, a mayor of the palace named Charles Martel (Charles the Hammer) heldmore power than the king. Charles Martel extended the Franks’ reign to the north,south, and east. He also defeated a Muslim raiding party from Spain at the Battle ofTours in 732. The outcome of this battle held great significance for ChristianEuropeans. If the Muslims had won, western Europe might have become a part of
BackgroundConvents gave unmar-ried women opportu-nities for learning thatwere unavailable tothem in the outsideworld.
Benedict480?–543
At 15, Benedict left school and hikedup to the Sabine Hills, where helived in a cave as a hermit. Afterlearning about Benedict’s deepreligious conviction, a group of othermonks persuaded Benedict to leadtheir monastery. Benedict declared:
We must prepare our heartsand bodies for combat underholy obedience to the divinecommandments. . . . We aretherefore going to establish aschool in which one may learnthe service of the Lord.
In his book describing the rulesfor monastic life, Benedictemphasized a balance betweenwork and study. Such guidelinesturned monasteries into centers oforder, stability, and learning.
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HISTORY MAKERS
THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. MakingInferences Whatvaluable role didmonasteries play dur-ing this time ofchaos?B. PossibleAnswersRepresented anorderly, religious wayof life; kept learningalive.
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Frankish Rule
the Muslim Empire. Charles Martel’s victory at the Battle of Tours halted the Muslim invasion. This conquest made him a Christian hero.
At his death, Charles Martel passed on his power to his son, Pepin the Short. Pepinwanted to become king. He shrewdly cooperated with the pope. On behalf of theChurch, Pepin agreed to fight the Lombards. They were invading central Italy andthreatening Rome. In exchange, the pope anointed Pepin “king by the grace of God.”Thus began the reign of Frankish rulers called the Carolingian (kar•uh•LIHN•juhn)Dynasty. It lasted from 751 to 987.
Charlemagne Extends Frankish Rule Pepin the Short died in 768. He left a greatlystrengthened Frankish kingdom to his two sons, Carloman and Charles. AfterCarloman’s death in 771, Charles, known as Charlemagne (SHAHR•luh•mayn), orCharles the Great, quickly seized control of the entire kingdom.
Charlemagne was an imposing figure. He stood six feet four inches tall. His admir-ing secretary, a monk named Einhard, described Charlemagne’s achievements:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T[Charlemagne] was the most potent prince with the greatest skill and success in differ-ent countries during the forty-seven years of his reign. Great and powerful as was therealm of Franks, Karl [Charlemagne] received from his father Pippin, he nevertheless sosplendidly enlarged it . . . that he almost doubled it.EINHARD, from Life of Charlemagne
Charlemagne Takes Center StageCharlemagne built an empire greater than any known since ancient Rome. Each sum-mer Charlemagne led his armies against the enemies that surrounded his kingdom.He fought the Muslims in Spain and tribes from other Germanic kingdoms.Charlemagne conquered new lands to both the south and the east. Through theseconquests, Charlemagne spread Christianity. He reunited western Europe for the firsttime since the Roman Empire. By 800, the Carolingian empire exceeded theByzantine Empire. It included two-thirds of Italy, all of present-day France, a smallpart of Spain, and all of German Saxony. Charlemagne had become the most powerfulking in western Europe.
In 800, Charlemagne traveled to Rome to crush an unruly mob that had attackedthe pope. In gratitude, Pope Leo III crowned him emperor. The coronation was his-toric. A pope had claimed the political right to confer the title “Roman Emperor” on aEuropean king. This event signaled the joining of Germanic power, the Church, andthe heritage of the Roman Empire.
Charlemagne’s Government Charlemagne strengthened his royal power by limit-ing the authority of the nobles. To govern his empire, Charlemagne sent out royalagents. They made sure that the powerful landholders, called counts, governed theircounties justly. Charlemagne also regularly visited every part of his kingdom. He
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BackgroundAfter his successfulmilitary campaign inItaly, Pepin gave theconquered territoryaround Rome to thepope. This gift of landwas called the PapalStates.
800 Pope Leo IIIcrowns Charlemagne
(below) emperor.
740 760 780
732 Charles Martel defeats theMuslims at the Battle of Tours.
730
751 Pepin the Short becomes thefirst king ever anointed by the pope.
771 Charlemagne becomes thesole king of the Franks and contin-ues his conquest of Europe.
800
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843 Treaty of Verdun dividesCharlemagne’s empire among
his three grandsons.
813 Louis the Pious inherits the throne fromCharlemagne.
European Middle Ages 321
judged cases, settled disputes, andrewarded faithful followers. He also kepta close watch on the management of hishuge estates. They were the source ofCarolingian wealth and power.
Cultural Revival One of Charlemagne’sgreatest accomplishments was his encour-agement of learning. Charlemagne sur-rounded himself with English, German,Italian, and Spanish scholars. For hismany sons and daughters and other chil-dren at the court, Charlemagne opened apalace school. He ordered monasteries toopen schools that trained future monksand priests. Monasteries expanded theirlibraries. Monks labored to make handwritten copies of Latin books.
Charlemagne’s Heirs Are Weak Rulers A year before Charlemagne died in 814,he crowned his only surviving son, Louis the Pious, as emperor. Louis was a devoutlyreligious man. He might have fared better as a monk. Louis proved an ineffective ruler.
Louis left three sons: Lothair (loh•THAIR), Charles the Bald, and Louis the German.Louis’s sons fought one another for the empire. The civil war ended in 843 when thebrothers signed the Treaty of Verdun. This pact divided Charlemagne’s empire intothree kingdoms. After the treaty, Carolingian kings lost power. As central authoritybroke down, the lack of strong rulers led to a new system of governing and landholding.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. Evaluating Whatwere Charlemagne’smost notable achieve-ments?C. Answer ReunitingWestern Europe forthe first time since theRoman Empire,spreading Christianity,encouraging learning,governing effectively.
2. TAKING NOTES
Create a chart like the one belowto summarize how each personlisted helped spread Christianity.
Which of these people do youthink was the most influential inspreading Christianity? Why?
3. SYNTHESIZING
After the fall of the Roman Empire,learning declined. How was thistrend offset during the earlyMiddle Ages?
THINK ABOUT• the establishment of
monasteries• Charlemagne’s accomplishments
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Empire Building How doesCharlemagne’s empire in medievalEurope compare with the RomanEmpire?
THINK ABOUT• the extent of the empire• the spread of Christianity• how long each empire endured
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• Middle Ages• Franks• monastery• secular• Carolingian Dynasty• Charlemagne
Section Assessment1
Method ofSpreading Christianity
ClovisBenedictGregory ICharles MartelCharlemagne
ATLANTICOCEAN
NorthSea
Elbe R.
Danube R.
Ebro R.
Rhine R.
M e d i t e r r a n e a nS e a
50°N
0° 8°E
8°W 16°E
42°N
WESTFRANKISHKINGDOM
(Charlesthe Bald)
Corsica
CENTRALKINGDOM
(Lothair )
PAPALSTATES
EASTFRANKISHKINGDOM
(Louisthe German)
SPAIN
SLAVICSTATES
ENGLAND
Rome
Pavia
Paris
Tours
Aachen
0 250 Miles
0 500 Kilometers
Frankish Kingdom beforeCharlemagne, 768Areas conquered byCharlemagne, 814Division by Treatyof Verdun, 843
Charlemagne's Empire, 768–843
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER :Interpreting Maps 1. Region By 814, what was the extent of Charlemagne’s
empire (north to south, east to west)?2. Region Based on the map, why did the Treaty of
Verdun signal the decline of Charlemagne’s empire?
820 840
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SETTING THE STAGE After the Treaty of Verdun, Charlemagne’s three feudinggrandsons broke up the kingdom even further. Part of this territory also became abattleground as new waves of invaders attacked Europe. The political turmoil andconstant warfare led to the rise of feudalism—a military and political system based onland ownership and personal loyalty.
New Invasions Trouble Western EuropeBetween 800 and 1000, invasions completely destroyed the Carolingian Empire.Muslim invaders from the south seized Sicily and raided Italy. They sacked Rome in846. Magyar invaders struck from the east. Like the earlier Huns and Avars, theMagyar warriors terrorized Germany and Italy. And from the north sailed the mostdreaded attackers of all—the Vikings.
Vikings: Raiders, Traders, and Explorers The Vikings set sail from a wintry,wooded region called Scandinavia (skan•duh•NAY•vee•uh). The Vikings, a Germanicpeople, were also called Northmen or Norsemen. They worshiped warlike gods. TheVikings took pride in nicknames like Eric Bloodaxe and Thorfinn Skullsplitter.
The Vikings carried out their raids with terrifying speed. Clutching swords and heavywooden shields, these helmeted warriors beached their ships. They struck and thenquickly shoved out to sea again. By the time local troops arrived, the Vikings were gone.
Viking warships were awesome. The largest of these long ships held 300 warriors.They took turns rowing the ship’s 72 oars. The prow of each ship swept grandly upward,often ending with the carved head of a sea monster. A ship might weigh 20 tons when
fully loaded. Yet it could sail in a mere three feet of water. Rowing up shallow creeks,the Vikings looted inland villages and monasteries.
The Vikings were not only warriors but also traders,farmers, and outstanding explorers. Vikings ventured farbeyond western Europe. They journeyed down rivers intothe heart of Russia, to Constantinople, and even acrossthe icy waters of the North Atlantic. A Viking explorernamed Leif (leef) Ericson most likely reached NorthAmerica around 1000, almost 500 years before Columbus.
About the same time Ericson reached the Americas,the Viking terror in Europe faded away. As Vikings gradu-ally accepted Christianity, they stopped raiding monaster-ies. Also, a warming trend in Europe’s climate madefarming easier in Scandinavia. As agricultural settlementsin Iceland and Greenland prospered, fewer Scandinaviansadopted the seafaring life of Viking warriors.
BackgroundThe Vikings in Russia,called Varangians,settled down tobecome traders andnation builders. Theirearlier invasions ofRussia led to theestablishment of thefirst Russian state, inthe mid-800s. (SeeChapter 11.)
Feudalism in Europe2TERMS & NAMES
• lord• fief• vassal• knight• serf• manor• tithe
MAIN IDEA
Europeans developed feudalism, apolitical and military system ofprotective alliances and relationships.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
The rights and duties of feudalrelationships helped shape today’sforms of representative government.
This curledoak prow is amodel of a magnif-icent Viking ship foundin Oseberg, Norway.Up to 30 Vikings rowedsuch ships, whichwere over 70 feetlong.
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Magyars and Muslims As the Viking invasions declined, Europe became the targetof new assaults. The Magyars, a group of nomadic people, attacked from the east.They were superb horseback riders. The Magyars swept across the plains of theDanube River and invaded western Europe in the late 800s. The Magyars did not set-tle conquered land. Instead, they captured people to sell as slaves. They attacked iso-lated villages and monasteries. The Magyars overran northern Italy and reached as farwest as the Rhineland and Burgundy.
The Muslims struck from the south. From there, they controlled the MediterraneanSea, and disrupted trade. In the 600s and 700s, the Muslims tried to conquer and set-tle in Europe. By the 800s and 900s, their goal was also plunder. The Muslims wereexcellent sailors. They attacked settlements on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coastsand as far inland as Switzerland.
The invasions of Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims caused widespread disorder andsuffering. Most western Europeans were living in constant danger. Central authorityproved powerless. They no longer looked to a central ruler for security. Instead, manyturned to local rulers with their own armies. Leaders who could fight the invadersattracted followers and gained political strength.
Feudalism Structures SocietyIn 911, two former enemies faced each other in a peace ceremony. Rollo was thehead of a Viking army. He had been plundering the rich Seine (sayn) River valley foryears. Charles the Simple was the king of France but held little power. Charlesgranted the Viking leader a huge piece of French territory. It became known asNorthmen’s land, or Normandy. In return, Rollo placed his hands between the king’shands and swore a pledge of loyalty.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. RecognizingEffects What wasthe impact of Viking,Magyar, and Musliminvasions on medievalEurope?A. Answer Left vil-lages and monaster-ies in ruins; weakenedauthority of centralrulers; spurred peopleto rely on local lead-ers for protection
42°N
34°N
8°W 8°
E 16°E
24°E
32°E 40°E0°50°N
58°N
48°E
A T L A N T I C
O C E A N
N o r t hS e a
MediterraneanSea
Balt i c
S ea
Dnieper
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Volga R.
W. Dvina R.
D
anube R.
S eine R.R
hône
R.
Rhin
e R
.
B l a c k S e a
Casp i anSea
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
FRANCE
CALIPHATEOF CÓRDOBA
IRELAND
ENGLAND
To Iceland
ALPS
Sardinia
Crete
Sicily
Corsica
PYRENEES
BUR
GU
ND
YR
HIN
ELA
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RUSSIA
Rome
GenoaPisa
Constantinople
Aachen Kiev
Paris
Tours
London
CARPATHIANM
TS.
SCANDINAVIA
0 500 Miles
0 1,000 Kilometers
Viking invasion routesMagyar invasion routesMuslim invasion routesViking areasMagyar areasMuslim areas
Age of Invasions, 700–1000
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Location What lands did the Vikings raid?2. Movement Why were the Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invasions so threatening to Europe?
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A New Social Order The worst years of the invaders’ attacks roughly spanned from850 to 950. During this time, rulers and warriors like Charles and Rollo made similaragreements in many parts of Europe. The system of governing and landholding calledfeudalism had emerged in Europe. A similar feudal system existed in China under theZhou Dynasty that ruled from around the 11th century B.C. until 256 b.c. Feudalismin Japan began in a.d. 1192 and ended in the 19th century.
The feudal system was based on mutual obligations. In exchange for military pro-tection and other services, a lord, or landowner, granted land called a fief. The per-son receiving a fief was called a vassal. Charles the Simple, the lord, and Rollo, thevassal, showed how this two-sided bargain worked. Feudalism depended on the con-trol of land.
The Feudal Pyramid To visualize the structure of feudal society, think of a pyramid.At the peak reigned the king. Next came the most powerful vassals—wealthylandowners such as nobles and bishops. Serving beneath these vassals were knights.Knights were mounted warriors who pledged to defend their lords’ lands in exchangefor fiefs. At the base of the pyramid were landless peasants who toiled in the fields.
In practice, the feudal system did not work so simply. Relationships between variouslords and their vassals were never clear-cut. The same noble might be a vassal to sev-eral different lords. The feudal pyramid often became a complex tangle of conflictingloyalties. Both lords and vassals tried to use these relationships to their own advantage.
Social Classes Are Well Defined In the feudal system, status determined a per-son’s prestige and power. Medieval writers classified people into three groups: thosewho fought (nobles and knights), those who prayed (men and women of the Church),and those who worked (the peasants). Social class was usually inherited.
In Europe during the Middle Ages, the vast majority of people were peasants. Mostpeasants were serfs. Serfs were people who could not lawfully leave the place wherethey were born. Though bound to the land, serfs were not slaves. Their lords could notsell or buy them. The wealth of the feudal lords came from the labor of peasants.
Vocabularystatus: social ranking.
324 Chapter 13
THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SummarizingWhat are the keycharacteristics offeudalism?B. Answer Systemof government basedon landholding;alliances based onloyalty, military ser-vice, and land grants
King
NobleChurchOfficial
Knights
Peasants
Knights
Peasants
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Manors: The Economic Side of FeudalismThe manor was the lord’s estate. During the Middle Ages, the manor system was thebasic economic arrangement. The manor system rested on a set of rights and obliga-tions between a lord and his serfs. The lord provided the serfs with housing, strips offarmland, and protection from bandits. In return, serfs tended the lord’s lands, caredfor his animals, and performed other tasks to maintain the estate. Peasant womenshared in the farmwork with their husbands. All peasants, whether free or serf, owedthe lord certain duties. These included at least a few days’ labor each week and a cer-tain portion of their grain.
A Self-Contained World Peasants rarely traveled more than 25 miles from theirown manor. By standing in the center of a plowed field, they could see their entireworld at a glance. A manor usually covered only a few square miles of land. It typicallyconsisted of the lord’s manor house, a church, and workshops. Generally, 15 to 30families lived in the village on a manor. Fields, pastures, and forests surrounded thevillage. Sometimes a stream wound through the manor. Streams and ponds providedfish, which served as an important source of food.
The manor was largely a self-sufficient community. The serfs and peasants raised orproduced nearly everything that they and their lord needed for daily life—crops, fuel,cloth, leather goods, and lumber. The only outside purchases were salt, iron, and afew unusual objects such as millstones. These huge stones were used to grind flour.
The Harshness of Manor Life For the privilege of living on the lord’s land, peas-ants paid a high price. They paid a tax on all grain ground in the lord’s mill. Anyattempt to dodge taxes by baking bread elsewhere was treated as a crime. Peasantsalso paid a tax on marriage. Weddings could take place only with the lord’s consent.After all these payments to the lord, peasant families owed the village priest a tithe,or church tax. A tithe represented one-tenth of their income.
BackgroundFarming was the chiefeconomic activity dur-ing the Middle Ages.
March: Two Workmen in a Garden by Simon Bening (about 1515)
HISTORY THROUGH ART: Fine Art
Contrasting How does theclothing of the three people inthe painting reflect their statusand responsibilities in medievalsociety?
SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R20
Comparing How would youvisually show that today’s styles,especially among teenagers, blurthe distinctions among varioussocial classes?
Connect to Today
Connect to History
This medieval painting shows a nobleand two workmen who live on a manor.During the Middle Ages, “fashionpolice” made sure that people dressedaccording to their social class.Peasants could not lawfully wear theclothes of a noble.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. AnalyzingCauses How mightthe decline of tradeduring the earlyMiddle Ages havecontributed to theself-sufficiency of themanor system?C. Answer The lim-ited amount of out-side goods availableled to communitiesthat produced every-thing they needed.
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Serfs lived in crowded cottages with only one or two rooms. They warmed theirdirt-floor houses by bringing pigs inside. At night the family huddled on a pile ofstraw that often crawled with insects. Peasants’ simple diet consisted mainly of vegeta-bles, coarse brown bread, grain, cheese, and soup.
Piers Plowman, written by William Langland in 1362, reveals the hard life ofEnglish peasants:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TWhat by spinning they save, they spend it in house-hire,Both in milk and in meal to make a mess of porridge,To cheer up their children who chafe for their food,And they themselves suffer surely much hungerAnd woe in the winter, with waking at nightsAnd rising to rock an oft restless cradleWILLIAM LANGLAND, Piers Plowman
Despite the hardships they endured, serfs accepted their lot in life as part of theChurch’s teachings. They, like most Christians during medieval times, believed thatGod determined a person’s place in society.
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2. TAKING NOTES
Create a cause-and-effect chartlike the one below. Show thereasons why feudalism developedand its consequences.
3. EVALUATING
What benefits do you think amedieval manor provided to theserfs who lived there? What werethe drawbacks?
THINK ABOUT• the duties and rights of serfs• serfs’ living conditions• the diagram of the medieval
manor on this page
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Power and Authority Workwith a partner to draw up acontract between a lord and avassal, such as a knight, orbetween the lord of a manor and aserf. Include the responsibilities,obligations, and rights of eachparty. Refer to informationmentioned in the text.
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• lord• fief• vassal• knight• serf• manor• tithe
Section Assessment2
This diagram showsthe arrangement ofa typical medievalmanor. These self-contained commun-ities dotted thecountrysidethroughout westernEurope. Manorsincluded farmlandusually ranging insize from 900 to3,000 acres.
Mill
Church
Orchard
Blacksmith
Lord’s Manor House
Oven
Well
Meadow
Serfs’ Cottages
Spring PlantingField
Fallow FieldForest Fall Planting
Field
Pond
D. PossibleAnswers Hunger,poverty, underfed chil-drenTHINK THROUGH HISTORYD. MakingInferences Whatdoes this excerpt sug-gest about the prob-lems peasant familiesfaced?
Effects
Rise ofFeudalism
Causes
A Medieval Manor
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The Age of Chivalry3TERMS & NAMES
• chivalry• tournament• troubadour
MAIN IDEA
The code of chivalry for knightsglorified combat and romantic love.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Chivalry has shaped modern ideas ofromance in Western cultures.
SETTING THE STAGE During the Middle Ages, nobles constantly fought one another.Their feuding kept Europe in a fragmented state for centuries. Through warfare, feu-dal lords defended their estates, seized new territories, and increased their wealth.Lords and their armies lived in a violent society that prized combat skills. By the1100s, a code of behavior arose. High ideals guided warriors’ actions and glorifiedtheir roles.
Warriors on HorsebackMounted soldiers became valuable in combat during the reign of Charlemagne’sgrandfather, Charles Martel, in the 700s. Charles Martel had observed that theMuslim cavalry often turned the tide of battles. As a result, he organized Frankishtroops of armored horsemen, or knights.
Saddles and Stirrups The leather saddle was developed on the Asian steppesaround 200 b.c. Stirrups were developed in India around the same time. Bothchanged the technology of warfare in Europe during the 700s. The saddle kept a war-rior firmly seated on a moving horse. Stirrups allowed him to stand up while ridingand to maneuver heavier weapons. Without stirrups to brace him, a charging warriorwas likely to topple off his own horse.
Frankish knights, galloping full tilt, could knock over enemy foot soldiers and riderson horseback. Gradually, mounted knights became the most important part of an army.The horses they owned were status symbols. Warhorses played a key military role.
The Warrior’s Role in Feudal Society By the 11th century, western Europe was abattleground of warring nobles vying for power. To defend their territories, feudal lordsraised private armies. In exchange for military service, feudal lords used their mostabundant resource—land. They rewarded knights, their most skilled warriors, with fiefsfrom their sprawling estates. Wealth from these fiefs allowed knights to devote theirlives to war. Knights could afford to pay for costly weapons, armor, and warhorses.
As the lord’s vassal, a knight’s main obligation was to serve in battle. From each ofhis knights, a lord typically demanded about 40 days of mounted combat each year.Knights’ pastimes also often revolved around training for war. Wrestling and huntinghelped knights gain strength and practice the skills they would need on the battlefield.
These two-inchhigh iron spikes,called caltrops,were strewn over a battlefield or infront of a castle.They could maimgalloping warhorsesor enemy footsoldiers.
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BackgroundThe Muslims whoinvaded Spain in the700s and establisheda civilization therewere called Moors.
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328 Chapter 13
Knighthood and ChivalryEarly in the Middle Ages, knights were expected to display courage in battle and loy-alty to their lord. By the 1100s, the code of chivalry (SHIHV•uhl•ree), a complex setof ideals, demanded that a knight fight bravely in defense of three masters. Hedevoted himself to his earthly feudal lord, his heavenly Lord, and his chosen lady. Thechivalrous knight also protected the weak and the poor. The ideal knight was loyal,brave, and courteous. Most knights, though, failed to meet these high standards. Theytreated the lower classes brutally.
A cowardly knight who disregarded the code of chivalry faced public shame. First,his armor was stripped off, and his shield was cracked. Next, his spurs were cut off, andhis sword was broken over his head. People then threw the knight into a coffin anddragged him to church. There a priest would chant a mock funeral service.
War Games for Glory Sons of nobles began training for knighthood at an early ageand learned the code of chivalry. After being dubbed a knight, most young men trav-eled with companions for a year or two. The young knights gained experience fightingin local wars. Some knights took part in mock battles called tournaments.Tournaments combined recreation with combat training. Two armies of knightscharged each other. Trumpets blared, and lords and ladies cheered. Like real battles,tournaments were fierce and bloody competitions. Winners could usually demandlarge ransoms from defeated knights.
Brutal Reality of Warfare The small-scale violence of tournaments did not matchthe bloodshed of actual battles, especially those fought at castles. By the 1100s, stonecastles were encircled by massive walls and guard towers. These castles dominatedmuch of the countryside in western Europe. The castle was the home of the lord andlady, their family, knights and other men-at-arms, and servants. It also was a fortress,designed for defense.
A castle under siege was a gory sight. Attacking armies used a wide range of strate-gies and weapons to force castle residents to surrender. Defenders of a castle pouredboiling water, hot oil, or molten lead on enemy soldiers. Expert archers were stationedon the roof of the castle. Armed with crossbows, they fired deadly bolts that couldpierce full armor.
BackgroundThe word chivalrycomes from theFrench words cheval(horse) and chevalier(horse-riding knight).
A. PossibleAnswers Contestsof athletic skill; large,cheering audiences;financial profit for thewinnersTHINK THROUGH HISTORYA. Comparing Howdo medieval tourna-ments resemblemodern sportscompetitions?
Vocabularysiege: a militaryblockade staged byenemy armies tryingto capture a fortress.
Education of a Knight
The education of a young noble began early.At age 7, his parents sent him off to the castle ofanother lord. As a page, he waited on his hosts and
learned courtly manners. He played chess tolearn war strategies. To develop fighting
skills, the page practiced sword fighting.
At around age 14, the page wasraised to the rank of squire. A squire actedas a servant to a knight. The squire tookcare of the knight’s armor, weapons, andwarhorse. The squire also escorted theknight to battles.
At around age 21, a squire becamea full-fledged knight. An English squiremight have heard his lord say these wordsduring the knighting ceremony: “In thename of God, Saint Michael, and SaintGeorge, I dub thee knight. Be valiant.”
SQUIRE
KNIGHT
PAGE
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S C I E N C E T E C H N O L O G Y&
Trebuchet• worked like a
giant slingshot• propelled objects
up to a distanceof 980 feet
Siege Tower• had a platform on top that
lowered like a drawbridge• could support weapons
and soldiers
Tortoise• moved slowly on wheels• sheltered soldiers from
falling arrows
Mantlet • shielded soldiers
Castles and Siege WeaponsAttacking armies carefully planned how to capture a castle. Engineers would inspectthe castle walls for weak points in the stone. Then enemy soldiers would try to ramthe walls, causing them to collapse. At the battle site, attackers often constructed theheavy and clumsy weapons shown here.
Using the trebuchet, enemy soldiers launched a widevariety of missiles over the castle walls:
• pots of burning lime • captured soldiers• boulders • diseased cows • severed human heads • dead horses
European Middle Ages 329
Battering Ram• made of heavy timber
with a sharp metal tip• swung like a pendulum to
crack castle walls or toknock down drawbridge
Mangonel• flung huge rocks that
crashed into castle walls• propelled objects up to a
distance of 1,300 feet
An Array of High-Flying Missiles
Making Inferences How dothese siege weapons show thattheir designers knew the archi-tecture of a castle well?
SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R16
Researching Modern technologyhas made warfare far less personalthan it was during the Middle Ages.Find examples of recent weapons.Describe how they affect the waywar is conducted.
Connect to Today
Connect to History
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The Literature of ChivalryIn the 1100s, the themes of medieval literature downplayed the brutality of knight-hood and feudal warfare. Many stories idealized castle life. They glorified knighthoodand chivalry, tournaments and real battles. Songs and poems about a knight’s undyinglove for a lady were also popular.
Epic Poetry Feudal lords and their ladies enjoyed listening to epic poems. Thesepoems recounted a hero’s deeds and adventures. Many epics retold stories about leg-endary heroes of the early Middle Ages, such as King Arthur and Charlemagne.
The Song of Roland is one of the earliest and most famous medievalepic poems. It praises a band of French soldiers who perished inbattle during Charlemagne’s reign. The poem transforms theevent into a struggle. A few brave French knights led by Rolandbattle an overwhelming army of Muslims from Spain. Roland’sfriend, Turpin the Archbishop, stands as a shining example ofmedieval ideals. Turpin represents courage, faith, and chivalry:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TAnd now there comes the Archbishop.He spurs his horse, goes up into a mountain,summons the French; and he preached them a sermon:“Barons, my lords, [Charlemagne] left us in this place.We know our duty: to die like good men for our King.Fight to defend the holy Christian faith.”from The Song of Roland
Love Poems and Songs Under the code of chivalry, a knight’sduty to his lady became as important as his duty to his lord. In many
medieval poems, the hero’s difficulties resultedfrom a conflict between those two obligations.
Troubadours were poet-musicians at the castlesand courts of Europe. They composed short verses andsongs about the joys and sorrows of romantic love. Sometimestroubadours sang their own verses in the castles of their lady. Theyalso sent roving minstrels to carry their songs to courts.
A troubadour might sing about love’s disappointments: “My loving heart, my faithfulness, myself, my world she deigns to take/ Thenleave me bare and comfortless to longing thoughts that ever wake.”
Other songs told of lovesick knights who adored ladies they wouldprobably never win: “Love of a far-off land/For you my heart isaching/And I can find no relief.” The code of chivalry promoted afalse image of knights. In turn, these love songs created an artificialimage of women. In the troubadour’s eyes, noblewomen were alwaysbeautiful and pure.
The most celebrated woman of the age was Eleanor of Aquitaine(1122–1204). Troubadours flocked to her court in the French duchyof Aquitaine. Later, as queen of England, Eleanor was the mother ofRichard the Lion-Hearted and King John. Richard himself composed
romantic songs and poems. Eleanor’s daughter, Marie of Champagne, turned love intoa subject of study like logic or law. She presided at a famed Court of Love. Troubledlovers came there to air their grievances.
330 Chapter 13
Modern Love Songs
Many love songs played on theradio or cable TV share similaritieswith the love songs of troubadoursfrom the 1100s and 1200s. Modernlyrics echo themes featured introubadours’ songs—happiness andheartbreaks, devoted lovers andunfaithful lovers, trust and jealousy.
The titles of modern love songsreflect the legacy of medievaltroubadours’ songs. Here are someexamples:
• “Heartbreaker”• ”True Love”• “Your Cheatin’ Heart”• “Power of Love”• “Can’t Help Falling in Love”
CONNECT to TODAY
THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. MakingInferences Howwas the code ofchivalry like the ideaof romantic love?B. Possible AnswerBoth presented dis-torted, unrealisticimages of men andwomen.
Medieval musiciansoften played a harpor a lute, like theone shown here, toaccompany recitalsof poemscelebratingwarrior-heroes.
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European Middle Ages 331
The Shifting Role of WomenThe Church viewed women as inferior to men. In contrast, the idea of romantic loveplaced noblewomen on a pedestal where they could be worshipped. A true knightpledged to protect all women. He also might love, serve, and adore a particular lady,preferably from afar.
Yet as feudalism developed across west-ern Europe, women’s status actuallydeclined. Their roles became increasinglylimited to the home and convent.
For the vast majority of women life remainedunchanged for centuries. During the Middle Ages,most women were still poor and powerless. Theirroles were confined to performing endless labor,bearing children, and taking care of their families.
Women in Power Under the feudal system, anoblewoman could inherit an estate from her hus-band. Upon her lord’s request, she could also sendhis knights to war. When her husband was offfighting, the lady of a medieval castle might act asmilitary commander and a warrior. Noblewomenoften played a key role in defending castles. Theyhurled rocks and fired arrows at attackers. Somewomen even dressed in armor, mountedwarhorses, and mobilized a cavalry of knights.
However, unlike knights, women were not eli-gible to receive land as reward in exchange formilitary service. Women also held less property.Lords passed down their fiefs to their sons, nottheir daughters.
Women’s Falling Status As the Middle Agesprogressed, noblewomen wielded less real powerthan they had in earlier years. Eleanor of Aquitaine was a notable exception. Asqueen of England, she ruled at times for her husband, Henry II, and later for hersons, Richard and John. Few other women had such authority.
The Church played a part in medieval women’s declining fortunes. The Churchtried to regain control of religious appointments and organizations. It reclaimed con-vents and monasteries that noblewomen had founded or supported. As you will readin Section 4, the influence of the Church was far-reaching.
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a web diagram like the onebelow, show ideas associatedwith chivalry.
Which have remnants in today’ssociety? Explain.
3. FORMING OPINIONS
Do you think the idea of romanticlove helped or hindered women?Why?
THINK ABOUT• pros and cons of placing women
on a “pedestal”• the Church’s view of women• the lyrics of love songs quoted in
the text
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Religious and EthicalSystems What positive effectsmight the code of chivalry havehad on feudal society?
THINK ABOUT• the ideals of chivalry• the education of a knight• the importance of religious faith• the violence and constant
warfare during the Middle Ages
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• chivalry• tournament• troubadour
Section Assessment3
THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. SummarizingWhat privileges didnoblewomen have inmedieval society?C. Answer Respectand admiration,power to inherit herhusband’s estate, and,with his consent, sendhis knights to war.
chivalry
Knights were notthe only warriorsglorified in medievalpaintings. Thesenoblewomen showtheir courage andcombat skills indefending a castleagainst enemies.
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332 Chapter 13
SETTING THE STAGE Amid the weak central governments in feudal Europe, theChurch emerged as a powerful institution. It shaped the lives of people from all socialclasses. As the Church expanded its political role, strong rulers began to question thepope’s authority. Dramatic power struggles unfolded in the Holy Roman Empire—the scene of mounting tensions between popes and emperors.
The Scope of Church AuthorityIn crowning Charlemagne emperor in 800, the Church sought to influence both spiri-
tual and political matters. Three hundred years earlier, Pope Gelasius I recognizedthe conflicts that could arise between the two great forces—the Church and thestate. He wrote, “There are two powers by which this world is chiefly ruled: the
sacred authority of the priesthood and the authority of kings.”Gelasius suggested an analogy to solve such conflicts. God had created
two symbolic swords. One sword was religious. The other was political.The pope held a spiritual sword. The emperor wielded a political one.Gelasius thought that the pope should bow to the emperor in politicalmatters. In turn, the emperor should bow to the pope in religious mat-
ters. If each ruler kept the authority in his own realm, Gelasius sug-gested, the two leaders could share power in harmony.
In reality, though, the Church and state disagreed on the bound-aries of either realm. Clashes erupted throughout the Middle Ages.The Church and various European governments competed for power.
Church Structure Somewhat like the system of feudalism, theChurch established its own organization. The distribution of powerwas based on status. Church structure consisted of different ranksof clergy, or religious officials. The pope headed the Church inRome. All clergy, including bishops and priests, fell under hisauthority. Bishops supervised priests, the lowest ranking membersof the clergy. Bishops also settled disputes over Church teachingsand religious practices. For most people, local priests served as themain contact with the Church.
Religion as a Unifying Force Feudalism and the manor system created divisionsamong people. Shared beliefs in the teachings of the Church bonded people together.During an era of constant warfare and political turmoil, the Church was a stableforce. The Church provided Christians with a sense of security and a religious com-munity to which they might belong. The Middle Ages in Europe were aptly namedthe Age of Faith. Religion at this time occupied center stage.
Medieval Christians’ everyday lives were often harsh. Still, they could all follow thesame path to salvation—everlasting life in heaven. Priests and other religious officialsadministered the sacraments, or important religious ceremonies. These rites paved the
The Church Wields Power
4TERMS & NAMES
• clergy• sacrament• canon law• Holy Roman
Empire• lay investiture
MAIN IDEA
Church leaders and political leaderscompeted for power and authority.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Today many religious leaders stillvoice their opinions on political issues.
BackgroundThe clergy was alsopart of the feudal sys-tem. In the earlyMiddle Ages, somebishops, like othervassals, owed militaryservice to their lordand fought coura-geously in battles.
This jeweled tiara,which a pope wouldwear in a procession,reflects the wealth,power, and authorityof his office.
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European Middle Ages 333
way for achieving salvation. For example, through the sacrament of baptism, peoplebecame part of the Christian community. Through confirmation, baptized people oftheir own will publicly acknowledged their membership in the Church.
At the local level, the village church was a unifying force in thedaily lives of most people. It served as a religious and social center.People worshiped together at the church. They also met and talkedwith other villagers. Religious holidays, especially Christmas andEaster, were occasions for social gatherings and festive celebrations.
Church Justice The scope of the Church’s authority was both reli-gious and political. The Church provided a unifying set of spiritualbeliefs and rituals. The Church also created a system of justice toguide people’s conduct. All medieval Christians, kings and peasantsalike, were subject to canon law, or the law of the Church, in mat-ters such as marriage and religious practices. The Church also estab-lished courts to try people accused of violating canon law. Two of theharshest punishments that offenders faced were excommunicationand interdict.
Popes used the threat of excommunication—banishment from theChurch—to wield power over political rulers. For example, a disobe-dient king’s quarrel with a pope might result in excommunication.This meant the king would be denied salvation. Excommunicationalso freed all the king’s vassals from their duties to him. If an excom-municated king continued to disobey the pope, the pope, in turn,could use an even more frightening weapon—the interdict. Underan interdict, many sacraments and religious services could not beperformed in the king’s lands. As Christians, the king’s subjectsbelieved that without such sacraments they might be doomed to eternal suffering inhell. In the 11th century, excommunication and the possible threat of an interdictwould force a German emperor to submit to the pope’s commands.
The Church and the Holy Roman EmpireAfter the death of Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Empire was the strongest king-dom that arose from the ruins of his empire. When Pope Leo III crownedCharlemagne emperor in 800, he unknowingly set the stage for future conflictsbetween popes and emperors.
Otto I Allies with the Church The most effective ruler of medieval Germany wasOtto I. He was known as Otto the Great. Otto, crowned king in 936, consciouslycopied the policies of his boyhood hero, Charlemagne. Like Charlemagne, Ottoformed a close alliance with the Church. To limit the nobles’ strength, Otto soughthelp from the clergy. He built up his power base by gaining the support of the bishopsand abbots, the heads of monasteries. Otto dominated the Church in Germany. Healso used his power to defeat unruly German princes.
Following in Charlemagne’s footsteps, Otto also invaded Italy on the pope’s behalf.In 962, the pope rewarded Otto by crowning him emperor.
Signs of Future Conflicts The German-Italian empire Otto created was first calledthe Roman Empire of the German Nation. It later became known as the Holy RomanEmpire. The Holy Roman Empire remained the strongest state in Europe until about1100. However, Otto’s attempt to revive Charlemagne’s empire caused trouble forfuture German leaders. Italian nobles resented German rule. Popes too came to fearthe political power that the German emperors held over Italy.
BackgroundThe Holy RomanEmpire was located inthe region of present-day Germany.
An Age of Superstition
Along with their devout Christianfaith, many people during theMiddle Ages also clung tosuperstitious beliefs. Medievalpeople expected the dead toreappear as ghosts. A friendlygoblin might do a person a gooddeed, but an evil witch might causegreat harm. Medieval peoplethought an evil witch had thepower to exchange a healthy childfor a sickly one.
The medieval Church frownedupon superstitions such as these:
• Preparing a table with threeknives to please good fairies
• Making a vow by a tree, a pond,or any place but a church
• Believing that a person couldchange into the shape of a wolf
• Believing that the croak of araven or meeting a priest wouldbring a person good or bad luck
Daily LifeTHINK THROUGH HISTORYA. AnalyzingMotives Why didmedieval peasantssupport the Church?A. Answer TheChurch offered unity,security, hope, asocial life, and orderin an unstable world.
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Holy Roman Emperor Clashes with the PopeThe Church began to resent the control that kings, such as Otto, exercised over clergyand their offices. The focus of this resentment was lay investiture—a ceremony inwhich kings and nobles appointed church officials. Whoever controlled lay investiturewielded the real power in naming bishops. They were powerful clergy whom kingssought to control. Church reformers felt that bishops should not be under the powerof any king. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII banned lay investiture.
The furious young German emperor, Henry IV, immediately called a meeting ofthe German bishops he had appointed. With their approval, the emperor sent avicious letter to Gregory VII. Henry called Gregory “not pope, but false monk” andordered him to step down from the papacy. Gregory fired back and excommunicatedHenry. Afterward, German bishops and princes sided with the pope. Determined tosave his throne, Henry tried to win the pope’s forgiveness.
Showdown at Canossa In January 1077, Henry journeyed over the snowy Alps tothe Italian town of Canossa (kuh•NAHS•uh). He approached the castle where PopeGregory was a guest. Gregory later described the scene:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThere, having laid aside all the belongings of royalty, wretchedly, with bare feet andclad in wool, he [Henry IV] continued for three days to stand before the gate of the cas-tle. Nor did he desist from imploring with many tears the aid and consolation of theapostolic mercy until he had moved all of those who were present there. . . .POPE GREGORY, cited in Basic Documents in Medieval History
The Pope was obligated to forgive any sinner who begged so humbly. Still, Gregorykept Henry waiting in the snow for three days before ending his excommunication.
The meeting in Canossa was one of the most dramatic confrontations of the MiddleAges. Yet it actually solved nothing. A triumphant Henry rushed home to punish the
nobles who had rebelled against him. Thepope had gained an even greater victory byhumiliating the proudest ruler in Europe.The key question of lay investitureremained undecided.
Concordat of Worms Gregory’s andHenry’s successors continued to fight overlay investiture until 1122. That year, repre-sentatives of the Church and the emperormet in the German city of Worms (wurms).There they reached a compromise known asthe Concordat of Worms. By its terms, theChurch alone could grant a bishop his ringand staff, symbols of Church office. Yet theemperor had the veto power to prevent theappointment of a bishop.
During Henry’s struggle, Germanprinces regained much of the power theyhad lost under Otto the Great. A laterGerman ruler, Frederick I, would resumethe battle to build up royal authority.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. MakingInferences Whywas Henry’s journeyto Canossa a politicalmaneuver?B. Possible AnswerConfident that thepope would forgivehim, Henry could thenreclaim his throne andpunish the rebelliousnobles who betrayedhim.
0 250 Miles
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The Holy RomanEmpirePapal States
The Holy Roman Empire, 1100
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Region How many states make up the Holy Roman Empire?
What does this suggest about ruling it as an empire?2. Location How does the location of the Papal States make
them an easy target for frequent invasions by Germanic rulers?
334 Chapter 13
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European Middle Ages 335
Renewed Church Conflicts Under Frederick IBy 1152, the seven German princes who elected the German king realized thatGermany needed a strong ruler to keep the peace. The princes choseFrederick I. His red beard earned him the nickname “Barbarossa.”
Frederick I was the first ruler to call his lands the Holy Roman Empire.However, this region was actually a patchwork of feudal territories. Hisforceful personality and military skills enabled him to dominate theGerman princes. Yet whenever he left the country, disorder returned.
Following Otto the Great’s example, Frederick did not focus on buildingroyal power in Germany. Instead, he repeatedly invaded the rich cities ofItaly. Frederick’s brutal tactics spurred Italian merchants to unite againsthim. Like Henry IV, Frederick angered the pope, who joined the mer-chants. Together, Frederick’s enemies formed an alliance called theLombard League.
In 1176, the foot soldiers of the Lombard League faced Frederick’s armyof mounted knights at the Battle of Legnano (lay•NYAHN•oh). In an aston-ishing victory, these foot soldiers used crossbows to defeat feudal knightsfor the first time in history.
In 1177, Frederick made peace with the pope and returned to Germany.Frederick’s military defeat, though, had undermined his authority with theGerman princes. Their power continued to grow in spite of Frederick’sefforts. After he drowned in 1190, Frederick’s empire dissolved into anarray of fragmented feudal states.
German States Remain SeparateBy getting involved in Italian politics, German kings after Frederick contin-ued their attempts to revive Charlemagne’s empire and his alliance with theChurch. This policy led to wars with Italian cities and to further clasheswith the pope. These conflicts were among several reasons why the feudalstates of Germany did not unify during the Middle Ages.
The system of German princes electing the king weakened royal authority. Germanrulers controlled fewer royal lands to use as a base of power than French and Englishkings, who were establishing strong central authority. These kings made changes inthe legal system that would lay the foundation for modern unified nation-states.
As you will read in Chapter 14, feudalism in France and England spurred the riseof powerful leaders. They would create strong and enduring nations. Gradually,orderly government would replace the fighting and frequent warfare that character-ized feudal societies, such as Germany.
This stained-glassportrait ofFrederick I projectsan image ofimperial power. Yetlike Henry IV,Frederick’s clasheswith the popeeroded theemperor’s authority.
2. TAKING NOTES
Create a time line like the onebelow for the Holy Roman Empire.Write the significance of eachdate shown.
For which events did the Churchand rulers engage in a powerstruggle? Why?
3. EVALUATING DECISIONS
Do you think the Concordat ofWorms was a fair compromise forboth the emperor and the Church?Why or why not?
THINK ABOUT• the Church’s authority in spiritual
matters• the emperor’s political power• the problems that remained
unresolved
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Power and Authority Workwith a partner to play the roles ofHenry IV and Pope Gregory VII.Based on your role-play, write adialogue about their meeting atCanossa.
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• clergy• sacrament• canon law• Holy Roman Empire• lay investiture
Section Assessment4
VocabularyBarbarossa: “redbeard” in Italian.
936
962
1077 1190
1122
C. Possible AnswerGerman kings’ contin-ued attempts to reviveCharlemagne’s empireand his alliance withthe Church sparkedwars with Italian citesand clashes with thepope.THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. AnalyzingCauses What long-lasting political trendkept German statesseparate during theMiddle Ages?
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13Chapter Assessment
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SECTION 1 (pages 317–321)
Germanic Kingdoms Unite Under Charlemagne11. How did Gregory I increase the political power of the pope?
12. What was the outcome of the Battle of Tours?
13. What was the significance of the pope’s declaring Charlemagneemperor?
SECTION 2 (pages 322–326)
Feudalism in Europe14. Which invading peoples caused turmoil in Europe during the 800s?
15. What exchange took place between lords and vassals under the feudal system?
16. What duties did a lord of a manor and his serfs owe one another?
SECTION 3 (pages 327–331)
The Age of Chivalry17. Briefly describe the stages of becoming a knight.
18. What were common subjects of troubadours’ songs during the MiddleAges?
SECTION 4 (pages 332–335)
The Church Wields Power19. What was Gelasius’s two-swords theory?
20. Describe the conflict between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV and itsoutcome.
EuropeanMiddle Ages
TERMS & NAMESBriefly explain the importance of each of the followingduring the Middle Ages from 500 to 1200.
Interact with History
On page 316, you imagined what the worldwas like from the viewpoint of a peasant liv-ing on a medieval manor. Now that you’veread the chapter, reconstruct a more accu-rate picture. What was a peasant’s daily lifelike? Why did peasants cling to their reli-gious beliefs and the teachings of theChurch? Discuss your ideas in a small group.
1. monastery
2. Charlemagne
3. vassal
4. serf
5. manor
6. chivalry
7. troubadour
8. clergy
9. Holy Roman Empire
10. lay investiture
CODE OFBEHAVIOR
BELIEFSYSTEM
POLITICALSYSTEM
ECONOMICSYSTEM
Feudalism• Form of government based on landholding• Alliances between lords and vassals• Oaths of loyalty in exchange for land and
military service• Ranking of power and authority
Manors• Lord’s estate• Set of rights and obligations
between serfs and lords• Self-sufficient community
producing a variety of goods
The Church• Unifying force of Christian faith• Power over people’s everyday lives• Involvement in political affairs
Chivalry• Displays of courage and
valor in combat• Devotion to a feudal lord
and heavenly lord• Respect toward women
Visual Summary
MEDIEVALSOCIETY
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337
CHAPTER ACTIVITIES1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Projects
Your unit portfolio project focuses onshowing the influence of the Church during the Middle Ages. For Chapter 13,you might use one of the following ideas.
• Write a character sketch of a religious or historical figure described in thischapter.
• Create a poster titled “The Age of Faith” focusing on the role that theChurch played in the daily lives of Europeans.
• Create a time line tracing the most important power plays betweenreligious and political leaders during the Middle Ages. Refer to the text forideas.
2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning
Through warfare, knights helped feudal lordsdefend their estates, seize new territories, and gain more power. In mockbattles called tournaments, knights developed their combat skills. Work witha team to design a video war game that imitates a medieval tournamentbetween knights. Describe your ideas in a proposal that you might send to avideo game company.
Use the Internet or books to find out more about medievaltournaments. Think about video games that are based on combat
experiences. You might adapt some of the rules to your game. Use thesequestions to help you brainstorm ideas.
• What are the rules of the game?
• What is the system of keeping score of wins and losses?
• How should captured prisoners be treated?
• Which weapons should be used and which should be banned?
3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE
Revisit the unit time line for Chapter 13 on pages 228–229. Which twoimportant events in other parts of the world roughly coincide with theexpansion of feudalism in western Europe? Give reasons to support yourchoices.
CRITICAL THINKING1. COMPARING CIVILIZATIONS
Create a chart comparing medieval Europe to anearlier civilization, such as Rome or Greece. Considergovernment, religion, and social roles.
2. CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS LEGACY
Copy the three overlappingcircles below to show how Otto I and Frederick I tried toimitate Charlemagne’s approach to empire building.
3. THE POWER OF LANDOWNERS
Why do you think the ownership of land became anincreasing source of power for feudal lords?
4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES
In The Canterbury Tales, the English poet GeoffreyChaucer tells a series of stories about characters fromthe Middle Ages. Read the following passage about aknight. Then answer the questions below it.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThere was a knight, a most distinguished man,Who from the day on which he first beganTo ride abroad had followed chivalry,Truth, honor, generous, and courtesy.He had done nobly in sovereign’s warAnd ridden in battle, no man more,As well as Christian in heathen placesAnd ever honored for his noble graces.
• How does Chaucer characterize the knight?
• What qualities of knighthood do you think aremissing from Chaucer’s description? Useinformation from the text to support your answer.
FOCUS ON ART
Chess was a popular game duringthe Middle Ages. The chess piecesportray important people frommedieval society. Work withsomeone in class who plays chessto answer these questions:
• What element of medievalsociety do you think each chesspiece represents?
• How do these chess piecesreflect the power of variousmembers of medieval society?
Connect to HistoryWhy do you think that learning toplay chess was an important partof a knight’s education?
THEME EMPIRE BUILDING
THEME RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS
THEME POWER AND AUTHORITYAll
Charlemagne’s Empire Otto I’s RomanEmpire of the German
Nation
CLASSZONE .COMTEST PRACTICEAdditional Test Practice,
pp. S1–S33
Frederick I’s HolyRoman Empire
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