european unit i

8/18/2019 European Unit I

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/european-unit-i 1/128

Nana

By Emile Zola Book Summary

Monsieur Fauchery, the drama critic, takes his cousin la Faloise to the theater for the opening of

a new musical featuring an exciting new star known simply as Nana. At the theater, the two menrecognize many people from the fashionable world, among them, the pious Count Muffat deeu!ille and his wife, Countess "abine. #hen Nana appears onstage, it is ob!ious that she hasno talent, but she possesses one outstanding $uality % she is the epitome of sexuality.

At first the audience laughs until a young boy, &eorges 'ugon, cries out, ("he)s wonderful.(From then until the end of the play, Nana is in control of the audience, especially during the finalact when she appears on the stage !irtually naked.

*he next day, while Nana is making arrangements to recei!e her lo!ers, fans who had seen herthe preceding e!ening begin to call upon her. Among the !isitors are Count Muffat and his

father+in+law, the Mar$uis de Chouard, who pretends to come to collect money for a charitableorganization. oth men are !isibly affected by the presence of Nana. A wealthy banker named"teiner also comes, and e!en though he has a reputation for spending fortunes on actresses, Nanarefuses to see him.

*he following week, at a party gi!en by the Count Muffat, the discussion between the menconcerns a party that Nana is gi!ing after her performance. "he has told Fauchery to in!ite thecount to the party, but most of the men think that he will not accept. At the party, more peoplecome than Nana had expected but the count does not come. At the end of the party, Nanadecides it is time to look after her own interest and lets "teiner know that she will accept him as alo!er.

As Nana)s reputation spreads, soon foreign dignitaries begin to come to the theater to see her.Count Muffat must accompany an -nglish prince to the theater and while there can hardlyconstrain himself because Nana has aroused in him unknown desires. efore the prince takes heraway for the e!ening, the count disco!ers that "teiner has bought her a country house close to afamily he often !isits. "he tells him to come see her there.

*he country house is owned by Madame 'ugon, the mother of &eorges, who shouted in thetheater that Nana was wonderful. #hen &eorges hears about Nana)s !isit, he goes to see her. 'eis so young that Nana does not want to accept him as a lo!er, but after some mild persuasion shesuccumbs. *his new relationship pleases her so much that she decides to postpone her affair with

Count Muffat. After a week, howe!er, &eorges) relationship is disco!ered and his mother forceshim to remain at home. *hen Count Muffat slips into Nana)s bedroom and begins his lo!e affairwith her.

*hree months later, Nana begins to resent the fact that Count Muffat ne!er gi!es her muchmoney. Furthermore, she has formed an infatuation for an actor named Fontan. #hen bothMuffat and "teiner arri!e and find her in bed with Fontan, Nana throws both her old lo!ers out

1 | P a g e



and decides to be true to Fontan. 'owe!er, the actor soon tires of Nana and begins beating her brutally. Finally, he e!en locks her out of her apartment.

Nana now decides to renew her relationship with Count Muffat but makes it clear to him that sheexpects much more than she pre!iously recei!ed. *he count agrees to all her demands, buys her

an expensi!e mansion, furnishes it elegantly, and gi!es her twel!e thousand francs a month forexpenses. "till Nana is not satisfied she begins to ha!e relations with other men, e!en menwhom she picks up from the streets. ut of boredom, she begins to experiment with lesbian lo!eand finds that it is rather pleasant. Count Muffat must learn to accept all of her !agaries or elselea!e. y now he is so completely ensla!ed that he cannot deny her anything.

At the famous race, the /rix de /aris, one of the horses is named after Nana. -!eryone comes tothe race and many bet on the filly, Nana. After the race, which is won by Nana, the owner of thestable, Count 0andeu!res, is suspected of some shady transactions and commits suicide bysetting fire to himself and his stables. Nana, howe!er, is celebrated because her namesake wonthe race.

No amount of money or pleasure seems to satisfy Nana. "he begins to spend money so wildlythat she has to ha!e many more lo!ers to supply her insatiable demands. 1uickly, she begins togo through the fortunes of many men and lea!es them destitute and bankrupt. *hrough all of herexperiences, the count remains imprisoned by her capricious beha!ior. nly when heunexpectedly disco!ers her in bed with his decrepit father+in+law is he shocked back into hissenses. ut by then, he too is a broken man.

ne day, Nana disappears from /aris. No one knows of her whereabouts, but rumors begin togrow up about her. All of the rumors concern huge sums of money and fantastic lo!ers for Nana.ne day, it is disco!ered that Nana is in a hotel in /aris dying of smallpox. Many of the old

actresses and courtesans go there to see her, but they are too late. Now, only Nana)s body,corrupted by the ra!ages of the disease, lies unclaimed in the austere hotel room.

Nana By Emile Zola Summary and Analysis Chapter 1

"ummary

Monsieur Fauchery, a 2ournalist, arri!es at the 0ariety *heater thirty minutes early because hiscousin 'ector de la Faloise is excited about seeing a new production entitled The Blond Venus.*here is a general air of anticipation awaiting the appearance of a new actress named Nana, whowill play the role of 0enus.

ordena!e, the producer of the play, meets the two young men and embarrasses the nai!e laFaloise by insisting that the theater be called a whorehouse. 'e describes his new actress Nana,as a cheap whore (who sings like a crow( and (has no notion what to do with her hands andfeet.( 'owe!er, he is confident that both Nana and the show will be a success because (Nana hassomething else, something as good as all the other things put together.(

2 | P a g e



Monsieur Mignon appears with the wealthy &erman+3ew banker, "teiner, who is ha!ing an affair with Mignon)s wife 4ose, the leading actress. Mignon, who arranges his wife)s lo!e affairs, triesto lead "teiner away from the discussion about Nana. A handsome young man, 5aguenet, passesthe group and is identified as Nana)s lo!er. Count 6a!ier de 0andeu!res comes forward to speakto Fauchery 2ust as a crowd on the street begins to chant Nana)s name. -!eryone goes to his seat

to await the curtain. #hile waiting, Fauchery identifies many of the famous courtesans seated inthe boxes. Fauchery is surprised when la Faloise greets the famous Count and Countess Muffatde eu!ille and her father, the Mar$uis de Chouard.

*he first act of The Blond Venus begins. 4ose Mignon, as 5iana, complains that Mars has beenneglecting her in fa!or of 0enus. thers appear and complain that 0enus is causing !arioustroubles between lo!ers. nly at the end of the first act does Nana appear. "he does sing badlyand has no concept of how to conduct herself onstage. 3ust as the audience begins to hiss andshout, a young boy cries out, ("he)s wonderful.( oth the audience and Nana laugh. "uddenly, Nana gains control of the audience and no one cares if she has no talent because (she hassomething else.(

At intermission, e!eryone agrees that the production is idiotic, but the main sub2ect is Nana."e!eral people think they ha!e seen her somewhere, yet no one can make a positi!eidentification. *he audience is delighted with the second act. All of the gods from Mountlympus, dressed incognito, are seen in a /arisian dance hall. Nana is disguised as a fishwifeand delights the audience with her natural earthiness.

At the second intermission, la Faloise pays his respects to Countess Muffat. 'e introduces hiscousin Fauchery, who is recei!ed with cold dignity by the count. *he countess, howe!er, in!iteshim to accompany la Faloise next *uesday to their ancestral home. After they take their lea!e,they meet a streetwalker named "atin who is so !ulgar that she is sometimes amusing.

*he third act begins and a tremor runs through the audience when Nana appears7 (Nana wasnude. #ith $uiet audacity, she appeared in her nakedness, certain of the so!ereign power of herflesh. "ome gauze en!eloped her, but her rounded shoulders, her Amazonian bosom, her widehips, which swayed to and fro !oluptuously, her whole body, in fact, could be di!ined . . . in allits foamlike whiteness of tint, beneath the slight fabric she wore. . . . *he good natured girl wassuddenly transformed into a !oluptuous woman who brought with her the delirium of sex andopened the gates of the unknown world of desire.( Furthermore, the audience had ne!er beforewitnessed such a passionate seduction scene on the stage. No one on the stage now matteredexcept Nana7 (A wa!e of lust flowed from her, as from an animal in heat.(

After the play, the audience lea!es with mixed emotions. 8a Faloise assures ordena!e that the play will be highly successful.

Analysis

Nana is a part of a large series of no!els that 9ola was at the time writing called the 4ougon+Mac$uart series, which consists of twenty no!els published between :;<: and :;=;. Nana is theninth no!el in the series and was published in :;;>. ?n general, the series is a rather loosely

3 | P a g e



connected group of no!els which depict !arying aspects of life during the second empire inFrance. -!en though the title of the series suggests that the no!els will deal with two families,this is not so. *here are, howe!er, some points of connection between certain no!els in the group.For example, Nana is the daughter of &er!aise Mac$uart, whose husband died of alcoholismwhile she died of star!ation in the no!el L'Assommoir @:;<<. "e!eral times during the no!el

Nana makes a reference to the background from which she emerged.

?n its largest sense, Nana fits into the 4ougon+Mac$uart series as depicting an influential aspectof the second empire. 9ola thought that his series would not be complete unless he showed therole which prostitution played in the collapse of the empire. Conse$uently, the reader should notehow much moralizing and condemnation is present in the no!el. 9ola, dropping his scientificob2ecti!ity, often describes his main character and her acti!ities so as to show how thoroughlysexual disorders affect a nation.

*hroughout the entire no!el, the reader should be aware of how often the indi!idual chapters arefilled with crowd scenes. /erhaps no writer of the nineteenth century filled his no!els with so

many scenes of such great di!ersity. Few writers can e$ual 9ola in his ability to render theemotion gripping an entire mass of people. *his ability is amply illustrated in the first chapter ofthe no!el, as Nana stands on the stage in her nudity and entrances an entire audience of di!erse people. n an initial reading, 9ola)s beginning offers much difficulty for the inexperiencedreader since he refuses to focus his attention on one dominant character. ut his intent is to try tocapture as much as possible the di!erse elements which succumb to the spell of Nana)s sexuality.

*he manner in which 9ola casually introduces most of his main characters attests to the careful planning that went into the no!el. A cursory re!iew of the characters and their ultimate destinieswill substantiate the artistic unity of the no!el. *he first characters to appear are Fauchery and hiscousin 'ector de la Faloise. 8ater Fauchery is to write a good re!iew of Nana)s initial

performance still later he will write a condemnation of her @(*he &olden Fly( he will also become the lo!er to the wife of Nana)s lo!er. 8a Faloise will later be delighted to be ruined by Nana. "teiner is introduced in the presence of the Mignons and later his entire fortune willcollapse under Nana)s destructi!e desire. Count 6a!ier de 0andeu!res will commit suicide when Nana has de!oured his fortune. oth the Count and Countess Muffat de eu!ille will be utterlyruined because of Nana, and the final ruin will be brought about by the disco!ery of the oldMar$uis de Chouard, who is now seen sitting with his daughter and son+in+law. &eorges 'ugon,who will later stab himself, is seen as the enthusiastic admirer during the performance.

*he picture of the Count Muffat sitting icy cold and distant with his family contrasts well to thefinal degradation to which he is brought. *his is foreshadowed by the manner in which CountMuffat reacts to Nana)s appearance in the third act of the drama. 'is puritan righteousness isreplaced by deep blotches of passionate red all o!er his face.

esides the emphasis on the mass reaction of the audience, Nana)s sexuality is e$uallyemphasized. *he entire no!el will concern itself with the sexual desires aroused by the physicalappearance of Nana)s !oluptuous body. #e must throughout the rest of the no!el be constantlyaware that there are two Nanas. ne is the simple girl of the streets who seems to possess no particular or outstanding attributes, but the other is that symbolic Nana who represents all the

4 | P a g e



sexuality inherent throughout society. *he first Nana is simpleminded and gi!es herself toanyone at any time. *he other Nana is the !oluptuous incarnation of the lo!e goddess, 0enus,who reclines on sumptuous beds costing a small fortune and who e!okes hitherto latent urges ine!eryone.

*he abo!e idea is first formulated by the theatrical production in the first chapter. The BlondVenus is the symbol of all that Nana is to become. First of all, the play uses the classical goddessof lo!e who had degenerated in modern society to become no more than the goddess oferoticism. 8ikewise the content of the play, which 9ola narrates in detail, foreshadows what is tohappen to the entire society. *he play suggests that the gods of Mount lympus will be in!ol!edin all sorts of scandals and will be re!ealed in all of their absurdities. *he gods lose their dignityand are dragged through the filth of corruption. Furthermore, the audience en2oys seeing (thiscarni!al of gods . . . being dragged in the mud.( 8ater, people like la Faloise consider it an honorto be ruined by Nana, and the entire society seems to get some !icarious satisfaction in Nana)scompletely corrupting influence.

Nana)s initial appearance on the stage suggests how talent and ability are insignificant in the presence of something more important % Nana)s sexuality. ?n the final act when Nana appearsnaked @and 9ola emphasizes Nana)s nudity, we understand instantly how Nana is able tomesmerize her audience by her physical presence. #ithout being aware of what she was doing, Nana arouses animal lust in the beholder. *he casual descriptions suggesting the animal instinctsaroused by Nana will become a dominant motif throughout the no!el. ?n fact, almost e!erynaturalistic writer emphasizes some aspect of the animal nature inherent in e!ery human being.*his idea rises to its climax in Chapter :B when Nana forces Count Muffat to conduct himselflike a !ulgar beast.

From the ironic !iew, The Blond Venus becomes the theme song of the entire empire, and since

ordena!e repeatedly insists that his theater be called his (whorehouse,( we can subtly see theconnection that 9ola is implying. *he audience is composed of the best of society, and this group becomes corrupt as it comes under Nana)s influence. Conse$uently, the song is appropriate as thetheme song for the entire generation because Nana does intrude into e!ery aspect of society inone way or another.

Summary and Analysis Chapter 2

"ummary

After opening night, Nana sleeps late in the apartment pro!ided for her by a rich Moscow

merchant who had paid the first six months) rent. *he apartment (told the story of a girl too earlyabandoned by her first serious protector.(

#hen Nana awakens, she calls her maid, 9o, and they make arrangements for Nana)s two paying !isitors. *he arrangements must allow time for 5aguenet to sleep with Nana. f moreserious conse$uence is the fact that Nana is now nine months behind in her rent. ther creditorsare also plaguing her. 'er greatest worry is her two+year+old child, 8ouis, who is with a wetnurse whom Nana has ne!er been able to pay. 'er Aunt 8erat is supposed to go that day and get

5 | P a g e



little 8ouis, but Nana needs three hundred francs to pay the nurse. 3ust as she is about to despair,Madame *ricon, a procuress, arri!es with a proposition whereby Nana can recei!e four hundredfrancs. Nana accepts with relief.

Francis, Nana)s hairdresser, arri!es with Fauchery)s fa!orable re!iew of The Blond Venus. "he is

pleased and decides she will repay the critic someday. An elderly friend, Madame Maloir,arri!es, and the three women talk until it is time for Nana to keep her appointment. #hile Nanais away, admirers from the preceding e!ening begin to arri!e. *hese include such di!erse peopleas the young se!enteen+year+old &eorges 'ugon, the rich banker "teiner, and the aloof CountMuffat de eu!ille with his father+in+law, the Mar$uis de Chouard. "o many people arri!e that9o has difficulty finding places to put them.

Nana is so late returning from her engagement that her aunt has to postpone the trip. "he gi!esher aunt three hundred fifty francs and keeps only fifty for herself, explaining that the afternoon)sexperience was exceptionally difficult. "he refuses to see any of her admirers until she learnsabout the count and the mar$uis. "he recei!es them in her dressing room.

#ith attempts at formal dignity, the count explains that they represent a charity committeecollecting money for the poor in the district. Nana notices that each man is !isibly excited by her presence, and as she gi!es them her last fifty francs the count trembles as he takes the moneyfrom Nana)s soft sensuous hands. As they lea!e, the count feels (dizzy from ha!ing been in thatsmall dressing room with its o!erpowering odor of woman and flowers.(

Nana then tells 9o to send the rest of the callers away, e!en the rich banker, "teiner, because sheis tired of men. As she opens the door to a small unfurnished room, she disco!ers young &eorges'ugon sitting on a trunk holding a bou$uet of flowers. As Nana takes the flowers, &eorges triesto embrace her. Nana scolds him mildly and sends him away.

Alone in her dressing room, Nana hears that admirers are arri!ing constantly. -!en though shestill refuses to see any of the men, she is delighted to ha!e so many come to pay court to her. "he borrows a hundred francs from her hairdresser, gi!ing as security for the loan the ob!ious presence of numerous admirers. As she lea!es for the theater, she looks forward to sleeping anentire night alone.

Analysis

Chapter D shifts from the public !iew of Nana and shows her in her own pri!ate surroundings. Nana)s apartment tells the story of the type of person that she is. *here is a gaudy luxury about it

which indicates the career of a girl who has to accept lo!ers of any sort in order to keep theapartment.

*hroughout the no!el, there is a certain aura of comic confusion as Nana must constantly makearrangements to keep one lo!er from running into another one. *he morning after the theatrical performance, Nana is mostly concerned about how she can keep her two paying customers awaylong enough so that she can en2oy sleeping with /aul 5aguenet, who 2ust lost his fortune in adrop in the stock market. *he introduction of 5aguenet)s name as Nana)s lo!er prepares the

6 | P a g e



reader for one of the many interrelations throughout the no!el. 8ater, she will use her influencewith Count Muffat to arrange for her lo!er 5aguenet to marry Count Muffat)s daughter, -stelle.

*he arrangements that Nana makes become a type of motif which is picked up by many of thecourtesans in the no!el. *he $uick letter to lo!ers % ("orry darling, not tonight, impossible( %

is constantly being sent to a non+paying lo!er when paying customers show up. Nana must sendthis type of letter that day to 5aguenet, who has 2ust left her bed.

4egularly in the no!el, the scene will shift from a large crowd scene to a scene in Nana)s bedroom. *his chapter, therefore, opens in Nana)s bedroom as she arranges her lo!ers andrecei!es her hairdresser. Another constant worry to Nana is the matter of small sums of money."he seems to get large sums of money from people, but she is constantly without small sumswith which to pay tradesmen. *oday, she needs only three hundred francs in order to pay the wetnurse who is taking care of her young son. ut she can)t find this sum. #hene!er this happens inthe no!el, Nana always resorts to either going on the streets and picking up someone or elsecontacting Madame *ricon, a famous procuress. *his time, Madame *ricon appears 2ust as Nana

needs the money and tells Nana of a chance to pick up four hundred francs that afternoon. *hus, by this method, Nana is always able to sol!e her temporary need for small amounts of money.

#hen Francis brings in the re!iew of The Blond Venus, Nana feels !ery appreciati!e to Faucheryand casually thinks that she will repay him someday. *his is 2ust another case of 9ola)s irony because later Fauchery will write a bitterly sarcastic piece about Nana, and later she will repayhim by taking him on as lo!er and causing him to sell some !aluable property to pro!ide her withmoney.

*he appearance of Madame *ricon is part of 9ola)s total picture of the corruption of the age.More ironical is the fact that 9o stays with Nana in the hope of sa!ing enough money so that

she can someday take o!er a business like Madame *ricon)s."e!eral of the people who will become Nana)s lo!ers at !arious stages appear that day tocongratulate her on her performance. Among these are &eorges 'ugon, the young boy whocalled out during the performance that Nana was wonderful "teiner, the fat &erman+3ew bankerwho is later to be ruined by Nana and most important, Count Muffat and his father+in+law, theMar$uis de Chouard.

9ola uses many instances of irony here as he has Nana return from her engagement with a payingcustomer then to recei!e a supplication from Count Muffat for a donation to the poor in thedistrict. *he donation which Nana gi!es is the last fifty francs she had 2ust earned through

prostitution Further irony in!ol!es the fact that in their first encounter she gi!es Count Muffatfifty francs later she will take hundreds of thousands from him.

*he attention paid to Muffat re!eals that beneath his stiff dignity, he is seething with passion for Nana)s body. -ach time he is around her, 9ola uses the same image and description to depict hisinner state7 ('e needed air he was o!ercome from a dizziness from ha!ing been in that smalldressing room with its o!erpowering essence of woman and flowers.( *hese images suggest that

7 | P a g e



he will later be totally capti!ated by Nana)s sexuality, and most of his encounters with Nana willlike this one be either in small theater dressing rooms or in Nana)s dressing room.

"ince so many callers ha!e come, 9o has been sticking them into all a!ailable space. Nana, nowtired from her afternoon)s experiences, seeks a place to be alone and disco!ers young &eorges

'ugon in one of the rooms. -!en though Nana is only eighteen years old, she considers these!enteen+year+old &eorges to be a mere child. ut she responds here spontaneously to his giftof flowers e!en though she will not let him embrace her. 'enceforward, he will become one ofher most de!oted admirers until he stabs himself in the final chapters. ut we must notice that,with both 5aguenet and &eorges, Nana is capable of responding spontaneously to another persone!en though she usually sells herself. y these responses, 9ola tends to humanize Nana and notlea!e her 2ust a symbol of corruption. *hese responses tend to make Nana a more belie!able andlikable character in spite of her characteristics.

9ola, the strict naturalist and ob2ecti!e writer, does seem at times to entertain romantic notions. ?tdoes not seem highly realistic that so many people are (lined up on the stairs( waiting to pay

their adulation to Nana. 9ola)s point, howe!er, is to suggest the degree to which Nana has alreadycapti!ated the public after one appearance.

Chapter 3

"ummary

*he Countess "abine recei!es e!ery *uesday in the drawing rooms of the family mansion. nentering the rooms, one feels the (cold dignity and ancient customs( of a !anished age. *hecountess, howe!er, feels the continuity of tradition and has (no intention of changing herdrawing room.(

n this *uesday, there are only a few old ac$uaintances among the guests is Count 6a!ier de0andeu!res, who owns a famous racing stable and who is famous for the large sums he spendson his mistresses. Also present is the banker "teiner, who has gained a reputation for becominginfatuated with actresses and spending fortunes on them.

*he main topic of con!ersation concerns the forthcoming exposition to be held in /aris and thesuspense connected with how many of -urope)s royalty will attend it. 5uring the discussion,Fauchery and 'ector de la Faloise arri!e. After paying his respects to the countess, Faucherycontacts Count 0andeu!res and lets him know that Nana is ha!ing a party the next night in herapartment. Nana also wants Fauchery to in!ite Count Muffat, but 0andeu!res thinks it

impossible that the count will accept.Fauchery $uestions his cousin about the countess and learns that she has the (coldness of pious!irtue.( ?f she has e!er been unfaithful, she has certainly been discreet about it because there has(ne!er been any gossip about her.( As for the count, Fauchery learns that Muffat is an extremely pious Catholic who is cold, distant, and formal. ?n spite of the austere appearance of this noblefamily, Fauchery notices that the countess has a birthmark almost identical to Nana)s.

8 | P a g e



"teiner comes forward bragging about also ha!ing been in!ited to Nana)s party. At the samemoment, &eorges 'ugon enters and Fauchery recognizes him as the young boy who had openlycheered Nana in the theater. 'is mother, Madame 'ugon, has known the Countess "abine sincechildhood. After some polite con!ersation, Madame 'ugon says that &eorges took her to the0ariety *heater the night before to see some strange play, but no one in the group mentions or

discusses The Blond Venus. As the con!ersation continues, 0andeu!res mo!es about the roomrecruiting men who can bring pretty women to Nana)s party.

As the e!ening passes, Fauchery decides he must hazard in!iting the count to Nana)s party.0andeu!res promises to help. At first, the count says he does not know Nana, but then he isreminded that he paid her a !isit recently. Count Muffat explains that the nature of his businesswas for charity, and he then refuses the in!itation. 'e assumes a lofty and haughty attitude asthough the sub2ect should be dismissed. 5uring the con!ersation, young &eorges 'ugon re!ealsthat he has also been in!ited to the party by Nana.

*he con!ersation is interrupted by the appearance of the countess) father, the Mar$uis de

Chouard. 8ater, 0andeu!res and Fauchery renew their entreaties, this time including the mar$uisin the in!itation. oth are wa!ering when suddenly the count emphatically refuses. As Faucherylea!es, the ladies are in$uiring if Count ismarck will make war on France.

Analysis

-!en though Chapter B shifts to the reception gi!en by the Count and Countess Muffat deeu!ille, the emphasis is ne!er away from Nana. "he per!ades the party from beginning to end,suggesting to what degree she has already become a force on e!ery le!el of society. For example,Fauchery arri!es and lets selected people know that Nana is gi!ing a party the following nightand that he is to in!ite certain people. Count 0andeu!res, who is to be in!ited, has spent a fortune

on mistresses7 (-!ery year his mistresses de!oured now a farm, now some acres of land orforest.( *his early description is later picked up and emphasized when Nana takes him on as a part+time lo!er, and it also begins to prepare us for his ultimate fate.

*he main person whom Fauchery is to in!ite is Count Muffat. Count 0andeu!res emphasizesMuffat)s religious tendencies as proof that he will not compromise his !irtue. *hroughout thischapter and others, Muffat)s strong religious traits and his piety are emphasized so that his fall ismore complete than the fall of a natural libertine such as 0andeu!res. #hen Fauchery asks CountMuffat the second time, we should note that the count is about ready to yield and would ha!edone so if it had not been for the influence of Monsieur 0enot, the former ecclesiastical lawyerwho holds a strong influence o!er Count Muffat and who, in the end of the no!el, finally rescuesMuffat after he has been broken by Nana.

Nana intrudes upon the party when Madame 'ugon announces that her son took her to thetheater last night. Madame 'ugon is so nai!e that she did not understand the play. No one in thegroup mentions Nana)s name, but it is present in e!eryone)s mind. *hen we disco!er that e!enyoung &eorges has been in!ited to Nana)s party.

9 | P a g e



At the beginning of the reception, Countess "abine is introduced as a person who is !ery piousand de!oted to the traditions of her society. "he is !ery proud of the ancestral home and(certainly would not alter her drawing room after ha!ing li!ed in it for se!enteen years.( Eet later in the no!el, as she becomes corrupted, she tries to make her drawing room as glittering as Nana)s. ?t is furthermore interesting to note the !arious ways in which 9ola suggests and

foreshadows the countess) later debaucheries. Aside from the con!ersation concerning her looksand the suggesti!e talk about her thighs, Fauchery, the man who will later become her lo!er,notices a birthmark on her face7 ('e was surprised by a birthmark he noticed on the Countess)left cheek, near her mouth. Nana had exactly the same kind of birthmark.( *his small physicalcharacteristic tends to align Nana with the countess, and later we see that the countess becomesas passionate and capricious as Nana. Furthermore, 0andeu!res and Fauchery make acomparison between Nana and the countess and notice se!eral other parallels which suggest that beneath the (coldness of her pious !irtue,( there is a mysterious magnetism.

A large amount of the con!ersation during the party deals with Count ismarck and his popularity with ladies, his charm, and his ambitions. *he no!el, of course, ends with ismarck

and the /russians declaring war on France. At present, howe!er, he is merely a sub2ect for politecon!ersation.

Chapter 4

"ummary

Nana decides that she wants to celebrate her success with a dinner that e!eryone will talk about,so she decides to ha!e the affair catered. 5aguenet and &eorges ha!e accompanied Nana fromthe theater and help her repair a tear in her dress. "oon, guests begin to arri!e % 4ose Mignonwith her husband and the banker, "teiner Count 0andeu!res with an actress and Fauchery, who

tells Nana that Count Muffat refused her in!itation. "oon the room is packed with guests sotightly that people can hardly mo!e about. Nana had expected twenty+fi!e or thirty and had madearrangements for seating only that number at dinner. As guests continue to arri!e, Nana becomessomewhat annoyed.

#hen dinner is ser!ed, there is such confusion that Nana tells e!eryone to sit where they please."he places a mysterious gentleman on her right and keeps the rich banker on her left. *he table isso crowded that no one has room to eat. 3ust as the first course is being ser!ed, three peoplewhom Nana has ne!er seen appear. *hey had been in!ited by Count 0andeu!res. As they s$ueezeinto places, the table becomes almost intolerable. ?n spite of the closeness of all the guests, thereis scarcely any con!ersation. Eoung &eorges finds the guests (prosaic and sedate.(

As the guests drink more and more wine, the con!ersation begins to li!en up somewhat, but thewaiters ser!ing the meal become more careless and begin to spill things on Nana)s rug. ?ne!itablythe sub2ect of the table turns to the forthcoming exposition. All the ladies wonder how muchroyalty will attend the exposition, which leads to in$uiries about the looks and charms of !ariousfamous men. ?t is reported that Count ismarck is a charming man and someone 2okingly saysthat he now has thirty+two children. As the e!ening progresses, the banker "teiner becomes moreand more infatuated with Nana and begins offering her large sums to sleep with him. Nana

10 | P a g e



pretends not to be interested in order to keep "teiner intrigued. 8ucy "tewart warns that Nanane!er (gi!es back the men who are lent to her.( Meanwhile, young &eorges wants to crawl under the table and lie at Nana)s feet like a trained puppy.

As the party increases in tempo, Nana suddenly feels that she is no longer in her own home.

-!eryone else seems to be taking o!er and ordering the ser!ants around. y the end of the meal,she is furious and her anger only excites "teiner more and causes him to offer e!en larger andlarger sums to Nana. "he tells e!eryone to go into another room to ha!e coffee as the party becomes too loud and raucous. ne person, Foucarmont, passes out in the middle of the roomafter bragging that he has ne!er been able to get drunk.

After a few minutes, se!eral people at the party notice that Nana has disappeared. 5aguenet and&eorges call 0andeu!res into Nana)s room, where she tells the men that she wants to berespected. 0andeu!res tells her that she is drunk, but Nana still wants to be respected e!en if sheis drunk. "he is also disappointed because Count Muffat did not come. 0andeu!res warns her toforget the count, who is much too religious to come to such parties.

At four o)clock in the morning, some card tables are set up, and !arious games and dances start.-!en this late, some more people show up, but Nana stoutly claims that she did not in!ite them.*he newcomers remind her that she had extended the in!itation in a restaurant only two nightsago.

At fi!e o)clock, the dancing stops, but the young men begin drinking hea!ily. ne drunk youngman pours champagne into the piano, announcing that champagne is !ery good for pianos. 8ater,others find li$uors of !arious colors and add them to the champagne in the piano. Finallyrealizing that Count Muffat is not coming, Nana offers herself to the fat banker "teiner, who isalmost o!ercome by her sudden burst of generosity. 'owe!er, Nana suddenly decides that she

wants to go to the ois de oulogne for a glass of milk. "he in!ites one of her friends, and"teiner can only ac$uiesce in impatient silence.

Analysis

Chapter presents another of 9ola)s magnificent crowd scenes as people throng into Nana)sapartment for the dinner party which she is gi!ing. Although it has not yet become a dominantimage of the no!el, notice that e!en now 9ola is using the crowd to suggest animals being fed.*his scene has many similarities to Flaubert)s scene in Madame Bovary wherein the citizenscongregate for the Agricultural "how.

Nana)s constant desire is to be considered a respected and elegant lady. *herefore, she decides toha!e her dinner catered since this is more fashionable. Also, she wants to gi!e a party (thate!eryone would talk about.( *he irony is that Nana is constantly talked about, but not for thereasons she desires.

*he animal imagery becomes more dominant as &eorges kneels on the floor (with his hands buried in her skirt.( *his image ser!es also to suggest the manner in which Nana)s sexuality isworshiped. 8ater during the party, &eorges wants (to crawl under the table on all fours and to go

11 | P a g e



crouch at Nana)s feet like a little dog.( *his image again emphasizes the idea of worshiping Nana)s sexuality, but the animal image is e$ually important. For the naturalist such as 9ola, manis in constant danger of re!erting to the bestial instincts inherent in his nature. Any particularincident can bring out the brutish animal nature in an otherwise ci!ilized person.

5uring the ser!ing of dinner, 9ola has a heyday with ironies. *he dinner itself consists of manycourses, but since the table is filled with many more guests than were in!ited, there is scarcelyroom for a person to breathe. Furthermore, all of the women are either prostitutes, courtesans, orwomen of $uestionable reputations. Eet there is an attempt to act the part of a lady. As the party progresses, the waiters who are catering the party become careless and begin to spill gra!y andsauces on the carpets. &radually, Nana loses control of the party, and what she wanted to be agreat success becomes instead a wild orgy which will be talked about for different reasons.

9ola does not directly point out the similarity or the difference between Nana)s party and thereception at the countess. ut there are implied similarities. For example, the same sub2ect isdiscussed at both parties. *he ladies of each group are interested in the numbers of royalty who

will come to /aris for the exposition. ut whereas in Countess "abine)s group, the ladies areinterested in the royalty for the sake of social prestige, in Nana)s group, they are interested infuture prospects who will spend money for them. *he difference and similarity centers on the personage of Count ismarck. #hen 0andeu!res hears him discussed again, (he felt that he wasagain back in the Muffats) drawing room, the only difference being that the ladies werechanged.( *hen, too, Nana)s company emphasize that ismarck has thirty+two children and e!enthough this is said in 2est, it still underscores the sexual interest of the ladies in someone likeismarck.

#ith the arri!al of "teiner, whom Nana places next to her at dinner, it becomes ob!ious that Nana will soon take him from 4ose Mignon. *he image is that (Nana was now showing her

white teeth,( another animal image to reinforce the general de!ouring $uality possessed by Nana.Eet at the same time "teiner is presented in such a way that it is no particular triumph on Nana)s part to make him become infatuated with her. 'e contributes e$ually to his own ruin. 'e ser!esonly to pro!ide Nana with testing ground for her own sexuality.

As Nana had in the pre!ious chapter intruded upon the Muffat)s party, so now the count intrudesupon Nana)s party. "he is disappointed that he did not come and only listens when 0andeu!ressays that (the priests ha!e too strong a hold on him.( Nana knows better because she has alreadynoted the effect that she has upon Muffat.

Nana)s whimsicality is also re!ealed in these chapters. /art of her personality is that she wants to be respected as a lady and yet seldom does anything to command respect. 'er actions are oftenerratic. For example, after she offers herself to "teiner, she then suddenly decides that she wantsto go to the ois de oulogne to drink milk. *his idea occurs almost at dawn after a party thathas become impossible to control. ut the fact that "teiner concurs in this whimsy points out thedegree to which Nana dominates her men.

Chapter 5

12 | P a g e



"ummary

At the thirty+fourth performance of The Blond Venus, the excitement backstage is due to the factthat the prince is in the audience for the third time that week. Fontan, the leading actor of thetheater, is unaware of this because he is busy arranging to ha!e champagne deli!ered backstage

to celebrate his (name day.( *he members of the troupe are aware that the prince has earliertaken Nana to his place. ?t is said that he refuses to go to Nana)s apartment and prefers to take her to his own rooms.

Nana has now become rather influential. "he has con!inced ordena!e to gi!e her old friend"atin a position in the theater. "teiner has left /aris to buy her a country house. Furthermore, the prince has 2ust re$uested permission to come backstage to greet and congratulate Nana in person.As members of the troupe look out on the audience, they recognize that the prince isaccompanied by Count Muffat and his father+in+law, the Mar$uis de Chouard.

?n the midst of the changing of the scenery, there is a sudden commotion and e!eryone notices

that the prince and his two companions are backstage. *he prince (had the distinguished air peculiar to a sturdy man of pleasure.( #hile he feels perfectly at ease backstage, Count Muffat isextremely ner!ous and uncomfortable in the presence of so many strange and mysterious ob2ects.'e begins to sweat and feels suffocated by the hea!y female odors which permeate the place.

ordena!e leads them directly into Nana)s dressing room. "he is at first angry that someone has burst into her room without knocking, but when she learns the identity of her callers, she comesout from behind the curtain. Count Muffat is so affected by the heat and the feminine odorintensified by a low ceiling that he must sit down to keep from fainting. Nana tries to apologizefor recei!ing the gentlemen in her chemise, but the prince assures her that they are to blame forthe intrusion. Nana pretends to scold Count Muffat for not coming to her party, and the count can

hardly answer."uddenly, Fontan appears with the champagne and not knowing that the prince is in Nana)sdressing room charges in offering champagne. *he prince is delighted to accept. Nana entertainsthe entire troupe while standing half naked. *he room becomes so crowded that she cannot mo!eunless her breasts touched Count Muffat)s arms. "oon the bell announcing the beginning of thelast act rings, and e!eryone lea!es except the three gentlemen.

Nana must excuse herself and apply her intimate makeup. Count Muffat, who had ne!er e!enseen his wife put on her garters, (was now exposed to all the intimate details of a woman)stoilet.( 'e slowly realizes that Nana is taking possession of him, but he is determined to fight

against her. ut at the same time, he resents the fact that Nana thinks of him as being a highly!irtuous man. 3ust as Nana finishes, the gentlemen lea!e with the intention of watching theremainder of the show from the wings of the theater.

3ust as 4ose Mignon is about to make her entrance, she suddenly notices her husband and herlo!er fighting on the floor of the theater. "he goes on and sings her song while ordena!e stopsthe fight. #hen he returns, he assures the prince that the incident was of no importance.

13 | P a g e



At one slight break in the performance, Madame *ricon shows up and goes straight toward Nana,who immediately refuses the procuress) offer. ordena!e is horrified that someone let the procuress backstage while the prince is also there.

#hen Nana goes onstage in her nude scene, Count Muffat is entranced by the spectacle since he

now sees her from an entirely different and closer perspecti!e. 'e feels himself becoming moreand more in her power, and he can do nothing to fight against the emotion. Fauchery comes up tothe count and offers to show him the other parts of the theater. 'e takes the count to the ladies)dressing rooms, where once again Count Muffat feels stifled by the presence of so many strongfeminine odors. ?n one of the dressing rooms on the upper le!el, he disco!ers his father+in+lawsitting between two of the actresses. Clarisse, at Fauchery)s insistence, comes forward and lightlykisses the count on the cheek. "uddenly finding himself alone, he wanders back toward Nana)sdressing room when he sees her walking down one of the corridors. 'e silently slips up behindher and kisses the back of her neck. At first Nana is surprised, but when she disco!ers who it is,she tells him that she now owns a house in the country in a region which the count often !isits."he tells him to come and see her there.

A few minutes later, Count Muffat sees Nana lea!e with the prince. #hen he escapes from theconfines of the theater, he realizes now that Nana possesses him and he would repudiate and selle!erything to (possess her that !ery night for a single hour.(

Analysis

Chapter G returns to the theater for its setting. *he reader should note how 9ola is alternating hisscenes between Nana)s house, large parties, and the theater. ?n both the house and the theater,9ola creates an aura of illicit sex as we catch @according to Martin *urnell, The Art of French Fiction, :G= (tantalizing glimpses % of shoulders, breasts and thighs. Actresses dodge coyly

behind screens if a !isitor arri!es, only to emerge pro!ocati!ely when the !isitor turns out to be awealthy old man or an -nglish prince.(

3ustifying his title as a naturalist, 9ola does not allow one detail to escape his notice. 'e catalogsall the !arious odors, sounds, and details connected with the theater. 'e is not content only tosuggest, but at times he burdens down the reader with this accumulation of details so as tosubstantiate fully his case+study of corruption.

*he thirty+fourth performance of The Blond Venus suggests how completely Nana has made theshow a success. Furthermore, the fact that the prince is there to see Nana for the third time withina week suggests that her appeal is more than a local oddity. *he prince ser!es another function in

the no!el7 "ince he is !isiting royalty and since Count Muffat)s position in the ser!ice of theemperor demands that he o!ersee the pleasures of the !isiting royalty, the prince)s desire to see Nana causes Count Muffat to be brought back into Nana)s presence and to become ensla!ed toher sexuality.

5uring this chapter, we hear that "teiner has 2ust bought Nana an estate out in the country. *hisfact attests partially to Nana)s success as a courtesan, but more important, it pro!ides Nana with a

14 | P a g e



place close to the country house where Count Muffat !isits and conse$uently ser!es con!enientlyto mo!e the plot forward.

Nana)s success with "teiner should not be o!errated. 9ola uses him mainly as a pawn whocontributes to the larger case study in corruption. From the first descriptions, we know that

"teiner is not a difficult prey to capture. *hroughout the no!el, he is there only as someone whocan pro!ide Nana with the things immediately needed. 'is is a secondary role.

#hen the prince comes backstage to congratulate, Nana he brings Count Muffat with him. Forthe count, who has ne!er been behind the scenes, this is an entirely new world opening up forhim. *his simple new experience initiates him into a new awareness of himself also. For a manwho has repressed his sexual urges to be placed suddenly amid the suffocating heat laden withthe strong odors of female nudity creates emotions so confusing that he cannot understandhimself. 'is cheeks become flushed, his face is red, and he has (small drops of sweat on hisforehead.( *he feeling of dizziness, which he had experienced when he !isited Nana in herapartment (once more o!erwhelms him,( and he sits down to keep from fainting. *hen when

Nana emerges from behind the screen half naked, she stands in the crowded room next to CountMuffat in such a position that he cannot mo!e without touching her breasts. Finally therepressed, pious man begins for the first time to realize that there is a freedom in sexual mattersthat he has ne!er known to exist7 ('is whole being was in turmoil. 'e was terrified of the possession Nana had been taking of him for some time.( 'e is determined to rely on his religioustraining, but suddenly the Mar$uis de Chouard says that the count is (!irtue personified.( #henCount Muffat resents Nana knowing this instead of being proud that he is a !irtuous man, hisdownfall is assured.

As Muffat watches Nana from behind the scenes as she goes onto the stage in her nudity, he becomes more and more affected by this woman. A trip through the rest of the theater and then,

at the end, a sudden glimpse of Nana returning to her own dressing room break him completelyas he slips up behind her and kisses her on the neck. 'e is now defeated and knows it it willonly be a matter of time before he is completely ruined. At the end of the chapter, he realized that(he was hers utterly7 he would ha!e ab2ured e!erything, sold e!erything, to possess her for asingle hour that !ery night. Eouth, a lustful puberty of early manhood, was stirring within him atlast, flaming up suddenly in the chaste heart of the Catholic and amid the dignified traditions ofmiddle age.( #ith this realization on his part, it will only be a matter of arrangements before hedoes repudiate e!erything and dissol!e his fortune and family to possess Nana.

9ola is also careful to mix royalty and decency with almost e!ery aspect of the lurid and !ulgar.#hile the prince and Muffat are backstage, Fauchery and Mignon get into a common brawl. *he procuress, Madame *ricon, comes in soliciting. ?ronically, Nana does not ha!e time for the procuress, who easily arranges for another actress. *his ease reminds us that, in the openingchapter, ordena!e said to call his theater a whorehouse, and now it is !ibrantly true.

Chapter 6

"ummary

15 | P a g e



*he Count and Countess Muffat de eu!ille arri!e for a !isit at Madame 'ugon)s country house.*heir hostess is exceptionally pleased to see them but is somewhat puzzled that suddenlye!eryone who has pre!iously turned down her in!itations is now accepting them. After se!eraldelays, &eorges has arri!ed for a !isit and has in!ited the drama critic, Fauchery, and alsoMonsieur 5aguenet and Monsieur de 0andeu!res.

Madame 'ugon tells the count and countess that the banker "teiner has 2ust bought a house twoor three miles away and has gi!en it to an actress. 'er gardener tells her also that the actress, Nana, is expected to arri!e that !ery day. "he decides that if she happens to meet Nana, she willcontent herself with not speaking to her.

*hat afternoon, &eorges tells his mother that he is suffering from a headache and plans to retireto his room and sleep through the night. As soon as possible, he climbs out the window andheads for Nana)s house.

Meanwhile, Nana arri!es at her new house. "he has wanted to come e!er since "teiner bought it

for her.'owe!er, ordena!e would not release her from the theater until "eptember the fifteenth. n thetwelfth, she decides that she will slip away and ha!e a few days alone at her house. #hen shearri!es, she runs about the place like a child, examining e!ery room and e!en the grounds. ?n the back of the house, she finds a patch of strawberries, which she begins to pick e!en though it israining. "uddenly, she sees &eorges, who is wringing wet. 'e was afraid that Nana would scoldhim for coming and explains that he fell into a stream while coming to see her. "he takes himinto the house and makes him wear some of her clothes while his are drying by the fire. Afterthey find something to eat, &eorges tries to embrace Nana, but she feels too motherly toward himto e!en consider him as a lo!er. ut gradually during the e!ening, with &eorges dressed as a

young girl, Nana begins to feel like a young innocent !irgin and finally does consent to sleepwith &eorges.

*he next day, &eorges is the last to come down for lunch. Meanwhile, other guests ha!e arri!edfrom /aris, and again, Madame 'ugon brings up the sub2ect of Nana. -!eryone is surprised tohear of Nana)s early arri!al, but none of the men re!eal their astonishment. Count Muffat decidesto go to Nana)s house that e!ening, and as he lea!es the house, &eorges follows him for a whileand then takes a short cut. 'e 2ealously accuses Nana of planning an affair with the count, butshe denies this and sends him upstairs to wait for her.

#hen Count Muffat arri!es, he is obsessed with Nana, but she tells him that Monsieur "teiner is

there. #hen the banker appears, Count Muffat is forced to lea!e after some polite con!ersation./retending to be ill, Nana 2oins &eorges in her bedroom. For a week, she is true to young&eorges and feels as though she were once again a fifteen+year+old girl. Meanwhile, CountMuffat comes e!ery e!ening and lea!es in a highly agitated state.

After a week, all of Nana)s friends from /aris descend upon her for a !isit. "he makes plans forthem to !isit an old abbey and forces &eorges to promise to accompany her. 'e is afraid that hismother will find out about their relationship but finally yields to Nana)s insistence. Nana rents

16 | P a g e



fi!e carriages, and as they are on a small road, the entire procession meets Madame 'ugon andher guests, who are out for a stroll. As they pass, Madame 'ugon recognizes &eorges sittingopposite Nana. 'er great distress forces her to take Count Muffat)s arms, and the count nowrealizes that the young boy is more important to Nana than he is.

*he excursion to the abbey pro!es to be long and tedious. *he high point is that they pass by thefamous chateau of a courtesan of the pre!ious century who now li!es in regal grandeur. *hate!ening, &eorges is forced to remain at home, and Count Muffat goes to Nana)s house, where heis led to her bedroom by a 8abordette. Nana, deciding it is time to be practical, puts &eorges outof her mind and coldly gi!es herself to Count Muffat.

Analysis

?n Chapter H, 9ola 2uxtaposes scenes of the aristocrats with scenes of the courtesans. /re!iously,he had only shown how Nana)s name intruded upon parties and receptions gi!en by the Muffats. Now, in the same chapter, he presents an obli$ue encounter of the two factions, first by placing

the action in Madame 'ugon)s house, then in Nana)s house, and finally by ha!ing Nana)s partycross the path of Madame 'ugon)s walking entourage.

*he opening scene in Madame 'ugon)s house carries se!eral comic implications. Madame'ugon is so innocent and nai!e that she cannot understand why so many !isitors are coming in"eptember since that month is not the best time for a !isit. "he cannot possibly associate the factwith the impending arri!al of Nana, who li!es only a few miles away. ?n fact, in her innocence,she e!en mentions that "teiner has bought a house nearby for an actress, and she is shocked atthis knowledge. "he is one person in the no!el who is not worldly and conse$uently is the personmost pathetically destroyed by Nana)s destructi!e actions, which cause the death of one 'ugonson and the disgrace of the other.

-ach man who comes for a !isit % Fauchery 5aguenet &eorges, Count 0andeu!res, and CountMuffat+comes because he knows that Nana is scheduled to arri!e the next day, and each one hassome secret desire to renew an ac$uaintance with Nana or to begin one with her. Conse$uently Nana)s influence now spreads itself to almost e!ery action in the no!el. #e e!en hear that theCount Muffat has twice delayed his !isit, causing perplexity in the countess, but we soon learnthat the count)s whimsical beha!ior was caused by the fact that Nana kept altering her intendeddeparture.

Nana)s corrupting influence is first seen in this chapter through the actions of young &eorges'ugon. 'e lies to his mother for the first time and decei!es her by pretending to ha!e a se!ere

headache. 'e then slips o!er to see Nana. 9ola depicts &eorges as a young and innocent boy whois afraid of being scolded by Nana. *o blend with this general pastoral scene, he also depicts Nana as responding to her new house with all the enthusiasm of a child. &eorges and Nana)sactions together e!oke much that is innocent and childlike, thereby lessening the corruptingaspect. For example, Nana dresses &eorges in some of her clothes so that he looks like aninnocent young girl. *ogether they seem supremely peaceful7 (Nana was mo!ed and felt like achild again.( At first she resists &eorges because she feels it is wrong to seduce one so young.

17 | P a g e



*hen (that woman)s nightgown and negligee made her laugh again as though a girl friend wereteasing her.( Inder this influence, she yields to young &eorges.

?n this seduction scene, 9ola has subtly introduced the innocent element, but also, inconcentrating upon &eorges dressed like a woman, he prepares the reader for the later lesbian

acti!ities which Nana practices. ut at least, for the present moment, Nana can respond to ahuman emotion with warmth and sincerity. "he refuses to sleep with Muffat and "teiner becauseshe is en2oying the sensation of being true to young &eorges. 9ola, howe!er, undercuts Nana)ssincerity when he lets the reader know that she can)t be true for longer than a week. *his was thelength of her fidelity to &eorges. 8ooking forward in the no!el, this is the only time that Nanahas what might be called a wholesome relationship. #hile it is true that she will be faithful toFontan for a longer time, that relationship is permeated with brutality and ugliness.

*his chapter also presents the beginning of the irony connected with the 5aguenet+Nana+Muffatrelationship. 5aguenet had originally come for the !isit thinking that he would renew hisrelationship with Nana, but when he disco!ers the amount of -stelle)s dowry, he changes his

strategy. 'e begins to seek ways of winning -stelle as a wife, and the final irony is that onlywhen Nana inter!enes will the engagement become definite.

Count Muffat)s path to degradation is further emphasized. *his chapter presents a good picture of the repressed indi!idual struggling and losing to the powers of sexuality. *he fact that Nanacannot yield to him as he had expected only excites him more and more. 'e becomes almostanimal in his moaning and tearing at his pillow. -!en his close religious ad!iser, Monsieur0enot, cannot soothe his burning passion. No pious con!ersation can ease the burning desire henow feels for Nana. After &eorges is forced to remain at home, the count has an open field, and Nana, deciding to be practical, accepts the count as her lo!er.

*he expedition taken by Nana and her friends turns out to be a dreadful failure. First, they passthe group from the 'ugons), who ignore them except for the fact that Madame 'ugon recognizesyoung &eorges as a member of the party. *hen the ride and walk are extremely tedious. *he onlyinteresting aspect is that they see the grand residence of an ex+courtesan of the last generation. Nana and the other females mar!el at the (glorious idea of woman( which could accomplish suchgrandeur. 'owe!er, this fa!orable picture is colored by the fact that they all know that they willne!er achie!e such lasting success. -ssentially, the outing pro!es that Nana and her friends canfunction only in houses and theaters. *he simple outdoor life is dull and tedious.

Chapter 7

"ummary*hree months later, Count Muffat is pacing in front of the 0ariety *heater hoping to see Nana.'e has been li!ing during this time (in such a whirl of sensual excitement that he had no !erydistinct impressions beyond the need to possess her.( #hen she sends him a note saying that sheis going to spend the night with little 8ouiset, who is ill, Muffat becomes suspicious and goes byher apartment. 'e disco!ers that she is at the theater.

18 | P a g e



As Count Muffat waits, he is so plagued with fears and 2ealousy that he is no longer discreetabout being seen haunting the sidewalks of the theater district. Finally Nana emerges alone fromthe theater and is surprised to see Muffat. "he feels at first like a trapped woman but decides to play along with him. "he asks him to take her for some oysters. At the restaurant, Count Muffatslips into a pri!ate room to a!oid being seen, but Nana sees her old lo!er 5aguenet, who tells her

that he has decided to be practical and marry a woman with a large dowry. #hen Nana asks himabout an article written about her by Fauchery, 5aguenet is surprised that Nana is not angry.

efore lea!ing, 5aguenet tells Nana that Muffat is a cuckold. "he learns that the Countess"abine de eu!ille is sleeping with Fauchery, who has 2ust published an article about Nana. Atfirst Nana is disgusted by the news, then she begins to feel sympathetic for Count Muffat. "hetakes him with her to her apartment but wants to get rid of him before midnight so that she canrecei!e another !isitor.

At home, Nana undergoes a ritual before her mirror. "he likes to take off her clothes and examineher nude body from e!ery angle. #hen Muffat ob2ects, she reminds him that her performance is

only for herself. #hile admiring herself, she also caresses !arious parts of her body. *o occupyMuffat)s time, she gi!es him Fauchery)s article, (*he &olden Fly,( written about her. *he articleis a story about a girl from the lowest sector of society who has grown into a superb physicalspecimen. "he is using all the force of her sex to destroy the aristocracy7 (#ithout wishing it, shehad become a blind power of nature, a ferment of destruction corrupting and disorganizing /aris between her snow+white thighs.( At the end of the article, Nana is compared to (a sun+colored flywhich has flown up out of the dung, a fly which sucks death from the carrion left on theroadside, and then, buzzing, dancing, glittering like a precious stone, enters the windows of palaces and poisons men merely by settling on them in her flight.(

*he article reminds Count Muffat how much Nana has corrupted his life and how he is tainted to

the (core by filth which he could ne!er e!en ha!e suspected before.( And as he watches Nana)sdisgusting exhibition of her nakedness, he cannot resist the mounting passion in himself. Nana$uestions him about his relations with his wife. "he disco!ers that he was a !irgin on the nightthat he married, and she forces him to re!eal all the intimate details connected with his marriedlife with the countess.

Nana begins to tell the count stories about men who do not satisfy their wi!es and how the wi!eslook elsewhere for satisfaction. For a long time, the count does not understand Nana, and whenhe begins to see the light, he is infuriated. &oaded on, Nana tells him that the countess is now in bed with Fauchery. Count Muffat tries to beat her but is unable to carry out his intent. 'e escapesas $uickly as possible from Nana)s apartment, and she tells 9o to let in the other !isitor.

Count Muffat goes to the building where Fauchery li!es. After watching for some time, he seessome shadows in Fauchery)s apartment and thinks that one shadow resembles the Countess"abine. 'e decides to stand !igilance the entire night, but after dawn, he wanders into a church,where he prays for strength. 8ea!ing the church, his feet carry him automatically back to Nana)sapartment "he is astonished to see him and orders him to lea!e, but Count Muffat wants to go to bed with her immediately. As they are arguing, "teiner also arri!es, bringing the thousand francsthat Nana had told him to collect for her. "he then re!eals that she has a lo!er in her bed, Fontan

19 | P a g e



the actor, and orders both men to lea!e. n arri!ing home, at about nine o)clock, Muffat noticesthat the Countess "abine looks as though she had spent a sleepless night.

Analysis

After an inter!al of three months, Count Muffat is seen watching the exits of the theater. For thefirst time, he knows that Nana has been lying to him. *o such a man as Count Muffat, who hasalways li!ed in a world of honesty, this spying is an indication of his degradation. Muffat isaware that Nana no longer responds to him in the same degree of playfulness. ut now, for thefirst time, he is aware that Nana has a separate life. Intil today, Count Muffat (had been li!ing insuch a whirl of sensual excitement that he had no !ery distinct impressions beyond the need to possess( Nana. 'e frantically watches e!ery possible exit at the theater in order to stop her fromkeeping an assignation with someone else. -arlier, the count would ne!er ha!e allowed himselfto be seen parading before the theater or becoming a man of the streets. Now, howe!er, in hisanxiety, he commits actions foreign to his nature. 4ealizing this, he becomes aware of 2ust howmuch Nana has made him an ob2ect of humiliation and scorn. Ne!ertheless, 9ola points out, the

count cannot control these basic urges. *his is the naturalist emphasizing the animal nature ofhumans.

For the first time in the no!el, Nana feels a sense of being trapped in a situation. -arlier, in herrelations with "teiner, she could send him off to bed pleading sickness and then go to sleep with&eorges. ut with Count Muffat, she has entered upon a career where she must answer for here!ery action and where each moment is e!aluated. "he particularly resents Count Muffat because(he did not know how much a man ought to gi!e a woman, so she could not hold his stinginessagainst him.( Nana must, then, corrupt him completely before she can dominate him.

#hereas Fauchery had originally written a fa!orable re!iew of Nana)s performance in The Blond

Venus, now he writes a scathing attack upon her corrupting influence. *he relations becomecomplicated since the man who wrote the article is now sleeping with Count Muffat)s wife, theCountess "abine. ?ronically Nana is pleased about the article because, being unable to interpretthe subtleties, she can only note that it is a long article, that it is about her, and that it appeared inthe leading 2ournal.

5aguenet, who tells Nana about the article, is not without some degree of duplicity. 'e has beenone of Nana)s lo!ers in the past and is now trying to win Count Muffat)s daughter. Nana)sreaction to Count Muffat)s being made a cuckold by his wife indicates something of her !alues."he is constantly disgusted throughout the no!el when she disco!ers that respectable peopleconduct themsel!es without discretion. 'er sa!ing grace is that she is a courtesan and is onlydoing her business. Further irony is that she always wants to be treated like a lady in spite ofanything she does.

#hile Nana is undergoing one of her nightly rituals in which she examines and admires her nude body and then caresses it, she gi!es Muffat the article to read. *he combination of Nana)s actionand the content of the article is enough to force Muffat to attempt to e!aluate his relationshipwith Nana and to try to reco!er some aspect of his own decency. *he article makes it crystalclear that Nana is a destructi!e force corrupting e!erything she comes into contact with. *he

20 | P a g e



nature of the article lea!es no doubt that 9ola is here moralizing about the harm of abnormalsexuality and about the destructi!e effects that courtesans played in undermining the secondempire.

Count Muffat)s reactions reemphasize how trapped he is by Nana)s sexuality. 'e knows that (in

three months she had corrupted his life, he already felt himself tainted to his !ery marrow by filthhitherto undreamed of. -!erything inside him would soon be rotten. For an instant, heunderstood the effects of this e!il, he saw the ruin caused by that ferment, he saw himself poisoned, his family destroyed, a segment of the social fabric cracking and collapsing.( Eet thereis some animal instinct in him which draws him down further and further into this corruption. ?nspite of the o!ert implications of the article and in spite of Nana)s disgusting exhibitionism,Muffat cannot control himself and resorts to brutality as he seizes Nana. Again 9ola isemphasizing the brutal or animal instinct which controls humanity)s actions at the sacrifice of thehigher !alues.

-!en though Muffat is able to understand the implications of the article while Nana cannot, the

table re!erses as Muffat cannot understand Nana)s sly allusions to Countess "abine)s infidelity."he forces him to shed his last remnant of shame by relating the most intimate details of hismarriage night with the countess but when Nana begins to allude to women who seek pleasureelsewhere when their husbands will not gi!e it to them, Muffat is !ery slow in understanding.

Nana does not maliciously hurt the count she is not capable of this type of culpability. ?nstead,she only wants to get rid of him so she can 2oin her other lo!er waiting in the kitchen. *his otherlo!er is Fontan, to li!e with whom she will later gi!e up e!erything. Also, Nana has come to belie!e that (high or low, women are all the same7 not one of them has any morals.( And weremember that when Nana first saw the Countess "abine, she knew then that the countess was awoman who possessed a passionate nature.

Muffat)s complete collapse into the gutters is seen clearly in the closing pages of this chapter. Ashe haunts the streets starring at the window where he thinks his wife is ha!ing a lo!e affair, hislast !estiges of dignity are falling from him. 'e tries to e!oke di!ine aid and to return to thesafety of his pre!ious religious life. ?n the church, he asks &od to help him, but his heartapparently isn)t in his plea because he soon finds himself being led automatically back toward Nana)s apartment. nce back at Nana)s, he can only beg to be allowed to go to bed with her. 'eis now so lost that he cannot e!en become angry when Nana insults him. 'is manliness and hisresolution ha!e deserted him, and he is reduced to the le!el of an animal.

*he chapter ends with Nana in bed with Fontan. Furthermore, Nana has reached a turning pointin her career. "he now re2ects both "teiner and Muffat and decides to de!ote herself to lo!ewithout recompense. *his ends the first part of the history of Nana)s career.

Chapter

"ummary

21 | P a g e



After throwing both Count Muffat and "teiner out, Nana takes up li!ing with the actor Fontan."he sells as much as she can and slips away to elude all of her creditors. Fontan adds se!enthousand francs to the ten thousand that Nana brings and they find an apartment which they willshare together. Nana begins to feel that she is in a (rapture of lo!e,( and she delights in this newsacrifice she is making for a man whom she adores.

After three weeks, she meets Francis, her former hairdresser, who tells her how much she ismissed in the old neighborhood. "he also learns that Count Muffat is now ha!ing an affair with4ose Mignon. Nana has a moment)s regret but then remembers her (idyllic( life with Fontan andreturns home to tell him with amusement about the news she has 2ust heard.

#hile attending the ?talian *heater one e!ening, Fontan is charmed by a new actress in thetroupe. Nana ridicules the actress and that night a $uarrel ensues. After Nana complains aboutsome cake crumbs in the bed and tries for the second time to get out, Fontan slaps her so hardthat she feels dazed. At first Nana resents this brutality, but after a few minutes, she e!en respectshim for treating her in such a manner.

From this point on, howe!er, their life together undergoes a drastic change Fontan now slapsand beats her fre$uently. "ometimes, (he would force her against the wall and talk of stranglingher,( but this makes her lo!e him more. #hen Fontan starts staying out more and more, Nanarelie!es her loneliness by renewing her association with "atin. "he is ne!er allowed to bring"atin to her place because Fontan has forbidden Nana to bring any prostitutes into the apartment.

ne day, "atin takes Nana to meet Madame 4obert, a lady whom Nana considers respectable anddiscreet, but the lady is not at home. Nana offers to take "atin the following day to a restaurantshe has heard about. *he restaurant is filled with women who are looking for other women."uddenly, Madame 4obert appears, and while Nana is occupied obser!ing something else, "atin

lea!es with this lady. Nana is disgusted at the idea of a respectable lady acting as Madame4obert did.

*hat night, Fontan writes a letter to &eorges for Nana. 'e has always amused himself by writing Nana)s lo!e letters, but that night, Nana does not respond correctly to his efforts and anotherargument begins. Fontan demands to see how much money there is left in their 2oint account.#hen he disco!ers that it is less than se!en thousand, he decides to keep it all. Nana reminds himthat she put ten thousand into the undertaking, but Fontan only beats her se!erely as a re2oinder.From that day onward, he gi!es her only three francs a day with which to buy groceries. *hen,after a while, he e!en forgets to gi!e her this paltry amount. Conse$uently, when Nana meetsMadame *ricon one day by accident, she begins to accept side !isits from customers. y thisde!ice, she is able to buy good meals for Fontan, and as a result of degrading herself to supporthim, she begins to lo!e him e!en more.

#hen she meets "atin again, "atin will not tolerate Nana)s reproaches about li!ing with Madame4obert. "atin (merely replied that if one did not like something, that was no reason for trying tomake others become disgusted with it.( After this meeting, Nana and "atin begin walking thestreets picking up men at random.

22 | P a g e



ne day while looking for a customer, Nana is almost caught by the police. "he then de!elops agreat fear of being arrested. *hen, one night when she comes home, she finds herself locked outof the apartment.

Fontan threatens to strangle her if she does not go away. &oing to "atin)s house, she soon

disco!ers that "atin has also been thrown out of her lodgings. *he two women take a room in acheap hotel, where "atin begins to kiss and soothe Nana, who gradually begins to respond to"atin)s caresses. At two o)clock in the morning, the police raid the hotel, but Nana escapes byhiding on a grating outside the window. *he next morning, she goes to her aunt, who welcomesher home and anticipates a better fortune for them all now that Nana has regained her senses.

Analysis

Chapter ; presents a change and a climax in the career of Nana. "he tries to discard her old lifeand accept the position of the humble and obedient housewife only to disco!er that she cannothold a man on such terms. 'er success lies in dominating a man. Fontan, who has a reputation of

stinginess, offers to contribute half of his share of the expenses, but when Nana has spent her portion, he takes all of his back. 'e is the only man in the no!el whom Nana does not dominate,and the irony is that he is the only person whom Nana wants to accept as e$ual.

?t is furthermore ironic that Nana with her beautiful body should choose a man who is asgrotes$ue as is Fontan and that she allows herself to be treated more brutally than she treats herown !ictims. *his experience will solidify Nana)s !iews that all men are dreadful and deser!eany treatment that they get from the hands of a woman.

*his chapter also presents Nana)s initial introduction in the world of lesbianism. As Fontan beatsher brutally and refuses to ha!e anything to do with her, she begins to seek some type of

consolation elsewhere. *he irony here is that Nana is determined to be faithful to Fontan in spiteof his brutality. 'er associations, therefore, with "atin become a type of outlet from the beatings.At first Nana is horrified by the idea of lesbianism and % consistent with her earlier !iews % isdisgusted with respectable people who debauch themsel!es. "atin 2ustifies herself simply bysaying (that there was no use arguing about tastes, because you ne!er know what you might likesome day.( And later "atin remarks7 (?f one did not like something, that was no reason for tryingto make others become disgusted with it.( At this point, Nana cannot afford to argue about thisstatement because she is now being beaten by a man, and she continues to li!e with him andapparently en2oys the beating to a certain degree.

At the beginning of the chapter, Nana has hoped to be completely true to Fontan. ?ronically,

howe!er, as he beats her and refuses to gi!e her money, she must stoop to streetwalking andassignations with Madame *ricon in order to pay for Fontan)s food. *he per!erseness of hernature is further illustrated by the fact that as she sells herself to anyone in the streets so as tosupport Fontan, whom she lo!es more and more.

*he end of this chapter parallels the ending of the preceding chapter in that earlier Nana hadimpetuously thrown Muffat and "teiner out of her apartment, and she now finds herself thrownout of her apartment because Fontan is sleeping with another actress. *his final act against Nana

23 | P a g e



causes her to throw herself into the arms of "atin. Nana then experiences her first lesbianrelationship.

Chapter ;, therefore, is filled with e!ery type of corruption. 9ola shows the sadism in!ol!ed inFontan)s beating Nana he depicts the fear of police and the anguish faced by women who must

walk the streets looking for paying customers, and finally, he introduces the readers to all typesof lesbian gathering places and shows Nana being con!erted to lesbian lo!e. *he chapter endswith Nana at the nadir of her career, afraid of the police, without a place to li!e, and ha!ing tostart life o!er again.

Chapter !

"ummary

*he 0ariety *heater is now rehearsing The Little Duchess, a new play written by Fauchery, butthe rehearsals are going exceptionally badly. Nana is in one of the boxes watching the play

before accepting the role of the prostitute which has been offered to her. 4ose Mignon is playingthe part of a grand duchess e!en though her husband has informed the troupe that she has beenoffered a much better part at another theater at twice the salary that she is presently recei!ing.

After watching the play for a few minutes, Nana turns to her companion, 8abordette, and askshim when Count Muffat will come. "he is assured that the count will soon appear. Nanacontinues watching the confusion and the arguments resulting from the early stages of rehearsal.#hen they finally spot Count Muffat arri!ing, 8abordette sends Nana upstairs and promises todeli!er the count to her shortly. n her way, she is accosted by ordena!e, who tries to get her tosign for the part of the prostitute. Nana delays answering for the present moment.

?n a few minutes, Count Muffat appears in the small dressing room where Nana is waiting. 'e isso emotionally distraught o!er seeing Nana again that he can hardly breathe or speak. Nana tellshim that all is forgi!en and she is willing to be friends with him again. 'e tells her that he wantsto take her back again as his mistress and promises to gi!e her all the things that she wants.#hen Nana refuses, he tells her all the things that he will offer her if she will only promise to behis alone. Nana, howe!er, tells him that he can)t gi!e her the thing that she wants most. "he thenexplains that she wants to play the role of the duchess and be known as a respectable woman."he demonstrates how well she can act the part of a refined lady. Count Muffat tells her he willgi!e her anything but that, whereupon Nana accuses him of being afraid of 4ose Mignon. "hesuggests that Fauchery owes it to the count to gi!e in to his wishes, but she is afraid to mentiondirectly the relationship between Fauchery and the Countess "abine. ?nstead of arguing with him,

she takes him in her arms, kisses him passionately, and then sends him to secure the role for her.As he is lea!ing, she makes him confirm his offer to buy her a house, diamonds, and carriages.

Count Muffat seeks out ordena!e and tells him of Nana)s re$uest. At first ordena!e thinks it isridiculous, but $uickly summing up the situation, he agrees, knowing that Muffat will pay hugesums in support of the theater in order to get his way with Nana. At first, Fauchery will not e!enlisten to the proposition, but after some ca2oling on the part of ordena!e and, more important,

24 | P a g e



some desperate pleading on the part of the count, Fauchery agrees to ha!e Nana play the role ofthe duchess.

Monsieur Mignon refuses to allow his wife 4ose to be dropped from the role but finally consents by suggesting she be paid ten thousand francs for releasing the part. Muffat agrees to pay that

sum. #hen 4ose disco!ers what has transpired, she threatens re!enge. n opening night, she sitsin one of the boxes and screeches with laughter e!ery time Nana appears. *he play (was a greatdisaster for Nana. "he was atrociously bad in it.( Afterward, howe!er, she swears to get e!enwith e!eryone who laughed at her. "he maintains she will show all of /aris (what a great lady islike.(

Analysis

At the end of Chapter ;, Nana was at the low point of her career. #ith the beginning of Chapter=, she begins her rise, and from here to the end of the no!el, we watch Nana)s emergence as astrong destructi!e character instrumental in the slow and final degeneration of Count Muffat. As

in the opening chapter where Nana gained her first reputation in the theater, so does her secondrise to fame now begin in the theater. *he opening of this chapter is also another one of 9ola)sfamous crowd scenes where many people are seen reacting against one another.

*he interrelationships of the characters in this scene almost reach the point of incredibility. Nanahas always wanted to be respected and thought of as a great lady. "he resents the fact that shemust always be cast as the loose woman. *herefore, when she sees that Fauchery)s play has the part of a grand lady in it, she wants to play that part e!en though e!eryone wants her to play the part of the prostitute. Fauchery, furthermore, has already written a bitter satire against Nana pre!iously published as (*he &olden Fly,( and he has also been Countess "abine)s lo!er. 'isrelationships with both Nana and with the countess therefore reflect themsel!es in the

characterizations in the play he has written. Nana knows that she can only get the part by forcing Muffat to deal with Fauchery and by buying off the owner of the theater, ordena!e. Nana uses her sexuality to get Count Muffat to plead with Fauchery to allow her to ha!e this particular part. "ince Fauchery is now the lo!er ofCount Muffat)s wife, he finds that he cannot refuse the count)s pleading re$uest. Conse$uently,9ola loads the scene in a manner that is almost unbelie!able.

Count Muffat)s actions in this chapter indicate how much he is still in Nana)s power and howmuch he is willing to degrade himself in order to pacify and possess her once again. 9ola writesthat (forces still at work within him and Nana con$uered him again . . . by the weaknesses of his

flesh.( 5escriptions such as these reemphasize 9ola)s inherent naturalistic !iew of humanity asunable to control those animal instincts working toward its destruction. ther descriptionssuggest these animal instincts as Count Muffat falls to his knees in the dirty dressing room so asto (lay his face between her knees.( #hen Nana makes her re$uest, Count Muffat knowsimmediately that he will ha!e to make o!ertures to his wife)s lo!er, and he pleads with Nana7 (?)lldo anything you want, except that.( ut Nana is unrelenting and decides that argument is not asgood a weapon as is her sexuality. "he then begins to fondle Count Muffat and sends him tofulfill her re$uest.

25 | P a g e



*he extent of Muffat)s degradation is seen in the manner in which he must beg his wife)s lo!erfor a fa!or for his mistress. 'e prances before Fauchery trying to demonstrate how well Nanacan play the part of a grand lady, and in doing so loses his last remnants of dignity. *o beg fromFauchery is the most degrading act he has yet performed.

*he change that is made makes 4ose Mignon hate Nana more than e!er. "he promises to gete!en with her. Eet as 4ose makes these !iolent threats, the reader should remember that she is theone who will look after the dying Nana.

*he play was a dreadful failure because too many outside forces were conflicting with the artisticfunction of the drama. #hen the pri!ate li!es of the actresses, the writer, and the !arious lo!ersand mistresses inter!ene with the production, it is doomed to failure from the !ery beginning.

Chapter 1"

"ummary

#hereas Nana was unable to play the role of a grand lady on the stage, she is (able to assume therole of an enchantress without effort.( *he house that Count Muffat bought her becomes, in Nana)s hands, a show place filled with elegance and taste. "he relies upon 8abordette to help herhire the necessary personnel to look after the mansion, but by the end of the second month, theexpenses for the house exceed three hundred thousand francs therefore Count Muffat allots hertwel!e thousand a month for expenses. y this time, Nana has placed him on a firmunderstanding that he is to come !isit her only at prescribed times.

Nana finally con!inces Count Muffat that she will be faithful to him but then immediatelydecides to allow Count 6a!ier de 0andeu!res to become her lo!er. y this arrangement, Nana is

able to pick up an extra nine or ten thousand francs a month.ne morning while Muffat is still in the bedroom, &eorges 'ugon shows up unexpectedly. Nana,howe!er, has lost all interest in him and !iews him only as an amusing friend. &eorges comes tosee Nana e!ery day and talks constantly of his older brother, 8ieutenant /hilippe 'ugon, whomhe thinks his mother will send to rescue him from Nana)s clutches. After some time, the older brother does appear Nana sends word to ha!e him wait a $uarter of an hour before being showninto her presence. After a short !isit, e!erything is settled satisfactorily. ?n the future, the older brother is to become a regular member of Nana)s circle.

?n spite of all her luxury, Nana soon becomes bored. Nothing seems to di!ert her from her idle

and useless existence. *hen one day as she is riding along one of the boule!ards, she sees "atin,whom she picks up and takes back to her elegant house. *hey soon resume the little dalliancewhich had pre!iously been interrupted by the police. ut on the fourth day, "atin disappears and Nana goes to a restaurant looking for her. "he finds "atin in the company of Madame 4obert butis able to coax her into lea!ing.

26 | P a g e



#hen Count Muffat learns about the nature of Nana)s relations with "atin, he is at first disgustedand shocked. Nana refuses to see anything wrong with her beha!ior and tells the count he canlea!e if he doesn)t appro!e. *he count has to accept these !agaries also.

ne night when Nana is dining at the same $uestionable restaurant, her old lo!er, 5aguenet,

appears. *hey settle their pre!ious $uarrel, and Nana promises to help him become engaged toMuffat)s daughter. As a reward, she wants 5aguenet to spend his wedding night in bed with her.

?n order to buy Nana an expensi!e present and to pay some back bills, Count Muffat has to borrow money because he is afraid of selling one of his estates. efore he can gi!e the present to Nana, she has some friends in for dinner and begins discussing her past life when she was asmall child. "he delights in mentioning all types of degrading experiences and challenges herguests to lea!e if they don)t like what she is saying. -!eryone, howe!er, was willing to (acceptanything she wanted.(

#hen the men begin to tease "atin about her relations with Nana, she forces Nana to make the

men lea!e so that they can en2oy tonight together alone. After the men lea!e, Nana looks abouther and realizes that the power of her sex has brought her many riches. "he 2oyously throws offher clothes in order to 2oin "atin.

Analysis

Nana)s failure as a grand lady on the stage is countered by her complete success as a lady offashion off the stage7 (And the mar!el was that this great creature, so awkward on the stage, soabsurd in the role of a !irtuous woman, was able to assume the role of an enchantress withouteffort.( *hus, the fact that the entire society now knows Nana and a large segment of that societyemulates Nana)s dress, her hats, and her actions indicates the le!el to which it has been corrupted

by Nana.*he first few pages of this chapter recall another of the naturalist)s techni$ue in writing. *o makethe no!el ha!e as much !erisimilitude as possible, the naturalistic writer often o!erloads his pages with !oluminous amounts of description. *o pro!e how influential Nana has become, 9olaoffers pages of description of her house, clothes, ser!ants, and so forth, until it becomessomewhat tedious.

*he bargain she makes with Muffat indicates how sophisticated Nana has become. "he will become Muffat)s mistress and will allow him definite pri!ileges, but in return, he must abide bycertain rules and come only at specified times. *his bargain is reminiscent of (pro!iso scenes( in

4estoration dramas where characters made stipulations before accepting each other. ut by thistime, it should be ob!ious to both the reader and Count Muffat that Nana will be unable to keepher part of the bargain. "he is incapable of being faithful to any man. Conse$uently, she is in thehouse only a short time before she allows Count 0andeu!res to become her lo!er also. 'er 2ustification is that she wants to pro!e to herself that she is entirely free.

From this chapter to the end of the no!el, 9ola begins to load each chapter with animal imagery. Nana begins to swallow and devour Count 0andeu!res) last farms, and he has a (frenzied

27 | P a g e



appetite( for ruin. 'e later says to Nana that if he does not win money from the great race for the/rix de /aris, he will lock himself up with his horses and set fire to himself and his horses.

#hen young &eorges comes back on the scene, his mother sends the older son, /hilippe, torescue him, but as could be expected, /hilippe is also entrapped by Nana)s charms. f all the

people who are ruined during the course of the no!el, 9ola seems to sympathize only with the'ugon family. 'ere is the basically good and innocent family being de!oured by a force whichthey cannot comprehend.

As for Nana, the more she recei!es, the more she needs. 'er desires are insatiable7 (?n the midstof all that luxury, surrounded by that court, Nana was bored to tears.( "he begins then to dip intoall types of corruption so as to alle!iate that sense of complete boredom and futility. 9ola is nowarranging his material so as to allow the reader to see the aridity of a life such as Nana)s. ?n orderto emphasize her corruption, he describes the sickness in the young son who has inherited theinner corruption of his mother. #hile Nana is physically a magnificent specimen, her son is physically incapable of coping with life.

Nana)s corruption is emphasized by her relationship with "atin, who (becomes her !ice.( "helearns to en2oy lesbianism. /re!iously, Nana had been disgusted by grand ladies who came tocheap restaurants to pick up other women, but now Nana, dressed as the lady of fashion, hauntsthe cheap lesbian restaurants in search of "atin. "he has no $ualms now about degrading herself by openly !ying for "atin)s affection with other women, particularly Madame 4obert. *hus Nanafinds herself in the position she has placed her men. #hereas she had whimsically left one manto pick up another, now "atin whimsically lea!es Nana to pick up another woman in the streets.

Nana does not only degrade herself by this relationship but pulls down others with her. CountMuffat must accept lesbianism as unimportant and e!en learns to welcome "atin as an ally so

that Nana will not be picking up other men. thers, like Count 0andeu!res, &eorges, and/hilippe, learn to accept "atin as a member of the household. *he two women delight in being!ulgar when (there were men present, as though they were yielding to an urge to impose on themthe dunghill from which they had sprung.( Nana, therefore, unconsciously is becoming the(&olden Fly( who willfully destroys and corrupts e!erything she comes into contact with.

Chapter 11

"ummary

n the "unday of the famous race for the &rand /rix de /aris, Nana is as excited about the e!ent

as if her entire fortune depended upon it. *he most talked about horse in the race is a filly owned by Count 6a!ier de 0andeu!res, which he names (Nana.( *o conform with the mood of the day, Nana is wearing the same colors as those of the 0andeu!res stables, which will be the samecolors worn by the filly Nana.

n the way to the race, Nana explains to her companions that Count Muffat has been sulking fortwo days. ut of boredom, Nana picked up a man on the street and later Count Muffat found theman)s hat in Nana)s room. ut today, Nana is not going to let anything interfere with her

28 | P a g e



pleasure. "he also tells how a man named Monsieur 0enot came to see her to plead with her togi!e up Count Muffat.

At the race track, Nana is excited to find out that her namesake has fifty to one odds against her. Nana decides that (she,( that is, her namesake, is not worth !ery much. "he gaily tells her

friends7 (et on any horse you like . . . except Nana % she)s a nag.( Nana then asks ad!ice ofe!eryone before she decides to bet any money. "he gi!es a thousand francs to 8abordette, whowill choose a horse for her. 'e refuses to tell her which horse he will place her money on. All themen in the group are betting on !arious horses, but when la Faloise decides to bet twenty francson Nana for fun, the other gentlemen follow suit and place small bets on Nana. "oon, the oddsdrop to forty to one.

As the crowd begins to gather, Nana sees Count Muffat, who is in ser!ice to the empress. 4oseMignon and many other of Nana)s friends arri!e. Monsieur Mignon comes to try to persuade Nana to make up with 4ose, who is still furious because Nana took her part in The Little

Duchess. 'e tells Nana that 4ose has a letter which the Countess "abine once wrote to Fauchery,

and she plans to use the letter to get e!en with Nana. Nana, howe!er, is not concerned with 4ose but is more puzzled about why the odds are dropping on the filly Nana suddenly they are onlyfifteen to one.

#hen Count 0andeu!res comes and takes Nana inside the enclosure, where loose women are notallowed, she feels proud and aristocratic. "he $uestions him about why the odds are dropping butis told abruptly to mind her own business. Nana is not offended with his rudeness because sheand e!eryone know that Count 0andeu!res is playing (his last card that day.( -!eryone alsoknows that Nana is the (!oracious woman( who is finishing him off.

*he race begins and the fa!ored horses take the lead, but Nana is ne!er far behind. y the first

turn, there are only four horses still in the contest and Nana is one of them. At the finish of therace, there are only two horses and finally Nana wins by a head. "ince the other horse was-nglish, the entire crowd is ecstatic that the French horse won, and Nana)s name re!erberatesthroughout the grandstand. -!en the empress applauds. ("tanding up straight on the seat of herlandau, Nana felt as though it were she who was being acclaimed.( 8abordette returns and tellsher he had bet her money on Nana conse$uently, she has won forty thousand francs.

?mmediately after the race, there ensue some $uarrels in the stables. 0andeu!res had been preparing for Nana to win for years by holding her back in other races and then secretlymanipulating bets in such a way as to win a fortune. ut he is trapped in his own net of intrigue,and carrying out an earlier promise, he locks himself and his horses in the stable and sets fire toe!erything.

*hat night in /aris, Nana is celebrated e!erywhere she goes. *wo days later, Nana maintains thatCount 0andeu!res ended his life in real style. "he is disappointed when she hears a rumor thatthe count escaped out a back window. *he burning was such a beautiful idea.

Analysis

29 | P a g e



Chapter :: presents another of the crowd scenes where there is no chance for a close or intimate!iew. ut not since the opening chapters in the theater has 9ola presented the mass reaction in soeffecti!e a manner as he does here during the racing scenes. *he entire chapter captures themadness and frenzy of a society whose !alues are disrupted by attention to pleasure.

Nana is at her height as she arri!es in her elegance at the race track. *he chapter brings togetheralmost all of the personages in the no!el from the procuress *ricon, who bets on the filly Nana,to the !arious lo!ers and actresses who refuse to bet on Nana, to the royalty, which includes theempress and the prince from -ngland, both attended by Count Muffat.

*he use of the name Nana to apply to both the main character and the horse in the race pro!ides9ola with ample ironies. From the humorous side, Nana delights in referring to the horse as(Nana, the nag.( ut more important are the !arious uses of the animal imagery to imply thedestruction of Count 0andeu!res and to clarify !arying opinions about Nana the courtesan.Count 0andeu!res ends his life because of some shady transactions made in connection with thefilly Nana, lea!ing Nana the courtesan as an e$ual partner in his destruction.

"ince the race has de!eloped into a race between an -nglish horse and a French horse, Nana thefilly becomes the apotheosis for the French "econd -mpire. As the contest is reduced to a two+horse race between the -nglish horse and Nana, the crowd becomes frenzied in shouting for(Nana, the Nag Nana the slut( to win. Nana represents the pleasure+seeking second empire, andthe 2uxtaposition of horse and courtesan sums up the !alues which dominated this society. -!enafter the race, Nana the courtesan is toasted and cheered. -!en Nana begins to associate herselfwith the nag and feels that the crowd is indeed cheering her.

/erhaps nowhere in 9ola)s many no!els does he capture so completely the spirit of an age andthe mass excitement engendered by dualistic moti!es.

Chapter 12

"ummary

After three days of sulking, Count Muffat returns to Nana and finds her troubled about religiousmatters. "he tells him openly that she is afraid to die because she knows what happens to(unmarried women who had anything to do with men( and also because dead people are so ugly.*hese discussions renew Count Muffat)s religious fears. Conse$uently, he and Nana spend sometime comforting each other.

*wo days later, Count Muffat arri!es and disco!ers that Nana is terribly sick because she has hada miscarriage. 9o found her the day before in a pool of blood and Nana has been confined sincethen. #hen Nana sees Count Muffat, she smiles and pretends that she wanted the child because itwas Muffat)s. Actually, she has no idea who the father was. "he $ueries Muffat about why hecame and soon disco!ers that he is deeply troubled. "uddenly Nana realizes that 4ose has sentthe letter and that Count Muffat now knows all about his wife)s infidelities.

30 | P a g e



At first Count Muffat declares that he is going to challenge Fauchery to a duel, but Nana pointsout the disgrace connected with such an act. After pacifying him somewhat, she finally tells himthat he is mainly bothered by the fact that he is decei!ing his wife in the same way that shedecei!ed him. "he tells him7 (*hat)s why you)re stamping about here in my bedroom instead ofkilling both of them.( "he also points out that if he makes a scene, she would become the sub2ect

of many derogatory remarks throughout /aris. "he ad!ises him to make up with his wife andonly continue to see her at inter!als.

Count Muffat later admits that he is also troubled by financial matters. A note he signed is being passed around for collection, and he dares not sell any of his property because the transactionwould re$uire his wife)s signature.

Meanwhile, Countess "abine wants her daughter)s marriage contracts signed as soon as possibleso that she can gi!e a party celebrating it and at the same time show off how she has had herhouse newly decorated. At the party, all of the old guard are shocked at how radically Countess"abine has altered the old family mansion. Most of the ladies present also think -stelle de

eu!ille could ha!e made a better match than 5aguenet. *hen other gossip occupies the ladies)attention.

8a Faloise arri!es and begins talking to "teiner, Foucarmont, and others. 'e suddenly proclaimsthat Nana has arri!ed the group of men look surprised before they realize that la Faloise is tryingto be witty. 'e then ends by asserting that it really was Nana who arranged the wedding.

#hen Fauchery arri!es, la Faloise attempts another 2oke by wondering aloud if the countess hasgood thighs. Fauchery is !isibly disturbed by this allusion e!en though he calls la Faloise anidiot. As the gay waltz from The Blond Venus is playing, Fauchery goes to pay his respects to thecount and the countess. Many eyes in the audience are upon Fauchery when he approaches his

hosts, but nothing out of the ordinary occurs.After the church wedding, the count enters the countess) bedroom for the first time in two years.'e suggests selling some of their mutual property. "ince the countess also has great need ofmoney, she readily agrees.

At two o)clock in the afternoon, 5aguenet appears in Nana)s bedroom. "ince she has forgottenthe bargain she made with him, he has to remind her that he is there to gi!e her his (innocence(on his wedding day.

Analysis

Nana)s basic sexuality is again emphasized by the opening sentence of this chapter, whichdescribes Nana in bed with Count Muffat. Nana suddenly expresses her fear of &od and her fearof death, which begins to prepare the reader for her actual death in the final chapter. Nana)s fearthat (people are ugly when they)re dead( also prepares us for the awesome ugliness of Nana)sown death.

31 | P a g e



As Count Muffat sinks deeper and deeper into the gutters of Nana)s filth, he tries more and moreto recall his pre!ious religious training. #hen he recei!es the letter which his wife had written toher lo!er, he realizes the depth of his own degradation. Nana)s one @and perhaps only intuiti!ecomment comes when she tells the count7 (?t)s that you)re decei!ing your wife, too. Eou don)tsleep away from home for nothing. . . . "he)s only following your example. . . . *hat)s why you)re

stamping about in my bedroom instead of killing both of them.(

Finally, Nana is able to make a dent in Count Muffat)s immense wealth. 'e now finds himself infinancial troubles, but Nana is unsympathetic and unrelenting in her demands for more money.-$ually important is the fact that the Countess "abine, in learning the pleasures of adultery, hasalso learned from Nana the pleasures of being needlessly extra!agant. ?n the first part of the book, the countess had been adamant about not changing the ancestral mansion. Now that she is becoming as corrupt as Nana, she is also becoming as capricious and demands that the entiremansion be redecorated. *hus, Nana)s influence e!en extends so far as to affect the countess) personal beha!ior.

?n earlier chapters, Nana had $uietly obtruded upon the parties gi!en by the aristocracy. ?n thischapter, her intrusion is more blatantly felt. *he waltz from The Blond Venus has become thetheme song of the aristocracy. Nana is openly discussed by the aristocratic ladies and analogiesare made connecting the countess) caprices with Nana)s. *here are e!en 2okes made by the menconcerning the manner in which Nana has arranged the marriage between 5aguenet and -stelle.*he final change is ironically underscored when Fauchery enters to the tune from The BlondVenus and calmly greets his mistress and her husband. After the party, when the count mentionsthe need to sell some 2oint property, the countess, who is now corrupted, readily agrees becauseher lo!e affairs are pro!ing to be expensi!e also.

*he comic ending of the chapter underscores the corruption of the entire society as 5aguenet

comes to sleep with Nana on his wedding day.Chapter 13

"ummary

ne day Count Muffat drops in unexpectedly on Nana and finds young &eorges 'ugon in herarms. "he is annoyed at ha!ing been found out and promptly admits her error, promising ne!er todecei!e again. ut the count)s illusion has been broken and he (no longer belie!ed in her swornfidelity.(

5uring this time, Nana (flared upon /aris with redoubled splendor.( "he dominates the city,which copies her hats, her dresses, and her entire style of li!ing. ut nothing could remain in Nana)s hands without becoming spoiled7 ('er path was strewn with nameless debris, twistedshreds, and muddy rags.( -!en Nana is amazed at the amount of money she spends althoughmen pile gold upon her, they can ne!er fill the (hole that grew deeper and deeper beneath herhouse.(

32 | P a g e



#ith nothing else to do, Nana decides to order the grandest bed that has e!er been constructed. ?tis to be (a throne, an altar, to which all /aris would come to adore her so!ereign nudity.( *he bedwill cost o!er fifty thousand francs and Count Muffat is to pay for it. ut e!en while she isordering the bed, Nana cannot understand why she does not ha!e a hundred francs to pay the butcher or the baker. "he constantly asks /hilippe 'ugon to bring her small sums. #hen she

announces her name day, /hilippe brings her an expensi!e present, which she breaks throughcarelessness. At first he is crushed by her indifference, but finally he also begins to laugh aboutthe tri!iality of money. At the end of the e!ening, she asks him to bring her two hundred francs,and he promises to try. "uddenly he asks her to marry him, but Nana only laughs at him.

&eorges 'ugon has heard the entire con!ersation from outside the door and flees to his room athome in a fit of terrible anguish and 2ealousy. 'e decides he has to die or kill his brother.

*he same day, Madame 'ugon learns that /hilippe has been accused of embezzling twel!ethousand francs of his regiment)s funds. *hinking that she has lost her oldest son, she feels thatshe still has her youngest, and without thinking what she is doing, she dresses and heads for

Nana)s apartment to rescue &eorges.Meanwhile, Nana has been annoyed the entire day with creditors. -!en though she has bought"atin a new twel!e+hundred+franc dress, she does not ha!e enough money for the baker and butcher. ut when the designer and 8abordette tell her that her bed could be made moremagnificent by a nude figure costing six thousand francs, Nana immediately agrees to thischange, knowing that Count Muffat will pay for it.

As her creditors begin to pester her, Nana prepares to go out to find Madame *ricon in order toearn fi!e hundred francs. As she is lea!ing, she meets &eorges and asks him if /hilippe sent herthe money she asked for. 'e tells her (no( and then asks her to marry him. "uddenly she realizes

that the two brothers are mad and she explains to &eorges that she is about to go out to anotherman in order to earn fi!e hundred francs. "he lea!es him briefly, and when she returns he again begs her to marry him. #hen she refuses, he stabs himself twice with her scissors. 3ust as he fallsto the floor, Madame 'ugon enters the room. Nana tries to 2ustify herself by saying that if/hilippe were there he could explain it all, and Madame 'ugon has to re!eal that /hilippe is in 2ail. "he insists upon ha!ing &eorges remo!ed e!en at the risk of his life.

Count Muffat finds Nana distraught by the proliferation of catastrophe. "he sends him to find outhow &eorges is faring, and later he reports that &eorges will probably li!e. ?n spite of the neartragedy, Count Muffat is secretly glad to be rid of a youthful ri!al.

&radually the relations between the count and Nana become more and more strained. "he nolonger conceals the fact that she takes other people to bed with her. *he count will ha!e to acceptthis fact or get out. #hen he fails to gi!e her enough money, she reminds him that with his lookshe has to pay hea!ily to get a girl to go to bed with him, and she demands that he secure somemoney for her immediately.

Nothing, howe!er, satisfies Nana. ?n her boredom, she returns to picking up strange men fromthe street simply to amuse herself. #ild parties are held in her house, and Count Muffat pretends

33 | P a g e



to be ignorant of Nana)s promiscuity. *he house falls into a state of general confusion and soonser!ants are being fired and replaced by new ones, who are soon fired. -ach ser!ant begins totake ad!antage of the chaos and steals wildly from Nana.

ne night a music hall baritone with whom Nana has become infatuated lea!es her. "he tries to

commit suicide in a fit of gloomy sentimentality. "he becomes horribly sick, but nothing elsehappens. y this time, Count Muffat welcomes the relations between Nana and "atin because atleast when she is sleeping with "atin, she will not be sleeping with some strange man. ut Nanasoon begins decei!ing "atin in the same way she decei!es the count. "he e!en goes to (infamoushouses,( where she (witnesses spectacles of debauchery that relie!ed her boredom.(

&radually Nana begins to de!our all the men with whom she comes in contact7 (A ruined manfell from her hands like a ripe fruit, to rot on the ground. . . . "he de!oured e!erything like a greatfire7 the thefts of speculation and the earnings of labor. *his time she finished "teiner she brought him to the ground.( *hen she turns to la Faloise, who has to sell his farms one by one tosatisfy Nana)s passion7 (Nana de!oured an acre with each mouthful.( "he then ruins Fauchery by

making him li$uidate a newspaper he had begun to publish.*hrough it all, Count Muffat still retains his passion for Nana, who now has (an instincti!e urgeto debase e!erything.( ne night she makes him get down on all fours and pretend to be a bear.At first it is 2ust a game, but soon the game turns into bestiality as Nana begins to treat him likean animal, (beating him and kicking him around the room.( *he count e!en liked (his baseness,he sa!ored the en2oyment of being a beast. 'e longed to descend still lower.( Nana then has him bring his distinguished chamberlain)s uniform, which she has him utterly debase by all types ofobscene actions.

Nana)s bed does not arri!e until the middle of 3anuary. ?t is (a throne broad enough to enable

Nana to spread out the royalty of her naked limbs, an altar of yzantine richness, worthy of theomnipotence of her sex, which she was now displaying in the religious immodesty of an idolheld in awe by all men.( ne day Count Muffat arri!es unexpectedly he goes into the bedroomand is shocked to find his father+in+law, the old Mar$uis de Chouard, in bed with Nana. *his lastnight of lo!e has left the mar$uis totally senile, and he ne!er regains his sanity. Count Muffat ishorrified beyond all measure. As he falls babbling to himself and calling on &od to sa!e him,Monsieur 0enot arri!es and takes the count away. After Muffat learns that the Countess "abinehas run off with some clerk, his collapse is so complete that he is totally in Monsieur 0enot)scare.

"hortly after the breakup with the count, Nana disco!ers that 9o is lea!ing her, that "atin isdying in a hospital, and that &eorges is already dead. "he dresses to go to the hospital to !isit"atin, maintaining that all men are dirty and responsible for anything that happens to them.

Analysis

As indicated by the profusion of detail, 9ola is now loading his final chapters with as muchmaterial as possible. ne de!astating e!ent follows another with amazing rapidity. ?n general,

34 | P a g e



9ola shows Nana reaching the heights of her own particular world and then shows it rapidlycrumbling about her e!en though she shows no concern about it

For the first time, Count Muffat disco!ers someone else in Nana)s arms. 'e had known pre!iously that she was not faithful to him, but earlier he had simply closed his eyes to her

infidelities. Now as he catches &eorges 'ugon in Nana)s arms, he is torn with 2ealousy. 'is hurtwill later cause him to be secretly relie!ed when young &eorges stabs himself, thus remo!ing ari!al. At last, howe!er, Count Muffat knows definitely that Nana can ne!er be trusted. As 9ola points out, (nothing remained in her hands, e!erything broke, withered, or became soiled between her little white fingers. 'er path was strewn with nameless wreckage, twisted shreds,and muddy rags.(

At this time, Nana orders a luxurious bed which symbolizes all of her own sexuality. ?t was to be(a throne, an altar, to which all /aris would come to worship her so!ereign nakedness.( *he bedand the sexuality still occupy the foremost attention in Nana)s mind. 'owe!er, e!en though 9olathe naturalist presents the abo!e image as a part of Nana)s desires, a closer reading will easily

show that it is 9ola the moralist making the statement about Nana)s corrupting influence.*he motif established earlier in the no!el showing that Nana was constantly without small sumsof money is still emphasized. /erhaps by now the idea begins to lose some of its credibility. *hatis, in !iew of the fact that 9ola represents Nana as recei!ing hundreds of thousands of francs ingifts and also many !aluable diamonds, it does not seem entirely con!incing that she cannot sella diamond or locate a few hundred francs.

*he idea, howe!er, is that e!erything around Nana is beginning to fall into chaos. 'er ser!antsare stealing from her, her creditors are in league with the ser!ants in cheating Nana, and ingeneral, there is no order about the house. -!en the small gift which /hilippe could not afford yet

bought anyway is carelessly and senselessly broken by Nana. "he can attach no !alue toanything, person, or ob2ect.

Conse$uently, in the midst of untold luxury, she goes out to keep an appointment with one ofMadame *ricon)s customers.

*his act on Nana)s part brings about part of the destruction of the 'ugon family. "he has drained/hilippe until he has now been arrested for stealing army funds. &eorges, ha!ing disco!ered Nana)s intention to see a customer, stabs himself. At the same time, Madame 'ugon arri!es totake her son away. *he ob2ecti!e reader might say that these circumstances do not comply with9ola)s pronounced scientific realism, but 9ola maintained that the artist has the right to step out

of the role of obser!er to manipulate his characters at certain times.After the 'ugon catastrophe, Nana begins to feel the extreme boredom of her life. "he picks upmen from the street, and not satisfied with this, she entices young sluts home with her. "he e!endebauches herself in houses of infamy. ut she seems to take the most pleasure out of totallydestroying and debasing Count Muffat7 ("he had an instincti!e urge to debase e!erything. ?t wasnot enough for her to destroy things, she also dirtied them.( "he forces Count Muffat to go nakedabout the house and to crawl on his knees like an animal while (she treated him like an animal,

35 | P a g e



beating him and kicking him around the room.( "he e!en forces him to bring his chamberlain)scostume and then in her presence to defile it7 (?t was her re!enge, the unconscious family rancor be$ueathed to her with her blood.( 'er thirst for bestiality and de!ourment cannot be satiated.

*he final part of Chapter :B also shows Count Muffat)s complete re!ersion to the bestial instincts

which lay dormant in his makeup. 'e e!en learns to en2oy his own debasement and to lookforward to the moments of bestiality7 ('e liked his baseness, he sa!ored the en2oyment of beinga beast. 'e longed to descend still lower.( 9ola is here emphasizing that Muffat and Nana)srelationship can exist on no other plane than that of !ulgar bestial sexuality. 'is desire to possess Nana is so strong that he is most anxious to discard all remnants of ci!ilized beha!ior in order tocope with Nana)s animal beha!ior. *his total degradation is seen in his willingness to defile hischamberlain)s uniform.

Muffat can only break away from the animal when he disco!ers Nana in bed with the Mar$uis deChouard. 'e has known for some time that she slept with other men, and he accepted this fact inthe abstract. ut to disco!er her in bed in such a degrading manner with his own father+in+law

lea!es Muffat totally defeated. 'e returns to his earlier solace and calls on &od. 'e allowshimself to be carried away like a child by his old friend, Monsieur 0enot.

*he animal imagery in this final chapter dominates almost e!erything else. As Nana takes onman after man and destroys them, 9ola presents her as an animal de!ouring men as would somelarge predatory beast7 (A ruined man fell from her hands like a ripe fruit, to rot on the ground.("he can (de!our( a farm with each mouthful7 ("he consumed e!erything like a great fire.( *hemen who fall because of her sexuality come from e!ery part of society, and the money spent onher reaches untold sums. Finally, her influence affects the Countess "abine, who begins to act the part of the slut. Nana)s (work of ruin and death was accomplished.(

Chapter 14

"ummary

Nana suddenly disappears. After being seen in another of ordena!e)s productions, she lea!eswithout notifying anyone of her intentions. At a public auction, her house and furniture broughther o!er six hundred thousand francs. 0arious rumors circulate as to Nana)s whereabouts, but noone can say for certain. ?n 3uly, 8ucy "tewart disco!ers that Nana is in a hotel dying of smallpoxand is being attended by 4ose Mignon.

Nana had returned from 4ussia and disco!ered that her child, 8ouiset, was dying of smallpox.

"he apparently caught the disease from her son while nursing him. *wo days after 8ouiset)sdeath, Nana came down with the disease.

At the hotel where 4ose has Nana taken, !arious old ac$uaintances congregate to talk about Nana. *he men remain below, frightened of the disease e!en Count Muffat remains below,sending messages to in$uire about Nana)s progress. *he women ac$uaintances, howe!er, seem toha!e no inordinate fear of smallpox and 2oin 4ose e!en though by now Nana is already dead.

36 | P a g e



As the !arious friends discuss Nana)s life and fortunes, they also comment upon the men who aregathered below. *hey are interrupted by the cries of people marching in the streets shouting patriotic slogans. *he go!ernment has 2ust declared war on /russia, and Count ismarck)s nameis mentioned by se!eral of the assembled ladies.

efore 4ose lea!es, she places a candle by Nana)s body. ?t illuminates Nana)s face in such a waythat the women see the horrors caused by the smallpox. Now Nana is (only a piece of carrion, amass of pus and blood, a sho!elful of putrid flesh. . . . ?t was as though the !irus she had broughtfrom the gutter, from the decaying carcasses left in the street, that ferment with which she had poisoned a whole people, had risen to her face and rotted it.(

utside, the people are still crying out for France to march on erlin.

Analysis

*he final chapter of the no!el offers again an indirect !iew of Nana as we hear of the rumors

about her in foreign lands and then the reports of her terrible death agony. *he weak and diseased body of her son succumbs to smallpox, and in nursing him, she contacts the disease. Allthroughout the no!el, 9ola has obli$uely suggested that Nana)s inner corruption is reflected in8ouis) physical condition. 'is death ends then a part of Nana)s corruption.

"ince young 8ouis dies of smallpox, it is only natural that Nana die of the same disease. 9olaapparently thought it would be poetic 2ustice for Nana to die of a disease which would ra!age her physical beauty. *o die of some occupational disease like syphilis would be too contri!ed.?nstead, the final !iew of Nana)s decomposing body lea!es the reader sick and disgusted7 ("hewas only a piece of carrion, a mass of pus and blood, a sho!elful of putrid flesh.( 9ola suggeststhat it was as though her inner rot and corruption had risen to the surface and co!ered her

magnificent body with all its concealed filth and poison.*he no!el ends with the people of the second empire clamoring for war, and we are remindedthat the no!el began with both the ladies of fashion and the ladies of the street wondering ifCount ismarck would make war on France. 'ere then is the beginning of the end to the secondempire in France, which had engendered so much corruption in its own society.

Criti#al Essays Zola and Naturalism

5uring his lifetime, 9ola made his presence felt in almost e!ery area of the literary world. 'ewas constantly in!ol!ed in some type of literary contro!ersy. ?n one sense, he is best known for

his theories and defense of naturalism, and he has aptly been called the father of naturalism.

Many critics fail to make a distinction between (realism( and (naturalism.( Certainly, thedistinction does not in!ol!e a ma2or critical !iew. 4ealism might be most simply explained as anattempt to present life with a large degree of !erisimilitude. As a mo!ement, realism precedednaturalism, and the latter mo!ement is essentially an attempt to carry the position of the realist toa further degree. "ometimes naturalism is called (stark realism.(

37 | P a g e



*he naturalist thought that the realist had not treated all aspects of life and was determined toshow e!erything connected with life. *he naturalist also accused the realist of failing to depictthings which are unpleasant, ugly, or sordid. Conse$uently, the naturalist often concentrates to agreater extent on those aspects of life which are of dubious !alue, and seldom does it depict thehigher nature of humanity.

?n theory, the naturalist saw humanity trapped by forces which it could not control. 'umanity iscaught in a hostile uni!erse and there is no chance for it to escape. #hen humanity realizes itstrap or if it attempts to escape, it is usually reduced to the le!el of an animal. ?n general, thenaturalistic philosophy might be called pessimistic determinism % that is, humans are totallyunable to control their own destinies.

#ith this philosophy, the naturalist will often use the image of humanity trapped in some type ofcage or in some type of circumstances which could be symbolically !iewed as a net or cage.*hen the dominant image will often in!ol!e a person as some sort of animal. *he naturalist usesthis animal imagery to reinforce the position that people cannot control their urges and are

ultimately reduced to bestiality. *he French 9ola and the American Frank Norris are the mostfamous for their uses of animal imagery to depict the lack of nobility in humanity.

*he naturalist, wishing to capture !erisimilitude to the nth degree, would often belabor hisdescriptions. Many times, this type of writer would often continue his description of physicalob2ects far beyond the patience of the reader. *heir flaw then is a result of their desire to gi!e anabsolutely accurate account of their position, and in doing so, they often became tedious withtheir laborious descriptions.

Finally, in trying to be completely true to life, the naturalist probably distorted life as much asdid the romantic writer. #hile determined to present the true side of life and therefore

concentrating on the ugly and the sordid, the naturalist emphasized this aspect of life to theexclusion of any other aspect. *he realist knows that there is the sordid side, but he often presented the pleasant or happy side of life the naturalist restricted life to the ugly andunpleasant, thereby distorting real life instead of depicting it as accurately as he thought hewould.

Criti#al Essays Zola$s Criti#al %heories

9ola)s theories are often !iewed as being somewhat nai!e and insignificant. 'e himself claimedno originality for his own theories, but any historical account of naturalism must take intoaccount his beliefs. 'owe!er simple, nai!e, or in!alid they might seem, they had a tremendous

effect upon the de!elopment of not 2ust French literature, but upon world literature. ecause ofhis theories, he became one of the most abused and most championed figures on the literaryscene, and the degree to which he was !ilified indicates the amount of influence he wielded.

For 9ola, naturalism was the systematic, ob2ecti!e, and scientific extension of realism. *he dutyof the no!elist then was to present as accurate a picture of life as possible. *his was to beaccomplished by ha!ing the no!elist function as scientifically and as ob2ecti!ely as possiblewhen presenting his material. *he sub2ect matter of art should include some representati!es of

38 | P a g e



the working class, and the purpose should be to present an understanding of the contemporarysocial milieu. *hus, many of 9ola)s no!els ha!e a social idea as their basis, which is then presented with scientific ob2ecti!ity. *hat is, the working class is not romanticized or shown asexisting in some sort of perfect idyll rather, all the trials and difficulties are presented in realisticterms.

8ike the other naturalists, 9ola demanded a great degree of !erisimilitude in his no!els, but hene!er claimed that the no!el should be purely photographic. 'e once explained that art is a(corner of reality seen through a temperament( @from Mes aines. *he !alue of !erisimilitudelies in the fact that, through exact descriptions, the artist could present his sub2ect moreaccurately and conse$uently be more truthful to his sub2ect.

*he ultimate aim of the no!elist is to be true to his sub2ect matter and to present some basictruths about life. nly by gi!ing the reader an accurate rendition of life could the artist beabsolutely faithful to life. Any other form of writing would distort life, and the no!elist thencould not ser!e a useful purpose in his society.

#hen the artist presents his sub2ect faithfully, then, for 9ola, the character would be shown as a product of his en!ironment and of his heredity. /eople)s actions, like those of a beast, arecontrolled by the traits they inherited and by the en!ironment from which they sprung.Conse$uently, throughout Nana, 9ola constantly makes references to the gutters from which Nana came and how, unconsciously, she was attempting to drag all of society back to thosegutters.

-!en though there are none or few pure naturalists writing today, 9ola)s influence on thede!elopment of the no!el has been tremendous. For example, he opened up new sub2ect matterfor the no!elists and supported his use of lurid sub2ect matter with philosophical principles.

Study &elp Essay 'uestions

1( Nana ne!er enters directly into aristocratic society, yet she has a tremendous influence on thissociety. "how specific instances of how Nana intrudes upon and influences the !alues of theentire population.

2( 'ow does Nana)s heredity influence her inability to be satisfied in her luxurious en!ironmentas a courtesanJ

3( 'ow does *he lond 0enus represent the entire second empire in FranceJ

4( Choose two or more examples of crowd scenes and show how 9ola is able to portray the massemotions of many di!erse people.

5( Ising the entire no!el, show how 9ola is attempting to condemn the role prostitution played inthe second empire.

39 | P a g e



6( #hat are some of the !arious ways that 9ola lets the reader know that he is writing acondemnation of NanaJ 'ow important is 9ola)s own descriptions of Nana in considering his!iew of herJ

7( 'ow do Nana)s relationships with "teiner, &eorges 'ugon, and Fontan function in connection

with the central Muffat+Nana relationshipJ

( Citing specific examples, comment upon the function of irony in such a naturalistic no!el as Nana.

!( *race the use of animal imagery throughout the no!el and comment on its total function.

1"( From a moral !iewpoint, Nana)s death is deser!ed. ut what is gained from an artistic!iewpoint by ha!ing Nana die of smallpoxJ #as her death necessary to the total esthetic effect of the no!elJ

&un#h)a#k o* Notre +ame&un#h)a#k o* Notre +ame

,i#tor &u-o,i#tor &u-o

ContextContext

#ritten during the 3uly :;B> 4e!olution,#ritten during the 3uly :;B> 4e!olution, The unch!ac" of Notre DameThe unch!ac" of Notre Dame was profoundlywas profoundlyaffected by the historical and political trends of the early nineteenth century. 0ictor 'ugo wasaffected by the historical and political trends of the early nineteenth century. 0ictor 'ugo was born at the beginning of the Napoleonic -mpire in :;>D and began writing under the 4estoration born at the beginning of the Napoleonic -mpire in :;>D and began writing under the 4estorationmonarchy before becoming one of the most ardent supporters of the French 4epublic. After themonarchy before becoming one of the most ardent supporters of the French 4epublic. After the:<;= French 4e!olution, French society was split into two parts7 those who opposed the:<;= French 4e!olution, French society was split into two parts7 those who opposed the

4epublic and those who supported it. From the early days of his youth, 'ugo identified with the4epublic and those who supported it. From the early days of his youth, 'ugo identified with thethemes of social and political e$uality that characterized the legacy of the French 4e!olution.themes of social and political e$uality that characterized the legacy of the French 4e!olution.Moreo!er, his father was a general in Napoleon)s army and, as a result, 'ugo was ne!er a strongMoreo!er, his father was a general in Napoleon)s army and, as a result, 'ugo was ne!er a strongsupporter of the monarchy that began in :;:G after Napoleon)s defeat at #aterloo.supporter of the monarchy that began in :;:G after Napoleon)s defeat at #aterloo.

?n 3uly :;B>, a new re!olution occurred in /aris. *he ourbon family was deposed by the more?n 3uly :;B>, a new re!olution occurred in /aris. *he ourbon family was deposed by the moreliberal rlans family, which supported a constitutional monarchy. Although 'ugo did not thinkliberal rlans family, which supported a constitutional monarchy. Although 'ugo did not thinkthe re!olution went far enough @he fa!ored a republic, he celebrated the resurgence of the ideasthe re!olution went far enough @he fa!ored a republic, he celebrated the resurgence of the ideasof political liberty, democracy and uni!ersal suffrage that dated back to :<;=. 'ugo thusof political liberty, democracy and uni!ersal suffrage that dated back to :<;=. 'ugo thusincorporated the political legacy of the these two re!olutions intoincorporated the political legacy of the these two re!olutions into The unch!ac" of NotreThe unch!ac" of Notre

Dame, Dame, but was also inspired by the artistic and cultural representation of these social uphea!als. but was also inspired by the artistic and cultural representation of these social uphea!als.

For example, the political cartoons of 'onor 5aumier and the paintings of -ugKne 5elacroixFor example, the political cartoons of 'onor 5aumier and the paintings of -ugKne 5elacroix both made republicanism an aesthetic sub2ect and focused on the city of /aris as a center of both made republicanism an aesthetic sub2ect and focused on the city of /aris as a center ofre!olutionaryre!olutionary #s$rit.#s$rit. ?n 5elacroix)s famous depiction of the :;B> 4e!olution,?n 5elacroix)s famous depiction of the :;B> 4e!olution, Li!erty %uidin& Li!erty %uidin&

the eo$le,the eo$le, the two towers of Notre 5ame can be seen in the background, e!oking the mythicthe two towers of Notre 5ame can be seen in the background, e!oking the mythic presence of /aris as a symbol of re!olutionary fer!or. 'ugo greatly admired this painting, presence of /aris as a symbol of re!olutionary fer!or. 'ugo greatly admired this painting,stri!ing to represent Notre 5ame as the cultural and political center of /aris.stri!ing to represent Notre 5ame as the cultural and political center of /aris.

40 | P a g e



/aris itself plays a ma2or role in the no!el. 'ugo presents /aris as a place that can all be seen/aris itself plays a ma2or role in the no!el. 'ugo presents /aris as a place that can all be seenfrom the towers of Notre 5ame, reaffirming its place as the center of /aris. *he cathedral comesfrom the towers of Notre 5ame, reaffirming its place as the center of /aris. *he cathedral comesto represent /aris)s (&othic heart,( and remind readers of its resplendent past. -!en though mostto represent /aris)s (&othic heart,( and remind readers of its resplendent past. -!en though mostof this past has been swept away, 'ugo compares the city to a li!ing creature, (talking,(of this past has been swept away, 'ugo compares the city to a li!ing creature, (talking,((singing,( (breathing,( and (growing( e!eryday. 'e argues that /aris is on the !erge of a ma2or(singing,( (breathing,( and (growing( e!eryday. 'e argues that /aris is on the !erge of a ma2or

change that will fore!er erase its &othic past. y e!oking the Cit, the 0ille, and the Ini!ersitchange that will fore!er erase its &othic past. y e!oking the Cit, the 0ille, and the Ini!ersitdi!isions of the fifteenth century, 'ugo presents the reader with a !ersion of /aris that mightdi!isions of the fifteenth century, 'ugo presents the reader with a !ersion of /aris that mightsoon disappear. ?ndeed, within twenty years of the publication ofsoon disappear. ?ndeed, within twenty years of the publication of The unch!ac" of Notre Dame,The unch!ac" of Notre Dame,

Napoleon ??? and aron !on 'aussmann began a massi!e rebuilding program throughout most of Napoleon ??? and aron !on 'aussmann began a massi!e rebuilding program throughout most of the city, tearing down old $uarters and widening streets into boule!ards. Artists who hadthe city, tearing down old $uarters and widening streets into boule!ards. Artists who hadembraced 'ugo)s mo!ement to safeguard the past were horrified, while 'ugo himself mo!edembraced 'ugo)s mo!ement to safeguard the past were horrified, while 'ugo himself mo!edinto self+imposed exile.into self+imposed exile.

Finally,Finally, The unch!ac" of Notre DameThe unch!ac" of Notre Dame must be examined in its literary context. 'ugo was amust be examined in its literary context. 'ugo was a pioneer of the 4omantic mo!ement, which stressed the indi!idual experience of imagination and pioneer of the 4omantic mo!ement, which stressed the indi!idual experience of imagination andemotions. 4omanticism was predominantly a reaction against classicism, which found itsemotions. 4omanticism was predominantly a reaction against classicism, which found its

sub2ects in &reek and 4oman anti$uity. For example, the great se!enteenth and eighteenthsub2ects in &reek and 4oman anti$uity. For example, the great se!enteenth and eighteenthFrench playwrights 4acine and Corneille used 4oman and &reek stories for their plays.French playwrights 4acine and Corneille used 4oman and &reek stories for their plays.4omantics stayed away from themes dealing with the past as much as possible. ut 'ugo broke4omantics stayed away from themes dealing with the past as much as possible. ut 'ugo brokethe mold, boldly suggesting that 4omantic themes could be extracted from the recent past ofthe mold, boldly suggesting that 4omantic themes could be extracted from the recent past ofFrance. ne of his ma2or goals inFrance. ne of his ma2or goals in The unch!ac" of Notre DameThe unch!ac" of Notre Dame was to pro!e that Frenchwas to pro!e that Frenchhistory offered a rich !ariety of sub2ects to represent 4omantic ideals and themes.history offered a rich !ariety of sub2ects to represent 4omantic ideals and themes.

"ummary"ummary

5uring the :;D Festi!al of Fools in /aris, 1uasimodo, the hunchback of Notre 5ame, is elected5uring the :;D Festi!al of Fools in /aris, 1uasimodo, the hunchback of Notre 5ame, is electedthe /ope of Fools for being the ugliest person in /aris. 'e is hoisted on a throne and paradedthe /ope of Fools for being the ugliest person in /aris. 'e is hoisted on a throne and paraded

around /aris by the 2eering mob. /ierre &ringoire, a struggling poet and philosopher, triesaround /aris by the 2eering mob. /ierre &ringoire, a struggling poet and philosopher, triesunsuccessfully to get the crowd to watch his play instead of the parade. Archdeacon Claudeunsuccessfully to get the crowd to watch his play instead of the parade. Archdeacon ClaudeFrollo appears and stops the parade and orders 1uasimodo back to Notre 5ame with him.Frollo appears and stops the parade and orders 1uasimodo back to Notre 5ame with him.8ooking for something to eat, &ringoire admires the graceful beauty of 8a -smerelda, a gypsy8ooking for something to eat, &ringoire admires the graceful beauty of 8a -smerelda, a gypsystreet dancer, and decides to follow her home. After rounding a corner, she is suddenly attackedstreet dancer, and decides to follow her home. After rounding a corner, she is suddenly attacked by 1uasimodo and Frollo. &ringoire rushes to help her but is knocked out by 1uasimodo as by 1uasimodo and Frollo. &ringoire rushes to help her but is knocked out by 1uasimodo asFrollo runs away. *he Ling)s Archers, led by /hoebus de Chateaupers arri!e 2ust in time andFrollo runs away. *he Ling)s Archers, led by /hoebus de Chateaupers arri!e 2ust in time andcapture the hunchback. 8ater that night, a group of beggars and thie!es are about to hangcapture the hunchback. 8ater that night, a group of beggars and thie!es are about to hang&ringoire when 8a -smerelda comes forward and offers to sa!e his life by (marrying( him for&ringoire when 8a -smerelda comes forward and offers to sa!e his life by (marrying( him forfour years only.four years only.

*he next day, 1uasimodo is put on trial and sentenced to two hours of torture in the /lace de*he next day, 1uasimodo is put on trial and sentenced to two hours of torture in the /lace de&rK!e. 'e suffers both the pain of being stretched and pulled apart as well as being publicly&rK!e. 'e suffers both the pain of being stretched and pulled apart as well as being publiclyhumiliated by the crowd of people, who hate him for his ugliness. 'e begs for water, but no onehumiliated by the crowd of people, who hate him for his ugliness. 'e begs for water, but no oneanswers his pleas until 8a -smerelda comes forth and brings him something to drink. Nearby, aanswers his pleas until 8a -smerelda comes forth and brings him something to drink. Nearby, arecluse called "ister &udule, screams at 8a -smerelda for being a (gypsy child+ thief( andrecluse called "ister &udule, screams at 8a -smerelda for being a (gypsy child+ thief( and blames her for her daughter)s kidnapping fifteen years earlier. A few months later, 8a -smerelda blames her for her daughter)s kidnapping fifteen years earlier. A few months later, 8a -smereldais dancing in front of Notre 5ame and /hoebus calls her o!er to him. "he has fallen in lo!e withis dancing in front of Notre 5ame and /hoebus calls her o!er to him. "he has fallen in lo!e withhim and blushes when he asks her to meet him later that night. Frollo watches them from the tophim and blushes when he asks her to meet him later that night. Frollo watches them from the top

41 | P a g e



of Notre 5ame and becomes insanely 2ealous of /hoebus. 'is obsessi!e lust for 8a -smereldaof Notre 5ame and becomes insanely 2ealous of /hoebus. 'is obsessi!e lust for 8a -smereldahas made him renounce &od and study alchemy and black magic. ?n his secret cell at Notrehas made him renounce &od and study alchemy and black magic. ?n his secret cell at Notre5ame, he plans to trap 8a -smerelda like a spider catching a fly with its web. 8ater that night he5ame, he plans to trap 8a -smerelda like a spider catching a fly with its web. 8ater that night hefollows /hoebus to his tryst with 8a -smerelda and stabs /hoebus repeatedly. 'e escapes and 8afollows /hoebus to his tryst with 8a -smerelda and stabs /hoebus repeatedly. 'e escapes and 8a-smerelda is captured by the Ling)s guard.-smerelda is captured by the Ling)s guard.

After being tortured at her trial, 8a -smerelda falsely confesses to killing /hoebus and being aAfter being tortured at her trial, 8a -smerelda falsely confesses to killing /hoebus and being awitch. "he is sentenced to hang in the /lace de &rK!e. Frollo !isits her in 2ail and declares hiswitch. "he is sentenced to hang in the /lace de &rK!e. Frollo !isits her in 2ail and declares hislo!e. 'e begs her to lo!e him and show him some pity but she calls him a (goblin+monk( and alo!e. 'e begs her to lo!e him and show him some pity but she calls him a (goblin+monk( and amurderer, refusing to ha!e anything to do with him. efore her execution, 8a -smerelda ismurderer, refusing to ha!e anything to do with him. efore her execution, 8a -smerelda is publicly humiliated in front of Notre 5ame. 8ooking across the s$uare, she suddenly sees publicly humiliated in front of Notre 5ame. 8ooking across the s$uare, she suddenly sees/hoebus and calls out his name. 'e actually sur!i!ed the murder attempt but doesn)t want/hoebus and calls out his name. 'e actually sur!i!ed the murder attempt but doesn)t wantanyone to know that he was in2ured. 'e turns away from 8a -smerelda and enters the house ofanyone to know that he was in2ured. 'e turns away from 8a -smerelda and enters the house ofhis bride+to+be. 3ust then, 1uasimodo swings down on a rope from Notre 5ame and carries herhis bride+to+be. 3ust then, 1uasimodo swings down on a rope from Notre 5ame and carries her back to the cathedral, crying out ("anctuary( 'e had fallen in lo!e with her when she brought back to the cathedral, crying out ("anctuary( 'e had fallen in lo!e with her when she broughthim water and had been planning her escape all along.him water and had been planning her escape all along.

8a -smerelda is safe from execution 2ust as long as she stays inside the cathedral. At first, she8a -smerelda is safe from execution 2ust as long as she stays inside the cathedral. At first, shefinds it hard to e!en look at 1uasimodo, but they form an uneasy friendship. -!en though he isfinds it hard to e!en look at 1uasimodo, but they form an uneasy friendship. -!en though he isdeaf, he en2oys being around her when she sings. Meanwhile, a group of !agabonds resol!es todeaf, he en2oys being around her when she sings. Meanwhile, a group of !agabonds resol!es tosa!e 8a -smerelda after hearing that /arliament has ordered that she be remo!ed from Notresa!e 8a -smerelda after hearing that /arliament has ordered that she be remo!ed from Notre5ame. ut when 1uasimodo sees them attack the cathedral, he thinks they ha!e come to kill 8a5ame. ut when 1uasimodo sees them attack the cathedral, he thinks they ha!e come to kill 8a-smerelda and he fends them off as best he can, killing a large number of them. Frollo has used-smerelda and he fends them off as best he can, killing a large number of them. Frollo has usedthe attack as a di!ersion to sneak 8a -smerelda out of the cathedral. 'e offers her two choices7the attack as a di!ersion to sneak 8a -smerelda out of the cathedral. 'e offers her two choices7she can either say she lo!es him or be hanged. "he demands to be executed and he lea!es hershe can either say she lo!es him or be hanged. "he demands to be executed and he lea!es herwith "ister &udule. *o their astonishment, they disco!er that they are mother and daughter.with "ister &udule. *o their astonishment, they disco!er that they are mother and daughter.&udule tries to protect 8a -smerelda, but it is too late. ack at Notre 5ame, 1uasimodo goes to&udule tries to protect 8a -smerelda, but it is too late. ack at Notre 5ame, 1uasimodo goes to

the top of the north tower to find her. &azing off into the distance, he sees the figure of 8athe top of the north tower to find her. &azing off into the distance, he sees the figure of 8a-smerelda in a white dress hanging from the scaffold. 'e bellows out in despair and grabs Frollo-smerelda in a white dress hanging from the scaffold. 'e bellows out in despair and grabs Frollo by the neck. 'olding him up in the air, 1uasimodo sighs with grief and then throws Frollo down by the neck. 'olding him up in the air, 1uasimodo sighs with grief and then throws Frollo downto his death. 8ooking at 8a -smerelda hanging off in the distance and Frollo)s wrangled corpseto his death. 8ooking at 8a -smerelda hanging off in the distance and Frollo)s wrangled corpsedown below, 1uasimodo cries out7 (*here is e!erything ? e!er lo!ed( 1uasimodo is ne!er seendown below, 1uasimodo cries out7 (*here is e!erything ? e!er lo!ed( 1uasimodo is ne!er seenagain. Eears later when a gra!edigger stumbles across 8a -smerelda)s remains, he finds theagain. Eears later when a gra!edigger stumbles across 8a -smerelda)s remains, he finds theskeleton of a hunchback curled around her.skeleton of a hunchback curled around her.

Characters

'uasimodo + *he hunchback of Notre 5ame. 1uasimodo is an abandoned child left at Notre5ame and adopted by Archdeacon Claude Frollo. 'ideously deformed, he has a giant humpback,a protrusion coming out of his chest, and a giant wart that co!ers one of his eyes. 'e is also deaf.'is heart is pure, and this purity is linked to the cathedral itself. ?ndeed, his lo!e for Notre5ame)s bells and for the beautiful sound of their ringing represents his only form ofcommunication. *he whole of /aris ironically en2oys 1uasimodo)s singing while at the sametime detesting him for his ugliness. 'is name literally means (half+made.(Ar#hdea#on Claude .rollo + A priest at Notre 5ame, Frollo is also the no!el)s antagonist.'owe!er, he is not a typical e!il character bent on causing pain and suffering instead, he is !ery

42 | P a g e



bright and compassionate. 'e dearly lo!es his brother, 3ehan and does e!erything in his power tomake 3ehan happy after their parents die. 'e extends the same compassion to 1uasimodo, whohe tries to mold into a scholar 2ust like his brother by teaching him how to read and write. 'ugoexplains Frollo)s descent into black magic and madness through his failure to bring up both 3ehanand 1uasimodo. 3ehan drinks and gambles all his money away, completely neglecting his

studies, while 1uasimodo)s deafness makes it !irtually impossible to teach him anything. *hehunchback thus becomes both a symbol of failure for Frollo as well as a powerful tool of!engeance to wreak his frustrations out on the world. 'is obsessi!e lust for 8a -smerelda causesher to be executed and 1uasimodo to be tortured. No matter how hard he tries to make her lo!ehim, he only ends up causing her pain./a Esmerelda + *he lost daughter of "ister &udule, 8a -smerelda is a beautiful gypsy streetdancer. Along with her goat, 52ali, she charms e!eryone she meets with her stunning looks andmagic tricks. "he keeps an amulet and other trinkets around her neck to help her find her parents.0ierre rin-oire + A struggling playwright and philosopher. 8a -smerelda sa!es him from being hanged by a group of !agabonds and agrees to (marry( him for four years. 'e later 2oinsthe !agabonds and unwittingly helps Frollo hand 8a -smerelda o!er to the authorities.

0hoe)us de Chateaupers + *he captain of the Ling)s Archers, he sa!es 8a -smerelda from1uasimodo. 'e does not lo!e her, but tries to seduce her and a number of other women as well.Frollo stabs him and e!eryone lea!es him for dead. 'e reco!ers but fails to speak up when 8a-smerelda is sentenced to death for his murder. 'e ends up marrying Fleur+de+8ys de&ondelaurier. 'is first name is &reek for (the sun.(Sister udule + 8a -smerelda)s long lost mother. "he is a miserable recluse li!ing in the *our4oland, who hates to hear the sound of children playing. "he is con!inced that gypsies ate heradopti!e daughter, Agnes, fifteen years earlier. "he hates 8a -smerelda and is con!inced that sheis a child thief, but when she learns that she is actually her daughter, &udule gi!es her life to sa!eher.ehan .rollo + Claude Frollo)s brother. 3ehan is a horrible student who gambles and drinks allhis money away. 'e decides to 2oin the !agabonds and 1uasimodo kills him as he attacks Notre5ame.Clopin %rouille*ou + Clopin disrupts &ringoire)s play and later turns out to be not 2ust a simple beggar, but (Ling( of the !agabonds. 'e tries to sa!e 8a -smerelda from being hanged but1uasimodo thinks that Clopin is trying to kill her./ouis + *he Ling of France in :;D. 8ouis 6? is a heartless monarch who li!es in theastille instead of the 8ou!re. 'e pardons &ringoire for attacking Notre 5ame but orders 8a-smerelda)s execution.+ali + 8a -smerelda)s goat. 52ali can perform magic tricks and spell the name /hoebus out of agroup of letters. At 8a -smerelda)s trial 52ali is accused of being possessed by the de!il..leurde/ys de ondelaurier + ne of /hoebus)s admirers, she later becomes his wife. "healso humiliates 8a -smerelda by mocking her clothes.aster .lorian Bar)edienne + *he deaf 2udge who condemns 1uasimodo to torture.aster a#8ues Charmolue + ne of Claude Frollo)s associates. 3ac$ues prosecutes and thentortures 8a -smerelda to get her to confess to killing /hoebus. 'e later has her executed.

ook :

"ummary

43 | P a g e



*he no!el opens in medie!al /aris on 3anuary H, :;D, during the Festi!al of Fools. *he timingof this yearly feast coincides with the marriage of 8ouis 6?)s son to a Flemish princess, and thecity is full of re!elers and Flemish dignitaries. *here is a fireworks display in the /lace de &rK!e,a May tree will be planted at the chapel of ra$ue, and a (mystery( @or play will be performedat the /alace of 3ustice. Most of the Flemish dignitaries go to the /alace of 3ustice and 2oin the

huge mass of /arisians, forming a sea of people swarming around the stage, and impatientlyawaiting the play and subse$uent election of the /ope of Fools. *he resplendent gothicarchitecture of the /alace and its giant marble floor go unnoticed by the crowd, who beginthreatening !iolence if the play does not begin soon. /ierre &ringoire, the playwright, does notknow whether he should wait for the Cardinal, who is running late, or face the wrath of the angrymob. 'is immediate concern about pacifying the angry citizens, as well his pride in his work,con!inces him to order his actors to begin the play, entitled *he &ood 3udgment of Madame the0irgin Mary .

&ringoire)s actors appear onstage, each representing a different class of French society7 Clergy, Nobility, *rade, and 8abor. Infortunately for the playwright, the crowd finds the piece

completely uninteresting and soon turns its attention to a beggar, recognized as Clopin*rouillefou, who climbs his way up to the stage, crying out7 (Charity, if you please( &ringoiredesperately tries to get the crowd to pay attention to the play, but e!en the actors ha!e lostinterest. "uddenly, the Cardinal enters the /alace. 'e is so powerful, graceful , and popular thatno one minds his tardiness. 'is entourage of Flemish dignitaries, and not the play, soon becomesthe center of attention. ne of the Flemish guests, 3ac$ues Coppenole impresses the crowd withhis sense of humor and soon turns their attention toward the imminent election of the /ope ofFools. &ringoire pretends to be a disappointed spectator and yells for the play to continue but thecrowd roars back (5own with the mystery( Crushed at the failure of his work, &ringoirefollows the crowd outside.

Coppenole con!inces the /arisians to elect their (/ope( like they do in Flanders. -ach candidatemust stick his head through a hole the one with ugliest face wins. ?t is not long before1uasimodo, the bell+ringer of Notre 5ame is elected /ope of Fools. Inlike the other candidates,who ha!e to !iciously contort their faces to make the crowd hysterical with laughter, 1uasimododoesn)t ha!e to do anything. 'is giant head is co!ered with (red bristles,( while, between hisshoulder, an enormous hump rises up abo!e his neck, only to be counterbalanced by a(protuberance( coming out of his chest. 'e has only one operable eye. *he other is completelyco!ered by an o!ersized wart, and legs and hands that are (strangely put together.( 5espite hismonstrous appearance, 1uasimodo still con!eys an air of courage and strength. Calling him(Cyclops,( the crowd hoists 1uasimodo, who turns out to be deaf as well, onto a mock throneand begin parading him through the streets of /aris.

Meanwhile, &ringoire returns to his stage and desperately attempts to get the play going oncemore. 'e mistakes a few stragglers for interested spectators and is disappointed to find themgossiping about taxes and rents. "uddenly, someone calls through the window, exclaiming that8a -smerelda is dancing in the /lace outside the /alace of 3ustice. &ringoire does not understandthe magic ripple that passes through the crowd, as the remaining people run up to the windows toget a better !iew. Feeling like a general who has been soundly defeated, &ringoire gi!es up andabandons his play.

44 | P a g e



Commentary

*he 'unchback of Notre 5ame was 'ugo)s first no!el after a series of successful plays. *hestructure of the no!el closely follows that of a play, especially in this first section where 'ugouses the techni$ue of exposition to (naturally( introduce the ma2or themes and characters of the

no!el without emphasizing the presence of the author. For example, by placing &ringoire in anawkward situation, 'ugo lets his character introduce himself to any of the spectators that willlisten. ?ndeed, at one point, he simply declares, (My name is /ierre &ringoire.( Moreo!er, theFesti!al of Fools allows 'ugo to introduce 1uasimodo and emphasize his physical appearance asseen from the point of !iew of the outside world. we can form a definite and nuanced impressionof him as well as allow for future character de!elopment as the reader begins to learn more abouthim from the inside out. 'ugo also introduces 3ehan Frollo, the brother of the no!el)s ma2orantagonist, 5om Claude Frollo, as an anonymous member of the crowd, foreshadowing future plot de!elopments. -!en the beggar who disrupts the play will return to threaten &ringoire)s lifeand attack Notre 5ame in later sections.

'ugo not only obser!es strict rules of historical accuracy but also writes a historical no!el. *henarrator clearly states the exact date of the no!el)s opening scene and goes out of his way,whene!er possible, to discuss the history of !arious monuments that he mentions. "tri!ing forauthenticity, 'ugo inter2ects fre$uent 8atin and &reek $uotations, as well as out+of+dateexpressions, into his characters) speech so they sound medie!al. 'ugo)s conception of historicalcontext centers on architecture, and he immediately introduces the most predominant artistictheme of the no!el, &othic architecture, while discussing the /alace of 3ustice. *he narratorunabashedly exclaims his re!erence for &othic architecture in this paragraph7 (how one)s eyesare dazzled( Focusing on the pointed windows (glazed with panes of a thousand( colors,cur!ing up toward finely car!ed ceilings studded in gold with fleurs de lis @the symbol of theourbon royal dynasty, the narrator sets the emotionally nostalgic tone toward &othic art that

figures throughout the no!elAs a pioneer of the 4omantic mo!ement, 'ugo attempted to break with the Classicists and theirobsessi!e focus on the anti$ue cultures of &reece and 4ome for literary inspiration. ?n writingthis no!el, 'ugo thus branched out from the grand tradition of historical fiction by setting hisaction in medie!al France, paradoxically confronting such contemporary @in :;B> hot topics asthe Church and the monarchy. *hese issues had recently raised a political storm in the 3uly :;B>4e!olution, 2ust as 'ugo was writing the no!el. As a result, the allegorical figures in &ringoire)s play, such as Clergy, Nobility, and 8abor, are references to the class differences that inspired therecent re!olution. #hen the narrator notes that the crowd perfectly mimicked the allegorical

figures on stage, he traces a current social and political problem back to its medie!al roots. *hiswas not the only way 'ugo used France)s recent past to comment on its present. y praising&othic architecture throughout the no!el, 'ugo gradually con!inced people all o!er -urope ofthe artistic merits of buildings and ruins that had been pre!iously considered barbaric.

ook D

"ummary

45 | P a g e



"ince it is 3anuary, night falls early and &ringoire is forced to wander the streets without anymoney, looking for a $uiet place to spend the night. /hilosophy is his only (friend,( and heattempts to dress his wounds by explaining away his failure that afternoon. &ringoire keeps an

eye out for a (pillow of stone,( hoping that a good night)s sleep will help him forget his miserablelife in /aris. 3ust then he runs into the /ope of Fools procession, and &ringoire follows it towardthe /lace de &rK!e. -!en though he finds it to be a sinister spot, he hopes to at least findsomething to eat. ut by the time he gets there, there is nothing left. *he narrator paints a bleak picture of the /lace de &rK!e, the official site of public torture and execution.

-xpecting to find only instruments of torture left in the s$uare, &ringoire chances upon a bonfiresurrounded by huge group of spectators transfixed by a (dazzling !ision.( *hey are watching 8a-smerelda. "he is a gypsy with an elegant figure and large black (eyes of flame.( "he balancestwo swords on her forehead, casting a spell on the crowd, which doesn)t budge e!en after she

finishes her performance. &ringoire finds her extraordinarily beautiful. "uddenly, the bonfirethrows a red, (trembling light( on the wide circle of faces as an austere bald man who is aboutthirty+fi!e years old yells out, (*here is sorcery at the bottom of this( 8a -smerelda shuddersand turns away to her pet goat, 52ali, whom she has taught to tell time and do impressions of politicians. *he crowd lo!es these new tricks and shuns the mysterious stranger.

3ust then, the /ope of Fools procession enters the s$uare, with 1uasimodo leading the way. 'e isexperiencing the first inklings of !anity in his life, en2oying the festi!ities but somehow aware

that the crowd will hate him again in the morning. Ne!ertheless, his halo of delight comescrashing down when the mysterious stranger grabs 1uasimodo and orders him on his knees.1uasimodo instantly obeys and through a series of signs and gestures agrees to follow thestranger out of the /lace de &rK!e. &ringoire instantly recognizes the stranger through hisecclesiastical habit as 5om Claude Frollo, the Archdeacon of Notre 5ame. -!en though he isamazed by this spectacle, &ringoire is more concerned with finding something to eat.

Finding no food, &ringoire (resigns his free will( and decides to follow 8a -smerelda. *henarrator explains this decision as the natural disposition of someone not ha!ing a place to spendthe night. 3ust when she realizes that &ringoire is following her, 8a -smerelda is suddenly

attacked by 1uasimodo. &ringoire thinks he sees the Archdeacon nearby but before he canrescue 8a -smerelda, 1uasimodo knocks him out. ut of nowhere, the Ling)s archers appear,rescue her and capture 1uasimodo. *he captain, /hoebus de Chateaupers, introduces himself to8a -smerelda 2ust before she disappears. #hen &ringoire comes to, he has no idea whathappened and starts looking for a place to spend the night. 'e gets lost and finds himself in theCour des Miracles, a den of criminals, beggars, and gypsies. A group of beggars tries to mug him but when they find out he has no money, they bring him before their (king,( who turns out to be

46 | P a g e



the same beggar who disrupted his play, Clopin *rouillefou. *hey are all about to execute him,when 8a -smerelda appears and agrees to take &ringoire as her husband for four years. "tunned,&ringoire follows her back to her home only to find that she does not lo!e him but only wantedto sa!e his life. "he hardly says a word, only once asking him what the word (/hoebus( means.&ringoire tells her that it is the 8atin word for the sun. "he disappears into her room and

&ringoire spends the night on the floor.

Commentary

*he French title of *he 'unchback of Notre 5ame is Notre 5ame de /aris, indicating 'ugo)sinterest in the history of /aris. For example, the narrator constantly laments the contemporarydestruction of old &othic edifices, blasting the (inundation of new buildings which is so rapidlyswallowing up all the ancient structures of /aris.( 'e thus attempts to gi!e these old monumentsa history, preser!ing their memory in the past as well as inspiring his readers to protect them inthe present. 'ugo also tries to relate his references to medie!al structures of /aris to

contemporary politics. 'e began writing the no!el during the 3uly :;B> 4e!olution, whichdeposed the ourbon family and celebrated the cause of the original :<;= re!olution. *he /lacede &rK!e, or (fatal spot,( remained the site of public executions up until 'ugo)s day, but wasmost strongly remembered for housing the guillotine of the 4eign of *error @which began in:<=B. #hen he mentions the (miserable, furti!e, timid, shamefaced guillotine,( 'ugo gi!es hisreaders the historical context to understand what the /lace de &rK!e represented in the MiddleAges, but also sends a warning about contemporary re!olutionary fer!or. 'e insists that theguillotine should not reappear in the new (enlightened( monarchy of 8ouis+ /hilippe.

*his section pro!ides more complete character de!elopment for &ringoire and 8a -smerelda.

&ringoire re!eals himself to be a failure at e!erything except poetry. ?ndeed, he is completelyunable to protect 8a -smerelda. rphaned at the age of six, he has wandered the streets of /arissince his youth, sca!enging for food and friendship. 8a -smerelda is also an orphan. 5espiterumors about her (loose( ways, she is in fact chaste, and hopes to find her long lost parents. "hecarries a magic trinket around her neck, a fake emerald, which she hopes will help her search butso far has only resulted in her nickname. "he has a !ery romantic !iew of lo!e, instantly fallingin lo!e with /hoebus when he sa!es her and later declaring that lo!e is (a man and a woman blending into an angel.( *he reader also catches a first glimpse of the e!il Claude Frollo, the brother of 3ehan, who appears in the first section. 'e introduces the theme of witchcraft andsorcery. 'is accusations against 8a -smerelda re!eal his own heart of darkness. *he fact that

&ringoire recognizes him at the bonfire is not only a subtle plot maneu!er by 'ugo, but alsoshows how small /aris is at this time7 e!eryone knows each other. Also, the fact that mostmedie!al /arisians are orphans represents 'ugo)s own concern for orphans in the present

Inlike traditional French fiction at the beginning of the nineteenth century, 'ugo)s work dealsexplicitly with the problem of po!erty. &ringoire)s descent into /aris)s criminal underworld isthus not completely remo!ed from regular society. ?n fact, the kangaroo court that *rouillefou

47 | P a g e



and the other !agabonds preside o!er is alarmingly similar in conduct and absurdity to the(official( court proceedings that follow in later sections. ?n many ways, &ringoire)s trial is morehumane than the trials of 1uasimodo and 8a -smerelda7 he is allowed to defend himself and isultimately set free. *he comic compassion of this scene paradoxically e!okes the humanity of the beggars and their families. 'ugo offers a moral to his contemporary readers about the need for

social unity and the possibility of lifting /arisians up out of po!erty.

&un#h)a#k o* Notre +ame

,i#tor &u-o

Analysis

*he 'unchback of Notre 5ame uses the history of the Middle Ages and the structure of the Notre 5ame cathedral to express its ma2or themes. Notre 5ame is the geographical and moralcenter of 'ugo)s fictional /aris. *he cathedral inspired 'ugo to write the no!el and encouraged

his life long passion for &othic art and architecture. 'ugo was also a scholar of medie!alChristianity and used the history of its churches, martyrs, and saints as a backdrop for the no!el)saction. *he French title of the no!el is Notre 5ame de /aris, emphasizing Notre 5ame)s role as asymbol of the city. Not only does most of the no!el)s action unfold inside or around thecathedral, but from the top of its towers, Claude Frollo and 1uasimodo can spy on !irtuallyanyone in the entire city. Architecturally, it is an (amalgamation( that mirrors 1uasimodo)s owndeformities.

At the time 'ugo was writing, Notre 5ame was falling apart, and there was !ery little respect for its architecture. Nothing had been done to repair the damage done to it during the French

4e!olution. 'owe!er, the 4omantic literary mo!ement seized upon the cathedral as a symbol ofFrance)s glorious Christian past. For example, in -ugKne 5elacroix)s famous depiction of the:;B> 4e!olution, 8iberty &uiding the /eople, the two towers of Notre 5ame can be seen in the background, e!oking the mythic presence of /aris. 'ugo greatly admired this painting, stri!ingto represent Notre 5ame as the cultural and political center of /aris. At the 4omantics) urging,/arisians gradually came to see Notre 5ame as a national monument and symbol of France. y:;G, a massi!e restoration program of Notre 5ame began.

*he no!el is primarily concerned with the theme of re!olution and social strife. 'ugo was profoundly concerned by the class differences that set the :<;= French 4e!olution in motion.

5iscord between the Clergy, Nobility, and the *hird -state @a middle class of artisans, craftsmen,and intellectuals toppled the monarchy and established a republican go!ernment that no longerrecognized the special pri!ileges of the aristocracy and the Church. #riting during the 3uly :;B>4e!olution, 'ugo was more conscious of class di!isions than e!er. For example, as the!agabonds prepare to march, Clopin declares7 (*rade is incompatible with nobility.(Conse$uently, the !agabonds) assault on Notre 5ame represents an example of historicalforeshadowing that would remind 'ugo)s contemporary readers of the :<;= storming of the

48 | P a g e



astille. *he fact that 8ouis 6? is in the astille when the !agabonds attack further emphasizesthis historical reference. *he fact that e!ery character is an orphan also e!okes the deteriorationof the feudal system. French society was !iewed as one giant happy family under the ourbonkings and the breakdown of this family unit in the no!el foreshadows the ci!il wars that woulddi!ide the nation in two beginning in :<;=.

*he theme of determinism also dominates the no!el, especially in the scene where Frollowatches a fly get caught in a spider)s web. Many characters in the no!el do not belie!e in freewill. For example, when /ierre &ringoire follows 8a -smerelda he (resigns his free will( andaccepts any direction that she chooses. "imilarly, Frollo belie!es that all actions ha!e been predetermined and that nothing can stop him from catching 8a -smerelda. 3ust as the fly is bound to get caught in the spider)s web, he thinks that she is bound to fall into one of his traps.'e thus uses this example of (fatality( to 2ustify his actions since nothing he or anyone else cando will change the predetermined outcome. As he warns his associate, one should ne!er (meddlewith fatality.( 'ugo acknowledges that fate plays a powerful role in the no!el, but implies thatfree will is possible. 'ugo suggests that Frollo)s deterministic attitude and resignation of free willis what allows him to become such a horrible person. 'ugo suggests that we must all exerciseour free will to retain our sense of morality and the responsibility for our actions

"tudy 1uestions

5iscuss the stylistic, thematic, and cultural role of Notre 5ame in the no!el. 5id 'ugo ha!e aspecific agenda in making the cathedral the center of action as well as a symbol of /arisJ

Notre 5ame is the geographical and moral center of 'ugo)s fictional /aris. *he French title of

the no!el is Notre Dame de aris, emphasizing Notre 5ame)s role as a symbol of the city. Notonly does most of the no!el)s action unfold inside or around the cathedral, but from the top of itstowers, Claude Frollo and 1uasimodo can spy on !irtually anyone in the entire city.Architecturally, Notre 5ame is an (amalgamation( that mirrors 1uasimodo)s own deformities.?ndeed, at the time 'ugo was writing, Notre 5ame was falling apart and there was !ery littlerespect for its architecture. Nothing had been done to repair the damage done to it during theFrench 4e!olution. 'owe!er, the 4omantic literary mo!ement seized upon the cathedral as asymbol of France)s glorious Christian past. For example, in -ugKne 5elacroix)s famous depictionof the :;B> 4e!olution, Li!erty %uidin& the eo$le, the two towers of Notre 5ame can be seenin the background, e!oking the mythic presence of /aris. 'ugo greatly admired this painting, andstro!e to represent Notre 5ame as the cultural and political center of /aris. ?n The unch!ac" of

Notre Dame, 'ugo describes the cathedral as a (chimera( that represents all of France. ?ts mix of architectural styles and the scars of ages past are not the works of an indi!idual but (socialworks( and the (offspring of the nation.( Notre 5ame is a symbol of national unity. *ime was itsarchitect, and the entire country its mason. At the 4omantics) urging, /arisians gradually came tosee Notre 5ame as a national monument and symbol of France. y :;G, a massi!e restoration program of Notre 5ame began.

49 | P a g e



?n what ways is Claude Frollo not a stereotypical !illainJ 5o his failures dri!e him to e!ilJ #hatrole does his obsessi!e lust play in his heinous actsJ

Claude Frollo is not an a!erage antagonist bent on causing pain and suffering. ?n fact, he is !ery bright and compassionate. 'e dearly lo!es his brother, 3ehan, and does e!erything in his power

to make 3ehan happy after their parents die. 'e extends the same compassion to 1uasimodo,whom he tries to mold into a scholar like his brother by teaching him how to read and write.'ugo explains Frollo)s descent into black magic through his failure to bring up both 3ehan and1uasimodo. 3ehan drinks and gambles all his money away, completely neglecting his studies,while 1uasimodo)s deafness makes it !irtually impossible to teach him anything. *hehunchback)s complete de!otion to Frollo becomes both a symbol of Frollo)s failure as a (father,(and a powerful tool of !engeance to wreak his frustrations on the world. Moreo!er, his supposedhatred of women is a desperate attempt to mask his infatuation with 8a -smerelda. ?ndeed,despite Frollo)s heinous deeds, the emotions dri!ing him to such extremes are $uite tragic. From3ehan)s poor beha!ior to 8a -smerelda)s disgust and fear of the (goblin+monk,( Frollo suffers a broken heart and the pangs of unre$uited lo!e, 2ust as 8a -smerelda does for /hoebus and

1uasimodo does for 8a -smerelda. 8ike these two, Frollo is also an orphan, which urges thereader to both compare him to the no!el)s two !ictims as well as feel sympathy for him.

#hat role does predestination play in the no!elJ #hat does Frollo mean by the word (fatality(JAre there any metaphors that describe and explain this themeJ

Claude Frollo has re2ected &od and belie!es only in fatality. *his recurrent theme dominates The

unch!ac" of Notre Dame, especially in the scene where Frollo watches a fly get caught in aspider)s web. Many characters in the no!el do not belie!e in free will. For example, when /ierre&ringoire follows 8a -smerelda he (resigns his free will( and accepts any direction that shechooses. "imilarly, Frollo belie!es that all actions ha!e been predetermined and that nothing can

stop him from catching 8a -smerelda. 3ust as the fly is bound to get caught in the spider)s web,he thinks that she is bound to fall into one of his traps. 'e thus uses this example of (fatality( to 2ustify his actions since nothing he or anyone else can do will change the predeterminedoutcome. As he warns his associate, one should ne!er (meddle with fatality.(

?n effect, when Frollo later accosts 8a -smerelda in the dungeon of the /alace of 3ustice, heinsists that it was ne!er his intention to fall in lo!e with her nor harm her in any way, but he (feltthe hand of Fate( upon him. 'e then insists that (Fate pro!ed more mighty than ? it was Fatethat caught thee, and threw thee among the terrible works of the machine which ? had secretlyconstructed.( 'ugo acknowledges that fate plays a powerful role in the no!el, but implies thatfree will is possible. 'ugo suggests that Frollo)s deterministic attitude and resignation of free will

is what allows him to become such a horrible person. 'ugo suggests that we must all exerciseour free will to retain our sense of morality and the responsibility for our actions.

#hy does 8a -smerelda bring water to 1uasimodo when he is being torturedJ 5oes she notremember that he tried to kidnap her the night beforeJ 'ow does this act affect 1uasimodoJ

'ow does 'ugo describe the French 2ustice system in the Middle AgesJ #ho is put on trialJ#hat role does torture play in the no!elJ

50 | P a g e



#hy does "ister &udule despise gypsies, and especially 8a -smereldaJ #hy does she defend 8a-smerelda and gi!e her life to protect her at the end of the no!elJ

#hy is 1uasimodo)s skeleton found with 8a -smerelda)s remainsJ

#hy does /ierre &ringoire 2oin the !agabondsJ 5oes 'ugo criticize philosophy through&ringoire)s characterJ

5iscuss the role of lo!e and family in the no!el. #hy does Frollo and 1uasimodo)s lo!e for 8a-smerelda dri!e them to such !iolent endsJ #hy are so many characters related by the fact thatthey are all orphansJ

%he Brothers 9arama:o;

.yodor +ostoe;sky

Context

Fyodor 5ostoe!sky is renowned as one of the worldOs greatest no!elists and literary psychologists. orn in Moscow in :;D:, the son of a doctor, 5ostoe!sky was educated first athome and then at a boarding school. #hen 5ostoe!sky was a young boy, his father sent him tothe "t. /etersburg Academy of Military -ngineering, from which he graduated in :;B.5ostoe!sky had long been interested in writing, and he immediately resigned from his positionas a sublieutenant to de!ote his time to his craft. 'is first book, oor Fol" @:;H, wasimmediately popular with critics.

5ostoe!skyOs early !iew of the world was shaped by his experience of social in2ustice. At the age

of twenty+six, 5ostoe!sky became acti!e in socialist circles, largely because of his opposition tothe institution of serfdom. 'is political opinions were influenced by his experiences as a young boy%his father was murdered by his own serfs while 5ostoe!sky was away at school. Anotherexperience that greatly affected 5ostoe!sky, and that found its way into his writing, was the timehe spent in prison. n April DB, :;=, 5ostoe!sky was arrested for his participation in a groupthat illegally printed and distributed socialist propaganda. After spending eight months in prison,5ostoe!sky was sentenced to death for membership in the group and was led, with othermembers of the group, to be shot. ut the execution turned out to be a mere show, meant to punish the prisoners psychologically. 5ostoe!sky then spent four years at a labor camp in"iberia, followed by four years of military ser!ice. 4askolniko!Os time in a "iberian prison,described in the -pilogue of (rime and unishment, is based on 5ostoe!skyOs own experiences

at a similar prison, and he de!oted many passages in his other books to scenes in!ol!ing criminal 2ustice, including the courtroom scenes of The Brothers )arama*ov.

5ostoe!skyOs time in prison affected him in at least two important ways. First, during hisimprisonment 5ostoe!sky began suffering from epileptic seizures, a condition from which hesuffered for the rest of his life. 'e portrays the experience of epilepsy through the character of"merdyako! in The Brothers )arama*ov. *he second important change that 5ostoe!skyunderwent in prison was his re2ection of the radical socialist positions that had led to his arrest,

51 | P a g e



and his de!elopment of a conser!ati!e concern for traditional !alues. 'is conser!ati!e religiousand philosophical inclination is e!ident throughout his works written after this period, includingThe Brother+s )arama*ov. For instance, 5ostoe!sky specifically $uestions whether good and e!ilcan exist in a world in which there is no &od. *hrough the character of 4akitin, 5ostoe!sky parodies the progressi!e theories of his contemporaries, intellectuals who mo!e from popular

idea to popular idea according to the whims of fashion, without regard for the truth.

?n :;G<, 5ostoe!sky married Mariya 5mitriye!na ?saye!a, who died of consumption se!en yearslater. 'e spent much of the :;H>s in #estern -urope, experiencing the culture that was slowlyin!ading 4ussia. 5uring this time he struggled with po!erty, epilepsy, and an addiction togambling. ut with the publication of (rime and unishment @:;HH, his fortunes impro!ed. *heno!elOs popular and critical success allowed him to keep ahead, albeit 2ust barely, of dauntingdebts and the burden of supporting a number of children left in his care after the deaths of his brother and sister. ?n :;H<, he married a second time, to Anna &rigorye!na "nitkina, who helpedhim cope with his epilepsy, depression, and gambling problems. Anna had ser!ed as hisstenographer for his no!el The %am!ler @:;H<.

After writing (rime and unishment, 5ostoe!sky wrote The diot @:;H;, and perhaps hisgreatest masterwork, The Brothers )arama*ov @:;;>. The Brothers )arama*ov is 5ostoe!skyOsdeepest and most complex examination of crucial philosophical $uestions of human existence. ?nit, he addresses the conflict between faith and doubt, the problem of free will, and the $uestion of moral responsibility. The Brothers )arama*ov is one of the greatest no!els of the nineteenthcentury, and remains the capstone of 5ostoe!skyOs achie!ement today. 5ostoe!sky died in :;;:,only a year after The Brothers )arama*ov was published.

"ome people ha!e seen 5ostoe!skyOs no!els as prophetic depictions of life under the "o!ietregime. *he existentialist mo!ement that took shape in the middle of the twentieth century

looked to him for his descriptions of human beings confronting mortality, despair, and theanxiety of choice. #riters such as Albert Camus and 3ean+/aul "artre !alued 5ostoe!skyOswriting for his profound insights into human dilemmas, which, along with his style, themes, andunforgettable characters, continue to influence writers more than a century after his death.

/lot !er!iew

?n his youth, Fyodor /a!lo!ich Laramazo! is a coarse, !ulgar man whose main concerns aremaking money and seducing young women. 'e marries twice and has three sons7 5mitri, thechild of his first wife, and ?!an and Alyosha, children of his second wife. Fyodor /a!lo!ichne!er has any interest in his sons, and when their mothers die, he sends them away to be brought

up by relati!es and friends. At the beginning of the no!el, 5mitri Laramazo!, who is now atwenty+eight+year+old soldier, has 2ust returned to Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs town. Fyodor /a!lo!ich isunhappy to see 5mitri because 5mitri has come to claim an inheritance left to him by his mother.Fyodor /a!lo!ich plans to keep the inheritance for himself. *he two men swiftly fall into conflicto!er the money, and the coldly intellectual ?!an, who knows neither his father nor his brotherwell, is e!entually called in to help settle their dispute. *he kind, faithful Alyosha, who is abouttwenty, also li!es in the town, where he is an acolyte, or apprentice, at the monastery, studying

52 | P a g e



with the renowned elder 9osima. -!entually 5mitri and Fyodor /a!lo!ich agree that perhaps9osima could help resol!e the Laramazo!sO $uarrel, and Alyosha tentati!ely consents to arrangea meeting.

At the monastery, AlyoshaOs worst fears are realized. After Fyodor /a!lo!ich makes a

fool of himself by mocking the monks and telling !ulgar stories, 5mitri arri!es late, and 5mitriand Fyodor /a!lo!ich become embroiled in a shouting match. ?t turns out that they ha!e more to$uarrel about than money7 they are both in lo!e with &rushenka, a beautiful young woman in thetown. 5mitri has left his fiance, Laterina, to pursue &rushenka, while Fyodor /a!lo!ich has promised to gi!e &rushenka B,>>> rubles if she becomes his lo!er. *his sum is significant, as5mitri recently stole B,>>> rubles from Laterina in order to finance a la!ish trip with &rushenka,and he is now desperate to pay the money back. As father and son shout at each other at themonastery, the wise old 9osima unexpectedly kneels and bows his head to the ground at 5mitriOsfeet. 'e later explains to Alyosha that he could see that 5mitri is destined to suffer greatly.

Many years pre!iously, Fyodor /a!lo!ich Laramazo! fathered a fourth son with a retarded mutegirl who li!ed in town as the !illage idiot. *he girl died as she ga!e birth to the baby, who wastaken in by ser!ants of Fyodor /a!lo!ich and forced to work as a ser!ant for him as well. Fyodor /a!lo!ich ne!er treats the child, "merdyako!, as a son, and "merdyako! de!elops a strange andmalicious personality. 'e also suffers from epilepsy. 5espite the limitations of his upbringing,howe!er, "merdyako! is not stupid. 'e en2oys nothing more than listening to ?!an discuss philosophy, and in his own con!ersations, he fre$uently in!okes many of ?!anOs ideas% specifically that the soul is not immortal, and that therefore morality does not exist and thecategories of good and e!il are irrele!ant to human experience.

After the humiliating scene in the monastery, the rest of AlyoshaOs day is only slightly less trying.5mitri sends Alyosha to break off 5mitriOs engagement with Laterina. Alyosha then arguesabout religion with ?!an in front of the smirking Fyodor /a!lo!ich. Alyosha also gets caught inthe middle of another explosion between 5mitri and Fyodor /a!lo!ich o!er &rushenka, in thecourse of which 5mitri throws Fyodor /a!lo!ich to the ground and threatens to kill him. utdespite the hardships of his day, Alyosha is so gentle and lo!ing that he is concerned only withhow he might help his family. After tending his fatherOs wounds, he returns to the monastery forthe night.

*he next day, Alyosha !isits Laterina. *o his surprise, ?!an is with Laterina, and Alyosha

immediately percei!es that ?!an and Laterina are in lo!e. Alyosha tries to con!ince them thatthey should act on their lo!e for one another, but they are both too proud and cold to listen.Alyosha has dinner with ?!an, and ?!an explains to him the source of his religious doubt7 hecannot reconcile the idea of a lo!ing &od with the needless suffering of innocent people, particularly children. Any &od that would allow such suffering, he says, does not lo!e mankind.'e recites a poem he has written called P*he &rand ?n$uisitor,Q in which he accuses Christ of

53 | P a g e



placing an intolerable burden upon humanity by guaranteeing that people ha!e free will and theability to choose whether or not to belie!e in &od.

*hat e!ening, Alyosha again returns to the monastery, where the frail 9osima is now on hisdeathbed. Alyosha hurries to 9osimaOs cell, and arri!es 2ust in time to hear his final lesson, whichemphasizes the importance of lo!e and forgi!eness in all human affairs. 9osima dies stretchinghis arms out before him, as though to embrace the world.

Many of the monks are optimistic that 9osimaOs death will be accompanied by a miracle, but nomiracle takes place. ?f anything, 9osimaOs corpse begins to stink more $uickly than might ha!e been expected, which is taken by 9osimaOs critics to mean that he was corrupt and unreliable inlife. "ickened by the in2ustice of seeing the wise and lo!ing 9osima humiliated after his death,Alyosha allows his friend 4akitin to take him to see &rushenka. Although 4akitin and

&rushenka hope to corrupt Alyosha, 2ust the opposite happens, and a bond of sympathy andunderstanding springs up between &rushenka and Alyosha. *heir friendship renews AlyoshaOsfaith, and Alyosha helps &rushenka to begin her own spiritual redemption. *hat night, Alyoshahas a dream in which 9osima tells him that he has done a good deed in helping &rushenka. *hisdream further strengthens AlyoshaOs lo!e and resol!e, and he goes outside to kiss the ground toshow his passion for doing good on -arth.

5mitri has spent two days unsuccessfully trying to raise the money to pay Laterina the B,>>>rubles he owes her. No one will lend him the money, and he has nothing to sell. At last he goes to&rushenkaOs house, and when she is not there, he is suddenly con!inced that she has gone to be

with Fyodor /a!lo!ich. 'e rushes to Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs house, but finds that &rushenka is notthere. #hile prowling on the grounds, 5mitri strikes Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs old ser!ant, &rigory,lea!ing him bloody and unconscious. *hen he flees. 'e returns to &rushenkaOs house, and learnsfrom her maid that &rushenka has gone to re2oin a lo!er who abandoned her se!eral years ago.5mitri now decides that his only course of action is to kill himself. ut he decides to see&rushenka one last time before he does so.

A few minutes later, 5mitri strides into a shop, with his shirt bloody and a large wad of cash inhis hand. 'e buys food and wine, and tra!els out to see &rushenka and her lo!er. #hen&rushenka sees the two men together, she realizes that she really lo!es 5mitri. 5mitri locks the

other man in a closet, and 5mitri and &rushenka begin to plan their wedding. ut the policesuddenly burst in and arrest 5mitri. 'e is accused of the murder of his father, who has beenfound dead. 5ue to the large amount of e!idence against 5mitri, including the money suddenlyfound in his possession, he will be made to stand trial. 5mitri says that the money was what hehad left after spending half of the B,>>> rubles he stole from Laterina, but no one belie!es him.5mitri is imprisoned.

54 | P a g e



Meanwhile, Alyosha befriends some of the local schoolboys. 'e meets a dying boy named?lyusha, and arranges for the other boys to come !isit him e!ery day. Alyosha helps ?lyushaOsfamily as the young boy nears death, and he is uni!ersally adored by all the schoolboys, wholook to him for guidance.

?!an talks to "merdyako! about Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs death, and "merdyako! confesses to ?!anthat he, and not 5mitri, committed the murder. ut he says that ?!an is also implicated in thecrime because the philosophical lessons "merdyako! learned from ?!an, regarding theimpossibility of e!il in a world without a &od, made "merdyako! capable of committing murder.*his statement causes ?!an to become consumed with guilt. After returning home, ?!an suffers aner!ous breakdown in which he sees a de!il that relentlessly taunts him. *he apparition !anisheswhen Alyosha arri!es with the news that "merdyako! has hung himself.

At the trial, 5mitriOs case seems to be going well until ?!an is called upon to testify. ?!an madlyasserts that he himself is guilty of the murder, throwing the courtroom into confusion. *o clear

?!anOs name, Laterina leaps up and shows a letter she recei!ed from 5mitri in which he wrotethat he was afraid he might one day murder his father. -!en after the letter is read, most of the people in the courtroom are con!inced of 5mitriOs innocence. ut the peasants on the 2ury findhim guilty, and he is taken back to prison to await his exile in "iberia.

After the trial, Laterina takes ?!an to her house, where she plans to nurse him through his illness."he and 5mitri forgi!e one another, and she arranges for 5mitri to escape from prison and flee toAmerica with &rushenka. AlyoshaOs friend ?lyusha dies, and Alyosha gi!es a speech to theschoolboys at his funeral. ?n plain language, he says that they must all remember the lo!e theyfeel for one another and treasure their memories of one another. *he schoolboys, mo!ed, gi!e

Alyosha an enthusiastic cheer.

Analysis of Ma2or Characters

Alyosha

*he narrator describes Alyosha as the PheroQ of *he rothers Laramazo! and claims that the book is AlyoshaOs Pbiography.Q A young, handsome man of about twenty, Alyosha is remarkablefor his extraordinarily mature religious faith, his selflessness, and his innate lo!e of humankind.Alyosha is naturally good7 his lo!e of his fellow human beings is simply a part of his personality,and he rarely has to struggle against temptation or doubt. 'e spends his energy doing good deeds

for his fellow men and trying as honestly as he can to help them become happier and morefulfilled. Alyosha is not 2udgmental and has an uncanny ability to understand the psychology ofothers. 5espite his infallible goodness and his natural ad!antages, Alyosha has a gentle,easygoing personality that causes almost e!eryone who knows him to lo!e him.

At the same time, Alyosha is not naR!e or innocent. 'e understands human e!il and the burden of sin, but he practices uni!ersal forgi!eness. AlyoshaOs religious faith is the cornerstone of his

55 | P a g e



character. 'is faith in a lo!ing &od, strengthened by his close relationship with the monasticelder 9osima, reinforces his lo!e of mankind and his immense capability to do good. -!en whenAlyosha experiences doubt, his doubt is always resol!ed by his commitment to do good. At theend of the no!el, Alyosha has become the mature embodiment of 9osimaOs teachings, and hee!en helps to guarantee 9osimaOs legacy by spreading his teachings among the young schoolboys

of the town, who adore him.

Alyosha is an unusual main character because he does not initiate much of the main action of theno!el. ?nstead, he tends to react calmly to whate!er the other characters are dri!en by passion.ut *he rothers Laramazo! is a no!el that analyzes !arious ways of life%the coarsesensualism of Fyodor /a!lo!ich and the cold skepticism of ?!an both come under scrutiny%and$uestions each of them sharply. AlyoshaOs way of life seems superior to that of the othercharacters. 'e is the moral center of the no!el because he represents the model of attitude and beha!ior that 5ostoe!sky considers the right one, the one most conduci!e to human happinessand peace instead of the trauma and conflict that afflict most of the no!elOs other ma2or

characters.

?!an

No character in *he rothers Laramazo! is afflicted with more trauma or inner conflict than?!an. ?!an is a brilliant student with an incisi!ely analytical mind, and his intelligence is directlyto blame for his descent into despair. Inable to reconcile the horror of un2ust human suffering% particularly the suffering of children%with the idea of a lo!ing &od, ?!an is consumed withdoubt and argues that e!en if &od does exist, he is malicious and hostile, and lo!es to torturemankind. ?!an belie!es that human concepts of morality are dependent on the idea that the soul

is immortal, meaning that people only worry about PrightQ and PwrongQ beha!ior because theywant to experience pleasure rather than pain in the afterlife. ecause of his feelings about &od,?!an himself is unable to belie!e in the immortality of the soul, and thus he argues that good ande!il are fraudulent categories, and that people may do whate!er they wish without regard formorality. ut ?!an only starts thinking about these concepts in the first place because he lo!eshumanity%it is his concern for human suffering that initially leads him to re2ect &od. 'is logicaldisbelief in morality is terribly painful for him because it would make a way of life such asFyodor /a!lo!ichOs, which ?!an detests, an acceptable mode of human beha!ior. 5ignified andcoldly moral, ?!an wants to be able to accept an idea of goodness that would exalt mankind andre2ect Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs brutishness, but, trapped in his own logic, he is unable to do so. 'e is

so beset with doubt, and so defensi!ely determined to keep the rest of humanity at a distance,that he is unable to act on his lo!e for Laterina, and seems to scorn the !ery thought of pursuinghappiness for himself.

After "merdyako! murders Fyodor /a!lo!ich, ?!anOs crisis of faith becomes more traumatic still.Con!inced by "merdyako! that ?!anOs philosophy made it possible for "merdyako! to killFyodor /a!lo!ich, ?!an is forced to confront two !ery difficult notions7 first, that he is

56 | P a g e



responsible for another human being, and second, that his beliefs ha!e pa!ed the way for murder.?!anOs subse$uent collapse into hallucination and madness represents the no!elOs final re2ectionof his skeptical way of life. #hen the no!el ends, ?!an is fe!erish and unconscious, ha!ing beentaken home by Laterina to recuperate, and his future is uncertain. ?t may be that, with LaterinaOslo!e, he will find a way to accept AlyoshaOs faith or come to terms intellectually with morality

and his own responsibility for others. r it may be that he will ne!er resol!e his crisis%he may become permanently insane. ut the extremely optimistic note on which the no!el ends suggeststhat he will find some form of redemption.

5mitri

5mitri is the most turbulent of the three brothers. /assionate, headstrong, and reckless, hecombines AlyoshaOs good heart with Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs heedless sensuality. 5mitri has li!ed alife torn between sin and redemption. Inlike Alyosha, 5mitri is dominated by his passions, butunlike Fyodor /a!lo!ich, he feels genuine remorse for the sins he has committed and gradually

comes to hope that his soul can be redeemed through suffering. ecause 5mitri is the charactermost poised between animalism and spiritual redemption, he often represents the plight ofhumanity itself in the no!el. #hen he is arrested for the murder of Fyodor /a!lo!ich, the$uestion of his guilt or innocence becomes a crucial $uestion about human nature%whether it isfounded on good or e!il. 5mitri is not only innocent of the crime, he undergoes an ardentspiritual con!ersion in prison and emerges from his trial a stronger, better person, prepared toli!e a life of goodness and to do penance for his sins. *hrough 5mitriOs redemption and ?!anOs breakdown, 5ostoe!sky thus concludes the no!el by re2ecting doubt and skepticism in fa!or offaith and lo!e. 5mitriOs redemption represents the no!elOs optimistic conclusion about the natureof mankind.

*hemes, Motifs S "ymbols

*hemes

*hemes are the fundamental and often uni!ersal ideas explored in a literary work.

*he Conflict etween Faith and 5oubt

*he central philosophical conflict of *he rothers Laramazo! is the conflict between religiousfaith and doubt. *he main characters illustrate the different kinds of beha!ior that these two

positions generate. Faith in the no!el refers to the positi!e, assenting belief in &od practiced by9osima and Alyosha, which lends itself to an acti!e lo!e of mankind, kindness, forgi!eness, anda de!otion to goodness. 5oubt refers to the kind of logical skepticism that ?!an Laramazo! practices, which, in pursuing the truth through the logical examination of e!idence, lends itself tothe re2ection of &od, the re2ection of con!entional notions of morality, a coldness towardmankind, and a crippling inner despair. 5ostoe!sky does not present these positions neutrally. 'eacti!ely takes the side of faith, and illustrates through innumerable examples how a life of faith

57 | P a g e



is happier than a life of doubt. 5oubt, as we see in "merdyako!Os murder of Fyodor /a!lo!ichand in ?!anOs breakdown, leads only to chaos and unhappiness. ut the no!el ne!erthelessexamines the psychology of doubt with great ob2ecti!ity and rigor. *hrough the character of?!an, in chapters such as P*he &rand ?n$uisitor,Q 5ostoe!sky presents an incisi!e case againstreligion, the Church, and &od, suggesting that the choice to embrace religious faith can only be

made at great philosophical risk, and for reasons that defy a fully logical explanation.

*he urden of Free #ill

*he no!el argues forcefully that people ha!e free will, whether they wish to or not. *hat is, e!eryindi!idual is free to choose whether to belie!e or disbelie!e in &od, whether to accept or re2ectmorality, and whether to pursue good or e!il. *he condition of free will may seem to be a blessing, guaranteeing the spiritual independence of each indi!idual and ensuring that no outsideforce can control the indi!idualOs choices with regard to faith. ut throughout *he rothersLaramazo!, 5ostoe!sky portrays free will as a curse, one that particularly plagues those

characters who ha!e chosen to doubt &odOs existence. Free will can be seen as a curse because it places a crippling burden on humanity to !oluntarily re2ect the securities, comforts, and protections of the world in fa!or of the uncertainties and hardships of religious belief. Most people are too weak to make this choice, ?!an argues, and most people are doomed to unhappyli!es that end in eternal damnation. *he &rand ?n$uisitor story in ook 0 explores ChristOs biblical re2ection of the temptations offered to him by "atan and concludes that Christ was wrongto ha!e re2ected them, since his re2ection won free will for humanity, but took away security. Ne!ertheless, the condition of free will is finally shown to be a necessary component of thesimple and satisfying faith practiced by Alyosha and 9osima, and the no!elOs optimisticconclusion suggests that perhaps people are not as weak as ?!an belie!es them to be.

*he /er!asi!eness of Moral 4esponsibility

ne of the central lessons of the no!el is that people should not 2udge one another, shouldforgi!e one anotherOs sins, and should pray for the redemption of criminals rather than their punishment. 9osima explains that this lo!ing forgi!eness is necessary because the chain ofhuman causation is so interwo!en that e!eryone bears some responsibility for the sins ofe!eryone else. *hat is, one personOs actions ha!e so many complicated effects on the actions ofso many other people that it is impossible to trace all the conse$uences of any single action.-!erything we do is influenced by innumerable actions of those around us, and as a result, no

one can be held singly responsible for a crime or for a sin. *his idea of shared responsibility isabhorrent to characters in the no!el who doubt &od and Christianity, especially ?!an, whorepeatedly insists that he is not responsible for the actions of anyone but himself. ?!anOsarguments counter a belief in mutual responsibility, since he belie!es that without &od or anafterlife, there is no moral law. ?n a world in which the absence of &od makes moral distinctionsmeaningless, people are logically 2ustified in simply acting out their desires. Additionally, ?!anOsdeep distrust of human nature makes him inclined to keep the rest of humanity at a chilly

58 | P a g e



distance, and the idea that the things he does affect other people makes him emotionallyuncomfortable. #hen "merdyako! explains to ?!an how ?!anOs amoral philosophical beliefsha!e made it possible for "merdyako! to kill Fyodor /a!lo!ich, ?!an is suddenly forced toaccept the harshest conse$uences of his relentless skepticism7 not only has his doubt pa!ed theway for murder, but he has no choice but to admit his own complicity in the execution of that

murder. ?!an suddenly understands the nature of moral responsibility as it has been explained by9osima, and the sudden comprehension is so o!erwhelming that it leads to a ner!ous breakdown %5ostoe!skyOs final depiction of the conse$uences of doubt.

Motifs

Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary de!ices that can help to de!elop andinform the textOs ma2or themes.

Crime and 3ustice

?n the context of the no!elOs larger exploration of sin, redemption, and 2ustice, a ma2or motif inthe no!el is the idea of crime and criminal 2ustice. *he crimes portrayed in the no!el are alsosins, or crimes against &od, and the no!el presents them in such a way as to suggest that human beings are not capable of passing 2udgment on one another. *he only true 2udge, as we see in theaftermath of 5mitriOs wrongful con!iction, is the conscience. ?mages of criminal 2ustice in theno!el occur most prominently in the debate between ?!an and the monks about ecclesiasticalcourts, in the story of the &rand ?n$uisitor, and in 5mitriOs arrest, imprisonment, and trial.

4edemption *hrough "uffering

A central part of 5ostoe!skyOs exploration of spiritual redemption is the idea that self+knowledgeis necessary for a person to be redeemed. As 9osima explains in ook ?, only when a man knowshimself and faces himself honestly can he come to lo!e others and lo!e &od. *he principal wayto arri!e at that self+knowledge is through suffering. "uffering can occur either through the griefand guilt of sin, or, as in the case of &rushenka and ?!an, through the agony of illnesses that aremetaphors for spiritual conditions. Apart from the sufferings of &rushenka and ?!an, the otherma2or embodiment of this motif in the no!el is 5mitri, who suffers through the misery ofrealizing his own e!il before he can embrace his goodness. #hen 8ise willfully slams her fingersin the door, she pro!ides another, bitterly ironic instance of the motif. 8ise wants to punishherself for being wicked, but her idea of suffering is so shallow, !ain, and ridiculous that it is not

really a serious attempt at redemption.

*he /rofound &esture

Although *he rothers Laramazo! is fundamentally an exploration of religious faith, the no!elsupports the idea that the choice to belie!e in &od cannot be fully explained in rational terms./rofound, inexplicable gestures often take the place of argumentati!e dialogue. *hese gestures

59 | P a g e



defy explanation, but con!ey a poetic sense of the $ualities that make faith necessary andsatisfying for the human soul. -xamples of these profound, enigmatic gestures include 9osimakneeling before 5mitri in ook ?, Christ kissing the &rand ?n$uisitor in ook 0, Alyosha kissing?!an in the same book, 9osima embracing the -arth 2ust before he dies in ook 0?, and Alyoshakissing the ground after his dream in ook 0??. -ach of these gestures can only be partially

explained. 9osima, for example, kneels before 5mitri to acknowledge the suffering 5mitri willface. ut none of these gestures can be fully explained, and their ambiguity is a way ofchallenging the rational paradigm that ?!an embraces.

"ymbols

"ymbols are ob2ects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.

Characters as "ymbols

ecause *he rothers Laramazo! is both a realistic no!el and a philosophical no!el,

5ostoe!skyOs characterizations tend to yield fully drawn, belie!able indi!iduals who alsorepresent certain $ualities and ideas bearing on the larger philosophical argument. *he dramaacted out between the characters becomes the drama of the larger ideas in conflict with oneanother. Most of the important symbols in the no!el, then, are characters. Almost e!ery ma2orcharacter in the no!el embodies a concept7 Alyosha represents faith, ?!an represents doubt, andFyodor /a!lo!ich represents selfishness and physical appetite. "ome characters ha!e morespecific designations. "merdyako!, for instance, works primarily as a li!ing symbol of Fyodor/a!lo!ichOs wickedness.

9osimaOs Corpse

*he monks, including Alyosha, all expect 9osimaOs death to be followed by a great miracle thatwill commemorate his extraordinary wisdom and !irtue in life. *hey e!en expect that he will pro!e to be a saint. ?n monastic lore, one of the ways in which a saint can be detected after deathis that his corpse, rather than emitting the stench of decay, is instead suffused with a pleasantsmell. After 9osimaOs death, howe!er, no miracle occurs. Moreo!er, 9osimaOs corpse begins tostink !ery $uickly, exuding a particularly strong and putrid odor, which is taken by his enemiesin the monastery as proof of his inner corruption. For Alyosha, who cra!es a miracle, theindignity !isited upon 9osimaOs corpse exemplifies the lack of !alidation with which the worldoften rewards religious faith. *he fate of 9osimaOs corpse suggests that faith is not 2ustified by

miracles. 4ather, the person who chooses faith must do so in defiance of the many reasons todoubt.

?mportant 1uotations -xplained

:.PAbo!e all, do not lie to yourself. A man who lies to himself and listens to his own lie comes to a point where he does not discern any truth either in himself or anywhere around him, and thus

60 | P a g e



falls into disrespect towards himself and others. Not respecting anyone, he ceases to lo!e, andha!ing no lo!e, he gi!es himself up to the passions and coarse pleasures, in order to occupy andamuse himself, and in his !ices reaches complete bestiality, and it all comes from lyingcontinually to others and to himself.Q

9osima makes this speech to Fyodor /a!lo!ich in ook ??, Chapter D. Many of 9osimaOscomments in this section of the no!el lay the groundwork for the de!elopment of the no!elOsmain ideas. 'ere, 9osima explores the important concept that the path to !irtue is throughhonesty with oneself. A man who lies to himself, he says, is unable to percei!e the truth aroundhim. ecause his surroundings make him suspicious, and because he cannot belie!e in anything %not &od, not other people%he ceases to respect or to lo!e mankind and thus falls into sin. *hisargument is not only a percepti!e summary of Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs psychology, it also opens thedoor for many of the no!elOs subse$uent ideas about redemption. 8ater, the no!el suggests thatthe path to redemption lies in honest self+knowledge, which can best be attained throughsuffering.

D.P8isten7 if e!eryone must suffer, in order to buy eternal harmony with their suffering, pray tellme what ha!e children got to do with itJ ?tOs $uite incomprehensible why they should ha!e tosuffer, and why they should buy harmony with their suffering.Q

?!an makes this argument to Alyosha in ook 0, Chapter , as part of his re2ection of the idea ofa lo!ing &od. ?!an belie!es it is impossible to ha!e faith in a bene!olent deity who makeschildren suffer un2ustly. ?!an can, to a certain extent, see the logic in the suffering of adults7adults must suffer to pay for their sins, Pto buy eternal harmony with their suffering.Q utchildren, he explains, are too young to ha!e sinned, and are often made to suffer the mostexcruciating torments by a &od who supposedly lo!es them. From this condition, ?!an reasons

that if &od exists, he does not really lo!e mankind, but rather occupies the position of a torturerwho should be defied and re2ected rather than worshipped and lo!ed.

B.P5ecide yourself who was right7 you or the one who $uestioned you thenJ 4ecall the first$uestion its meaning, though not literally, was this7 TEou want to go into the world, and you aregoing empty+handed, with some promise of freedom, which they in their simplicity and innatelawlessness cannot e!en comprehend, which they dread and fear%for nothing has e!er beenmore insufferable for man and for human society than freedom ut do you see these stones inthis bare, scorching desertJ *urn them into bread and mankind will run after you like sheep,grateful and obedient, though eternally trembling lest you withdraw your hand and your loa!escease for them.OQ

*he &rand ?n$uisitor le!els this accusation at Christ in ?!anOs prose poem in ook 0, Chapter G.*he in$uisitor is referring to the story of the temptations that "atan offered Christ, and that Christre2ected. *he &rand ?n$uisitor sees ChristOs re2ection of the temptations of "atan as responsiblefor placing the intolerable burden of free will on mankind, and for taking away the comfort ofstability and security. *he ?n$uisitor says that when "atan tempted Christ to make bread from thestones, Christ should ha!e done so, and should ha!e brought the bread back to the people so that

61 | P a g e



they would follow him in order to win the security of being fed. ChristOs response%that mandoes not li!e by bread, but by the word of &od%gi!es men the freedom to choose whether tofollow Christ or not, without buying faith with security. *his notion of free spiritual will iscentral to Christian theology, but as the &rand ?n$uisitor sees it, Christ has actually donemankind a disser!ice by keeping people from obtaining security. Most people, he says, are too

weak to tolerate the burden of free will. As a result, he says that Pthe one who $uestioned youthen,Q meaning "atan, was right, and Christ was wrong. ?!an belie!es that mankind is notcompetent to handle the awesome burden of free will, and should ha!e been gi!en a leader toobey instead.

.P0ery different is the monastic way. bedience, fasting, and prayer are laughed at, yet they aloneconstitute the way to real and true freedom7 ? cut away my superfluous and unnecessary needs,through obedience ? humble and chasten my !ain and proud will, and thereby, with &odOs help,attain freedom of spirit, and with that, spiritual re2oicingQ

9osima makes this speech when analyzing the nature of the 4ussian monk in ook 0?, ChapterB. ?t illustrates the scope of the contrast between 9osimaOs !iews and ?!anOs. #here ?!anOs &rand?n$uisitor looks at the problem of free will with resentment and loathing, 9osima considers freewill a cause for re2oicing. *he &rand ?n$uisitor says that men should ha!e been gi!en bread andleadership, while 9osima says that they should re2ect material security%through obedience,fasting, and prayer%in order to obtain Preal and true freedom.Q For 9osima, real and truefreedom is crucial to the nature of goodness because it gi!es meaning to the choice to embracefaith. ?f a person has no choice but to belie!e in &od, then faith is meaningless%only throughthe medium of free will can faith be more than a default position. 9osima thus wholly re2ects the&rand ?n$uisitorOs%and ?!anOs%notion of the weakness of human nature, holding out hope that,through spiritual freedom, mankind can be redeemed.

G.Put hesitation, anxiety, the struggle between belief and disbelief%all that is sometimes such atorment for a conscientious man like yourself, that itOs better to hang oneself. . . . ?Om leading youalternately between belief and disbelief, and ? ha!e my own purpose in doing so. A new method,sir7 when youO!e completely lost faith in me, then youOll immediately start con!incing me to myface that ? am not a dream but a reality%? know you know and then my goal will be achie!ed.And it is a noble goal. ? will sow a 2ust a tiny seed of faith in you, and from it an oak will grow% and such an oak that you, sitting in that oak, will want to 2oin Tthe desert fathers and the blameless womenO because secretly you want that !er+ry, !er+ry much. . . .Q

*his taunt is deli!ered by the de!il that !isits ?!an in ook 6?, Chapter =. ?!an has 2ust realizedhis complicity in "merdyako!Os murder of Fyodor /a!lo!ich, and in his ensuing psychological breakdown, he experiences the hallucination of this de!il, who mocks ?!an with his former beliefs and their inconsistency with his inner desires. ?!an furiously tries to assert that he doesnot belie!e this de!il is real, but the de!il shrewdly manipulates his desire not to belie!e so as tomake him belie!e all the more. *hen, in this passage, the de!il e!en more shrewdly admits thathe is deliberately toying with ?!anOs belief because he knows that deep down ?!an wants to belie!e in him. ?!an is a moral person who is horrified and appalled by the re2ection of morality

62 | P a g e



that he ad!ocates on the surface, and the murder of his father has made him e!en more desperatein his secret desire for the moral criterion of religious faith. *his inner longing makes ?!anashamed, and the de!il teases his shame, e!en assuming a mockingly singsong tone of !oice@P!er+ry much, !er+ry muchQ. *his passage is important because it strips ?!anOs psyche bare andre!eals the emotional emptiness and desperation that lie beneath his philosophical positions.

?!anOs doubt collapses into a ner!ous breakdown, re!ealing, through his hallucination of thede!il, both the inade$uacy of his doubt and his secret desire to find a more satisfying faith.

Ley Facts

*ull title U *he rothers Laramazo!

author U Fyodor 5ostoe!sky

type o* <ork U No!el

-enre U 4ealist no!el no!el of ideas symbolic no!el dynastic no!el

lan-ua-e U 4ussian

time and pla#e <ritten U :;<=+:;;> 4ussia, primarily "t. /etersburg

date o* *irst pu)li#ation U :;<=V:;;>

pu)lisher U The -ussian Messen&er began publishing the no!el serially in :;<=.

narrator U An unnamed, first+person narrator who acts as a storyteller, relating e!ents in which

he plays no part. *he narrator fre$uently refers to himself as P?,Q and his erratic !oice lea!es anoticeable sardonic mark on an otherwise serious no!el.

point o* ;ie< U *he point of !iew shifts between characters, including Alyosha, ?!an, 5mitri,and the narrator himself.

tone U *he narratorOs tone is one of serious comedy. 'e takes his story seriously andcomprehends the importance of the $uestions it raises, but ne!ertheless writes with a warmlinguistic in!enti!eness that sometimes masks the coldness of his sub2ect.

tense U /ast

settin- =time> U Mid+nineteenth century

settin- =pla#e> U A town in 4ussia

prota-onist U Alyosha Laramazo!

63 | P a g e



maor #on*li#t U 5mitri and Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs ri!alry o!er &rushenka, ?!anOs inner turmoil,and AlyoshaOs good+hearted attempts to help those he lo!es find happiness dramatize the philosophical conflict between religious faith and doubt.

risin- a#tion U Fyodor /a!lo!ich and 5mitri begin to fight o!er the family inheritance 2ust

before AlyoshaOs faith is shaken by the death of 9osima. ?!an expresses his philosophical!iewpoint through the story of the &rand ?n$uisitor, and 5mitri becomes increasingly desperateto win &rushenka.

#lima? U ?!anOs ner!ous breakdown in ook 6? after the re!elation that "merdyako! is themurderer represents the final collapse of the psychology of doubt and the moment at which the position of faith seems inarguably superior, at least within the logic of the no!el.

*allin- a#tion U 5mitri is wrongly con!icted of murdering his father, and 5mitri and Laterinareconcile their differences. AlyoshaOs final speech to the schoolboys at the funeral of ?lyushaillustrates that he has taken on the role of 9osima.

themes U *he conflict between faith and doubt the per!asi!eness of moral responsibility the burden of free will

moti*s U Crime and 2ustice the profound gesture redemption through suffering

sym)ols U Characters who represent ideas, as ?!an represents doubt 9osimaOs corpse

*oreshado<in- U *he narratorOs many leading comments 9osimaOs prediction that 5mitri willsuffer greatly the anecdote of the murderer in 9osimaOs deathbed speech "merdyako!Os subtleclues that he intends either to ha!e 5mitri murder Fyodor /a!lo!ich or to murder Fyodor

/a!lo!ich himself."tudy 1uestions S -ssay *opics

"tudy 1uestions

:. Compare and contrast ?!anOs and 9osimaOs belief systems. 'ow do they differ regarding theno!elOs ma2or philosophical $uestionsJ

9osima emphasizes belief in &od, lo!e, forgi!eness, and goodness, while ?!anOs beliefsemphasize doubt, skepticism, and a re2ection of con!entional moral and religious categories.

9osima thus ad!ocates faith as a method for finding happiness, and ?!an ad!ocates doubt as amethod for realistically interpreting the world. *heir stories dramatize the emotional, psychological, and spiritual conse$uences of adopting the positions that they represent. 9osimali!es happily and does good in the world, while ?!an li!es unhappily and, through his influenceon "merdyako!, enables e!il. *hrough the contrast between these two characters, as throughmany similar contrasts in the no!el, 5ostoe!sky illustrates the superiority of faith and lo!e o!erdoubt and suspicion.

64 | P a g e



D. 5ostoe!sky goes to great lengths to make us suspect that 5mitri is guilty of the murder ofFyodor /a!lo!ich. #hy does it matter whether 5mitri is innocent or guiltyJ #hy might5ostoe!sky ha!e wanted to surprise us with his innocenceJ

ecause it is fre$uently difficult to decide whether 5mitri is on the side of goodness or of sin,

5mitriOs situation in the no!el is representati!e of the human situation as a whole. *he no!el$uestions the moral orientation of human nature by asking whether mankind is fundamentallygood and innocent, or e!il and guilty. ecause 5mitri represents the human situation as a whole,the $uestion of his guilt or innocence assumes titanic importance in the no!el. ?f 5mitri is guilty,then, in a sense, mankind is guilty, and the no!el will end in despair. ut if 5mitri is innocent,there is still hope, and the no!el can end optimistically. *here are many reasons why 5ostoe!skymay ha!e wanted us to suspect 5mitriOs guilt, including the simple dramatic power of a surprisetwist in the plot. ut the primary reason may be that by making us first percei!e 5mitri to beguilty and then realize that he is innocent, 5ostoe!sky wants to make us undergo a con!ersion inour conception of 5mitri at the same time that 5mitri himself is undergoing a spiritualcon!ersion. *his process creates a powerful !isceral sense that 5mitri has been washed clean of

his sin. *he re!elation of 5mitriOs innocence reinforces the emotional power of his con!ersion.B. 'ow can Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs coarse, pleasure+seeking beha!ior be understood as a logicalexpression of the philosophy ad!ocated by ?!anJ #hat does ?!anOs reaction to Fyodor/a!lo!ichOs lifestyle say about the sincerity of ?!anOs beliefsJ

?!an belie!es that human morality depends on the idea that the soul is immortal. *herefore, theonly reason people ha!e to be good is to ensure their future happiness in the afterlife. ecause?!an re2ects the notion that the soul is immortal, he also re2ects the categories of good and e!il,and claims that all is permitted%that is, that people may do anything they choose withoutreference to moral restrictions on their beha!ior. f all the characters in the no!el, Fyodor

/a!lo!ich most fully embodies this idea. 'e seeks only to satisfy his own appetites, withoutregard for good or e!il, without regard for religion, and without regard for what other peoplemight think of him. ?n this way, Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs lifestyle represents a logical extension of?!anOs philosophy. ut rather than embracing Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs amoral approach to life, ?!anrecoils in disgust. ecause of his beliefs, he is not able to re2ect Fyodor /a!lo!ich outright, butthough he pretends to accept the old man, he really loathes him and is consumed with self+disgust at the thought that his philosophy renders him unable to re2ect Fyodor /a!lo!ichOs way of life. ?n this way, we see that ?!anOs beliefs, though compelling, are not entirely sincere. 'e belie!es in them because they appear to be rational, but as his confrontation with the de!il afterFyodor /a!lo!ichOs murder pro!es, he does not accept them with his whole heart.

"uggested -ssay *opics

:. *he rothers Laramazo! places a great deal of emphasis on the idea of free will%the idea thatfaith has meaning because each person is free to choose between faith and doubt. ut thoughmany of the no!elOs ma2or characters struggle with doubt, Alyosha, the protagonist, often seemsto ha!e such an instincti!e faith that he could ne!er choose to be faithful because he simply is.5oes the concept of free will apply to a character such as AlyoshaJ #hy or why notJ

65 | P a g e



D. *hink about the many mysterious symbolic gestures made by religious figures throughout theno!el%Christ kissing the &rand ?n$uisitor, for instance, or 9osima bowing before 5mitri. 5othese profound gestures, meant to articulate ineffable aspects of religious belief, represent alogical argument against the philosophy of doubt, or do they constitute a different order ofexpression entirelyJ

B. Compare and contrast the no!elOs principal female characters, &rushenka and Laterina. ?nwhat way does the concept of redemption apply to each of them, and how do they each go aboutfinding the redemption that they seekJ 'ow different are their situations%morally, socially, psychologically%from those of the other main characters, simply by !irtue of their beingwomenJ

. -xplain the idea of moral legacies within the no!el%the notion that a system of moralteachings can be passed down from one person to the next, as 9osima passes his beliefs toAlyosha. #ithin this context, what is the significance of AlyoshaOs relationship with theschoolboys in ook 6 and the -pilogueJ

G. #hat are "merdyako!Os traits as a characterJ #hat are his apparent philosophical beliefsJ5oes he really belie!e the lessons he claims to ha!e learned from ?!an, or does he merely use?!anOs philosophy to 2ustify his own murderous desiresJ

Anna Karenina

Anna Karenina @4ussian7 WXYYZ [Z\]Y^YZ_ 4ussian pronunciation7 ` an k r en nˈ ː ɐˈ ̡ ʲɪ `: is ano!el by the 4ussian writer 8eo *olstoy, published in serial installments from :;<B to :;<< inthe periodical The -ussian Messen&er . *olstoy clashed with editor Mikhail Latko! o!er politicalissues that arose in the final installment @*olstoy)s negati!e !iews of 4ussian !olunteers going to

fight in "erbia therefore, the no!el)s first complete appearance was in book form in :;<;.#idely regarded as a pinnacle in realist fiction, *olstoy considered Anna )arenina his first trueno!el, when he came to consider ar and eace to be more than a no!el.

Fyodor 5ostoye!sky declared it (flawless as a work of art.( 'is opinion was shared by 0ladimir Naboko!, who especially admired (the flawless magic of *olstoy)s style,( and by #illiamFaulkner , who described the no!el as, (the best e!er written.( `D *he no!el continues to en2oy popularity, as demonstrated by a recent poll of :DG contemporary authors by 3. /eder 9ane, published in D>>< in (*he *op *en( in Time, which declared that Anna )arenina is the (greatestno!el e!er written.(

ain #hara#ters

66 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Russian


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina#cite_note-Nabokov_1980_137-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Russian_Messenger

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Katkov


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realist_fiction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Nabokov


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Faulkner


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina#cite_note-2


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Peder_Zane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anna_Karenina_family_tree_EN.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Russian_Messenger



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realist_fiction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky






https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Peder_Zane




Anna Larenina family tree

• /rincess Anna Arkadye!na Larenina @XYYZ X\Z]YZ [Z\]Y^YZ7 "tepan blonsky)ssister, Larenin)s wife and 0ronsky)s lo!er.

• Count Alexei Lirillo!ich 0ronsky @A]ce L^p^o^ poYc^7 8o!er of Anna, a

ca!alry officer • /rince "tepan ("ti!a( Arkadye!ich blonsky @CjeaY (Cj^a( A\a]^

oY^7 a ci!il ser!ant and Anna)s brother, a man about town, B. 'is nickname is a4ussianized form of /teve.

• /rincess 5arya (5olly( Alexandro!na blonskaya @Z\ (o^( AeaY\oYZoYa7 "tepan)s wife, BB

• Count Alexei Alexandro!ich Larenin7 a senior statesman and Anna)s husband, twentyyears her senior.

• Lonstantin (Lostya( 5mitrie!ich 8e!in7 Litty)s suitor, old friend of "ti!a, a landowner,BD.

• Nikolai 5mitrie!ich 8e!in7 Lonstantin)s elder brother, an impo!erished alcoholic.

• "ergius @"ergey ?!ano!ich Loznyshe!7 Lonstantin)s half+brother, a celebrated writer, >.

• /rincess -katerina (Litty( Alexandro!na "hcherbatskaya7 5olly)s younger sister and later 8e!in)s wife, :;.

• /rincess -liza!eta (etsy(7 Anna)s wealthy, morally loose society friend and 0ronsky)scousin

• Countess 8idia ?!ano!na7 8eader of a high society circle that includes Larenin, and shuns/rincess etsy and her circle. "he maintains an interest in the 4ussian rthodox mysticaland spiritual

• Countess 0ronskaya7 0ronsky)s mother

• "ergei ("eryozha( Alexeyich Larenin7 Anna and Larenin)s son

• Anna (Annie(7 Anna and 0ronsky)s daughter

0lot introdu#tion

Anna Larenina is the tragic story of a married aristocratsocialite and her affair with the affluentCount 0ronsky. *he story starts when she arri!es in the midst of a family broken up by her brother)s unbridled womanizing%something that prefigures her own later situation, though shewould experience less tolerance by others.

A bachelor, 0ronsky is eager to marry her if she would agree to lea!e her husband Larenin, asenior go!ernment official, but she is !ulnerable to the pressures of 4ussian social norms, the

67 | P a g e



moral laws of the 4ussian rthodox Church, her own insecurities, and Larenin)s indecision.Although 0ronsky and Anna go to ?taly, where they can be together, they ha!e trouble makingfriends. ack in 4ussia, she is shunned, becoming further isolated and anxious, while 0ronsky pursues his social life. 5espite 0ronsky)s reassurances, she grows increasingly possessi!e and paranoid about his imagined infidelity, fearing loss of control.

A parallel story within the no!el is that of Lonstantin 8e!in, a wealthy country landowner whowants to marry /rincess Litty, sister to 5olly and sister+in+law to Anna)s brother blonsky.Lonstantin has to propose twice before Litty accepts. *he no!el details Lonstantin)s difficultiesmanaging his estate, his e!entual marriage, and his personal issues, until the birth of his firstchild.

*he no!el explores a di!erse range of topics throughout its approximately thousand pages. "omeof these topics include an e!aluation of the feudal system that existed in 4ussia at the time% politics, not only in the 4ussian go!ernment but also at the le!el of the indi!idual characters andfamilies, religion, morality, gender and social class.

0lot summary

*he no!el is di!ided into eight parts. ?ts epigraph is Ven&eance is mine, will re$ay, from4omans :D7:=, which in turn $uotes from 5euteronomy BD7BG.

*he no!el begins with one of its most often+$uoted lines7

@ a$$y families are all ali"e0 every unha$$y family is unha$$y in its own way.

0art 1

*atiana "amoilo!a as Anna in the :=H< "o!iet screen !ersion of *olstoy)s no!el

68 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraph_(literature)


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans#Transformation_of_believers_.2812.E2.80.9315:13.29

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haazinu_(parsha)#Fifth_reading_.E2.80.94_Deuteronomy_32:29.E2.80.9339

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatiana_Samoilova

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Samoilova.jpg


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans#Transformation_of_believers_.2812.E2.80.9315:13.29

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haazinu_(parsha)#Fifth_reading_.E2.80.94_Deuteronomy_32:29.E2.80.9339

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatiana_Samoilova



*he no!el opens with a scene that introduces /rince "tepan Arkadye!ich blonsky @("ti!a(, aMoscow aristocrat and ci!il ser!ant who has been unfaithful to his wife /rincess 5aryaAlexandro!na @(5olly(. 5olly has disco!ered his affair with the family)s go!erness, and thehousehold and family are in turmoil. "ti!a informs the household that his married sister, /rincessAnna Arkadye!na Larenina, is coming to !isit from "aint /etersburg.

Meanwhile, "ti!a)s childhood friend, Lonstantin 5mitrie!ich 8e!in @(Lostya(, arri!es inMoscow with the aim of proposing to 5olly)s youngest sister, /rincess Laterina Alexandro!na"hcherbatskaya @(Litty(. 8e!in is a passionate, restless, but shy aristocratic landowner who,unlike his Moscow friends, chooses to li!e in the country on his large estate. 'e disco!ers thatLitty is also being pursued by Count Alexei Lirillo!ich 0ronsky, an army officer.

#hilst at the railway station to meet Anna, "ti!a bumps into 0ronsky who is there to meet hismother, the Countess 0ronskaya. Anna and 0ronskaya ha!e tra!eled and talked together in thesame carriage. As the family members are reunited, and 0ronsky sees Anna for the first time, arailway worker accidentally falls in front of a train and is killed. Anna interprets this as an (e!il

omen.( 0ronsky, howe!er, is infatuated with her. Anna is uneasy about lea!ing her young son,"ergei @("eryozha(, alone for the first time.

At the blonsky home, Anna talks openly and emotionally to 5olly about "ti!a)s affair andcon!inces her that "ti!a still lo!es her despite the infidelity. 5olly is mo!ed by Anna)s speechesand decides to forgi!e "ti!a.

Litty, who comes to !isit 5olly and Anna, is 2ust eighteen. ?n her first season as a debutante, sheis expected to make an excellent match with a man of her social standing. 0ronsky has been paying her considerable attention, and she expects to dance with him at a ball that e!ening. Littyis !ery struck by Anna)s beauty and personality and becomes infatuated with her 2ust as 0ronsky

is. #hen 8e!in proposes to Litty at her home, she clumsily turns him down, belie!ing she is inlo!e with 0ronsky and that he will propose to her, and encouraged to do so by her mother who belie!es 0ronsky would be a better match @in contrast to Litty)s father, who fa!ors 8e!in.

At the big ball Litty expects to hear something definiti!e from 0ronsky, but he dances withAnna, choosing her as a partner o!er a shocked and heartbroken Litty. Litty realizes that0ronsky has fallen in lo!e with Anna and has no intention of marrying her, despite his o!ertflirtations. 0ronsky has regarded his interactions with Litty merely as a source of amusement andassumes that Litty has acted for the same reasons. Anna, shaken by her emotional and physicalresponse to 0ronsky, returns at once to "t. /etersburg. 0ronsky tra!els on the same train. 5uringthe o!ernight 2ourney, the two meet and 0ronsky confesses his lo!e. Anna refuses him, althoughshe is deeply affected by his attentions to her.

8e!in, crushed by Litty)s refusal, returns to his estate, abandoning any hope of marriage. Annareturns to her husband, Count Alexei Alexandro!ich Larenin, a senior go!ernment official, andher son "eryozha in "t. /etersburg. n seeing her husband for the first time since her encounterwith 0ronsky, Anna realizes that she finds him unattracti!e, though she tells herself he is a goodman.

69 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debutante

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debutante



0art 2

*he "hcherbatskys consult doctors o!er Litty)s health, which has been failing since 0ronsky)sre2ection. A specialist ad!ises that Litty should go abroad to a health spa to reco!er. 5olly speaksto Litty and understands she is suffering because of 0ronsky and 8e!in, whom she cares for and

had hurt in !ain. Litty, humiliated by 0ronsky and tormented by her re2ection of 8e!in, upsetsher sister by referring to "ti!a)s infidelity, saying she could ne!er lo!e a man who betrayed her.Meanwhile, "ti!a !isits 8e!in on his country estate while selling a nearby plot of land.

?n "t. /etersburg, Anna begins to spend more time in the inner circle of /rincess -liza!eta@(etsy(, a fashionable socialite and 0ronsky)s cousin. 0ronsky continues to pursue Anna.Although she initially tries to re2ect him, she e!entually succumbs to his attentions. Lareninreminds his wife of the impropriety of paying too much attention to 0ronsky in public, which is becoming the sub2ect of gossip. 'e is concerned about the couple)s public image, although he belie!es that Anna is abo!e suspicion.

0ronsky, a keen horseman, takes part in a steeplechase e!ent, during which he rides his mare Frou+Frou too hard%his irresponsibility causing her to fall and break her back. Anna is unable tohide her distress during the accident. efore this, Anna had told 0ronsky that she is pregnantwith his child. Larenin is also present at the races and remarks to Anna that her beha!iour isimproper. Anna, in a state of extreme distress and emotion, confesses her affair to her husband.Larenin asks her to break it off to a!oid further gossip, belie!ing that their marriage will be preser!ed.

Litty and her mother tra!el to a &erman spa to reco!er from her ill health. *here, they meet thewheelchair+bound /ietist Madame "tahl and the saintly 0arenka, her adopted daughter.?nfluenced by 0arenka, Litty becomes extremely pious, but becomes disillusioned by her father)s

criticism when she learns Madame "tahl is faking her illness. "he then returns to Moscow.

0art 3

8e!in continues working on his estate, a setting closely tied to his spiritual thoughts andstruggles. 'e wrestles with the idea of falseness, wondering how he should go about riddinghimself of it, and criticising what he feels is falseness in others. 'e de!elops ideas relating toagriculture, and the uni$ue relationship between the agricultural labourer and his nati!e land andculture. 'e comes to belie!e that the agricultural reforms of -urope will not work in 4ussia because of the uni$ue culture and personality of the 4ussian peasant.

#hen 8e!in !isits 5olly, she attempts to understand what happened between him and Litty andto explain Litty)s beha!iour. 8e!in is !ery agitated by 5olly)s talk about Litty, and he begins tofeel distant from 5olly as he percei!es her lo!ing beha!iour towards her children as false. 8e!inresol!es to forget Litty and contemplates the possibility of marriage to a peasant woman.'owe!er, a chance sighting of Litty in her carriage makes 8e!in realise he still lo!es her.Meanwhile, in "t. /etersburg, Larenin refuses to separate from Anna, insisting that theirrelationship will continue. 'e threatens to take away "eryozha if she persists in her affair with0ronsky.

70 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spa


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equestrianism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steeplechase

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietist


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equestrianism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steeplechase

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant



0art 4

#hen Anna and 0ronsky continue seeing each other, Larenin consults with a lawyer aboutobtaining a di!orce. 5uring the time period, a di!orce in 4ussia could only be re$uested by theinnocent party in an affair and re$uired either that the guilty party confessed%which would ruin

Anna)s position in society and bar her from remarrying in the rthodox Church%or that theguilty party be disco!ered in the act of adultery. Larenin forces Anna to hand o!er some of0ronsky)s lo!e letters, which the lawyer deems insufficient as proof of the affair. "ti!a and 5ollyargue against Larenin)s dri!e for a di!orce.

Larenin changes his plans after hearing that Anna is dying after the difficult birth of herdaughter, Annie. At her bedside, Larenin forgi!es 0ronsky. 'owe!er, 0ronsky, embarrassed byLarenin)s magnanimity, unsuccessfully attempts suicide by shooting himself. As Anna reco!ers,she finds that she cannot bear li!ing with Larenin despite his forgi!eness and his attachment toAnnie. #hen she hears that 0ronsky is about to lea!e for a military posting in *ashkent, she becomes desperate. Anna and 0ronsky reunite and elope to -urope, lea!ing "eryozha and

Larenin)s offer of di!orce.

Meanwhile, "ti!a acts as a matchmaker with 8e!in7 he arranges a meeting between him andLitty, which results in their reconciliation and betrothal.

0art 5

8e!in and Litty marry and start their new life on his country estate. Although the couple arehappy, they undergo a bitter and stressful first three months of marriage. 8e!in feels dissatisfiedat the amount of time Litty wants to spend with him and dwells on his inability to be as producti!e as he was as a bachelor. #hen the marriage starts to impro!e, 8e!in learns that his

brother, Nikolai, is dying of consumption. Litty offers to accompany 8e!in on his 2ourney to see Nikolai and pro!es herself a great help in nursing Nikolai. "eeing his wife take charge of thesituation in an infinitely more capable manner than if he were without her, 8e!in)s lo!e for Littygrows. Litty e!entually learns that she is pregnant.

?n -urope, 0ronsky and Anna struggle to find friends who will accept them. #hilst Anna ishappy to be finally alone with 0ronsky, he feels suffocated. *hey cannot socialize with 4ussiansof their own class and find it difficult to amuse themsel!es. 0ronsky, who belie!ed that beingwith Anna was the key to his happiness, finds himself increasingly bored and unsatisfied. 'etakes up painting and makes an attempt to patronize an migr 4ussian artist of genius. 'owe!er,0ronsky cannot see that his own art lacks talent and passion, and that his con!ersation about art

is extremely pretentious. ?ncreasingly restless, Anna and 0ronsky decide to return to 4ussia.

?n "t. /etersburg, Anna and 0ronsky stay in one of the best hotels, but take separate suites. ?t becomes clear that whilst 0ronsky is still able to mo!e freely in 4ussian society, Anna is barredfrom it. -!en her old friend, /rincess etsy, who has had affairs herself, e!ades her company.Anna starts to become anxious that 0ronsky no longer lo!es her. Meanwhile, Larenin iscomforted by Countess 8idia ?!ano!na, an enthusiast of religious and mystic ideas fashionablewith the upper classes. "he ad!ises him to keep "eryozha away from Anna and to tell him his

71 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divorce

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childbirth

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnanimity


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumption_(disease)


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divorce

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childbirth


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent




mother is dead. 'owe!er, "eryozha refuses to belie!e that this is true. Anna !isits "eryozhaunin!ited on his ninth birthday but is disco!ered by Larenin.

Anna, desperate to regain at least some of her former position in society, attends a show at thetheatre at which all of "t. /etersburg)s high society are present. 0ronsky begs her not to go, but

he is unable to bring himself to explain to her why she cannot attend. At the theatre, Anna isopenly snubbed by her former friends, one of whom makes a deliberate scene and lea!es thetheatre. Anna is de!astated. Inable to find a place for themsel!es in "t. /etersburg, Anna and0ronsky lea!e for 0ronsky)s own country estate.

0art 6

5olly, her mother the /rincess "cherbatskaya, and 5olly)s children spend the summer with 8e!inand Litty. *he 8e!ins) life is simple and unaffected, although 8e!in is uneasy at the (in!asion( of so many "cherbatskys. 'e becomes extremely 2ealous when one of the !isitors, 0eslo!sky, flirtsopenly with the pregnant Litty. 8e!in tries to o!ercome his feelings, but e!entually succumbs to

them and makes 0eslo!sky lea!e his house in an embarrassing scene. 0eslo!sky immediatelygoes to stay with Anna and 0ronsky at their nearby estate.

#hen 5olly !isits Anna, she is struck by the difference between the 8e!ins) aristocratic+yet+simple home life and 0ronsky)s o!ertly luxurious and la!ish country estate. "he is also unable tokeep pace with Anna)s fashionable dresses or 0ronsky)s extra!agant spending on a hospital he is building. ?n addition, all is not $uite well with Anna and 0ronsky. 5olly notices Anna)s anxious beha!iour and her uncomfortable flirtations with 0eslo!sky. 0ronsky makes an emotional re$uestto 5olly, asking her to con!ince Anna to di!orce Larenin so that the two might marry and li!enormally.

Anna has become intensely 2ealous of 0ronsky and cannot bear it when he lea!es her e!en forshort excursions. #hen 0ronsky lea!es for se!eral days of pro!incial elections, Anna becomescon!inced that she must marry him to pre!ent him from lea!ing her. After Anna writes toLarenin, she and 0ronsky lea!e the countryside for Moscow.

0art 7

#hile !isiting Moscow for Litty)s confinement, 8e!in $uickly gets used to the city)s fast+paced,expensi!e and fri!olous society life. 'e accompanies "ti!a to a gentleman)s club, where the twomeet 0ronsky. 8e!in and "ti!a pay a !isit to Anna, who is occupying her empty days by being a patroness to an orphaned -nglish girl. 8e!in is initially uneasy about the !isit, but Anna easily

puts him under her spell. #hen he admits to Litty that he has !isited Anna, she accuses him offalling in lo!e with her. *he couple are later reconciled, realising that Moscow society life hashad a negati!e, corrupting effect on 8e!in.

Anna cannot understand why she can attract a man like 8e!in, who has a young and beautifulnew wife, but can no longer attract 0ronsky. 'er relationship with 0ronsky is under increasingstrain, because he can mo!e freely in 4ussian society while she remains excluded. 'er increasing bitterness, boredom, and 2ealousy cause the couple to argue. Anna uses morphine to help her

72 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jealous


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentleman's_club

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentleman's_club

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine



sleep, a habit she began while li!ing with 0ronsky at his country estate. "he has becomedependent on it. Meanwhile, after a long and difficult labour, Litty gi!es birth to a son, 5mitri,nicknamed (Mitya(. 8e!in is both horrified and profoundly mo!ed by the sight of the tiny,helpless baby.

"ti!a !isits Larenin to seek his commendation for a new post. 5uring the !isit, "ti!a asksLarenin to grant Anna a di!orce @which would re$uire him to confess to a non+existent affair, but Larenin)s decisions are now go!erned by a French (clair!oyant( recommended by 8idia?!ano!na. *he clair!oyant apparently had a !ision in his sleep during "ti!a)s !isit and gi!esLarenin a cryptic message that he interprets in a way such that he must decline the re$uest fordi!orce.

Anna becomes increasingly 2ealous and irrational towards 0ronsky, whom she suspects of ha!inglo!e affairs with other women. "he is also con!inced that he will gi!e in to his mother)s plans tomarry him off to a rich society woman. *hey ha!e a bitter row and Anna belie!es the relationshipis o!er. "he starts to think of suicide as an escape from her torments. ?n her mental and emotional

confusion, she sends a telegram to 0ronsky asking him to come home to her, and then pays a!isit to 5olly and Litty. Anna)s confusion and anger o!ercome her and, in a parallel to therailway worker)s accidental death in /art :, she commits suicide by throwing herself under thecarriage of a passing train.

0art

8e!in)s brother)s latest book is ignored by readers and critics and he 2oins the new pan+"la!icmo!ement. "ti!a gets the post he desired so much, and Larenin takes custody of 0ronsky andAnna)s baby, Anna. A group of 4ussian !olunteers, including the suicidal 0ronsky, depart from4ussia to fight in the rthodox "erbian re!olt that has broken out against the *urks. Meanwhile,

a lightning storm occurs at 8e!in)s estate while his wife and newborn son are outdoors and, in hisfear for their safety, 8e!in realizes that he does indeed lo!e his son as much as he lo!es Litty.Litty)s family is concerned that a man as altruistic as her husband does not consider himself to bea Christian, but after speaking at length to a peasant, 8e!in has a true change of heart, concludingthat he does belie!e in the Christian principles taught to him in childhood and no longer$uestions his faith. 'e realizes that one must decide for oneself what is acceptable concerningone)s own faith and beliefs. 'e chooses not to tell Litty of the change that he has undergone, andis initially displeased that his return to his faith does not bring with it a complete transformationto righteousness. 'owe!er, at the end of the story, 8e!in arri!es at the conclusion that despite hisnewly accepted beliefs, he is human and will go on making mistakes. 'is life can now bemeaningfully and truthfully oriented toward righteousness.

Style

*his section does not #ite any re*eren#es or sour#es. /lease help impro!e this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Insourced material may be challenged andremo!ed. 1Fe!ruary 23345

73 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clairvoyant


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clairvoyant


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence



*olstoy)s style in Anna )arenina is considered by many critics to be transitional, forming a bridge between the realist and modernist no!el.` *he no!el is narrated from a third+person+omniscient perspecti!e, shifting the narrator)s attention to se!eral ma2or characters, though mostfre$uently focusing on the opposing lifestyles and attitudes of its central protagonists of Annaand 8e!in. As such, each of the no!el)s eight sections contains internal !ariations in tone7 it

assumes a light, satirical tone when following "tepan blonsky)s thoughts and actions and amuch more tense earnest !oice when describing 8e!in)s social encounters. Much of the no!el)sse!enth section depicts Anna)s thoughts fluidly, following each one of her ruminations and freeassociations with its immediate successor. *his groundbreaking use of stream+of+consciousness would be utilised by such later authors as 3ames 3oyce, 0irginia #oolf , and #illiam Faulkner .

Also of significance is *olstoy)s use of real e!ents in his narrati!e, to lend greater !erisimilitudeto the fictional e!ents of his narrati!e. Characters debate significant sociopolitical issuesaffecting 4ussia in the latter half of the nineteenth century, such as the place and role of the4ussian peasant in society, education reform, and women)s rights. *olstoy)s depiction of thecharacters in these debates, and of their arguments, allows him to communicate his own political

beliefs. Characters often attend social functions similar to those *olstoy attended, and he includesin these passages his own obser!ations of the ideologies, beha!iors, and ideas of hiscontemporary 4ussia through the thoughts of 8e!in. *he broad array of situations and ideasdepicted in Anna )arenina allows *olstoy to present a treatise on his era)s 4ussia, and, by !irtueof its !ery breadth and depth, all of human society. *his stylistic techni$ue, as well as the no!el)suse of perspecti!e, greatly contributes to the thematic structure of Anna )arenina.`citation needed

aor themes

Anna )arenina is commonly thought to explore the themes of hypocrisy, 2ealousy, faith, fidelity,family, marriage, society, progress, carnal desire and passion, and the agrarian connection to land

in contrast to the lifestyles of the city.`G

*ranslator 4osemary -dmonds wrote that *olstoy doesnot explicitly moralise in the book, but instead allows his themes to emerge naturally from the(!ast panorama of 4ussian life.( "he also says one of the no!el)s key messages is that (no onemay build their happiness on another)s pain.(`H

8e!in is often considered a semi+autobiographical portrayal of *olstoy)s own beliefs, struggles,and life e!ents.`H *olstoy)s first name is (8e!,( and the 4ussian surname (8e!in( means (of 8e!.(According to footnotes in the /e!ear0olokhonsky translation, the !iewpoints 8e!in supportsthroughout the no!el in his arguments match *olstoy)s outspoken !iews on the same issues.Moreo!er, according to #. &areth 3ones, 8e!in proposed to Litty in the same way as *olstoy to"ophia ehrs. Additionally, 8e!in)s re$uest that his fiance read his diary as a way of disclosing

his faults and pre!ious sexual encounters parallels *olstoy)s own re$uests to his fiance "ophiaehrs.`<

&istori#al #onte?t

*he e!ents in the no!el take place against the backdrop of rapid transformations as a result of theliberal reforms initiated by -mperor Alexander ?? of 4ussia, principal among these the-mancipation reform of :;H:, followed by 2udicial reform, including a 2ury system military

74 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_realism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist_literature



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-person_narrative#Third_person.2C_omniscient.2Fdramatic



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_writing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed





https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary_Edmonds


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina#cite_note-Edmonds-6


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia_Tolstaya


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Alexander_II_of_Russia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_realism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist_literature




https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_writing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf







https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia_Tolstaya


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Alexander_II_of_Russia




reforms, the introduction of elected local go!ernments @9emst!o, the fast de!elopment ofrailroads, banks, industry, telegraph, the rise of new business elites and the decline of the oldlanded aristocracy, a freer press, the awakening of public opinion, the /an+"la!ism mo!ement,the woman $uestion, etc. *hese contemporary de!elopments are hotly debated by the charactersin the no!el.

*he suburban railway station of biralo!ka where Anna committed suicide is now known as thetown of 9heleznodorozhny, Moscow blast.

%ranslations into En-lish

• Anna )ar#nina, *ranslated by Nathan 'askell 5ole @*homas E. Crowell S Co., NewEork, :;;<

• Anna )arenin, *ranslated by Constance &arnett. @:=>: "till widely reprinted. 4e!ised by 8eonard 3. Lent and Nina erbero!a @New Eork7 4andom 'ouse, :=HG. 4e!ised!ersion reprinted by Modern 8ibrary.

•

Anna )arenina, *ranslated by 8ouise and Aylmer Maude @xford Ini!ersity /ress,xford, :=:;

• Anna )arenin, *ranslated by 4osemary -dmonds @/enguin Classics, 'armondsworth,Middlesex, :=G

• Anna )arenina, *ranslated by 3oel Carmichael @antam ooks, New Eork, :=H>

• Anna )arenina, *ranslated by 5a!id Magarshack @A "ignet Classic, New American8ibrary, New Eork and "carborough, ntario, :=H:

• Anna )ar#nina, *ranslated by Margaret #ettlin @/rogress /ublishers, :=<;

• Anna )arenina, *ranslated by 4ichard /e!ear and 8arissa 0olokhonsky @Allen8ane/enguin, 8ondon, D>>>

• Anna )arenina, *ranslated by Lyril 9ino!ieff and 3enny 'ughes @neworld ClassicsD>>; ?"N =<;+:+;<=+>G=+=

• Anna )arenina, *ranslated by 4osamund artlett @xford Ini!ersity /ress`;

• Anna )arenina, *ranslated by Marian "chwartz @Eale Ini!ersity /ress`;

Comparisons o* translations

#riting in the year D>>>, academic 9o2a /a!lo!skis+/etit compares the different translations of Anna )arenina on the market. Commenting on &arnett)s re!ised translation she says7 (*here!ision @:=HG ... by Lent S erbero!a @the latter no mean stylist herself succeeds in)correcting errors ... tightening the prose, con!erting riticisms, and casting light on areas Mrs&arnett did not explore). *heir edition shows an excellent understanding of the details of *olstoi)sworld @for instance, the fact that the elaborate coiffure Litty wears to the ball is not her own hairV a detail that eludes most other translators, and at the same time they use -nglish imaginati!ely

75 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemstvo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Slavism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_woman_question

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheleznodorozhny,_Moscow_Oblast

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Haskell_Dole


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance_Garnett

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_and_Aylmer_Maude

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Carmichael

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Magarshack

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Wettlin


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Pevear

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larissa_Volokhonsky

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847490599

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosamund_Bartlett

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina#cite_note-Trachtenberg-8


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemstvo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Slavism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_woman_question

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheleznodorozhny,_Moscow_Oblast



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_and_Aylmer_Maude

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Carmichael

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Magarshack


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Pevear


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847490599

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosamund_Bartlett





@Litty)s shoes )delighted her feet) rather than )seemed to make her feet lighter)VMaude a paraphrase. ... the purist will be pleased to see Lent S erbero!a gi!e all the 4ussian names infull, as used by the author any reader will be grateful for the footnotes that elucidate anythingnot immediately accessible to someone not well ac$uainted with imperial 4ussia. *his emended&arnett should probably be a reader)s first choice.(

"he further comments on the Maudes) translation7 (the re!ised &arnett and the Magarshack!ersions do better 2ustice to the original, but still, the #orld)s Classics edition @:==G ... offers a!ery full 8ist of Characters ... and good notes based on the Maudes).( n -dmonds)s translationshe states7 (`it has the ad!antage of solid scholarship ... Eet she lacks a true sensiti!ity for thelanguage ... `leading to `her missing many a subtlety.( n Carmichael)s !ersion she comments7(this is aVrather breezilyVreadable translation ... but there are errors and misunderstandings, aswell as clumsiness.( n Magarshack)s translation she comments7 (`it offers natural, simple, anddirect -nglish prose that is appropriate to *olstoi)s 4ussian. *here is occasional awkwardness ...and imprecision ... but Magarshack understands the text ... and e!en when unable to translate anidiom closely he renders its real meaning ... *his is a good translation.( n #ettlin)s "o!iet

!ersion she writes7 (steady but uninspired, and sounds like -nglish prose written by a 4ussianwho knows the language but is not completely at home in it. *he ad!antage is that #ettlin misseshardly any cultural detail.(`=

?n n 6uest 7f Tolstoy @D>>;, 'ughes Mc8ean de!otes a full chapter @(#hich -nglish AnnaJ(comparing different translations of Anna )arenina.`:> 'is conclusion, after comparing se!entranslations, is that (the /0 `/e!ear and 0olokhonsky translation, while perfectly ade$uate, is inmy !iew not consistently or une$ui!ocally superior to others in the market.( `:: 'e states hisrecommendations in the last two pages of the sur!ey7 ( None of the existing translations isacti!ely !ad ... ne)s choice ... must therefore be based on nuances, subtleties, andrefinements.(`:D 'e eliminates the Maudes for (disturbing errors( and (did not find either the

Margashack or Carmichael e!er superior to the others, and the lack of notes is a drawback.( n-dmonds)s !ersion he states7 (her !ersion has no notes at all and all too fre$uently errs in thedirection of making *olstoy)s )robust awkwardness) conform to the translator)s notion of good-nglish style.(`:B

Mc8ean)s recommendations are the LentVerbero!a re!ision of &arnett)s translation and the/e!ear and 0olokhonsky !ersion. (? consider the &L `&arnettVLentVerbero!a a !ery good!ersion, e!en though it is based on an out+of+date 4ussian text. Lent and erbero!a did a muchmore thorough and careful re!ision of &arnett)s translation than &ibian did of the Maude one,and they ha!e supplied fairly full notes, con!eniently printed at the bottom of the page.( `: Mc8ean takes /e!ear and 0olokhonsky to task for not using the best critical text @the(9aidenshnurV9hdano! text( and offering flawed notes without consulting C. 3. *urner)s A

)arenina (om$anion @:==B, although he calls their !ersion (certainly a good translation.( `:

4e!iewing the translations by artlett and "chwartz for The New 8or" Times Boo" -eview,Masha &essen noted that each new translation of Anna )arenina ended up highlighting an aspectof *olstoy)s (!ariable !oice( in the no!el, and thus, (*he *olstoy of &arnett... is a monocledritish gentleman who is simply incapable of taking his characters as seriously as they takethemsel!es. /e!ear and 0olokhonsky... created a reasonable, calm storyteller who communicated

76 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union









https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina#cite_note-McLean.2C_Hughes_2008.2C_p_71-14


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Book_Review

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masha_Gessen









https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Book_Review

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masha_Gessen



in con!ersational American -nglish. 4osamund artlett... creates an updated ironic+rit !ersionof *olstoy. Marian "chwartz... has produced what is probably the least smooth+talking and mostcontradictory *olstoy yet.( &essen found "chwartz)s translation to be formally closer to theoriginal 4ussian, but often weighed down with details as a result artlett)s translation, like/e!ear and 0olokhonsky)s, was rendered in more idiomatic -nglish and more readable. `:G

Anna Karenin ;s( Anna Karenina

Main article7 -astern "la!ic naming customs

*he title has been translated as both Anna )arenin and Anna )arenina. *he first instance(naturalizes( the 4ussian name into -nglish, whereas the second is a direct transliteration of theactual 4ussian name. 0ladimir Naboko! explains7 (?n 4ussian, a surname ending in a consonantac$uires a final )a) @except for the cases of such names that cannot be declined and exceptad2ecti!es like blonskAEA when designating a woman but only when the reference is to afemale stage performer should -nglish feminise a 4ussian surname @following a French custom7la /a!lo!a, )the /a!lo!a). ?!ano!)s and Larenin)s wi!es are Mrs ?!ano! and Mrs Larenin in

ritain and the I"%not )Mrs ?!ano!a) or )Mrs Larenina).(`:

Naboko! fa!ours the first con!ention%remo!ing the 4ussian )a) to naturalize the name into-nglish%but subse$uent translators mostly allow Anna)s actual 4ussian name to stand. 8arissa0olokhonsky, herself a 4ussian, prefers the second option. ther translators, like Constance&arnett and 4osemary -dmonds, both non+4ussians, prefer the first.

hosts

&enrik )sen

Context

'enrik ?bsen is one of the world)s greatest dramatists. 'e was the leading figure of an artisticrenaissance that took place in Norway around the end of the nineteenth century, in which thework of artist -dward Munch also played a large part. ?bsen li!ed from :;D; to :=>H. 'e grewup in po!erty, studied medicine for a while, and then abandoned that to write plays. ?n :;G;, he published his first play, The Vi"in&s at el&eland, and married "usannah *horesen, the daughterof a pastor.

?bsen obtained a scholarship to tra!el to ?taly, where he wrote the plays that would establish hisreputation, Brand and eer %ynt. *hese were long, historical !erse plays. 'e li!ed most of therest of his life in ?taly and in &ermany. "tarting in :;H=, he began to write prose plays, gi!ing upthe !erse form. "ome critics characterize this switch as an abandonment of poetry in fa!or ofrealism. ?n :;<<, ?bsen began what would become a series of fi!e plays in which he examinesthe moral faults of modern society. *he group includes A Doll's ouse , The ild Duc", and%hosts.

77 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina#cite_note-Gessen-15

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Slavic_naming_customs

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteration










http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/dollhouse/


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina#cite_note-Gessen-15

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Slavic_naming_customs












8ike all of ?bsen)s plays, %hosts was originally written in Norwegian, and is full of untranslatablewordplay. 3ames 3oyce admired ?bsen so much that as a youth he attempted to teach himself thelanguage in order to read ?bsen in the original. ?n the case of %hosts, perhaps the most important problem of translation is that of the word (li!sglede,( which can be translated as (the 2oy of life,(only this sounds too pretentious for the Norwegian word.

"ummary

3akob -ngstrand tries to con!ince his supposed daughter 4egina to come work at the sailor)sestablishment he wants to open, but she is too proud of her 2ob as Mrs. Al!ing)s maid to do so.'e lea!es and /astor Manders enters. *he /astor tries to con!ince 4egina to help her father,while she pesters him to find her a position somewhere in high society. "he lea!es and Mrs.Al!ing enters. swald, Mrs. Al!ing)s son, comes down. 'e has been tra!eling in -urope since hewas young, and he has not been home in years. 'e and the /astor get into an argument o!erli!ing out of wedlock. 'e lea!es, and the /astor admonishes Mrs. Al!ing for letting her son growup in such a way. 'e also blames her for once lea!ing her husband. Mrs. Al!ing replies that her

husband made her miserable and that she sent her son away to sa!e him from her husband)sdebauchery. "he e!en admits to the /astor that 4egina is the lo!e+child of her husband and theirformer maid, 3ohanna. As dinner is about to start, the two hear a cry from the kitchen. Apparentlyswald is making ad!ances on 4egina.

After dinner, the /astor and Mrs. Al!ing discuss this strange de!elopment. *he /astor realizesthat swald is furious at -ngstrand for ne!er telling him the truth about 4egina. -ngstrand entersand suggests to the /astor that he hold a prayer meeting at the orphanage. *he /astor $uestionshim, and -ngstrand con!inces him that it was only to sa!e 3ohanna)s reputation that he kept thetruth from him. -ngstrand and the /astor lea!e, and Mrs. Al!ing goes to talk to her son. swaldis drinking. "he wants to tell him the truth about his father. 'e tells her about the sickness he is

suffering from. A doctor in /aris diagnosed it by saying that the sins of the father !isit the son.'e goes on to complain about the misery and hypocrisy of gloomy Norway, contrasting it withthe 2oy of life. Mrs. Al!ing is about to tell him and 4egina the truth, but then they notice that theorphanage has caught fire.

-ngstrand and the /astor return to the house, announcing that the orphanage is lost to the flames.-ngstrand con!inces the /astor that there will be a public scandal, blaming the /astor forcarelessly letting the prayer candles start the fire. 'e blackmails the /astor into funding his sailor establishment, con!incing the /astor that it will be dedicated to the reform of sailors. *hey lea!e,and Mrs. Al!ing finally tells 4egina and swald the truth about their father. 4egina feels cheatedand goes to claim part of her inheritance. swald is partly relie!ed but re!eals to his mother thathe is sick beyond hope. 'e shows her some morphine pills and asks her to administer them incase of a relapse. As the sun comes up, he melts into his chair and begins to mumble nonsense.Mrs. Al!ing desperately searches for the pills, ha!ing seemingly lost all hope for her son oranyone else.

Characters

78 | P a g e



Mrs. 'elene Al!ing + Mrs. Al!ing li!es with her maidser!ant, 4egina, in a mansion in Norway)scountryside. "he married her late husband, Captain Al!ing, at her relati!es) suggestion, but shehad a horrible marriage. "he ran away once, to /astor Manders, to whom she was attracted, buthe made her return to her husband. "he endured her husband)s debauchery but sent away theirson, swald, at the age of se!en, with the hope that he would ne!er disco!er his dead father)s

immorality. @'is father died ten years before the start of the play. Mrs. Al!ing has established anorphan asylum @an orphanage to memorialize his death, and it is schedule to be dedicated thefollowing day. "he doesn)t want anyone to doubt that he was a good and honorable man. At thesame time, she is a free+thinking woman and feels compelled to tell her son the truth about hisfather.

/astor Manders + /astor Manders is a local priest from the nearby town. 'e often lecturesothers about morality and religion. "ometimes, his financial dealings regarding the orphanageseem suspect, and he is also $uick to bend to public opinion. 'e belie!es that Mrs. Al!ing shouldnot ha!e abandoned her husband and should not ha!e sent her son into the world at such an earlyage. 'e is easily shocked.

swald Al!ing + At the play)s start, swald has come home to spend the winter with his mother.'e has most recently been in ?taly, li!ing a relati!ely bohemian life. 'e is also a promising painter. /astor Manders belie!es that he has strayed from what is moral and also finds himreminiscent of his father. swald is by nature idealistic. 4ecently, howe!er, he has felt a profound listlessness, for which he blames himself. 'e also shows a romantic interest in 4egina.

4egina -ngstrand + 4egina is Mrs. Al!ing)s maidser!ant. "he is belie!ed to be the daughter of3akob -ngstrand, a carpenter, and the late 3ohanna, Mrs. Al!ing)s former maid. ?n fact, she is theillegitimate daughter of 3ohanna and Captain Al!ing. "he only learns this at the end of the play.*hroughout the play, she resists her father)s dubious affection and takes pride from working in

Mrs. Al!ing)s home. "he seems to return swald)s affection, e!en peppering her speech withFrench, which she has learned in the hope that swald will take her to /aris. 'owe!er, she iscareful not to o!erstep the bounds of what is proper.

3akob -ngstrand + A carpenter with a deformed leg, 3akob married 3ohanna when she was pregnant with Captain Al!ing)s child. *he daughter was 4egina. At the start of the play, he isworking on the orphan asylum meant to memorialize Captain Al!ing. 'e wants to use the moneyhe is sa!ing to open an (establishment( for sailors. #hen speaking to /astor Manders, whom thehypocritical 3akob always tries to please, he describes the establishment as a place to reformsailors. ut when he describes it to 4egina, it sounds like a high+class saloon. 'e is an alcoholic.

Captain Al!ing + Captain Al!ing died ten years prior to the start of the play. 'e was a !eryfamous man with a good reputation, and before he died he was made a chamberlain. 'e ne!erappears in the play but is often referred to. According to Mrs. Al!ing)s account, he was, in fact, alazy, dissolute man.

3ohanna + 3ohanna was the Al!ings) ser!ant and ga!e birth to 4egina after being forced byCaptain Al!ing to sleep with him. "he is dead and ne!er appears on stage.

79 | P a g e



Analysis

*he main theme of &hosts is the extent to which society in!ades personal li!es. Mrs. Al!ing,obsessed with keeping up appearances, tries to protect her late husband)s reputation. ut becauseof this concern, she not only ends up li!ing a lie and building a memorial to her husband)s false

reputation, but she also ruins the li!es of her husband)s two children, swald and 4egina.

/astor Manders is also ruled by a neurotic concern for public opinion. ?t leads him to muchfoolishness, to the extent that he is e!entually tricked into funding -ngstrand sailor)s saloon. ?nthe /astor, we see the connection between public opinion and duty. #hen the /astor tells Mrs.Al!ing that she must sa!e swald from sin, it is unclear whether he is moti!ated by a pure senseof moral duty or by a deference to public opinion, because for him they are essentially the same.?t is because of the /astor)s principles that he does not gi!e in to the mutual attraction that he andMrs. Al!ing share and that would ha!e made them both happy.

Mrs. Al!ing)s speech on (ghosts,( in the second act, establishes the play)s key metaphor. *he

(ghosts( of duty and public opinion come to dominate and ruin generations of li!es. Mrs. Al!ingfeels that all people are haunted not only by their inheritances from specific people, but bygeneral superstitions that exist within a community. *he idea of filial piety, or duty to familymembers abo!e all else, is such a ghost.

"tudy 1uestions

'ow do images of light and dark function in the playJ

Mrs. Al!ing, and especially swald, complain about the gloom that surrounds them. ecausemany of their problems center around maintaining public reputations, their real li!es seem

cloaked in darkness, and the public world itself seems to be one of darkness, where appearancesare kept up while men commit gross hypocrisies, as e!ident in the character of -ngstrand !erthe course of the play, light sometimes acts as a potential antidote to this gloominess. swaldrefers to sunny ?taly, where he could feel (the 2oy of life.( Mrs. Al!ing has a lamp lit, ostensiblyto comfort swald, although it does little good. #hen the fire erupts in the orphanage, thememorial to Captain Al!ing)s reputation is literally destroyed, so this light ser!es to destroy someshadows, although it is in no way constructi!e, as it only leads to further confusion, with-ngstrand blackmailing the /astor. Finally, the sun rises 2ust after swald and Mrs. Al!ing ha!elearned the full truth of their conditions from one another, and, with the sunlight, swald goesmad.

#hat moti!ates 4eginaJ

Abo!e all, 4egina wants to escape from the lower classes. At the beginning of the play, we seethe difference in the way she speaks to -ngstrand and then to the /astor. "he uses polite, ifcliched, phrases when speaking to the /astor, but she sounds like a common girl when talking to-ngstrand. "he hopes on the one hand to find an escape through swald, ha!ing taken seriouslyhis promise to go to /aris. "he is so earnest about this sli!er of hope that she learns bits of

80 | P a g e



French and drops small phrases throughout the play. ?ronically, her last word, lea!ing the stageafter learning that her father is Captain Al!ing, is (adieu.( ut she has other possibilities sheasks the /astor if he knows of any positions for her. And once she is made to feel uncomfortablein the Al!ing home, she is eager to maker her way amidst the debauchery of -ngstrand)s newsailor)s establishment%she will now follow -ngstrand e!en though she is sure he is not her

father. "he immediately drops swald once she sees that he is mad. "he is an opportunist.

?n what ways is Mrs. Al!ing a radicalJ

As we learn from the disappro!al the /astor shows for her books, Mrs. Al!ing is interested inradical ideas. "he says that they corroborate her own thoughts, thus, building her confidence. "hegoes on to say that she agrees with swald)s disrespect for the institution of marriage and that perhaps swald and 4egina should be allowed to marry, as long as the couple knows that itwould be an incestuous union. 8ater, she tells them the truth of their shared genealogy, in spite of the /astor)s earlier protests. Eet e!en when she tells them about their father, she couches her story

in language that makes excuses for him, as if he were simply too li!ely for her and the town. "hecannot resist keeping up appearances, and e!en acknowledges that this is the case, calling herself a coward. "he is a radical in thought but not in action.

#hat is (the 2oy of life(J

*he notion of (the 2oy of life( is introduced by swald. 'e first understood it when he saw4egina and noticed her beauty, confidence, and energy. 'e then applies the term backward to allthat he !alues in life specifically, to all the things he e!er painted, such as sunny days andsmiling faces. 'e contrasts the 2oy of life with the gloom of Norway. ?t is implied that a belief in

this 2oy of life allows one to see a certain morality in the choice of an unmarried couple to li!etogether and that the /astor, therefore, must not see the 2oy of life. Mrs. Al!ing seizes on the ideathat Norwegian society and climate suppresses the 2oy of life, con!incing herself and trying tocon!ince others that her husband was not an e!il man but simply a man depri!ed of a properoutlet for his boundless energy.

-xplain Mrs. Al!ing)s attitude toward /astor Manders.

Mrs. Al!ing often resents the /astor, especially when he constantly accuses her of gross sins offamilial betrayal and personal failure. At the same time, she condescends to him, humoring hisgullibility. #hen -ngstrand con!inces the /astor that his marriage was arranged and carried out

in the most moral way possible, Mrs. Al!ing sees through the lies but does not bother toenlighten the /astor. ?nstead, she is amused by his naR!e acceptance of the story. #hen she fledher husband, she went to the /astor, offering herself up to him. #hen out of (duty,( he sent her back, she was crushed, and has since fulfilled her (duty( to the utmost. b!iously his re2ectionhad a huge impact on her. ?t is no wonder, gi!en this mix of emotions, that the two agree thatthey do not understand one another.

81 | P a g e



#hat is re!ealed in the way each character has of speakingJ

5oes swald lo!e his motherJ 5oes he use herJ

5o you think ?bsen belie!ed in (the 2oy of life,( or does he poke fun at it through swald)s crazy

ramblingsJ#hy is the play called &hostsJ ?s swald a ghostJ #hy might (filial piety( be called a ghostJ

8ist fi!e things Mrs. Al!ing does in order to maintain her husband)s good reputation.

%hus Spoke Zarathustra

.riedri#h Niet:s#he

Conte?t

Friedrich Nietzsche was born in :; in 4ocken, &ermany, the son of a 8utheran minister. 'isfather went insane and died while Nietzsche was $uite young, and he grew up the only boyin a household of women. 'e was an excellent student, and so impressed his professor atuni!ersity that he was granted a doctorate and a professorship in philology at the age oftwenty+four, before he had e!en written a dissertation. At this time, he was deeply impressedwith the philosophy of qq?mmanuel Lantqq and Arthur "chopenhauer, though he wouldlater come to criticize both these figures.

?n :;<>, the young Nietzsche ser!ed as a medical orderly in the Franco+/russian #ar, where hecontracted dysentery, diphtheria, and perhaps syphilis. 'e suffered from increasing ill

health, migraines, indigestion, insomnia, and near blindness for the rest of his life.#hile the &ermany of Nietzsche)s day was marked by an unbridled optimism in the future of

science, knowledge, and the &erman people, Nietzsche characterized his age as (nihilistic.(*he Christian faith no longer held sway o!er -uropean thought as it once had @a fact Nietzsche famously expresses in the phrase (&od is dead(, and the rise of science and5arwinian e!olution had led people to see the world increasingly as a meaningless andchaotic 2umble. Nietzsche recognized the need for a set of positi!e !alues to direct theenergy and will of -urope. /rophetically, he predicted that if -uropean nihilism were to rununchecked, the following century would see wars of a kind this earth had ne!er beforeexperienced.

Nietzsche)s first book, *he irth of *ragedy, was published in :;<D, in which he praised thecomposer 4ichard #agner, whom he had befriended. Nietzsche)s admiration for #agnercooled during the :;<>s, largely owing to #agner)s anti+"emitism, nationalism, andChristianity. ecause of #agner)s early influence, and also the influence of Nietzsche)ssister, who was also a !irulent nationalist and anti+"emite, Nietzsche was particularlyoutspoken against &erman nationalism and anti+"emitism @not to mention Christianitythroughout his career.

82 | P a g e



Nietzsche)s mature period began with the publication of 'uman, All+*oo+ 'uman in :;<;, andculminated with *hus "poke 9arathustra, published in four parts between :;;B and :;;G. Nietzsche wrote each of the first three parts in ten+day spurts, while li!ing alone in modestconditions and battling horrendous ill health. *hey were each published separately, and thefourth part did not reach the general public until :;=D. #hile his writing and thinking were

incredibly energetic, he was miserably lonely and continued to suffer from indigestion,migraines, and insomnia.

As Nietzsche)s health $uickly declined, his writing became more and more prolific. 'e wroteqqeyond &ood and -!ilqq, qqn *he &enealogy of Moralsqq, *he *wilight of the ?dols,*he Antichrist, -cce 'omo, *he Case of #agner, and Nietzsche Contra #agner between:;;H and :;;;. ?n 3anuary :;;= he collapsed in the street and became insane. 'e remainedin an incapacitated state for the last ele!en years of his life, and died in :=>>.

Nietzsche)s sister was his literary executor, and she used her brother)s fame to ad!ance her own proto+Nazi !iews, distorting Nietzsche)s opinions and publishing selecti!ely to make

Nietzsche seem to support her cause. For the first half of the twentieth century, Nietzschewas largely misconstrued as being the primary philosopher of Nazism e!en though he is$uite explicit about his hatred for &erman nationalism and anti+"emitism in many of hiswritings.

Nietzsche has influenced twentieth+century thought more than almost any other thinker has. 'ehas been an inspiration to almost e!ery new mo!ement in -uropean philosophy in thiscentury, and his criti$ues and methodology were far ahead of his time. Among those whoowe a debt to Nietzsche are Martin 'eidegger, Michel Foucault, qq*homas Mannqq,qq&eorge ernard "hawqq, #. . Eeats, qq3ames 3oyceqq, 3ac$ues 5errida, "igmundFreud, and 3ean+/aul "artre.

0art Zarathustra$s 0rolo-ue

"ummary

At the age of thirty, 9arathustra goes into the wilderness and so en2oys his spirit and his solitudethere that he stays for ten years. Finally, he decides to return among people, and share withthem his o!er+brimming wisdom. 8ike the setting sun, he must descend from the mountainand (go under.(

n his way, he encounters a saint li!ing alone in the forest. *his saint once lo!ed mankind, but

grew sick of their imperfections and now lo!es only &od. 'e tells 9arathustra that mankinddoesn)t need the gift he brings, but rather help7 they need someone to lighten their load andgi!e them alms. *aking his lea!e of the saint, 9arathustra registers with surprise that the oldman has not heard that (&od is dead(

Ipon arri!ing in the town, 9arathustra begins to preach, proclaiming the o!erman. Man is a rope between beast and o!erman and must be o!ercome. *he way across is dangerous, but it mustnot be abandoned for otherworldly hopes. 9arathustra urges the people to remain faithful to

83 | P a g e



this world and this life, and to feel contempt for their all+too+human happiness, reason,!irtue, 2ustice, and pity. All this will prepare the way for the o!erman, who will be themeaning of the earth.

n hearing this, the people laugh at 9arathustra. 9arathustra suggests that while it is still possible

to breed the o!erman, humanity is becoming increasingly tame and domesticated, and willsoon be able to breed only the last man. *he last men will be all alike, like herd animals,en2oying simple pleasures and mediocrity, afraid of anything too dangerous or extreme.9arathustra says, ()#e ha!e in!ented happiness,) say the last men, and they blink.( *he people cheer, and ask 9arathustra to turn them into these last men.

3ust then, a tightrope walker begins walking between two towers in the town. A 2ester comes out behind him, following him, and mocking him for being so awkward and mo!ing so slowly."uddenly, the 2ester 2umps right o!er the tightrope walker, upsetting him and making himfall to the ground. 9arathustra approaches the dying man, and allays his fear of damnation by explaining that there is no de!il and no hell. ut then, the tightrope walker suggests that

his life has been meaningless and that he has been a mere beast. Not at all, 9arathustrasuggests to the dying man7 (Eou ha!e made danger your !ocation there is nothingcontemptible in that.(

*hat night, 9arathustra lea!es town with the dead tightrope walker to bury him in thecountryside. A poor day of fishing, he muses metaphorically7 he has caught no men, but onlya corpse. n his way out, the 2ester approaches him and warns him to lea!e. *he 2ester saysthat 9arathustra is disliked here by the good and the 2ust, and by the belie!ers in the truefaith. nly because 9arathustra isn)t taken seriously is he allowed to li!e.

utside the city, 9arathustra encounters a hermit, who insists on feeding both him and the

corpse. After that, 9arathustra goes to sleep. 'e reawakens with the con!iction that he mustgi!e up preaching to the masses, and seek out like+ minded companions to 2oin him. 4atherthan be a shepherd, who leads the herd, he must lure people away from the herd. *he goodand the 2ust, and the belie!ers in the true faith will hate him e!en more for this, for he willappear to be a lawbreaker and a breaker of the table of !alues. 'owe!er, 9arathustra belie!es this breaking of laws and !alues will be a glorious act of creation.

Analysis

*his prologue contains the two moments in Nietzsche)s writings that loom largest in popularconsciousness7 the declaration of the death of &od and the declaration of the o!erman.

Nietzsche first wrote (&od is dead( in section :>; of *he &ay "cience, the bookimmediately preceding 9arathustra. /eople often mistake this phrase for the metaphysicalassertion that &od does not exist. ?n fact, Nietzsche is making the cultural obser!ation thatour idea of &od is no longer strong enough to ser!e as the foundation for truth and morality.'e is not saying that &od does not exist, but that &od is no longer uni!ersally accepted asgi!ing meaning to our li!es. ?f &od was what pre!iously ga!e meaning to our li!es, a worldwithout &od is meaningless. Nietzsche belie!es his age is characterized by nihilism, lackingstrong, positi!e goals.

84 | P a g e



*he portrait of the (last man( is meant to gi!e us the ultimate result of nihilism. 8acking any positi!e beliefs or needs, people will aim for comfort and to struggle as little as possible."oon we will all become the same%all mediocre, and all perfectly content. #e will (in!enthappiness( by eliminating e!ery source of worry and strife from our li!es.

*he o!erman is meant to be the solution to nihilism, the meaning we should gi!e to our li!es.*he &erman word Ibermensch is often translated as (superman,( but Laufmann)s choice of(o!erman( is more accurate, as it brings out the way that this word e!okes (o!ercoming(and (going under.( *he o!erman faces a world without &od, and rather than finding itmeaningless, gi!es it his own meaning. ?n so doing, he upsets the (good and 2ust( and the(belie!ers in the true faith( who ha!e not yet come to recognize the bankruptcy of the ideaof &od. -ssentially, the difference between regular humans and the o!erman is that we needto put our faith in something%be it &od or science or truth%while the o!erman puts all hisfaith in himself and relies on nothing else.

9arathustra suggests that humans are great only as a bridge between animal and o!erman.

'umans are not the be all and end all of existence, as the (last men( would see themsel!es.#e are still largely go!erned by our animal instincts, which lead us to pre2udice,superficiality, and to easy reliance upon faith. ?n order to refine our being, we must turn ourinstinct for cruelty upon oursel!es, and car!e away at our pre2udices, superficiality, andfaith, creating something deeper. 9arathustra speaks of the triumphant moment where welook with contempt upon all the human $ualities that we once !alued. *his would signify our triumph o!er our shallow, human nature, and our progress toward the o!erman.

*his image of humanity as a bridge is illustrated in the story of the tightrope walker. *hetightrope walker is making the slow and dangerous progress between animal and o!erman.*he 2ester bears some resemblance to 9arathustra7 he can mo!e lightly @lightness and

dancing are praised a great deal later in the book and he can easily leap o!er those who areslower%in other words, he can cross the rope toward the o!erman. ?n urging the tightropewalker to hurry up, the 2ester upsets him and ruins him similarly, 9arathustra)s preaching ofthe o!erman may upset and ruin the many people who are unable to deal with this news.

Nietzsche makes many allusions in this book to the New *estament and to the ministry of 3esus.For instance, we are told that 3esus also went into the wilderness at the age of thirty, thoughrather than en2oying his stay there, 3esus spent forty days and forty nights in the forest beingtempted and tormented by the de!il. Nietzsche implicitly suggests that 3esus lacked thestrength of will to en2oy his solitude, and could endure his loneliness for only 2ust o!er amonth. #e also find echoes of the New *estament in 9arathustra)s musings that he has beenunsuccessful in (fishing( for followers. 3esus told his apostles that they would be fishers formen. Moreo!er, unlike 3esus, 9arathustra explicitly says that he does not want to be ashepherd and lead a flock of sheep7 rather, he wants to teach the indi!idual to break freefrom the flock.

%hus Spoke Zarathustra

85 | P a g e



.riedri#h Niet:s#he

"ummary

*he no!el opens with 9arathustra descending from his ca!e in the mountains after ten years ofsolitude. 'e is brimming with wisdom and lo!e, and wants to teach humanity about the o!erman.

'e arri!es in the town of the Motley Cow, and announces that the o!erman must be the meaningof the earth. Mankind is 2ust a bridge between animal and o!erman, and as such, must beo!ercome. *he o!erman is someone who is free from all the pre2udices and moralities of humansociety, and who creates his own !alues and purpose.

*he people on the whole seem not to understand 9arathustra, and not to be interested in theo!erman. *he only exception is a tightrope walker who has fallen and who dies shortlythereafter. At the end of his first day among people, 9arathustra is saddened by his inability tomo!e this (herd( of people in the marketplace. 'e resol!es not to try to con!ert the multitudes, but rather to speak to those indi!iduals who are interested in separating themsel!es from the

herd.

*he bulk of the first three parts is made up of indi!idual lessons and sermons deli!ered by9arathustra. *hey co!er most of the general themes of Nietzsche)s mature philosophy, thoughoften in highly symbolic and obscure form. 'e !alues struggle and hardship, since the roadtoward the o!erman is difficult and re$uires a great deal of sacrifice. *he struggle toward theo!erman is often symbolically represented as climbing a mountain, and the light+hearted freespirit of the o!erman is often represented through laughter and dance.

9arathustra is harshly critical of all kinds of mass mo!ements, and of the (rabble( in general.

Christianity is based upon a hatred of the body and of this earth, and an attempt to deny them both by belie!ing in the spirit and in an afterlife. Nationalism and mass politics are also means by which weary, weak, or sick bodies try to escape from themsel!es. *hose who are strongenough, 9arathustra suggests, struggle. *hose who are not strong gi!e up and turn to religion,nationalism, democracy, or some other means of escape.

*he culmination of 9arathustra)s preaching is the doctrine of the eternal recurrence, which claimsthat all e!ents will repeat themsel!es again and again fore!ermore. nly the o!erman canembrace this doctrine, since only the o!erman has the strength of will to take responsibility fore!ery moment in his life and to wish nothing more than for each moment to be repeated.

9arathustra has trouble facing the eternal recurrence, as he cannot bear the thought that themediocrity of the rabble will be repeated through all eternity without impro!ement.

?n /art ?0, 9arathustra assembles in his ca!e a number of men who approximate, but who do not$uite attain the position of the o!erman. *here, they en2oy a feast and a number of songs. *he book ends with 9arathustra 2oyfully embracing the eternal recurrence, and the thought that (all 2oy wants deep, wants deep eternity.(

86 | P a g e



Characters and *erms

9arathustra + 9arathustra was a /ersian prophet @called (9oroaster( by the &reeks, and most ofthe #estern world who li!ed and preached in the fifth century .C.-. 'e was the first philosopher to concei!e of a uni!erse that is fundamentally defined by a struggle between good

and e!il. Nietzsche uses him as his protagonist, since, Nietzsche supposes, the first prophet to preach about good and e!il should also be the first to mo!e beyond good and e!il. ?n the book,9arathustra preaches about the o!erman who has mo!ed beyond the concepts of good and e!il,and has embraced the eternal recurrence. ?t is unclear whether or not Nietzsche means9arathustra himself to be an o!erman, though if this is the case, he only becomes so in the fourth part of the book, when he finally embraces the eternal recurrence.

!erman + *he goal of humanity. *he o!erman is someone who has o!ercome himself fully7 heobeys no laws except the ones he gi!es himself. *his means a le!el of self+ mastery that freeshim from the pre2udices and assumptions of the people around him, a creati!e will, and a strong

will to power. 9arathustra suggests that no o!erman has yet existed, but that we must try to breedone. As a race, we are only 2ustified by the exceptional people among us.

Nihilism + -ssentially, nihilism means the belief in nothing. Nietzsche characterized latenineteenth century -urope as nihilistic, and would probably consider the late twentieth centurye!en more so. 'e generalizes that we no longer belie!e that &od gi!es meaning and purpose toour li!es, but we ha!e found nothing to replace &od. As such, we see our li!es as essentiallymeaningless, and lack the will to create or to become anything new. Nietzsche worried thatwithout a purpose we would slide deeper and deeper into a dream world of mediocrity andcomfort. 'e also rightly foresaw that nihilism might lead to a rabid nationalism that would cause

horrific wars.

-ternal 4ecurrence + *he doctrine that all e!ents will be repeated o!er and o!er again for alleternity. 9arathustra outlines his !ision of the eternal recurrence in /art ???7 ?f the past stretches back infinitely, then anything that could ha!e happened must ha!e happened already at sometime in the past. y that logic, this !ery instant must ha!e occurred at some time in the past. Andsimilarly, if the future is infinite, e!erything%including this moment%must recur againsometime in the future. #alter Laufmann reads this as a scientific hypothesis that is mistaken.&illes 5eleuze reads this as a fundamental expression of the fact that the uni!erse is in a constantstate of change and becoming, and that there is no moment of fixity, or being. Nietzsche would

probably agree with 5eleuze. *he o!erman can look at his past and himself as something entirelywilled by himself, and be delighted by the thought that this process @which includes changeswill recur fore!er.

5ance + Nietzsche often uses dancing as a metaphor for a lightness of spirit. *hose who are tooserious, and too bogged down by absolutes, such as &od, truth, or morality, will be unable todance. An o!erman, or a free spirit, who has freed himself from these absolutes will not be

87 | P a g e



weighed down by any seriousness, and will be able to dance. 5ancing also metaphoricallysuggests a kind of mental flexibility and agility that allows a creati!e spirit to think freely and for himself.

#ill to /ower + Nietzsche calls the fundamental force that dri!es all life a (will to power,(

though he might 2ust as well call it an instinct for freedom. ?t is the dri!e to be as free fromconstraints as possible and to command the wills of others as much as possible. A refined will to power also learns to command and obey itself. *he constant struggle for power and o!ercoming between wills means that nothing in the uni!erse can remain fixed in place for long. *hus, all theuni!erse is in flux.

!ercoming + *he words (o!ercoming( and (o!erman( are only two of a number of (o!er+(words that appear throughout 9arathustra. *he concept of o!ercoming is probably the mostcentral, howe!er. Any impro!ement in a person is made at the expense of what that person usedto be. *hus, in order to impro!e myself, ? must learn to o!ercome myself. ?n qqeyond &ood

and -!ilqq, Nietzsche speaks of humans as being part creature and part creator, and that ourrefinement consists in the fact that the creator in us can torture and re+shape the creature in us.*he o!erman is someone who has fully o!ercome himself so that he can claim to be all creatorand in no way a creature7 he is fully responsible for e!erything he is.

Nausea + ?n 9arathustra, the feeling of nausea, or disgust, is usually associated withcontemplating the common people. ?n particular, 9arathustra has a hard time in part three facingthe full conse$uences of the eternal recurrence, because he is o!ercome with nausea at thethought that the mediocrity of humanity must recur eternally without change.

-!il + *his word is often gi!en a meaning contrary to what we normally take it to mean."omething is (e!il( only within the context of a gi!en morality. ?n particular, anything thatchallenges or tries to destroy a morality is considered (e!il( by that morality. *hus, for9arathustra, (e!il( is $uite often good. ?t means doing away with older moralities in fa!or ofsomething new. 'e often associates e!il with freedom of spirit, and claims that it is essential tocreating the higher man.

8aughter + 8ike dancing, laughter is a common characteristic of the o!erman. Nietzscheconsiders laughter to be the acti!ity of someone looking down on someone or something else. Assuch, it denotes superiority. *he o!erman has risen abo!e e!erything and e!erybody, so there is

nothing, including himself, that he does not laugh at./ity + ne of Nietzsche)s, and 9arathustra)s, pet pee!es. A person who shows pity is displayinga per!erse and inappropriate amount of interest in the suffering of others. Furthermore, pityharms the person who is suffering, as it makes the sufferer feel pitiful and shamed.

Analytical !er!iew

88 | P a g e



*hus "poke 9arathustra is one of the strangest books in the #estern philosophical tradition. ?t isa mock+gospel7 it relates the sayings and doings of 9arathustra in a style reminiscent of the&ospels in the ible and it is laden with biblical allusions, but it also harshly condemnsChristianity and mocks the idea of a holy scripture or a holy person. 9arathustra is essentially aman who praises laughter, and who is able e!en to laugh at himself.

*hat being said, the book is also extremely une!en. Nietzsche wrote it in ten+ day bursts ofinspiration, and it is clear that he didn)t re!ise his work !ery carefully. *he book is longer than itneeds to be, and is often self+indulgent and clumsy. Nietzsche seems fre$uently uncertain as towhat degree he wishes to engage in allegory and symbolism and to what degree he wishes simplyto make a point. 'owe!er, at its best, 9arathustra is un$uestionably a masterpiece.

Nietzsche)s subtitle%(A ook for None and All(% might help us to understand the peculiarstyle in which it was written. Nietzsche was an incredibly lonely man, and belie!ed, $uite rightly,that none of his contemporaries understood him intellectually. 'e knew perfectly well that his

works would be misunderstood, and his writings are replete with harsh condemnations of (therabble.( ?n that sense, 9arathustra is a book for none7 Nietzsche feared that his writings wouldfall on deaf ears. n the other hand, his sub2ect matter concerns the fate and destiny of thehuman race, and in that sense it is surely a book for all. *he fact that Nietzsche felt his work to be of supreme significance coupled with the fact that he had no sense of an audience mightexplain the crazed audacity of his writing. *he best model for his purposes would behagiography or religious scripture. *he only difference is that he needed to lace his writing withlaughter and irony that would mystify solemn thinkers.

#e can approach Nietzsche)s philosophy as a whole, and 9arathustra in particular, by grasping

the principle of the will to power as the fundamental dri!e of all things. -!erything must obeysomething, and if one can)t obey oneself, one must obey someone else. *rue freedom is onlygranted to those who can command themsel!es. *he will to power does not apply only to beings, but also to ideas7 religion, morality, truth, and other concepts are all sub2ect to the same strugglefor power that dominates life. ecause all things are characterized by a constant struggling,stri!ing, and o!ercoming, nothing can remain fixed in place for too long. All things areconstantly changing permanence and fixity are mere illusions.

Most of Nietzsche)s likes and dislikes, and his higher concepts of the o!erman and the eternalrecurrence, all follow from the principle of the will to power and the attendant principle that

e!erything is in a state of change. For instance, Christianity)s belief in absolutes or in &od, therabble)s lo!e of nationalism and democracy, the scholar)s obsession with truth, can all becondemned as contrary to the spirit of change, impermanence, and ine$uality that are essential tolife. *hose who stri!e against this spirit of change are stri!ing against life, and thus are clearlysick and weak and wanting to escape from life.

89 | P a g e



*he o!erman, howe!er, is the full realization of a healthy will to power. 'e has gained complete power o!er himself, so that he is entirely a creation of his own will. 'is character, his !alues, hisspirit are all exactly as he has willed them to be. ?n that sense, the o!erman is totally free andabsolutely powerful.

*he scholar, 5eleuze, ties Nietzsche)s notion of the eternal recurrence in with his notion of thewill to power. *he will to power suggests that the uni!erse is in a constant state of change, so thatthere is no such thing as being there is only a state of becoming. 5eleuze cryptically remarksthat returning is the being of becoming, and that the eternal recurrence thus expresses thefundamental nature of the uni!erse. nly an o!erman can fully embrace the eternal recurrence,since only an o!erman can look at e!ery moment in his life, and e!ery thought or deed, as acreation of his own will.

"tudy 1uestions

#hat does Nietzsche mean when 9arathustra says (&od is dead(J 'ow might such a claim beargued againstJ

(&od is dead( is something !ery different from (&od does not exist,( and 9arathustra alludes atse!eral points in the book to the fact that &od was once ali!e. *his &od that was ali!e pro!ided ameaning and a morality for the li!es of the people who belie!ed in him. y saying (&od isdead,( Nietzsche is suggesting that &od no longer ser!es as this ultimate basis in #esternculture. #e can no longer 2ustify our claims and our assumptions by an appeal to &od now &odhimself is something that we must 2ustify if we wish to belie!e in him. *hus, Nietzsche)s claimcannot be refuted by an argument that &od does in fact exist. 4ather, if we wanted to disagree

with Nietzsche on this point, we would ha!e to argue that #estern culture still bases most of itsclaims on religion, an argument which we would probably ha!e trouble carrying off successfully.

#hat are the (three metamorphoses(J #hy is each stage necessary to the creation of ano!ermanJ

*he first stage is that of the camel, who burdens himself with e!erything difficult and ponderous.*he second stage is that of the lion, who is fiercely independent, and refuses to obey anyone buthimself. *he third stage is that of the child, who is innocent, fresh, and creati!e. *he childrepresents the final state of the o!erman, who is able to create new !alues and a new way ofseeing as if he were ne!er influenced by the past. *o reach this goal, he must first be a camel, and

struggle against the old !alues and the old ways that he was born into. 'e then must be a lion,and re2ect all these old ways of seeing. nly once these old !alues and old ways of seeing ha!e been struggled against and re2ected can the o!erman, like a child, create things anew.

#hat do one)s enemies and one)s friends ha!e in commonJ 5o you agree with Nietzsche)sconception of friendshipJ

90 | P a g e



oth one)s enemies and one)s friends challenge and dri!e one toward the o!erman. oth are one)se$uals7 those who are below one)s le!el cannot e!en be one)s enemies. *he only essentialdifference between friends and enemies is that one is warmly disposed towards one)s friends andill disposed towards one)s enemies. "till, one respects one)s enemies, and one)s friends may attimes be one)s enemies and !ice !ersa. *his conception of friendship is unlike the one most of us

hold. n the whole, we tend to treat friends as our support netweork and as people we can relaxwith, not as people who should challenge us and make life difficult for us. f course, the best offriends will ser!e as some kind of spur toward self+impro!ement, but Nietzsche)s conception offriendship is closer to the ancient &reek ideal than the one we ha!e today.


?n what way does Nietzsche see Christian and democratic ideals being based on a spirit ofresentmentJ

?f a barbarian could slice a monk in two, why then does Nietzsche think a monk has more powerthan a barbarianJ

#hat is an (in!erse cripple(J #hy is the past irredeemable so long as we remain in!ersecripplesJ

#hat is the eternal recurrenceJ #hy is it importantJ

'ow does Nietzsche contrast terms like (gra!ity( with terms like (laughter( and (dancing(J#hat is the effect of this contrast, both on a philosophical and on a literary le!elJ

?n what way does Nietzsche express his own inade$uacies in the characters of the people9arathustra welcomes to his ca!e in /art ?0J

#hat is the significance of the biblical allusions found throughout the bookJ

Si? Chara#ters in Sear#h o* an Author

/ui-i 0irandello

Context

A brilliant playwright who practiced what is regarded as a precursor of Absurdism, 8uigi

/irandello was born in &irgenti @now Agrigento, "icily in :;H< to a wealthy family of sulfurminers. 5uring the :;;>s, he attended the Ini!ersity of 4ome and then the Ini!ersity of onn,earning his doctorate in 4oman philology in :;=:. ?n :;= he married Antonietta /ortulano, thedaughter of a sulfur merchant, in what appears to ha!e been a business deal between theirrespecti!e families. From :=> onward, /ortulano suffered se!ere bouts of hysteria and othermental illness that weighed hea!ily on their household, /irandello ultimately institutionalizingher in :=:= upon the capture of both their sons in a #orld #ar ? military campaign.

91 | P a g e



/irandello began writing while at uni!ersity and returned to 4ome in the late :;=>s to pursue acareer as an author. After a flood ruined his family)s sulfur mines, /irandello began to supporthimself by teaching rhetoric and then ?talian 8iterature at !arious local colleges. 5uring thistime, he translated &oethe)s 4oman -legies, wrote his -legie 4enae, two books of poetry, and a!olume of short stories entitled Amore "enz) Amore @:;=. /irandello)s first no!el, 8)esclusa,

appeared in :=>: ?l Fu Matta /ascal, his first ma2or success, followed in :=>. *hough/irandello had begun writing plays in the :;;>s, he initially considered drama an impo!erishedmedium in comparison with the no!el. 'e would only come to the theater in :=:G, ferociously producing sixteen plays in six years. /irandello became so prominent on the ?talian dramaticscene that he would later win Mussolini)s support to lead an ultimately failed campaign toestablish a National Art *heater in 4ome. Much to the dismay of his present readers, /irandellowas an ardent fascist who 2oined the party in :=DB. *hough he harbored a somewhatidiosyncratic and not entirely uncritical relationship to the go!ernment, /irandello remainsremembered for his blunt declarations of allegiance to the party and his extra!agant displays of

support, most famously, (? am a Fascist because ? am an ?talian.( *he most oft+cited example ofthe latter is the donation of his personal gold, including his :=B Nobel /rize medal, for the?talian campaign into -thiopia.

-ric entley, perhaps /irandello)s most canonical critic in Anglo+American dramatic studies,di!ides the playwright)s career into three ma2or phases7 the early period of "icilian folkcomedies, /irandello)s philosophical works, and that of the mythic plays written under fascistrule. ?t is for the works of the second period, those often considered progenitors of the absurdisttheater, that /irandello is remembered today. Apart from the famous "ix Characters in "earch ofan Author @:=D:, notable examples include 4ight Eou Are ?f Eou *hink Eou Are @:=:<, a tale

of a mysterious woman who could be either one of two different people, and 'enry ?0 @:=DD,the story of a madman who belie!es he is a &erman -mperor from the ele!enth+century. *oaccommodate his madness, his sister keeps him in a medie!al castle surrounded by actors playing the role of his courtiers.

/remiering to great contro!ersy in 4ome, "ix Characters in "earch of an Author recounts the fateof a family of characters left unrealized by their author. 5esperate to come to life, the charactersinterrupt the rehearsal of another /irandello play and demand that the director and cast stagetheir story. /irandello retrospecti!ely grouped this surreal tale in a trilogy of (the theater in thetheater,( along with -ach 'is wn #ay @:=D and *onight #e ?mpro!ise @:=B>. *aking the

theater itself as its setting and sub2ect, this trilogy drew upon the relations between all the ma2or players of the dramatic spectacle%directors, actors, characters, spectators, and critics%to(present e!ery possible conflict.( As such a deeply self+ referential or meta+theatrical work, "ixCharacters is also a key exercise in what /irandello termed il teatro dello specchio or (the mirrortheater,( a play that turns a mirror onto the theater itself. As critic Anne /aolucci notes, the resultthen is not a reflection but a shattering, /irandello generating his works through the fracturing ofthe dramatic spectacle itself.

92 | P a g e



/lot !er!iew

he audience faces an empty stage. *he company enters from the back and gets ready for arehearsal of /irandello)s Mixing it Ip. *he Manager enters and calls for the second act. *he8eading Man asks if he must absolutely wear a cook)s cap. *he Manager 2umps up in rage.

*he "ix Characters enter from the rear. A (tenuous light( surrounds them%the (faint breath oftheir fantastic reality.( #ith embarrassment, the Father explains to the angry Manager that theyare in search of an author. #hen the Manager replies that he has no time for madmen, Fatherre2oins that he must know life is full of absurdities that do not need to appear plausible since theyare true. *o re!erse this process is the madness of acting7 that is, (to create credible situations, inorder that they may appear true.(

Father explains that as their author un2ustly denied them stage+life and its immortality, they bringtheir drama to the company. *he seducti!e "tep+5aughter begins its elaboration7 after what took

place between her and Father, she cannot remain in society, and she cannot bear to witness herwidowed Mother)s anguish for her legitimate "on. Confused, the Manager asks for the situationand wonders how a Mother can be a widow if the Father is ali!e. *he "tep+5aughter explainsthat the Mother)s lo!er%her, the Child, and oy)s father%died two months ago. Father properonce had a clerk who befriended Mother. "eeing the (mute appeal( in their eyes, he sent her offwith him and took her "on. As soon as the clerk died, the family fell into po!erty and,unbeknownst to Father, returned to town. "tep+5aughter became a prostitute for Madame /ace.*he (eternal moment( of their drama shows the "tep+5aughter surprising Father as herunsuspecting client. Father then gestures to the "on, whose cruel aloofness is the hinge of theaction. *he Mother will re+enter the house with the outside family. ecause the son will make

her family feel foreign to the household, the Child will die, the oy will meet tragedy, and "tep+5aughter will flee.

*he Manager takes interest. 'e gi!es the Actors a twenty+minute break and retires with theCharacters to his office. After twenty minutes, the stage bell rings. *he "tep+5aughter emergesfrom the office with the Child and oy. "he laments the Child)s death in the fountain and angrilyforces oy to show his re!ol!er. ?f she had been in his place, she would ha!e killed Father and"on, not herself.

-!eryone returns to the stage, and the Manager orders the set prepared for rehearsal. Confused,

Father wonders why the Characters themsel!es should not go before the public. *he Managerscoffs that actors act. *he Manager suddenly notices that /ace is missing. Father asks theActresses to hang their hats and mantles on the set)s clothes pegs. 8ured by the articles of hertrade, /ace appears from the rear. *he 8eading 8ady denounces this (!ulgar trick.( Fatherwonders why the actors are so anxious to destroy the (magic of the stage( in the name of a(commonplace sense of truth.( /ace)s scene with "tep+5aughter begins before Father finishes.#hen the actors urge them to speak more loudly, "tep+5aughter replies that they cannot discuss

93 | P a g e



such matters loudly%Father might o!erhear. /ace comes forward, saying, (Ees indeed sir, ? nowanta take ad!antage of her.( *he actors erupt in laughter. *he Manager finds the comic relief ofher accent magnificent. Father cautiously greets the young prostitute and gallantly offers her anew hat. "tep+5aughter protests that she cannot wear one as she is in mourning. *he Managerinterrupts, and calls the 8eading Man and 8ady to play the same scene. Father protests, and "tep+

5aughter bursts out laughing. *he Manager complains that he ne!er could rehearse with theauthor present.

'e instructs the Father to continue. #hen "tep+5aughter speaks of her grief, he must reply ()?understand.)( "tep+5aughter interrupts7 Father actually asked her to remo!e her frock. "herefuses to let them compose a (romantic sentimental scene( out of her disgrace. Acknowledgingthat tomorrow the actors will do as they wish, "tep+5aughter offers them the scene as it trulywas. Father)s (eternal moment( is the nucleus of the first act. *he Manager appro!es and notesthat the curtain will then fall. *o his annoyance, the Machinist lets the curtain down in earnest.

*he curtain rises, re!ealing new scenery7 a drop, a few trees, and the portion of a fountain basin.*he "tep+5aughter tells the exasperated Manager that the entire action cannot take place in thegarden. *he Manager protests that they cannot change scenes three or four times in an act. *he8eading 8ady remarks that it makes the illusion easier. Father bristles at the word (illusion.(/ausing, he approaches the Manager asks if he can tell him who he really is. A character canalways pose this $uestion to a man as he is always somebody while a man might be nobody. ?fman thinks of all his past illusions that now do not e!en seem to exist, perhaps his present realityis not fated to become an illusion tomorrow. *he character is more real as his reality isimmutable. *he Manager commands Father to stop his philosophizing. 'e is but imitating themanner of an author he heartily detests.

*he Manager prepares the scene. "tep+5aughter leads Child to the fountain. (oth at the sametime( the Manager commands. *he "econd 8ady 8ead and 3u!enile 8ead approach and studyMother and "on. *he "on ob2ects that it is impossible to li!e before a mirror that not only(freezes us with the image of oursel!es, but throws out likeness back at us with a horriblegrimace.( 'e also protests that there was no scene between he and Mother. #hen Mother went tohis room to speak with him, he simply went into the garden. 'e then saw the drowning Child inthe fountain, and the oy standing stock still like a madman, watching her. A shot rings out from behind the trees where the oy is hidden. "ome cry that the oy is dead others that it is only(make belie!e( and (pretence.( (/retenceJ 4ealityJ( the Manager cries in frustration. (*o hell

with it all. Ne!er in my life has such a thing happened to me. ?)!e lost a whole day o!er these people, a whole day(

Character 8ist

94 | P a g e



*he Father + A fattish man in his fifties with thin, reddish hair, a thick moustache, and piercing, blue o!al eyes. Along with the "tep+5aughter, he is the Character who most fer!ently insists onthe staging of the Characters) drama.

4ead an in+depth analysis of *he Father.

*he "tep+5aughter + 5ashing, impudent, and beautiful. *he "tep+5aughter also seeks therealization of the Characters) drama to re!enge herself on her Father. "he is seducti!e,exhibitionistic and dangerously cruel, performing wildly to lure both the acting company and theauthor who would gi!e her life. "he is obsessed with the spectacle of the Characters) drama andthat of her own self+image.

4ead an in+depth analysis of *he "tep+5aughter.

*he Mother + 5ressed in modest black and a thick widow)s !eil. *he Mother)s face is (wax+like,( and her eyes always downcast. "he bears the anguish of the Characters) drama, ser!ing as

its horrified spectator. "he is the consummate figure of grief. /articularly agonizing to her is thealoofness of her estranged "on, whom she will approach to no a!ail throughout the play.

4ead an in+depth analysis of *he Mother.

*he "on + A tall, se!ere man of twenty+two. *he "on appears contemptuous, supercilious, andhumiliated by the other Characters. 'a!ing been grown up in the country, he is estranged fromhis family and, in his aloofness, will cause the elimination of the step+children within theCharacters) drama. ?ronically, he ultimately appear as witness to the two younger children)sdemise. 'is role as a character is his ashamed refusal to participate in the spectacle. 'e protests

to the Manager that he is an unrealized character.

4ead an in+depth analysis of *he "on.

*he Manager + "omewhat slow+witted and of fiery temper. *he Manager is largely a comicfigure who agrees to play the role of the Characters) author and realizing their drama. *hroughoutthe play, he remains committed to the !ulgar notions of reality that the Characters, particularlyhis double the Father, would trouble and bound to the con!entions of the stagecraft.

*he oy + *imid and wretched, the fourteen+year+old oy has been dri!en mute in hishumiliation at ha!ing to enter the new household on the Father)s charity. As a result, he suffers

the "tep+5aughter)s contempt. 'e and the Child are (accessory figures( of sorts to the Mother,functioning to keep her torture (actual.( Neither exist for themsel!es. 'e also wears the black ofmourning.

*he Child + A four+year+old girl dressed in white who also does not speak. *he "tep+5aughterdotes on the Child out of remorse and pity, particularly in light of what she percei!es as the

95 | P a g e



Mother)s neglect. 'er role is that of the fallen innocent, the Characters) drama demanding theelimination of the stepchildren and return to the original household.

Madame /ace + *he "tep+5aughter)s exploitati!e Madame. /ace is a fat, older woman with(puffy oxygenated hair.( "he is (rouged and powdered( and wears black silk with a (comical

elegance.( A pair of scissors hangs from a sil!er chain at her waist. Con2ured out of nowhere inAct ??, /ace is an apparition, her birth an exercise in what the Father describes as the magic ofthe stage. ?n translation, she speaks a comically broken -nglish.

8eading 8ady + A stereotypical star of the stage, the 8eading 8ady bristles at the Characters)experiment. /etty and egotistical, she will not support their laughter, protests their !ulgar stagetricks, and continually insists that she will deli!er a performance superior to theirs. "he plays therole of the "tep+5aughter.

8eading Man + Another haughty actor, the 8eading Man plays the role of the Father. At the

beginning of the play, he protests the absurdity of the /irandello play. 'e also flirts with the"tep+5aughter.

"econd 8ady + *he "econd 8ady plays the role of the Mother.

3u!enile 8ead + ?n the company)s production, the 3u!enile 8ead plays the role of the "on.

/rompter + *he /rompter is an e!er+present member of the Crew who holds the book in the firstrehearsal and attempts to record the Characters) drama in shorthand.

Analysis of Ma2or Characters

*he Father

*he Father is a (fattish( man in his fifties with thin, reddish hair, a thick moustache, and piercing, blue o!al eyes. 'e is (alternati!ely mellifluous and !iolent.( Along with the "tep+5aughter, he is the Character who most fer!ently insists on the staging of the Characters) drama.?n some sense, he figures as the drama)s progenitor, ha!ing produced the situation of the step+household, a situation that culminates in an inad!ertent sexual encounter with his "tep+5aughter.*hough the Father ostensibly seeks remorse, /irandello intimates a number of times that a (deal(has perhaps been struck between the Father and Manager, the play)s two authorial figures. *husthe "on and "tep+ 5aughter warn against reading the play according to his word alone. As the

Manager laments, the Father is the play)s philosopher, continually stepping out of his role tosermonize about ideas of the inner workings of the Characters) drama and the relations betweenthe Characters and Actors. 'is excessi!e tendency for preaching would mark him as a roughlydrawn character and as a double for the author. ?n particular, the Father insists on the (reality( ofthe Characters, a reality he poses o!er and against that of the company. Inlike the (nobody(Actors, the Characters are (real somebodies( because their reality%the reality of both theirdrama and role%remains fixed and independent of the !agaries of time. *his reality has little to

96 | P a g e



do with the plausibility nor the codes of the (actable.( *hus, both he and the "tep+5aughter relatethe sense of estrangement in seeing their reality rendered by the Actors.

*he "tep+5aughter

5ashing, impudent, and beautiful, the "tep+5aughter also seeks the realization of the Characters)drama. 'er (reality( as a Character is a fixed, grimacing mask of !engeance. "he seeks stage+lifeto re!enge herself on the Father and she appears in two principle forms that define a certainfantasy of woman. As noted abo!e, she and the Father are the ma2or players in their drama)straumatic scene7 the inad!ertent sexual encounter that precipitates the encounter between theoriginal and surrogate families in the back of Madame /ace)s shop. -xploited despite hermourning for her father, the "tep+5aughter appears here as !ictim. At the same time, on+stageshe appears seducti!e, exhibitionistic, and dangerously cruel.

As she tells the Manager, the Father)s per!ersity is responsible for hers. 'er per!ersity emerges

in particular with her obsession with the spectacle of the Characters) drama. #hereas the Fatheroffers their play as a more (cerebral drama,( tracing its players) moti!ations, its o!erarchingstructures, and its narrati!e tra2ectories, she will con2ure its scenes in speech, calling for itstrappings forth on the stage. Many of these props concern the !isual7 the mirror, the window, andthe screen. *he "tep+5aughter also functions as ob2ect of this spectacle. *hough dressed, like theother members of her immediate family, in mourning for their own father, she wears her clotheswith (great elegance.( For example, she brashly erupts into a cabaret+style performance of(/renez garde *chou+*chin+*chou(7 her display would lure the company into their drama)srealization. More explicitly does the "tep+5aughter re!eal her obsession with her self+image inher memory of the author. As she tells the company, she stro!e most to seduce him from the

shadows about his writing table. ?n her !ision of this seduction, she progressi!ely exiles the other Characters from the room, ultimately lea!ing her alone to illuminate the darkness. #ith theCharacters) drama, the "tep+5aughter would become a star. For her, the drama)s stage+life wouldrealize her self+image abo!e all.

*he Mother

5ressed in modest black and a thick widow)s !eil, the Mother appears crushed by an (intolerableweight of shame and abasement.( 'er face is (wax+like,( and her eyes always downcast. "he bears the anguish of the Characters) drama, ser!ing as its horrified spectator. "he is the

consummate figure of grief, mourning the Characters) inexorable fate. As /irandello notes in his preface to the play, the Mother would incarnate nature without mind in her suffering%she suffersthe torture of what has befallen the family without cognizing it as the Father does. ?n this respect,she is not e!en a woman, she first and foremost a mother in anguish. Caught, like the otherCharacters, in the unchanging and inexorable reality of both her drama and role. "he laments thatshe suffers her torture at e!ery moment her lot as mourner is fixed for eternity. *he two mutechildren, accessories of sorts, underline her function as an image of grief. /articularly agonizing

97 | P a g e



to her is the aloofness of her estranged "on, whom she will approach to no a!ail throughout the play.

*he "on

A tall, se!ere man of twenty+two, the "on appears contemptuous, supercilious, and humiliated byhis fellow Characters. 'a!ing been grown up in the country, he is estranged from his family and,in his aloofness, will cause the elimination of the stepchildren within the Characters) drama.?ronically then will he ultimately appear as witness to the two younger children)s demise. 'isrole as a character lies in his ashamed refusal to participate in the household and the Characters)spectacle, a spectacle to which he ne!ertheless remains bound. More specifically, he appears to be structurally tied within the Character)s drama to the "tep+5aughter, whose look of scorn andexhibitionism fixes him in his guilt, shame, and reser!e. ?n his a!ersion to spectacle, he in particular attacks the Actors who would imitate them. For him, the Actor+as+mirror, in itsnecessary inability to reflect the Character as he sees himself, freezes the Character)s self+image

and renders it grotes$ue. *he "on also protests to the Manager that he remains an unrealizedcharacter, perhaps one that e!en stands for the will of the author in ob2ecting to their drama)sstaging. As the Father counters, howe!er, his unrealized nature is his own situation in both theCharacters) drama and its attempted rehearsal on+stage his aloofness within the drama makeshim the drama)s !ery hinge. *he "on)s position as an unrealized character appears most clearly inthe scene he would refuse to play with his Mother in Act ???, a scene that is actually a non+scene.*he Mother enters his bedroom, and the "on, in his a!ersion to scenes, flees to the garden towitness his step+siblings) deaths.

*hemes, Motifs, and "ymbols

*hemes

*he *heater of the *heater

As noted in the Context, /irandello retrospecti!ely grouped "ix Characters in a trilogy of the(theater of the theater.( *hese works generate their drama out of the theater)s elements%in thiscase, through the conflict between actors, manager and characters, and the missing author. For/irandello, the theater is itself theatrical%that is, it is itself implicated in the forms and dynamicsof the stage. eginning with a supposed daytime rehearsal, "ix Characters puts the theater and its processes themsel!es on stage. /ut otherwise, the play is an allegory for the theater. *hus it

presents characters dubbed the "econd 8eading 8ady and /roperty Man and it hinges on multipleframes of @self+reference, staging the staging of a play within the play. Akin to a hall of mirrors,this de!ice, the mise+en+ abme, is common to plays that would reflect on the properties of theirown medium. "elf+referentiality attains heights here. *he play)s act di!isions, for example,mirror those of the Characters) drama, a number of scenes show the Actors playing the doubles of the audience, and onward. Crucial to this pro2ect is a dismantling of the con!entions of the (well+made( play that would render the play)s workings !isible to the spectator. "ix Characters often

98 | P a g e



appears impro!isational, sketch+like, what the Manager calls a (glorious failure.( Note theaborted rehearsal, re2ected and incompletely drawn characters, hastily assembled sets, andonward. *o anticipate the Father)s confession, one could describe /irandello as perhaps sub2ect tothe (5emon of -xperiment.(

*he Character)s 4eality

*hroughout the play, the Father insists on the reality of the Characters, a reality that, as the stagenotes indicates, inheres in their forms and expressions. *he Father offers his most explicitmeditation on the Character)s reality in Act ??. 'ere he bristles at the Actors) use of the wordillusion as it relies on its !ulgar opposition to reality. 'e approaches the Manager in a sort offace+off to challenge this opposition, one that underpins his identity. Con!inced of his self+identity, the Manager readily responds that he is himself. *he Father belie!es otherwise. #hilethe Character)s reality is real, the Actors) is not while the Character is somebody, man is nobody.Man is nobody because he is sub2ect to time7 his reality is fleeting, always ready to re!eal itself

as illusion, whereas the Character)s reality remains fixed for eternity. /ut otherwise, time enablesan opposition between reality and illusion for man. !er time, man comes to identify realities asillusion, whereas the Character exists in the timeless reality of art.

*he -ternal Moment

*he Father and "tep+5aughter sell the Manager on their drama with the scene around which itcrystallizes7 the inad!ertent sexual encounter between them in the back room of Madame /ace)sshop. ?n Act ?, the spectator recei!es it in exposition, the Father offering an existentialistinterpretation of its nature. For him, its tragedy inheres in man)s belief in his unitary being. 'e

only percei!es this once caught in an act, so to speak, that determines him entirely. 3udged byanother, he appears to himself in alienated form, suspended in a reality that he should ha!eknown. *he "tep+5aughter should not ha!e seen the Father in /ace)s room and he should notha!e become real to her. *he Father)s suspension as per!ert simultaneously fixes him as aCharacter. "imilarly, the other Characters remain bound to this (eternal moment.( *his scene, forexample, impels the "tep+5aughter to !engeance and condemn the Mother an eternal grief. *heMother figures as witness to this obscene exchange, releasing its anguish in her final,culminating wail. -ternally posed before this scene, the Mother can only li!e (e!ery minute ofher torture.(

*he Author+Function?n the rehearsal of another of /irandello)s plays within this one, the figure of /irandelloimmediately appears as the maddening nati!e playwright who (plays the fool( with e!eryone."uch fantasies of authorship are intrinsic to the literary work. *he author is not only that whichthe characters search for but as /irandello laments in his preface to the play, the spectator aswell. (#hat does the author intendJ( wonders the audience. *hough absent, the author haunts thestage. 'e will not assume body like the characters but become a function or mask that circulates

99 | P a g e



among the players. *hough in the preface /irandello describes authorship through metaphors ofdi!ine and e!en the ?mmaculate Conception, speaking of (miracles,( and (di!ine births,( suchidentifications are co!ered o!er within the play. *here the Father decidedly appears as theauthor)s double.

*he Act 5i!isions

Abo!e we noted the multiple frames of reference at work in the play. As the Father)s speech onthe fatuous comedy of human existence suggests, these frames would implicate the spectator)sreality as well. *his gesture of implication becomes especially clear in /irandello)s act di!isions.*he conclusion of Act ?, for example, would ha!e the so+called reality of the spectacle in!adethat of the audience 2ust as the Characters ha!e appeared among the li!ing Actors. 'ere theManager agrees the experiment, and the Characters retire to his office. *hus they break theframe, lea!ing the audience with the actors who had come to ser!e as the Characters) audience.*heir chatter, in which they 2eer at the Manager)s authorial pretentious, complain that this

breaking of theatrical con!ention will reduce them to the le!el of the impro!isers, and would addan additional sense of reality to the scene. *he breaking of the frame and staging of a scenewithin the audience would ratify what we saw as real. *he real+time pause%delimiting both theinterruption of the action and the intermission%similarly attempts to fold stage reality into thatof the audience)s.

"ymbols

?n the play)s preface, /irandello confesses an a!ersion to the use of symbol in the theater. ?f wetake the term loosely, howe!er, we can identify a number of symbolic structures and ob2ects in

the play. First, as noted abo!e, the play itself is symbolic of, or more accurately, an allegory for,the theater itself. "econd, some of "ix Characters)s readers ha!e suggested the symbolic properties of the Characters themsel!es. Critic 5iane *hompson, for example, belie!es that the play echoes the ?talian tradition of the commedia del )arte, in which the mask designates thecharacter)s eternal $uality in opposition to the transient (naked face( of the actors. *he maskwould gi!e the impression of figures fixed fore!er in its own fundamental emotion7 that is,4emorse for the Father, 4e!enge for the "tepdaughter, "corn for the "on, "orrow for the Mother.

#e might also look toward certain ob2ects in the play as bearing symbolic properties. Forexample, the mirror, screen, and window that the "tep+5aughter calls for in the staging of the

/ace scene indicate her obsession with spectacle and, more specifically, her self+image as thatspectacle)s ob2ect. *he !ein she recalls in her sexual encounter with the Father incarnates thedisgusting excessi!eness of the scene, excess that the Manager would keep off+stage at all costs./irandello also makes use of a numbers regarding the relation between reason and sentiment.Memorably, the Manager points to the 8eading Man)s egg+ shells in Mixing ?t Ip assymbolizing psychology of empty reason without its counterpart. "imilarly, the Father imaginesa fact as an (empty sack( unless filled without these two $ualities.

100 | P a g e




A character, sir, may always ask a man who he is. ecause a character has really a life of hisown, marked with his especial characteristics for which reason he is always (somebody.( ut aman%?)m not speaking of you now%may !ery well be (nobody.(

*he Father makes this playful comment to the Manager in Act ??. Note the mellifluous courtesyof his speech7 this rhetorical ploy is typical of the speech he addresses to the company or at hismoments of relati!e reser!e. *hroughout the play, the Father insists on the reality of theCharacters, a reality that, as the stage notes indicates, inheres in their forms and expressions.'ere he bristles at the Actors) use of the word illusion as it relies on its !ulgar opposition toreality. 'e approaches the Manager in a sort of face+off to challenge this opposition, one that

underpins his identity. Con!inced of his self+identity, the Manager readily responds that he ishimself. *he Father belie!es otherwise. #hile the Character)s reality is real, the Actors) reality isnot real. #hile the Character is somebody, man is nobody. Man is nobody because he is sub2ectto time7 his reality is fleeting and always ready to re!eal itself as illusion, whereas the Character)sreality remains fixed for eternity as art%what the Actors would call mere illusion. /ut otherwise,time enables an opposition between reality and illusion for man. !er time, man comes toidentify realities as illusion, whereas the Character exists in the timeless reality of art.

h, if you would only go away, go away and lea!e us alone%mother here with that son ofhers%? with that Child%that oy there always alone%and then ? alone, alone in those shadows

*he "tep+5aughter makes this exclamation toward the end of Act ??? in her !ision of the author.?n her memory, the author sits at his writing table as the Characters haunt him from the shadows,ho!ering in the twilight between life and unreality. *he "tep+5aughter especially appears to himin all her seducti!e charm, attempting to lure him to grant her life. "he appears consumed withher own image lost. *hus she progressi!ely casts the Characters from the author)s side, making asudden mo!ement (as if in the !ision she has of herself illuminating those shadows she wantedto seize hold of herself.( ?n entering the reality of the stage, the "tep+5aughter would becomeself+identical and certainly dispense with the alienating figure of the actress. *he "tep+5aughter)s narcissism appears explicitly in the act pre!ious. *here she furiously insists on the

primacy of her part. As the Manager complains, the "tep+5aughter would break the (neat littleframework( of an organized cast, a cast with its primary and secondary figures that stays closelywithin the limits of the actable.

we ha!e this illusion of being one person for all, of ha!ing a personality that is uni$ue in allour acts. ut it isn)t true. #e percei!e this when, tragically perhaps, in something we do, we areas it were, suspended, caught up in the air on a kind of hook. #e percei!e that all of us was not

101 | P a g e



in that act, and that it would be an atrocious in2ustice to 2udge us by that action alone, as if all our existence were summed up in that one deed.

nce again stepping from his role to sermonize, the Father muses on the act that defines him asCharacter in Act ?. *his act comes from the scene around which it crystallizes7 the inad!ertent

sexual encounter between them in the back room of Madame /ace)s shop that precipitates theencounter and ruin of the two families. 'ere spectator recei!es it in exposition, and the Fatheroffers an existentialist interpretation of its nature. For him, its tragedy inheres in man)s belief inhis unitary being. 'e only percei!es this once caught in an act, so to speak, that determines himentirely. 3udged by another, he appears to himself in alienated form, suspended in a reality thathe should ha!e known. *he "tep+5aughter should not ha!e seen the Father in /ace)s room heshould not ha!e become real to her. *he Father)s suspension as per!ert simultaneously fixes himas a Character.

Ees, but ha!en)t you percei!ed that it isn)t possible to li!e in front of a mirror which not only

freezes us with the image of oursel!es, but throws our likeness back at us with a horriblegrimaceJ

Mortified by the staging of the family)s drama, the "on makes this protest to the Manager towardthe end of Act ???. ?t is particularly significant as /irandello is known as the progenitor of the(mirror theater,( a theater that concerns itself with the confrontation of the figures on the nearand far side of the mirror relation. ?n the case of "ix Characters, these figures are the Actor andCharacter. *he "on charts two effects of the mirror+relation between Actor and Character. othspring from the inability of the Actor as mirror to reflect the Character as it would see itself, itsinability to return the Character)s proper self+image.

?n the second and more straightforward complaint, the image of the sub2ect imitated in the otherrenders that likeness grotes$ue. ?n the first, !aguely reminiscent of the Medusa, the fascinatingimage of the Actor would freeze the Character it reflects. /ut otherwise, the animation of theimage re$uires the petrifaction of the body the life of the persona or mask is the death of the person. *he animation of the Character in the place of the Actor, an animation that takes placethrough imitation, is the Character)s defacement. *his meditation on the petrifying effect of themirror, one that kills the Character by fixing him, perhaps reads in tension with the Father)scomments on the Character)s life and reality. According to the Father, both inhere precisely in thefixity of its image. Inlike transitory man, the mask is real and ali!e insofar as it cannot change.

*he Character)s drama and role are fixed for all time. /erhaps the difference inheres in the process of alienation. *he frozen image is fatal when reflected in the Actor because the places theself+image in the place of the other.

"he isn)t a woman, she is a mother.

*he Father introduces the Mother to the company with this $ualification in Act ?. ?t would definethe Mother)s reality and define what she is as a Character. "he is the consummate figure of grief,

102 | P a g e



mourning the Characters) inexorable fate, bearing, its anguish, and ser!ing as its horrifiedspectator. ?n this respect, she is not e!en a woman, but she is first and foremost a mother inanguish. /irandello elaborates this fantasy of maternal suffering further in his preface to the play.*here the Mother is posed against the philosophizing Father, incarnating nature without mind inher suffering%she suffers the torture of what has befallen the family without thinking about it as

the Father does. Caught, like the other Characters, in the unchanging and inexorable reality of both her drama and role, she laments that she suffers her torture at e!ery moment. 'er lot asmourner is fixed for eternity.

"tudy 1uestions and -ssay *opics

#hat is the significance of the inclusion of the (play within the play( at the beginning of "ixCharactersJ

"ix Characters is an exercise in what /irandello calls the (theater of the theater(%that is theater

that generates its drama out of the theater)s elements, in this case, through the conflict betweenactors, manager and characters, and the missing author. For /irandello, the theater is itselftheatrical. *hat is, it is itself implicated in the forms and dynamics of the stage. *his self+referential structure, that of a play about the play, is paralleled by another in the opening scene7the rehearsal of a play within a play. oth these plays belong to /irandello. *he inclusion ofMixing ?t Ip and, later, a double of /irandello himself, is self+indulgent. As "tanley Ca!ellnotes, the work that would reflect on its own medium often interposes the figure of its authorinstead. *hus, in the rehearsal of Mixing, /irandello soon appears as the maddening nati!e playwright who (plays the fool( with e!eryone. "uch fantasies of authorship are intrinsic to theliterary work. *he author is not only that which the characters search for, but, as /irandello

laments in his preface to the play, the spectator as well. (#hat does the author intendJ( wondersthe audience. (#ho is this master who plays the fool with meJ( *hough absent, the author hauntsthe stage. 'e will not assume body like the characters but become a function or mask thatcirculates among the players.

*he aborted excerpt of Mixing ?t Ip also pro!ides an allegory of sorts for "ix Characters. As theManager confusedly ad!ises the 8eading Man, the play is a (mixing up of the parts, according towhich you who act your own part become the puppet of yourself.( #hen he asks the actor if heunderstands, he replies7 (?)m hanged if ? do.( /ut otherwise, the actor who dons the mask becomes its hanged puppet. *he actor)s 2oke marks the presence of death in acting7 in some

sense, the animation of the persona in!ol!es the death of the person the Character as somebodyimplies that the Actor is nobody. *his brief exchange prefigures the ad!ent of the Characters,who usurp the actors in terms of their life and reality.

%he %rial

103 | P a g e



.ran: 9a*ka

Context

ecause Franz Lafka has become the poster boy for twentieth+century alienation and disorientedanxiety, his work is often introduced in the context of Lafka)s own experience of alienation. A

Czech in the Austro+'ungarian empire, a &erman+speaker among Czechs, a 3ew among &erman+speakers, a disbelie!er among 3ews alienated from his pragmatic and o!erbearing father, fromhis bureaucratic 2ob, from the opposite sex caught between a desire to li!e in literature and toli!e a normal bourgeois life acutely and lucidly self+critical physically !ulnerable++Lafkanowhere found a comfortable fit.

Franz Lafka @:;;B+:=D was born in /rague to middle+class 3ewish parents. 'is father, the sonof a !illage butcher, was a man of little education but strong entrepreneurial ambition. 'e rosefrom a tra!eling peddler to a successful retailer and wholesaler, and married the daughter of awealthy brewery owner @a marriage abo!e his station, in the eyes of the time. Lafka was the

firstborn, followed by two brothers who died in infancy, and then three sur!i!ing sisters.*hroughout his life, Lafka)s memories of his childhood, and in particular of his childhoodrelationship to his upwardly+mobile, harsh father, remained bitter.

After an education in a typically draconian gymnasium for the time, Lafka entered law schooland recei!ed a doctorate degree. #hile a law student, he associated with many members of/rague)s burgeoning scene of young, &erman+ speaking writers. ne such companion, Maxrod, became a lifelong de!oted friend and was ultimately responsible for preser!ing much ofwhat exists of Lafka)s writing.

Lafka knew writing was his !ocation, but did not feel he could make a li!ing at it++nor did he particularly want to try. ?t was something purer and more desperately personal to him++a (form of prayer( and a temporary respite from his demons. 'e took a law clerkship after graduation, andthen, briefly, a 2ob with a pri!ate insurance company. ?n :=>;, with the help of a friend)s father,he obtained an entry+le!el position with the #orkmen)s Accident ?nsurance ?nstitute for theLingdom of ohemia. *here he ser!ed as a diligent and respected functionary until his premature retirement in :=DD.

?n :=D, at the age of :, Lafka succumbed to tuberculosis. *he bulk of his work was publishedafter his early death, 2ust as many of the nightmares he described in his work were taking shape

in -urope)s new totalitarian states. 'is no!els Amerika, *he *rial @written during :=:+:=:G, published :=DG, and *he Castle were left unfinished. Eet he did ha!e admirers during hislifetime. *he collections of short stories and the no!ellas he published sold minimally, but werehighly praised within a small but respected circle of &erman+speaking intellectuals. *hede!elopments of the twisted century itself brought Lafka)s works++prescient accounts of the banality of terror++to the world)s attention, and lent the word (kafkaes$ue( to hundreds oflanguages. @Fulfilling his pessimism, Lafka)s three sisters and the woman who was likely the one

104 | P a g e



true lo!e of his life all perished in concentration camps. eyond this terrible prophesy, howe!er,it is Lafka)s description of the struggle to find meaning in a cosmos he knew to be meaninglessthat makes his work the gateway to modern literature.

"ummary

An ambitious, worldly young bank official named 3oseph L. is arrested by two warders (one finemorning,( although he has done nothing wrong. L. is indignant and outraged. *he morninghappens to be that of his thirtieth birthday. ne year later, on the morning of his thirty+first birthday, two warders again come for L. *hey take him to a $uarry outside of town and kill himin the name of the 8aw. L. lets them.

*he *rial is the chronicle of that inter!ening year of L.)s case, his struggles and encounters withthe in!isible 8aw and the untouchable Court. ?t is an account, ultimately, of state+induced self+

destruction. Eet, as in all of Lafka)s best writing, the (meaning( is far from clear. 3ust as the parable related by the chaplain in Chapter Nine @called (*he 5oorkeeper( or (efore the 8aw(elicits endless commentary from students of the 8aw, so has *he *rial been a touchstone oftwentieth+century critical interpretation. As some commentators ha!e noted, it has, in parts, the$uality of re!ealed truth as such it is ultimately unresol!able++a mirror for any sectarian reading.

'ow to summarize this kind of textJ ?t was written during :=:+:=:G, while Lafka was anofficial in the #orkmen)s Accident ?nsurance ?nstitute for the Lingdom of ohemia. n onele!el we can see in *he *rial a satirical pillorying of the Austro+'ungarian bureaucracy ofLafka)s day. Eet to many readers it is eerily prescient of the psychological weaponry used by the

much more insidious totalitarian regimes to come, of the legally+sanctioned death machinesLafka ne!er li!ed to see. ?t is also an unfinished no!el, and this is apparent in the final chapters.?t is at times as suffocating to read as the airless rooms of the Court that it describes. *he &ermantitle, 5er /rozess, connotes both a (trial( and a (process,( and it is perhaps this maddeningfeeling of ine!itability that lea!es a lasting !isceral impression7 the machinery has been set inmotion, and the process will grind toward conclusion despite our most desperate exhortations.

Characters

3oseph L. + *he hero and protagonist of the no!el, L. is the Chief Clerk of a bank. Ambitious,

shrewd, more competent than kind, he is on the fast track to success until he is arrested onemorning for no reason. *here begins his slide into desperation as he tries to grapple with an all+ powerful Court and an in!isible 8aw.

Fraulein urstner + A boarder in the same house as 3oseph L. "he lets him kiss her one night, butthen rebuffs his ad!ances. "he makes a brief reappearance in the no!el)s final pages.

105 | P a g e



Frau &rubach + *he proprietress of the lodging house in which L. li!es. "he holds L. in highesteem.

Incle Larl + L.)s impetuous uncle from the country, formerly his guardian. Larl insists that L.hire 'uld, the lawyer.

'uld, the 8awyer + L.)s fustian ad!ocate who pro!ides precious little in the way of action andfar too much in the way of anecdote.

8eni + 'err 'uld)s nurse, she)s on fire for 3oseph L. "he soon becomes his lo!er. Apparently, shefinds accused men extremely attracti!e++the fact of their indictment makes them irresistible toher.

Assistant Manager + L.)s unctuous ri!al at the ank, only too willing to catch L. in acompromising situation.

lock, the *radesman + lock is another accused man and client of 'uld. 'is case is fi!e year)sold, and he is but a shadow of the prosperous man he once was. All his time, energy, andresources are now de!oted to his case. Although he has hired hack lawyers on the side, he iscompletely and pathetically subser!ient to 'uld.

*itorelli, the /ainter + *itorelli inherited the position of Court /ainter from his father. 'e knowsa great deal about the comings and goings of the Court)s lowest le!el. 'e offers to help L., andmanages to unload a few identical landscape paintings on the accused man. ?f the no!el had beenfinished, we might ha!e heard more from *itorelli.

"tudy 1uestionsu

?s there a connection between the Court and dark, poorly !entilated interiorsJ

*here seems to be. Eou may arri!e at your own conclusions of metaphor or symbol, but therelationship at least is fairly consistent. *he meeting hall of the first interrogation is dim andhazy. *he atmosphere of the law offices is suffocating and sends L. into collapse. *he #hipperwhips the warders in a wood closet. *he Court)s painter li!es in an insufferably stuffy attic. L.)sconsultations with the lawyer take place in the latter)s darkened sickroom. -!en the cathedral,where L. meets the chaplain, is !irtually pitch black due to the storm brewing outside. All of thiscan ha!e a profound effect on the reader, who may feel herself as confined by the descriptions of

these interiors 2ust as by the stonewalling of the Court or L.)s obdurate inability to see the danger he)s in.

?s L)s inability to (think outside the box,( his susceptibility to being drawn into the process of thetrial, the basis of his e!entual guiltJ

Lafka in!ites you to ask such $uestions, and lets them stand without answer. Could L. ha!esur!i!ed if he had simply gone awayJ Could he ha!e wanted more to pre!ailJ *he $uestion is

106 | P a g e



open. (8ogic is doubtless unshakable, but it cannot withstand a man who wants to go on li!ing,(L. says to himself, moments before he is killed. And yet, whate!er we determine to be the stateof L.)s will, Lafka also shows us that will is not enough. Consider the opa$ue yet radiant parableof the man who asks admittance to the 8aw. Certainly that man does not lack will++he expendshis life in his will to encounter the 8aw, though he is apparently free to abandon his $uest and

simply walk away. ut abandonment of the 8aw, of 8ogic, is abandonment of 2ustice, of dignity,of personhood. ?t may constitute thinking outside the box, but it is also a retreat @and to whereJ.esides, nowhere is it stated that L. can merely abandon the Court, that the Court excuses thosewho fail to be drawn into its web of doubt, pandering, and self+recrimination. #e do not knowthe Court)s 2urisdiction. *here is neither a clear way out nor an une$ui!ocal indication of doomuntil doom is at hand. ?n this light, blaming L. for his own demise is analogous to blaming!ictims of the Nazi death machine for not percei!ing in ad!ance the full tra2ectory of depra!ity,or blaming "talin)s !ictims++who ne!er had the option of stepping beyond the pur!iew of a per!erse 8aw++for their fate.

*o what extent does L. belie!e that he is guiltyJ

#e are not gi!en clear indications. ne thing is certain, though7 L. is expecting someone tocome for him on the morning of his thirty+first birthday. 'e perhaps hopes for someone otherthan the two clowns who show up, but he nonetheless is expecting an emissary. "ince he isexpecting someone and seems to know roughly what is going to happen, and since he has notmade an attempt at escape or any final defense, he appears to ha!e accepted the !erdict. As the prison chaplain remarked, (it is not necessary to accept e!erything as true, one must only acceptit as necessary.( /erhaps L. accepts his execution not because he belie!es he is truly guilty, but because++and what is more shameful++he accepts the Court)s argument that it is necessary.

?f, in the hermetic parable (*he 5oorkeeper,( the man from the country is free to go away, whydoes he remain at the entrance to the 8awJ

'ow would you characterize the women of *he *rialJ 5o they seem like real peopleJ

#as there any way for L. to a!oid ending up facing execution in the $uarryJ

%he Se#ond Se?

Simone de Beau;oir

Context

"imone 8ucie+-rnestine+Marie+ertrand de eau!oir was born into an eminent /arisian familyin :=>;. 'er father, who had ties%or at least pretensions%to the nobility, had ceded hisaspirations in the theater for a respectable law career. 'e was an art+lo!ing atheist whoencouraged de eau!oirOs lo!e of literature, but he was also extremely conser!ati!e on social

107 | P a g e



issues. 'er mother was from a wealthy bourgeois family, and was a de!out Catholic who tried toraise her daughters, "imone and her younger sister, 'elene @P/oupetteQ, in the same tradition.

*hough pious as a child, de eau!oir repudiated religion at the age of fourteen, and this becamea recurring source of tension between her and her mother. 'er renunciation of &od also brought

marked loneliness, a realization of the deep solitude of life. *hroughout her youth, de eau!oirOsclosest companions were 'elene and a classmate, -lizabeth Mabille @P9azaQ. ?n :=D=, 9azadied, officially of meningitis, though de eau!oir always belie!ed that 9azaOs struggle to resistan arranged marriage had been the real cause of her death. 9azaOs friendship and her untimelydeath haunted de eau!oir for the rest of her life, and many of de eau!oirOs later criti$ues ofrigid bourgeois constraints on women were rooted in her anger o!er 9azaOs death.

'a!ing lost his wifeOs dowry in #orld #ar ?, de eau!oirOs father was tormented by thenecessity of his daughters taking professional careers. 5e eau!oir, howe!er, looked forward toa career as a writer and teacher, which she preferred o!er the P!ocationQ of motherhood. -arly

on, she decided to de!ote her life to studying philosophy, and, aside from a brief engagement toher cousin, she ne!er seriously considered getting married. *he autonomy of the intellectual lifehad always appealed to her more.

?n :=D=, after studying mathematics, de eau!oir earned the second+highest score in acompetiti!e philosophy exam called the agrgation. nly 3ean+/aul "artre, who was taking theexam for the second time, beat her, and he had recei!ed far more training than she had%she was,after all, four years his 2unior, as well as female. Following this success, de eau!oir mo!ed inwith her grandmother to study at the cole Normale "uprieure, the most prestigious educationalinstitution in France. At the cole, de eau!oir met a group of intellectual ma!ericks, including

"artre.

For the first time in her life, de eau!oir felt she had found an intellectual e$ual in "artre, whowould become her lifelong companion. "he resisted an PinstitutionalizedQ pairing with him,howe!er, and refused his only offer of marriage early in their relationship. 'er con!ictionsscandalized her proper bourgeois friends. 5e eau!oirOs relationship with "artre becamenotorious for the two progressi!e beliefs the couple espoused7 the liberty to lo!e others and thecommitment to total honesty and openness. "he and "artre became PessentialQ lo!ers, while permitting themsel!es PcontingentQ romances with others. #hile they remained in a committedrelationship for the rest of their li!es, they ne!er married, had children, or e!en shared the same

residence. 5e eau!oir had numerous other romantic liaisons with both men and women.

?n the early :=B>s, de eau!oir taught in !arious pro!incial outposts in France. #hen the Nazisin!aded /aris in :=>, de eau!oir was fired from her teaching 2ob for her outspoken !iews.Fired from another 2ob in :=B and shaken by #orld #ar ??, during which "artre wasimprisoned, de eau!oir became interested in the social problems of the age. An important precept of existentialism%the intellectual mo!ement with which she was associated%concerns

108 | P a g e



the intellectualOs engagement with her historical realities. ?n her determination to fulfill thiscommitment, de eau!oir $uit teaching and decided to pursue writing as a li!elihood. ?n :=B,she published her first no!el, "he Came *o "tay, which chronicles the incremental collapse of acoupleOs relationship after a young girl mo!es into their house. *he successful no!el was afictionalized account of the intrusion of a young female student, lga Losakie!icz, in her

relationship with "artre. *he three+way relationship was reputedly upsetting to de eau!oir.

5uring the &erman occupation of France, from :=: to :=B, de eau!oirOs engagement with politics deepened and is expressed in se!eral works, such as the no!el *he lood of thers@:=G, the ethical essay /yrrhus et Cineas @:=, the play Iseless Mouths @:=G, and yetanother no!el, All Men are Mortal @:=H. #hile de eau!oirOs in!ol!ement in the French4esistance remained marginal, in :=G, she, "artre, and other intellectual comrades founded 8e*emps Modernes, a monthly left+wing political 2ournal. ?n se!eral of the articles she contributed,de eau!oir explores her debt to marxism and concomitant uneasiness about communism. #hileworking at the 2ournal, she also published *he -thics of Ambiguity @:=H, an indispensable

primer on existentialist ethics. *hen, in :==, she published the most contro!ersial work of hercareer, *he "econd "ex. *his lengthy study of the sources of womenOs ine$uality, still acornerstone of feminist theory, made de eau!oir a feminist icon for the rest of her life.

5e eau!oirOs experiences at 8es *emps Modernes, along with her continued perplexity o!er theintellectualOs role in politics, inspired one of her finest no!els, *he Mandarins, for which sherecei!ed FranceOs highest literary honor, the /rix &oncourt, in :=G. 'er output remained prolific throughout her middle years, a remarkably happy period of de eau!oirOs life. ?n the late:=G>s, she began work on her monumental four+part autobiography. *he first !olume, Memoirsof a 5utiful 5aughter @:=G;, focuses on her childhood. ?n the second !olume, *he /rime of

8ife, de eau!oir contemplates the difference between the P?Q and the PweQ%a ma2or-xistentialist $uestion that "artre also studied. ?n the third !olume, Force of Circumstance, deeau!oir re!eals a heightened interest in issues of the day, from the French occupation of Algeriato uni!ersal $uestions about human rights. "he finished the final !olume, All "aid and 5one, in:=<D. *he Coming of Age, another ma2or work of this period, reflects her growing interest in thesub2ect of aging, and this chilling examination of societyOs indifference to the elderly garneredwide praise.

5e eau!oir stayed with "artre until his death in :=;>, and she published a wrenching accountof his last days, Adieux7 A Farewell to "artre, the following year. Intil her death in :=;H, she

sought to li!e out the philosophical ideals she articulated in her autobiographies, no!els, andnonfiction treatises. 'er di!erse influences%from ergson to 'egel to 5escartes, from Lant to'eidegger to Marx and -ngels%informs one of the richest bodies of work in twentieth+centuryletters.

/lot !er!iew

109 | P a g e



4e!olutionary and incendiary, *he "econd "ex is one of the earliest attempts to confront humanhistory from a feminist perspecti!e. ?t won de eau!oir many admirers and 2ust as manydetractors. *oday, many regard this massi!e and meticulously researched masterwork as not onlyas pillar of feminist thought but of twentieth+century philosophy in general.

5e eau!oirOs primary thesis is that men fundamentally oppress women by characterizing them,on e!ery le!el, as the ther, defined exclusi!ely in opposition to men. Man occupies the role ofthe self, or sub2ect woman is the ob2ect, the other. 'e is essential, absolute, and transcendent."he is inessential, incomplete, and mutilated. 'e extends out into the world to impose his will onit, whereas woman is doomed to immanence, or inwardness. 'e creates, acts, in!ents she waitsfor him to sa!e her. *his distinction is the basis of all de eau!oirOs later arguments.

5e eau!oir states that while it is natural for humans to understand themsel!es in opposition toothers, this process is flawed when applied to the genders. ?n defining woman exclusi!ely asther, man is effecti!ely denying her humanity.

*he "econd "ex chronicles de eau!oirOs effort to locate the source of these profoundlyimbalanced gender roles. ?n ook ?, entitled PFacts and Myths,Q she asks how Pfemale humansQcome to occupy a subordinate position in society. *o answer this $uestion%and to betterunderstand her own identity%de eau!oir first turns to biology, psychoanalysis, and historicalmaterialism. *hese disciplines re!eal indisputable PessentialQ differences between men andwomen but pro!ide no 2ustification for womanOs inferiority. *hey all take womanOs inferiorPdestinyQ for granted.

"he then mo!es to history to trace the emergence of male superiority in society, from nomadic

hunter+gatherers through the French 4e!olution and contemporary times. 'ere she finds ampleexamples of female subordination, but again, no persuasi!e 2ustification for them. 'istory, sheargues, is not an immutable Pfact,Q but a reflection of certain attitudes, preconceptions, andin2ustices.

5e eau!oir next discusses !arious mythical representations of women and demonstrates howthese myths ha!e imprinted human consciousness, often to the disser!ice of women. 5eeau!oir hopes to debunk the persistent myth of the Peternal feminineQ by showing that it arosefrom male discomfort with the fact of his own birth. *hroughout history, maternity has been bothworshipped and re!iled7 the mother both brings life and heralds death. *hese mysterious

operations get pro2ected onto the woman, who is transformed into a symbol of PlifeQ and in the process is robbed of all indi!iduality. *o illustrate the pre!alence of these myths, de eau!oirstudies the portrayal of women by fi!e modern writers. ?n the end of this section, de eau!oirexamines the impact of these myths on indi!idual experience. "he concludes that the PeternalfeminineQ fiction is reinforced by biology, psychoanalysis, history, and literature.

5e eau!oir insists on the impossibility of comparing the PcharacterQ of men and womenwithout considering the immense differences in their situation, and in ook ??, entitled

110 | P a g e



P#omanOs 8ife *oday,Q she turns to the concrete realities of this situation. "he traces femalede!elopment through its formati!e stages7 childhood, youth, and sexual initiation. 'er goal is to pro!e that women are not born PfeminineQ but shaped by a thousand external processes. "heshows how, at each stage of her upbringing, a girl is conditioned into accepting passi!ity,dependence, repetition, and inwardness. -!ery force in society conspires to depri!e her of

sub2ecti!ity and flatten her into an ob2ect. 5enied the possibility of independent work or creati!efulfillment, the woman must accept a dissatisfying life of housework, childbearing, and sexualsla!ishness.

'a!ing brought the woman to adulthood, de eau!oir analyzes the !arious Psituations,Q or roles,the adult woman inhabits. *he bourgeois woman performs three ma2or functions7 wife, mother,and entertainer. No matter how illustrious the womanOs household may be, these roles ine!itablylead to immanence, incompleteness, and profound frustration. -!en those who accept a lesscon!entional place in society%as a prostitute or courtesan, for example%must submit toimperati!es defined by the male. 5e eau!oir also reflects on the trauma of old age. #hen a

woman loses her reproducti!e capacity, she loses her primary purpose and therefore her identity.?n the final chapter of this section, P#omanOs "ituation and Character,Q de eau!oir reiterates thecontro!ersial claim that womanOs situation is not a result of her character. 4ather, her character isa result of her situation. 'er mediocrity, complacency, lack of accomplishment, laziness, passi!ity%all these $ualities are the conse$uences of her subordination, not the cause.

?n P3ustifications,Q de eau!oir studies some of the ways that women reinforce their owndependency. Narcissists, women in lo!e, and mystics all embrace their immanence by drowningselfhood in an external ob2ect%whether it be the mirror, a lo!er, or &od. *hroughout the book,de eau!oir mentions such instances of females being complicit in their therness, particularly

with regard to marriage. *he difficulty of breaking free from PfemininityQ%of sacrificingsecurity and comfort for some ill+concei!ed notion of Pe$ualityQ%induces many women toaccept the usual unfulfilling roles of wife and mother. From the !ery beginning of her discussion,de eau!oir identifies the economic underpinnings of female subordination%and the economicroots of womanOs liberation. nly in work can she achie!e autonomy. ?f woman can supportherself, she can also achie!e a form of liberation. ?n the concluding chapters of *he "econd "ex,de eau!oir discusses the logistical hurdles woman faces in pursuing this goal.

'istorical Figures 8ist

*hroughout *he "econd "ex, de eau!oir refers to a number of historical figures. *his short listattempts to place them in their context and, in some cases, to explain how de eau!oir uses themin her work.

Alfred Adler @:;<>V:=B> + A psychoanalyst associated with a theory that became known as thePinferiority complex.Q After disagreeing with Freud o!er the role of the libido in indi!idual psychology, Adler de!eloped a branch of psychoanalysis he termed Pindi!idual psychology,Q

111 | P a g e



which posits that men are dri!en by the desire to attain superiority @or self+realization. #henthis pro2ect fails, an inferiority complex de!elops and !arious neuroses ensue.

Andr reton @:;=HV:=HH + A French poet, critic, and ma2or proponent of the "urrealistmo!ement. A former medical student influenced by FreudOs theories of the unconscious, reton

was interested in eliminating the distinction between sub2ect and ob2ect, dream and reality, sanityand lunacy. 5e eau!oir analyzes his work in Chapter 6, P*he Myth of #oman in Fi!eAuthors.Q

Casano!a @:<DGV:<=; + An ?talian ad!enturer who left behind a celebration collection ofmemoirs and was known for his dalliances with women.

/aul Claudel @:;H;V:=GG + A poet, playwright, and ma2or figure on the French literary scenethroughout the first half of the twentieth century. ClaudelOs work deri!es much of its power fromhis faith in &od, a rarity in the age of Modernism. *he conflict between human and di!ine lo!e

tormented Claudel throughout his life. 5e eau!oir analyzes his work from a feminist perspecti!e in Chapter 6, P*he Myth of #oman in Fi!e Authors.Q

Colette @:;<BV:=G + A French no!elist known for her sensual descriptions and her intimatedepictions of the sentimental life of women. Colette led an uncon!entional life, with se!eralhusbands and innumerable lo!ers. 5e eau!oir fre$uently cites ColetteOs work for insights intofemale psychology. ColetteOs fictional heroines, while inhabiting traditional roles, display a raredepth and complexity.

'a!elock -llis @:;G=V:=B= + An -nglish doctor and writer who shocked polite 0ictoriansociety by tackling the unmentionable sub2ect of sex. -llisOs landmark work, "tudies in the

/sychology of "ex @:;=<V:=D;, a se!en+!olume compendium of case studies, was initially banned as filthy, and for many years it was a!ailable only to the medical profession. -llis was achampion of womenOs rights and sex education.

Friedrich -ngels @:;D>V:;=G + A central theorist in outlining the principles of socialism andcommunism. #ith Larl Marx, -ngels de!eloped a PmaterialistQ interpretation of history that posited the proletariat, or working class, as the e!entual winners of the ongoing class conflict. 5eeau!oir faults -ngels for suggesting that the institution of pri!ate property led by necessity tothe inferiority of women. -ngels belie!ed that the ?ndustrial 4e!olution would bring about theliberation of women, but he failed to take into account that women would be more oppressed

than men.

"igmund Freud @:;GHV:=B= + *he father of psychoanalysis and one of the first theorists of thesexual nature of hysteria. FreudOs first ma2or works were *he ?nterpretation of 5reams @:;==,his first manifesto of psychoanalysis, followed by *he /sychopathology of -!eryday 8ife @:=>:and *hree -ssays on the *heory of "exuality @:=>G. ?n the years leading up to #orld #ar ?,FreudOs theories attracted many followers, including Carl 3ung, #illem "tekel, and Alfred Adler,

112 | P a g e



although many of his original adherents later broke with him. 5e eau!oir finds manydeficiencies in FreudOs thinking as they relate to the de!elopment of women.

Alfred Linsey @:;=V:=GH + An American zoologist and sex therapist known for hisre!olutionary work on human sexual beha!ior, "exual eha!ior in the 'uman Male. ecause

this landmark work was published in :=;, only a year before *he "econd "ex, its influence iskeenly felt throughout de eau!oirOs study. Linsey followed this report fi!e years later with"exual eha!ior in the 'uman Female. oth reports, based on tens of thousands of inter!iews,came under scrutiny for the witnessesO unreliable testimonies.

5. '. 8awrence @:;;GV:=B> + An -nglish no!elist, poet, and short story writer. Among8awrenceOs most famous works are "ons and 8o!ers @:=:B, *he 4ainbow @:=:G, and #omenin 8o!e @:=D>. 8awrence had a famously stormy relationship with his wife, Frieda, a sub2ectthat interested de eau!oir. "he analyzes 8awrenceOs theory of Pphallic prideQ in Chapter 6,P*he Myth of #oman in Fi!e Authors.Q

Latherine Mansfield @:;;;V:=DB + New 9ealandOs most famous writer, who is credited withrein!enting the short story in -nglish. MansfieldOs two most celebrated works are liss @:=D>and *he &arden /arty @:=DD. 5e eau!oir often cites passages from MansfieldOs fiction toillustrate the fre$uent swoons and spasms of sudden re!elation that seize her respectable,outwardly con!entional heroines.

Larl Marx @:;:;V:;;B + ne of the primary theorists of socialism and communism. MarxOsmasterpiece, 5as Lapital @Capital @:;H<, is the most sweeping criti$ue of capitalist society andhugely influenced de eau!oir.

'enri de Montherlant @:;=HV:=<D + A French no!elist and playwright known as much for hisdomineering, arrogant personality as for his writing. MontherlantOs most famous cycle of no!els,translated as *he &irls @:=BH+:=>, chronicles a libertine artistOs relationship with a series ofadoring young girls. *his o!ertly misogynistic work celebrates male dominance while re2ectingfeminine possessi!eness and cloying sentimentality.

4osa 8uxemburg @:;<:V:=:= + A socialist, /olish re!olutionary who led &erman workersOuprisings immediately following #orld #ar ?. 8uxemburg o!ercame the usual temptations ofPfemininity,Q de eau!oir claims, because her ugliness immunized her from the temptation toPwallow in the cult of her own image.Q

Marie Curie @:;H<V:=B + *he /olish physicist who disco!ered radium. 5e eau!oir mentionsCurie as an example of Pwhat women can accomplish when they begin to feel themsel!es athome on the earthQ @:BD.

113 | P a g e



tto 4ank @:;;V:=B= + A psychoanalyst and psychologist who emphasized the importance ofthe will, human relationships, and creati!ity. 4ank also laid the groundwork for existential,&estalt, and relationship theories.

3ean+/aul "artre @:=>GV:=;> + *he French existentialist philosopher, playwright, and no!elist

who dominated three decades of intellectual life in France and was the lifelong companion of deeau!oir. "artreOs ma2or works include the philosophical treatise eing and Nothingness @:=Band the plays *he Flies @:=B and No -xit @:=. 'e re2ected the institution of PbourgeoismarriageQ and took the lead in pursuing PcontingentQ affairs with other woman, but he remainedallied to de eau!oir until his death. As is e!ident throughout *he "econd "ex, his ideasinfluenced hers immensely%sometimes too much, as her detractors often claim.

&ertrude "tein @:;<V:=H + *he iconoclastic American writer whose /aris home became alegendary salon after #orld #ar ?, attracting artists including /icasso, ra$ue, and Matisse."teinOs most famous work, *he Autobiography of Alice . *oklas @:=BB, purports to be the

memoirs of "teinOs longtime companion but is actually a history of "teinOs own life. 5e eau!oir mentions "tein in her discussion of the lesbian, belie!ing that "tein chose to lo!e in a state ofe$uality.

"tendhal @:<;BV:;D + *he writer most credited with de!eloping the French no!el fromromanticism to realism in the nineteenth century. /roof of "tendhalOs realism surfaces in his portrayal of women in classic no!els like *he 4ed and the lack @:;B: and *he Charterhouse of /arma @:;B=. ?n P*he Myth of #omen in Fi!e Authors,Q de eau!oir argues that "tendhal isuni$ue in demonstrating an understanding of women as real flesh+and+blood creatures, doomed by the mediocrity of their circumstances.

#ilhelm "tekel @:;H;V:=> + A /olish psychoanalyst who broke early on with Freud. 5eeau!oir cites many of "tekelOs case studies throughout *he "econd "ex.

-mile 9ola @:;>V:=>D + A French no!elist, 2ournalist, and founder of the naturalist mo!ementin late nineteenth+century French letters. 9olaOs no!els, especially Nana @:;;>, are known fortheir stinging depiction of the moral decay of French society. 5e eau!oir cites 9olaOs realisticdepiction of the situation of women.

?sadora 5uncan @:;<;V:=D< + A legendary American dancer whose performances were inspired by &reek classical art. 5uncan wore a &reek tunic, flowers in her hair, and flowing headscar!es.

'er autobiography, published the same year of her death, supplied de eau!oir with manyexamples of female !anity but also of the rewards of artistic accomplishment and ofachie!ements independent of male influence.

'elene 5eutsch @:;;V:=;D + An early follower of Freud who became known as one of thefirst psychoanalysts to introduce theories of female sexuality into public discourse. A pioneer forwomen in fields of medicine and psychology, 5eutsch had a troubled relationship with her

114 | P a g e



parents, which she used as the basis for many of her later theories in her most famous book, *he/sychology of #omen @:=V:=G. "he argued that girlsO problems stemmed from the inabilityto detach from their mothers.

3uliette 5rouet @:;>HV:;;B + 0ictor 'ugoOs first and most important mistress. 5rouet was his

companion for such a long time that his family e!entually accepted her. 5e eau!oir discusses5rouetOs ne!er+ending de!otion in P3ustifications.Q

Marie ashkirtse! @:;G;V:;; + A Ikranian+born painter and writer who made a huge splashwhen she arri!ed in /aris. 'er diaries, first published in :;;=, fi!e years after her death, pro!idede eau!oir with an example of female narcissism.

Madame de /ompadour @:<D:V:<H + A middle+class woman who used her intellect and guileto become mistress of Ling 8ouis 60 of France. Madame de /ompadour was hugely influentialin matters of art and culture.

Claude 8!i+"trauss @:=>;V + A French anthropologist who pioneered structural anthropology,a theory that !alues the structure of myths o!er their specific narrati!e content. 4ather than see#estern ci!ilization as ele!ated and uni$ue, 8!i+"trauss sought connections between primiti!eand modern societies. 'e belie!ed that the sa!age man was e$ual to the ci!ilized man and thatmanOs character was identical e!erywhere, regardless of culture or epoch. 5e eau!oir leans on8!i+"traussOs theories in her analysis of myths.

"t. Catherine of "iena @:B<V:B;> + A fourteenth+century nun who li!ed through the lack5eath and one of the few positi!e examples de eau!oir pro!ides of a woman transcending hergi!en options. 5e eau!oir re2ects 3oan of Arc as a role model and instead praises Catherine of

"iena, whose bene!olence and inner !isions ga!e her authority o!er some of the most importantmen of her age, including two popes. "he experienced numerous !isions and ecstatic encounterswith the di!ine, and was also known for her cogent writing style.


:. ?f her functioning as a female is not enough to define woman, if we decline also to explain herthrough Pthe eternal feminine,Q and if ne!ertheless we admit, pro!isionally, that women do exist,then we must face the $uestion7 what is a womanJ . . . *he fact that ? ask it is in itself significant.A man would ne!er get the notion of writing a book on the peculiar situation of the human male.ut if ? wish to define myself, ? must first of all say, Q? am a womanQ on this truth must be based

all further discussion.

*his $uotation, from the ?ntroduction, summarizes de eau!oirOs pro2ect7 to define woman ine!ery respect. "he first points out the inade$uacy of defining woman either by her biologicaloperations or by some broad understanding of the Peternal feminine.Q "he will re!isit thesedefinitions in much greater detail later in her study, but for now, she pursues a more general$uestion7 do women e!en existJ "he admits they do, Ppro!isionally.Q *he word Ppro!isionallyQ issignificant. As de eau!oir de!elops her argument, she will make the radical suggestion that

115 | P a g e



PwomanQ does not, in fact, exist as an immense category and that men and women alike shouldalways be defined primarily as humans. *hroughout history, woman has been denied this pri!ilege. *he latter part of this $uotation introduces de eau!oirOs personal moti!ation forwriting this book. #hen looking back on her life, she finds that she cannot define herself withoutPfirst of allQ defining herself as a woman. 'er effort to find out what it means to be a woman,

then, is also an effort to make sense of her experience on earth.

D. `*he whole of feminine history has been man+made. 3ust as in America there is no Negro problem, but rather a white problem 2ust as anti+"emitism is not a 3ewish problem, it is our problem so the woman problem has always been a man problem.

'istory was written by the !ictors7 a truism that rings especially true in the case of women. 5eeau!oir demonstrates this principle in the PFacts and MythsQ section of The /econd /e9, in herdiscussion of history since the French 4e!olution. Notions of femininity, almost withoutexception, originated in man7 man defines the Peternal feminineQ man insists on femalemediocrity man chains his wife to the hearth. #omen, who ha!e no !oice, cannot be the

Pproblem,Q 2ust as the PproblemQ of 3ews and blacks is one in!ented and perpetuated by theiroppressors.

5e eau!oir draws this parallel between women and other oppressed classes of societythroughout the book. 'owe!er, she always includes a significant ca!eat7 unlike blacks inAmerica, 3ews in -urope, or any other oppressed minority group, woman is not a minority.Females constitute roughly half the human population at any gi!en period in history. Anothercrucial difference7 woman has ne!er li!ed segregated from man, as 3ews ha!e been segregatedfrom Christians and blacks from whites. -conomically, woman belongs to a lower PcasteQ%aterm de eau!oir uses often to emphasize the institutionalized $uality of female subordination.5espite her lower caste, woman has always li!ed alongside her master. Man re$uires woman to

sur!i!e, and their mutual dependence makes the fact of their ine$uality confounding.B. ne is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.

*his, the opening line of ook ??, is de eau!oirOs most famous statement. ?t represents thelogical continuation of the proofs de eau!oir offers in ook ? to support her argument thatfemininity does not arise from differences in biology, psychology, or intellect. 4ather, femininityis a construction of ci!ilization, a reflection not of PessentialQ differences in men and women butof differences in their situation. "ituation determines character, not the other way around. #omanis not born fully formed she is gradually shaped by her upbringing. iology does not determinewhat makes a woman a woman%a woman learns her role from man and others in society.#oman is not born passi!e, secondary, and nonessential, but all the forces in the external worldha!e conspired to make her so. -!ery indi!idual self, regardless of gender, is entitled tosub2ecti!ity it is only outside forces that ha!e conspired to rob woman of this right. 5estiny isnot a cosmic force but a human choice, the result of culture and circumstance.

. ?f the definition pro!ided for this concept `of the eternal feminine is contradicted by the beha!ior of flesh+and+blood women, it is the latter who are wrong7 we are told not thatFemininity is a false entity, but that the women concerned are not feminine.

116 | P a g e



?n the section entitled PMyths,Q de eau!oir outlines the mythology of the Peternal feminine,Qthen pits it against reality to re!eal the many flaws in all+per!asi!e notions of femininity. As aresult of these myths, the life of e!ery woman is di!ided between her rights as a sub2ect and thedemands of therness. An irreconcilable contradiction exists between her !ocation as a humanand her PdestinyQ as a female. *hose rare women who buckle under the characterization foisted

on them, who refuse to be passi!e, elegant, and silent, are called defecti!e, unattracti!e, andunfeminine. *hey are Pnot real women,Q and they are punished for putting their humanity beforetheir femininity. *he problem, de eau!oir argues, is not the indi!idual woman, but the complexmythology that imprisons her. ?f the PdefinitionQ of femininity is undermined by the beha!ior ofPflesh+and+blood women,Q perhaps the definition is the problem, not the women.

G. `#oman en2oys that incomparable pri!ilege7 irresponsibility.

?n the final pages of The /econd /e9, de eau!oir attempts to chart the difficulties of achie!ingany parity between the sexes. ?n the conclusion, she issues this tongue+and+cheek commentfollowing an exhortation for woman to take charge of her own destiny.

#omen rely on men for shelter, sustenance, opinions, hobbies, con!ersation topics%in short, fora reason to li!e. Making no economic contributions to their household, they spend their li!esengaged in useless, repetiti!e acti!ities. 'owe!er suffocating and unfulfilling, howe!ergrotes$uely parasitic, life as a wife or mistress is a known $uantity, and many women feardeparting from societal norms and !enturing into the wilderness of liberty. ?t is less demandingand less exhausting to abdicate all responsibility for oneOs future to a man. Many women refusethe opportunities granted them like their forebears, these women will disco!er that thePpri!ilegeQ of irresponsibility is actually a curse, in lo!e and in life. Any successful relationship between two parties grows from mutual liberty. ?rresponsibility is a function of mutilation andincompleteness, of dependency and ensla!ement.

&lossary of *erms

Aphasia + 8oss or impairment of the power to use or comprehend words usually resulting from brain damage.Bad *aith + 3ean+/aul "artreOs term for the flight from liberty, for the wish to be a thing ratherthan a self and all the agonizing choices selfhood entails. 5e eau!oir applies Pbad faithQ towomen who opt for the easy, known life, who flee the possibilities of liberty for the asphyxiatingsafety of therness.Bluesto#kin- + A reference to eighteenth+century literary clubs of intellectual women and aderogatory term for an intellectual woman. Men find bluestockings sexually unappealing, whichis the primary reason women fear the label.ynae#eum + An enclosed, super!ised space where women in Ancient &reece were forced tospend their days, an extreme physical example of the immanence forced on women.&etaira + A PkeptQ woman or courtesan, usually a culti!ated woman who ser!es as a companionfor a powerful man. Although hetairas are generally unmarried, they are e$ually ensla!ed to their sexual role, for their li!elihood depends on the generosity%i.e., sustained sexual interest%oftheir keeper.&istori#al materialism + A marxist theory of history that percei!es society and its institutions asthe offshoots of an economic, or material, foundation. 5e eau!oir agrees that humanity is not

117 | P a g e



simply an animal species but a Phistorical reality,Q but it supplies no explanation for the sourcesof female subordination.mmanen#e + #ebsterOs defines it as Premaining or operating within a domain or reality orrealm of discourse . . . ha!ing existence or effect only within the mind or consciousness.Q 5eeau!oir uses this term to designate the womanOs destiny. Inlike men, who are fore!er reaching

outward, imposing their will on the external uni!erse, women are condemned to be closed+offand interior. *he female world is circumscribed and small. Men ha!e pro2ects, acti!ities, andaccomplishments in the external world woman has man.Ele#tra #omple? + Articulated by Freud as the in!erse of his 7edi$us com$le9. ?n &reekmythology, -lectra despised her treacherous mother, Clytamnestra, and prayed for her demise.5e eau!oir re2ects this theory because it ignores the libidinal differences between men andwomen, as well as the more traumatic genital de!elopment of females. ?t suggests that woman issimply a mutilated !ersion of man.E?istentialism + *he philosophical mo!ement associated with de eau!oir, "artre, AlbertCamus, and Martin 'eidegger, among other mid+twentieth+century intellectuals. -xistentialismis a form of radical atheism concerned with the paradoxical nature of the human condition and

the problems of li!ing in the world. ?n the absence of an unfathomable higher power or absoluteknowledge of right !ersus wrong, the indi!idual must assume responsibility for his own acts. *heterm transcendence, which de eau!oir employs often in her discussion of gender, is also centralto existentialist thought, which posits that man is always transcending himself by interacting withother beings. -xistentialist thinkers also try to understand death in light of meaninglessness..ri-idity + A term used to describe sexual PcoldnessQ or indifference in women. 5e eau!oirin!estigates the underlying causes of this condition, which include fear of her own body,inexperience, male ineptitude, and the trauma of the wedding night.edipus #omple? + FreudOs term for the phenomenon, often sublimated, of the young boyOs urgeto murder his father and marry his mother. ?n &reek mythology, Ling edipus of *hebes did 2ustthis early in his career, without knowing that his !ictim was his father, or his future wife hismother. As with the -lectra complex, the edipus complex often results in se!ere psychologicaldisorders in adulthood.0artheno-enesis + #ebsterOs defines it as Preproduction by de!elopment of an unfertilizedusually female gamete that occurs especially among lower plants and in!ertebrate animals.QFemale reproducti!e capabilities need not always rely on male inter!ention, de eau!oir remindsthe reader, while the opposite is not true.0sy#hosomati# + odily disorders that stem from a psychological source. Many illnessesexperienced by PhystericalQ women are psychosomatic in origin.%rans#enden#e + "urpassing the limits of ordinary experience. ?n The /econd /e9, de eau!oiruses this term to describe manOs acti!e role in the world. Man is always reaching outside himself,imposing his will on the external uni!erse, whereas woman is doomed to interiority, orimmanence. *he difference between transcendence and immanence is a crucial principle in deeau!oirOs understanding of gender.

The Caucasian Chalk Circle

The Caucasian Chalk Circle @&erman7 Der )au"asische )reide"reis is a play by the &ermanmodernist playwright ertolt recht. An example of recht)s epic theatre, the play is a parable

118 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_theatre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_theatre




about a peasant girl who rescues a baby and becomes a better mother than its wealthy natural parents.

*he play was written in := while recht was li!ing in the Inited "tates. ?t was translated into-nglish by recht)s friend and admirer -ric entley and its world premiere was a student

production at Carleton College, Minnesota, in :=;. ?ts first professional production was at the'edgerow *heatre, /hiladelphia, directed by entley. ?ts &erman premiere was in :=G at the*heater am "chiffbauerdamm, erlin. *he most known !ersion of Caucasian Chalk Circle is the&eorgian !ersion of the 4usta!eli "tate 5rama *heatre by 4obert "turua this !ersion is alsoconsidered by many critics worldwide to be the best.`citation needed The (aucasian (hal" (ircle isnow considered one of recht)s most celebrated works and is one of the most regularly performed ) &erman ) plays.`citation needed

*he play is a reworking of recht)s earlier short story, Der Au&s!ur&er )reide"reis both deri!efrom the :th+century Chinese play (ircle of (hal" by 8i 6ingdao.`:

0lot summary

0rolo-ue

recht, in his typical anti+realist style, uses the de!ice of a ( play within a play(. *he (frame( playis set in the "o!iet Inion around the end of the "econd #orld #ar . ?t shows a dispute betweentwo communes, the Collecti!e Fruit Farm &alinsk fruit growing commune and the Collecti!e&oat Farmers, o!er who is to own and manage an area of farm land after the Nazis ha!e retreatedfrom a !illage and left it abandoned. A parable has been organised by one group, an old folk tale,to be played out to cast light on the dispute. *he "inger, Arkadi *cheidse, arri!es with his band of musicians, then tells the peasants the fable, which forms the main narrati!e, and intertwines

throughout much of the play. *he "inger often takes on the thoughts of characters, enhances themore dramatic scenes with stronger narration than simple dialogue, and is responsible for mostscene and time changes. ften the role is accompanied by se!eral (musicians( @which usuallyincorporate music into the play itself that help the "inger keep the play running smoothly. At theend he states that the land should go to those who will use it most producti!ely, the fruit growers,and not those who had pre!ious ownership.

S#ene one %he No)le Child

*he "inger)s story begins with &o!ernor &eorgi Abashwili and his wife Natella blatantlyignoring the citizens on the way to -aster Mass. *he "inger shows us the show)s antagonist,

Arsen Lazbeki, the Fat /rince. 'e sucks up to the pair and remarks how their new child Michaelis (a go!ernor from head to toe.( *hey enter the church, lea!ing the peasants behind. Next to beintroduced is the heroine &rusha 0ashnadze, a maid to the go!ernor)s wife. &rusha, whilecarrying a goose for the -aster meal, meets a soldier, "imon "hasha!a, who re!eals he haswatched her bathe in the ri!ers. "he storms off enraged.

*he "inger continues the story as the soldier contacts two architects for the &o!ernor)s newmansion, the ?ronshirts, gestapo+es$ue guards, turn on him. *he Fat /rince has orchestrated a

119 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Bentley

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carleton_College


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_in_literature#New_drama


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedgerow_Theatre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater_am_Schiffbauerdamm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustaveli_Theatre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Sturua






https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Augsburger_Kreidekreis


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_Chalk


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Xingdao


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Caucasian_Chalk_Circle#cite_note-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrangement_effect


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Story_within_a_story


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkhoz

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collective_Fruit_Farm_Galinsk&action=edit&redlink=1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazis




https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestapo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Bentley



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedgerow_Theatre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater_am_Schiffbauerdamm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustaveli_Theatre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Sturua



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story






https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Story_within_a_story


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkhoz

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collective_Fruit_Farm_Galinsk&action=edit&redlink=1




https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestapo



coup and is now in control. *he &o!ernor is $uickly beheaded. "imon finds &rusha and proposes, gi!ing her his sil!er cross. &rusha accepts. "imon runs off to fulfill his duty to the&o!ernor)s wife, who has been foolishly packing clothing for the (trip(, caring nothing for theloss of her husband. "he is carried off, away from the flaming city of Nuhka and inad!ertentlylea!es her son, Michael, behind. &rusha is left with the boy and, after seeing the &o!ernor)s head

nailed to the church door, takes him with her to the mountains. Music is often incorporatedthroughout much of this scene with the aid of the "inger, musicians, and possibly &rusha, asrecht includes actual (songs( within the text.

S#enes t<o and three .li-ht to the Northern ountains

*he "inger opens the scene with an air of escape. At the beginning of this act we see &rushatrying to escape but has to stop to get milk for the baby, Micheal,and is forced to buy milkexpensi!ely from an old man who claims his goats ha!e been taken away by the soldiers. *hisencounter slows her and she is followed shortly by the ironshirts. &rusha then finds a home forMichael to stay in. Abandoning him on the doorstep, he is adopted by a peasant woman. &rusha

has mixed emotions about this, which change when she meets a per!erted Corporal and?ronshirts who are looking for the child. 'e suspects something about her, and &rusha is forcedto knock him out to sa!e Michael. "he wearily retreats to her brother)s mountain farm. 8a!renti,&rusha)s brother, fabricates a story to his 2ealous wife Aniko, claiming that Michael Abashwili is&rusha)s child and she is on her way to find the father)s farm.

&rusha catches scarlet fe!er and li!es there for $uite some time. 4umours spread in the !illage,and 8a!renti con!inces &rusha to marry a dying peasant, 3ussup, in order to $uell them. "hereluctantly agrees. &uests arri!e at the weddingVfuneral, including the "inger and musicians,which act as the hired musicians for the e!ent, and gossip endlessly. ?t is re!ealed that the &rand5uke is o!erthrowing the princes and the ci!il war has finally ended, and no one can be drafted

anymore. At this, the supposedly dead !illager 3ussup returns to (life(, and it becomes clear hewas only (ill( when the possibility of being drafted was present. &rusha finds herself married.For months, &rusha)s new husband tries to make her a )real wife), but she refuses.

Eears pass, and "imon finds &rusha while washing clothes in the ri!er. *hey ha!e a sweetexchange before "imon 2okingly asks if she has found another man. &rusha struggles to tell himshe has unwillingly married, then "imon spots Michael. *he following scene between the two istold predominantly by the "inger, who speaks for each of the two character)s thoughts, and iseasily the most heartbreaking part of the play. 'owe!er, ?ronshirts arri!e carrying Michael in,and ask &rusha if she is his mother, she says that she is, and "imon lea!es distraught. *he&o!ernor)s #ife wants the child back and &rusha must go to court back in Nukha. *he "inger

ends the act with $uestions about &rusha)s future, and re!eals that there is another story we mustlearn7 the story of Azdak. ?f an intermission is used, this is generally where it is placed.

S#ene *our %he Story o* the ud-e

*he scene opens as if a different play entirely, yet set within the same war setting, is beginning.*he "inger introduces another hero named Azdak. Azdak shelters a (peasant( and protects himfrom authorities by a demonstration of con!oluted logic. 'e later realizes that he sheltered the

120 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlet_fever

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermission


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlet_fever




&rand 5uke himself since he thinks the rebellion is an uprising against the go!ernment itself, heturns himself in for his (class treason(. ut the rebellion isn)t a populist one V in fact, the princesare trying to suppress a populist rebellion occurring as a result of their own V and Azdakrenounces his re!olutionary ideas to keep the ?ronshirts from killing him as a radical.

*he Fat /rince enters, looking to secure the ?ronshirts) support in making his nephew a new 2udge. Azdak suggests they hold a mock trial to test him the Fat /rince agrees. Azdak plays theaccused in the trial V the &rand 5uke. 'e makes se!eral !ery successful 2abs against the /rinces)corruption, and amuses the ?ronshirts enough that they appoint him instead of the Fat /rince)snephew7 (*he 2udge was always a chancer now let a chancer be the 2udge(

Azdak remains himself on the bench. 'e uses a large law book as a pillow to sit on. #hatfollows is a series of short scenes, interspersed by the (song( of the "inger, in which he 2udges infa!or of the poor, the oppressed, and good+hearted bandits in one set of cases in which all the plaintiffs and the accused are corrupt, he passes a completely nonsensical set of 2udgments. ut itdoesn)t last fore!er the &rand 5uke returns to power, the Fat /rince is beheaded, and Azdak is

about to be hanged by the &rand 5uke)s ?ronshirts when a pardon arri!es appointing (a certainAzdak of Nuka( as a 2udge in gratitude for (sa!ing a life essential to the realm(, i.e. the &rand5uke)s own. ('is 'onour Azdak is now 'is 'onour Azdak( the wife of the beheaded go!ernorinstantly dislikes him, but decides he)ll be needed for the trial in which she)ll reco!er her sonfrom &rusha. *he act closes with Azdak obse$uious and afraid for his life, promising to restoreMichael to the &o!ernor)s #ife, behead &rusha, and do whate!er else the &o!ernor)s #ifewants7 (?t will all be arranged as you order, your -xcellency. As you order.(

S#ene *i;e %he Chalk Cir#le

#e ha!e returned to &rusha)s story. #e meet &rusha in court, supported by a former cook of the

&o!ernor and "imon "hasha!a, who will swear he is the father of the boy. Natella Abash!ilicomes in with two lawyers, who each reassure her things will be taken care of. Azdak is beaten by ?ronshirts, who are told he is an enemy of the state. A rider comes in with a proclamation,stating the &rand 5uke has reappointed Azdak as 2udge. Azdak is cleaned up and the trial begins.*he trial, howe!er, does not begin with &rusha and the &rand 5uke)s wife, but with a !eryelderly married couple who wish to di!orce. Azdak is unable to make a decision on this case, sohe sets it aside to hear the next case on the docket.

*he prosecution comes forth and liberally bribes Azdak in hopes of swinging the !erdict. ?t isre!ealed that Natella only wants the child because all the estates and finances of the &o!ernorare tied to her heir and cannot be accessed without him. &rusha)s defense does not go o!er well,

as it de!elops into her and "imon insulting Azdak for taking bribes. Azdak fines them for this but, after consideration, claims he can)t find the true mother. 'e decides that he will ha!e tode!ise a test. A circle of chalk is drawn, and Michael is placed in the center. *he true mother,Azdak states, will be able to pull the child from the center. ?f they both pull, they will tear thechild in half and get half each. *he test begins but @akin to the 3udgment of "olomon &rusharefuses to pull as she cannot bear to hurt Michael. Azdak gi!es her one more chance, but againshe cannot pull Michael. 5uring this dilemma, a poignant song is sung by the "inger as areflection of &rusha)s thoughts toward Michael. *he others onstage cannot hear this, but they feel

121 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgment_of_Solomon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgment_of_Solomon



the o!erwhelming emotion through &rusha. Azdak declares that &rusha is the true mother, as shelo!es Michael too much to be able to hurt him. *he &o!ernor)s wife is told that the estates shallfall to the city and be made into a garden for children called (Azdak)s &arden(. "imon paysAzdak his fine. Azdak tells the old couple he shall di!orce them, but (accidentally( di!orces&rusha and the peasant man, lea!ing her free to marry "imon. -!eryone dances off happily as

Azdak disappears. *he "inger remarks upon Azdak)s wisdom and notes that in the ending,e!eryone got what they deser!ed.

usi#

recht wrote a number of )songs) as part of the piece, and one of its main characters is called the/in&er . ?n := the production was scored by /aul 5essau. *hough there is no officially published score, the show is generally played with original music and songs performed by thecast. Many composers ha!e created uni$ue original scores for Caucasian Chalk Circle. ne score performed regularly is by American composer, Mark Nichols, who based his music on traditional&eorgian folk harmonies in polyphony.

Comments

*his section re$uires expansion. 1:anuary 23;;5

recht made a crucial change from the Chinese play which was his source. ?n it, it is the child)s birth mother who lets go and wins custody of the child. Near the end of the prologue, the "ingersays that this is an old story of Chinese origin, but with a modern re+write.

*he play is sometimes played without the prologue, and it was always played that way in the I"during the McCarthy era.`citation needed @*he first I" production to include the prologue was in

:=HG. *here is some dispute about how integral the prologue is to recht)s conception of the play. "ome claim that he regarded it as an integral part of his play, and it was present in theearliest drafts.`D thers claim that it was only included in later drafts.`B 'owe!er there isagreement that he originally intended to set in the :=B>s, but later updated it.

*he setting of the play is clearly &eorgia in the Caucasus, although it is described as (&rusinia(@a 4ussian !ariant name in the main play. Most of the characters ha!e &eorgian @or &eorgian+like names, and *iflis and the poet Mayako!sky are mentioned in the prologue.` 'owe!er thecity where much of the action takes place, Nuka, is in modern Azerbai2an, although it was under&eorgian rule for a time in the Middle Ages. *here are also ?ranian elements in the play,including the name of the character Azdak, who says he comes from there.`G

recht did not necessarily intend his play to be a realistic portrayal of either contemporary ormedie!al &eorgia. -!en in the "o!iet Inion, some people found it more &erman than 4ussian or &eorgian, and pointed out that it did not accurately portray the decision+making procedures in"o!iet agriculture.`

De8uiem =Anna Akhmato;a>

122 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dessau

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Nichols_(American_Composer/Playwright)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Caucasian_Chalk_Circle&action=edit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCarthyism






https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Caucasian_Chalk_Circle#cite_note-Penguin-3

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name_of_Georgia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Mayakovsky




https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaki,_Azerbaijan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_agriculture


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dessau

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Nichols_(American_Composer/Playwright)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Caucasian_Chalk_Circle&action=edit






https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name_of_Georgia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaki,_Azerbaijan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_agriculture




Requiem is a lyrical cycle of elegy, lamentation and witness written between :=BG and :=> byAnna Akhmato!a. Akhmato!a composed, worked and reworked the long se$uence in secret,depicting the suffering of the common people under the "talinist *error .`: "he carried it with her,redrafting, as she worked and li!ed in towns and cities across the "o!iet Inion. ?t wasconspicuously absent from her collected works, gi!en its explicit condemnation of the purges.

*he work in 4ussian finally appeared in book form in Munich in :=HB, the whole work not published within the I""4 until :=;<.`D`B ?t would become her best known work.

*he work consists of ten numbered poems that examine a series of emotional states, exploringsuffering, despair, de!otion, rather than a clear narrati!e. iblical themes such as Christ)scrucifixion and the de!astation of Mary, Mother of 3esus and Mary Magdelene, reflect thera!aging of 4ussia, particularly witnessing the harrowing of women in the :=B>s. ?t represented,to some degree, a re2ection of her own earlier romantic work as she took on the public role aschronicler of the *error. *his is a role she holds to this day.` Following its publication, -e<uiem became known internationally for its blend of graceful language and complex and classical4ussian poetry.`G

;er;ie<

*he set of poems is introduced by one prose paragraph that briefly states how she was PpickedoutQ to describe the months of waiting outside 8eningrad /rison, along with many other women,for 2ust a glimpse of fathers, brothers or sons who had been taken away by the secret police in4ussia. Following the introductory paragraph, the core set of poems in -e<uiem consists of :>short numbered poems, beginning with the first reflecting on the arrest of Akhmato!a)s thirdhusband Nikolay /unin and other close confidants.`H *he next nine core poems make referencesto the grief and agony she faced when her son, 8e! &umile! was arrested by the secret police in:=B;.`< "he writes, (one hundred million !oices shout( through her (tortured mouth(.

"e!enteen months ?)!e pleaded for you to come home. Flung myself at the hangmanOs feet. My terror, oh my son. And ? canOt understand. Now allOs eternal confusion. #hoOs beast, and whoOs manJ 'ow long till executionJ

@from -e<uiem. *rans. A.". Lline, D>>G

#hile the first set of poems relate to her personal life, the last set of poems are left to reflect onthe !oices of others who suffered losses during this time of terror. #ith each successi!e poem,the central figure experiences a new stage of suffering. Mute grief, growing disbelief,rationalization, raw mourning, and steely resol!e are 2ust a few that remain constant throughoutthe entire cycle.`; #riting sometimes in first person and sometimes in third person, Ahkmato!auni!ersalizes her personal pain and makes a point to connect with others who experienced thesame tragedy as herself. "ince the topics chosen were contro!ersial at the time, -e<uiem was

123 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Akhmatova


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalinist_Terror

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-Who-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-Martin12-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-Harrington20-3


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Magdelene


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-WellsRequiem-4


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_poetry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-PoemHunter-5

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leningrad


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Punin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-Anna_Akhmatova-6

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Gumilev

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-Political_Cultures_in_Poetry-7

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-8


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalinist_Terror

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-Who-1





https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_poetry










written in :=> but was not published. Akhmato!a belie!ed it would be too dangerous for4e$uiem to be published during that period of danger and felt it was better to keep it reser!ed inher head, only re!ealing it to some of her closest friends. Following the death of 3oseph "talin in:=GB, Akhmato!a felt it was safe to share the poems she had kept secret for so long and ended upha!ing it fully published in :=HB in Munich.`= ?t was not published in 4ussia until :=;< due to all

of the contro!ersy that surrounded it.`=

Stru#ture

-e<uiem is separated into three sections which set the structure of the entire cycle. `=

:. *he introduction also known as the prose paragraph is located at the beginning of the cycle. ?tdetails the background story of how Anna Akhmato!a came to the decision of writing this poemand also explains the en!ironment they were a part of during that period in history. elow is the paragraph that introduces the cycle7

(5uring the frightening years of the Eezho! terror, ? spent se!enteen months waiting in prison$ueues in 8eningrad. ne day, somehow, someone (picked me out(. n that occasion there was awoman standing behind me, her lips blue with cold, who, of course, had ne!er in her life heardmy name. 3olted out of the torpor characteristic of all of us, she said into my ear @e!eryonewhispered there (Could one e!er describe thisJ( And ? answered, (? can.( ?t was then thatsomething like a smile slid across what had pre!iously been 2ust a face.( `G

D. *he second section of the cycle is the first ten poems after the introduction, which arereferences to her personal grief. 'er husband Nikolay /unin had been arrested for his secondtime and placed into 2ail where he ended up passing away before he was let go. `:> ?n the first poem of this set titled (5edication(, she references her unsettling feelings toward his arrest and

his passing away, and also reaches out to her close friends who had also been arrested. #hile thefirst paragraph is a dedication to people who were !ery important to her, the other nine of thesecond section directly relate to the arrest of her only son 8e! &umile!.`H Akhmato!a expressesher inner sadness, pain and anger about the situation her and many other women were put in. For:< months, she waited outside the prison in 8eningrad 2ust waiting for glimpse or notification ofwhat was going to happen to her son. *his section concludes with Akhmato!a describing how noone can take away the important things that go unnoticed such as a touch, a look, !isits, ext. `=

B. *he third and last section of this set starts with the title (Crucifixion(. *his set of poems isfrom the perspecti!e of the other women who also stood outside 8eningrad prison waiting for 2ust a glimpse or notification from their fathers, sons, or husbands who had been arrested also.`H

*hrough intricate details, she describes the grie!ing, pain, weakness, and fear she obser!ed whilewaiting along with them during this time of terror. !erwhelmed with sadness, the ending closeswith7

And let the prison do!e coo in the distance #hile ships sail $uietly along the ri!er.

124 | P a g e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requiem_(Anna_Akhmatova)#cite_note-Anna_Akhmatova_1889-1966-9















https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich














eneral themes

-e<uiem is often said to ha!e no clearly definable plot but has many themes which carrythroughout the entire poem.`= ne of the most important themes that also stands as part of thetitle is the theme of (A poem without a hero(.`G`= *hroughout the entire cycle and the many

poems within, there is no hero that comes to the rescue. ?t is important for the readers to knowthat because it is almost always a piece that people are looking for. Akhmato!a wants her readersto recognize that they had to o!ercome this together, not by being sa!ed by a figment of theimagination. Also, grief, disbelief, rationalization, mourning, and resol!e are 2ust a few themesthat remain constant throughout the entire cycle. *hese themes all connect with one another because they are all stages of suffering. #hether it be the suffering of Akhmato!a herself, or thesuffering of the many other women who had to face the same tragedy they all are an important part in creating the purpose for the poem. Another !isible theme in the cycle is the reference to biblical people.`< Mary Magdalene, Mary Mother of Christ, 3ohn a disciple are people whoAkhmato!a references.`G ?t is said that she incorporates this theme into the complex cycle toreinforce the idea that although there has been a large amount of suffering amongst all of them,

there is nothing left to fear. ?t also allows her to transcend her personal circumstances in amythical, and supernatural way.

*he last theme that seems !ery prominent at the end of the cycle is the idea of keeping thistragedy as a memorial. y remembering what happened and not allowing yourself to e!er forgetis a part of the stage of suffering that allows you to mo!e on in life. *his again ties back into thestages of suffering, so it is all interconnected.

Criti#al re#eption

Akhmato!a feared that it would be too dangerous for herself and those around her if she released

the poem during the :=>s when it was written. ?t wasn)t until after the death of "talin in :=GBthat she finally decided that it was the right time to ha!e it published. Although she was notcelebrated by the "o!iet leadership, she was tolerated and by :=;< the whole cycle of -e<uiem was finally published in the I""4.`D After finally being published, Akhmato!a)s critics labelled4e$uiem as a blend of graceful language and complex classical 4ussian forms of poetry. `<

%he Stran-er

Al)ert Camus

"tudy 1uestions S -ssay *opics

"tudy 1uestions

:.

125 | P a g e





https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Magdalene








https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Magdalene






'ow do we know the world of *he "tranger is irrationalJ 'ow do different characters react tothis irrationalityJ

Camus demonstrates that the world of *he "tranger is irrational by excluding from the text anylogical explanation for the e!ents of the no!el. MeursaultOs murder of the Arab is the mostob!ious example of an e!ent that occurs for no apparent reason. Meursault has no reason to killthe Arab, nor does he construct one. 'is action is completely random and purposeless. Anotheroccurrence that holds no rational meaning is *homas /erezOs exhaustion at the funeral. /erez, possibly the only person who really cares about Madame MeursaultOs death, ironically cannotmo!e $uickly enough to stay with her coffin. 'is inability to keep up with the funeral procession %to act in accordance with his feelings%frustrates him to the point of tears. A third inexplicableoccurrence is the scheduling of MeursaultOs trial 2ust before the trial of a son who killed hisfather. *he prosecutor argues that MeursaultOs crime opened the door for the crime of parricide,

using the random circumstance of the trial schedule to help secure MeursaultOs death sentence.'ad the two cases not been scheduled back+to+back, Meursault might ha!e recei!ed a lightersentence. Camus seems to use the extent to which each character accepts or attempts to defy theirrationality of the uni!erse as a signal of his or her personal worth.

D.

'ow do MeursaultOs and MarieOs !iews of their relationship differJ

MeursaultOs continual focus on MarieOs body and his lack of interest in her personality show thathe sees his relationship with her as purely physical. Meursault repeatedly makes comments aboutMarieOs figure, usually noting how beautiful she looks. 'e describes little about their interactionother than their physical contact. *he emotional aspects of their relationship are clearlysecondary to Meursault. #hen she asks, he tells Marie that he probably does not lo!e her, and heanswers her $uestions about marriage with similar indifference. *he fact that Marie asks these$uestions shows that she feels at least some emotional attachment to Meursault. At one point, sheexplicitly states that she lo!es Meursault for his peculiarities. After Meursault goes to 2ail, the

differences between his and MarieOs attitudes about their relationship become e!en moreob!ious. #hereas Marie !isits Meursault and genuinely misses his companionship, Meursaultonly misses Marie because he misses sex. therwise, he hardly thinks of her.

B.

126 | P a g e



Compare Meursault to 4aymond "intes. 'ow are the two neighbors differentJ 'ow are theysimilarJ

At first, it seems that 4aymond and Meursault could not be more different. #hereas 4aymond isacti!e and possesses a !iolent temper, Meursault is passi!e and always calm. 4aymond treats hismistress cruelly, beating and abusing her, while Meursault does not seem capable of such beha!ior toward women. 'owe!er, 4aymond holds genuine feelings for his mistress and is trulyhurt when he learns that she is cheating on him. Meursault, on the contrary, seems to ha!e !erylittle affection for Marie, whose appeal to him is predominantly physical.

5espite their differences, Meursault and 4aymond hold similar positions in relation to society.MeursaultOs detached attitudes make him an outsider, a stranger to PnormalQ society. 4aymondOs

work as a pimp brings him a similar societal stigma. 8ike Meursault, 4aymond is on the outsideof society looking in. /erhaps this similarity forms the foundation of their friendship.


:. *race the de!elopment of MeursaultOs philosophy. 'ow does he come to open himself to Pthegentle indifference of the worldQJ #hat spurs his re!elationJ 'ow do earlier e!ents in the no!el prepare us to expect itJ

D. #e see characters in the book solely through MeursaultOs eyes, but Meursault typically tells us!ery little. Ising the information that Meursault pro!ides, analyze a character such as Marie and4aymond. #hat le!el of insight does Meursault pro!ide into these charactersO personalitiesJ

B. Compare and contrast the relationship between "alamano and his dog with the relationship between Meursault and his mother. #hat are the similaritiesJ #hich is more lo!ingJ

. 5iscuss the style of *he "tranger. 'ow does MeursaultOs language correspond to the sub2ectshe describesJ 5oes it e!ol!e or change as the no!el goes onJ 5oes the stripped+down prose ofthe no!elOs first half limit its expressi!e powerJ

127 | P a g e



G. ?s Meursault really a threat to his societyJ 5oes he deser!e the death penaltyJ ?s he more orless dangerous than a criminal who commits a crime with clear moti!eJ

H. ?n his 2ail cell, Meursault finds an old newspaper article about a Czechoslo!akian man who ismurdered by his mother and sister. 'ow does this article relate to MeursaultOs own trial formurderJ 'ow does this article expand the themes in *he "trangerJ 'ow does it support CamusOs philosophy of the absurdJ

<. Analyze the passages describing MeursaultOs walk down the beach before he kills the Arab.'ow does Camus build tension in the passageJ 'ow is it different from the passages precedingitJ Meursault says at his trial that he killed the Arab because of the sun. ?s this explanation at all!alidJ

european unit i

Documents