european history from the renaissance to napoleon
DESCRIPTION
Timeline for review in European historyTRANSCRIPT
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Semester 1 Timeline
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# DATE EVENT SIGNIFICANCE COUNTRIES
AFFECTED
OTHER
EVENTS
AFFECTED
1
Nov. 18th,
1302
Boniface VIII issues
the Unam Sanctum
Boniface VIII was known for his Unam Sanctum, an attempt to put the
monarchy under the power of the pope, and a continuation of his protest
against taxing the clergy. Philip IV's chief minister, Nogaret, denounced
him for this, so he excommunicated them both. However, an army led by
Nogaret surprised him at Anagni and he was seized and most likely
executed. This hostility between church and state was one of the factors
leading to the Babylonian Captivity.
France 2
2
1309 Avignon Papacy
This was also known as the Babylonian Captivity, and it was caused by
Clement V's unwillingness to go to Rome. All of the popes in this first
Avignon lineage were French, and increasingly fell under the influence
of the French monarchy.
France, England 4, 6
3
Jan. 27th,
1343
Pope Clement VI
issues papal bull
Ungenitus Dei filius
With this bull, Clement VI sets up a "treasury of merit" also known as a
system of indulgences, by which people could absolve themselves of
guilt - for a price. These persisted, often corrupt and abused, until Martin
Luther argued against them during the Reformation.
Entirety of Catholic
Population
18
4 1337
Beginning of the
Hundred Years War It created a basis for both French and English nationalism, while making
marked innovation in military tactics and weaponry.
France and England None
5
1348
Black Death first
appears in Italys port cities
The Black Death was one of the worst plagues in history, set up by states
weakened by years of war and overpopulation. It killed approximately
60% of Europe's population.
All of Europe 8
6
1378 Great Schism Begins
Urban VI is elected, but the electors mistrust him and elect an antipope,
Clement VII. This polarized the church, as each had their own followers
and it continued until the Council of Constance, despite attempts to stop
it through force and negotiations.
All of Europe
7
1415 Hohenzollerns rise to
power in Brandenburg
The Hohenzollern family rose to the position of Margrave in the
unattractive territory of Brandenburg, later Prussia. A Hohenzollern
descendent, Frederick William the Great Elector would unite
Brandenburg into a strong European power for the first time in it's
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history, and his son would be Frederick I, the first King of Prussia.
8
1434
Cosimo de Medicis ascent to power in
Florence
The Medicis will rule in Florence for more than 300 years. They are
massive patrons of the arts, which helps stimulate the Italian
Renaissance.
Italy 17,
9
1440
Lorenzo Vallas Donation of
Constantine essays
began circulating
The Donation of Constantine was a forged document that Lorenzo Valla
exposed in a scientific, professional manner. Valla was one of the
famous humanists, and he encouraged the ideas of the Renaissance.
All of Europe
10
1453 Fall of Constantinople
The sack of Constantinople by the Ottomans marked the ending of the
Byzantine Empire (also known as the Eastern Roman Empire) and rise
of the Ottomans in the east.
Eastern Roman Empire 34
11
1455 Gutenberg Bible first
printed
Gutenberg invents the printing press and starts mass-distributing bibles.
This is one of the most important inventions of this era, as it allows for
mass-produced dissemination of information, which increases the
general level of learning in the populace.
All of Europe 16, 17,
12
1467 Louis XI becomes
King of France
A king of the house of Valois, Louis XI set up France as a major world
power by stabilizing the country and its economy and decreasing the
power of the nobility. He was known as the Spider King for his wont to
political intrigue and diplomacy, and was one of the New Monarchs.
France
13
1469
Marriage of
Ferdinand and
Isabella
Ferdinand and Isabella were the New Monarchs of Spain, and
centralized and strengthened the government. They also supported many
Spanish explorers and began the era of colonialism.
Spain
14 1485
Henry VII takes the
throne
One of the New Monarchs, he was the first king of the house of Tudor, a
long and powerful dynasty that lasted until Elizabeth I.
England
15
1492
Christopher
Columbus arrives in
New World
He was supported by Ferdinand and Isabella, and his landing in the New
World marks the beginning of the age of conquistadors.
Spain
16
1509 Henry VIII marries
Catherine of Aragon
Her inability to give him a male heir precipitates their annulment and
eventually a break with the Roman Catholic Church, creating the
Anglican Church of England.
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17
1511 Erasmus writes In
Praise of Folly
A Dutch humanist, Erasmus wrote In Praise of Folly as a biting essay
against the corruption of the Catholic Church. It is regarded as one of the
major works of the Northern Renaissance and foreshadows the soon-
coming Protestant Reformation.
Italy
18
1513 Machiavelli writes
The Prince
Machiavelli wrote the political treatise as a means to unite the Italian
city-states; it explained how best to keep an absolute ruler's country
united. However, it extended far beyond that and his ideas influenced
many of the rulers to come, such as Cromwell.
Italy
19
1517 Martin Luther
publishes his 1 Theses
Luther posts the 95 Theses, his criticism of the Catholic church, on the
doors of the Castle Church of Wittenburg. This is widely regarded as the
catalyst for the Protestant Reformation.
Germany
20
1521 Diet of Worms
The Holy Roman Empire's gathering at Worms. Here, Emperor Charles
V denounced Luther, calling him a heretic and forced him into exile at
Wartburg Castle. Despite the harshness of the Edict, Charles V was not
able to enforce it and eventually, Luther was able return to his key
position in the Protestant Reformation.
Germany
21 1522 Affair of the Sausages
Zwingli breaks the Lenten fast by eating sausages. This is one of the first
major events of the Swiss Reformation.
Switzerland
22
1524-1526 German Peasants
Revolt
The peasants rise up against the nobility because Luther's teachings. It
causes mass panic and after Luther realized that he couldn't support it
without losing noble support, he calls the peasants a lying, thieving, un-
christian horde and and squashes the revolt.
Germany
23
1527 Sack of Rome
When Rome is sacked by mutinous troops of Charles V, the pope
remains avoidant of conflict against the Holy Roman Empire for the rest
of his life, which leads to him ceding them the bishopdom of Utrecht and
refusing to annul Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon (Charles
V's aunt). It also slows the Italian Renaissance.
Italy
24
1527 Philip II takes the
throne of Spain
Philip II, son of Charles V, was the heir to a massively powerful empire,
about which the phrase was coined "The empire on which the sun never
sets." Though he was a pretty strong king, he had several bankruptcies
through his reign and was known for his religious fanaticism.
Spain
25 1531 Henry VIII He passed the (first) Act of Supremacy and the Act of Succession at the England
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recognized as head of
the Church of
England
Reformation Parliament in order to be able to annul his marriage to
Catherine of Aragon. This split the English church from the papacy
forever, and two years later, Henry VIII was excommunicated.
26
July 1536 Calvin visits Geneva
Calvin, a major theologian, took a detour through Geneva because of the
Italian war. After William Farel begs him to stay, he becomes one of the
major figures of the Reformation in Geneva.
Switzerland
27
1540
Jesuit order
recognized by
Catholic Church
Ignatius of Loyola founded the Order after he converted to Catholicism
when he was wounded in a battle. They are also called the Soldiers of
the Cross and are known for their educational outreach.
Catholic people
everywhere in Europe
28
1543
Copernicus publishes
On the Revolutions of
Heavenly Spheres
The publishing of on the revolution of the heavenly spheres, though not
immediately accepted, signaled a transition from the old, geocentric
view of the universe to a heliocentric view of the universe. For this
assertion, the Church declared Galileo heretical.
Western Europe
29
1545-1563 Council of Trent
Charles V calls a meeting of high church officials to reform the Catholic
Church (in response to the Protestant Reformation) by removing much
of the corruption and incompetence prevalent in the church.
Catholic people
everywhere in Europe
30
1555 Peace of Augsburg
The Peace of Augsburg can be summed up by the Latin phrase "cuius
regio, eius religio," which allowed the ruler of a country to decide its
religion. When Charles V realized he could not contain or stop
Protestantism anymore, he had to accept the doctrine in order to keep his
empire from tearing apart.
Holy Roman Empire
31 1558
Elizabeth I takes the
throne
Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII, took the throne
after the deaths of Edward VI and Mary I.
England
32
1559 Philip leaves
Netherlands
Philip II did not care at all about the Netherlands, besides their
commercial value as a country of seaports. This neglect led to the Dutch
Revolt.
Spain, Netherlands
33 1563 39 articles
The Thirty-nine Articles were the statements of doctrine of the Anglican
Church relative to the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches.
England
34
1570 Elizabeth I
excommunicated
Pope Pius V releases a papal bull of excommunication in response to her
radical changes to the English church in the Thirty-nine Articles. This
effectively gave Catholics everywhere permission to assassinate the
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queen, of which several attempts are made.
35
1571 Battle of Lepanto
This battle marks a turning point in the relationship between Europe and
the Ottoman Empire. After the fall of Constantinople, there was nothing
between the Muslim Ottomans and Christian Europe; however, with this
battle, the Europeans are able to stop the Ottomans from expanding
farther into the European side of the Mediterranean.
Southern Europe,
Turkey
36
August 24th,
1572
St. Bartholomews Day Massacre
The massacre took place in Paris, during the Protestant Henry of
Navarre's wedding to Princess Marguerite. Catherine de' Medici, the
queen mother of France, was nervous about the Huguenot presence (he
brought an entourage of his countrymen) and the growing tension in the
violently Catholic Paris. Triggered by the attempted assassination of the
respected Protestant leader, Coligny, and fearing Huguenot revenge, she
ordered the king to order the execution of the rest of Huguenots in Paris,
which led to widespread killings of Protestants throughout France. The
massacre marked a change towards the hostile in the relationships
between Protestants and Catholics throughout Europe.
France, the Protestant
populations in other
countries
37
1576 Sack of Antwerp
(Spanish Fury)
Started by some mutinying Spanish soldiers, the sack of Antwerp
spanned three days. There were at least 7000 casualties and massive
property damage, and Antwerp, one of the strongest and richest cities of
the Netherlands, never recovered. This lowered the already tarnished
reputation of Philip II.
Netherlands
38
1576 Pacification of Ghent
Enraged by the Sack of Antwerp, the Netherlands, Protestant north and
Catholic south, joined together against the Spanish threat. Facing this
newly unified Netherlands, Philip had to accept defeat and ceded the
Netherlands to William of Orange.
Netherlands
39
1579 Union of Arras
Only three years after the Pacification of Ghent, the Union of Arras was
formed after Spain was able to turn the southern provinces away from
their Calvinist neighbors. In response, two years later, the northern
provinces formed the Union of Utrecht.
Netherlands
40
1586 Babington Plot
The Babington Plot was seemingly an assassination attempt started by
Mary Stuart, seeking sanctuary from Scotland, where she had abdicated
her throne. After Francis Walsingham found evidence of her
involvement, Elizabeth had no choice but to execute her, despite
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angering many of the Catholics in England.
41
1588 Defeat of the Spanish
Armada
Philip II planned to invade the staunchly non-Catholic England with the
invincible, at that time, Spanish Navy. However, due to the Spanish
fleets' hugeness and slowness as compared to the English ships, they
were soundly defeated, marking an end to Spanish dominance on the
seas and the rise of England.
England, Spain
42
1589
Henry of Navarre
becomes Henry IV of
France
After the War of Three Henrys, with Henry III and Henry of Navarre, his
heir, against Henri, the Duke of Guise. Henri planned to assassinate
Henry III, but then was killed by Henry's Forty-Five, a group of lower
nobility that were pledged to the king. Afterwards, despite success in the
campaign against the Catholic League, Henry III was assassinated by a
fanatical monk and Henry rose to the throne, becoming Henry IV.
France
43
1598 Edict of Nantes
Decreed by Henry IV, a noted politique, the Edict of Nantes extended
religious toleration to the Huguenots, though France would remain a
Catholic state.
France
44
1603
James VI of Scotland
becomes James I of
King of England
James VI, son of Mary Stuart, had been the King of Scotland and
succeeded the childless Elizabeth I easily, becoming James I. Instead of
going to Parliament to raise income, he levied custom duties called
impositions, which set up some tension between him and Parliament,
who believed he was overstepping his authority.
England
45
1610 Galileo Publishes
Starry Messenger
Galileo's The Starry Messenger expanded on Copernicus' heliocentric
view of the universe, using a telescope to back the assertion up with
irrefutable evidence. This made the Church even more nervous than it
had previously been, for if the Church admitted that it had been wrong
about a geocentric universe it would discredit itself in other areas as
well.
Western Europe
46
1618 Defenestration of
Prague
The Defenestration of Prague was the catalyst for the Thirty Years War,
beginning the Bohemian Phase of the war. The unpopular Habsburg
Ferdinand was determined to restore Catholicism to the eastern Holy
Roman Empire, and as soon as he took office, he revoked religious
toleration for Bohemian Protestants. The Protestant Nobles responded by
throwing his regents out of a window, fifty feet above the ground.
Bohemia
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47
1620
Francis Bacon
publishes Novum
Organum
Bacon attacked the scholastic belief that most truth had already been
discovered, and promoted the scientific method, that is, controlled
experimentation and observation as a basis for the formulation of
universal laws. This bolsters the scientific revolution's idea that the
universe is logical and governed by rules that man can understand.
Western Europe
48
1624
Cardinal Richelieu
becomes chief
minister of France
At the age of 9, Louis XIII inherited the French Throne from his father,
Henry IV. Because of his age, he heavily relied on Cardinal Richelieu,
whose influence continued to Louis XIV.
France
49
1628 Petition of Right
Charles I, like James I, often overstepped his monarchial boundaries.
When he gathered Parliament again in 1628 to ask for more funds, they
refused to grant them until he passed the Petition of Right, a document
that governed the boundaries between the monarchy and the legislation.
England
50
1629 Edict of Restitution
Eleven years into the Thirty Years War, Ferdinand attempted to create
this return to the Peace of Augsburg, as a way to protect Catholic lands
from the encroaching Protestants. However, it was too little, too late, and
the Protestants were far too ingrained in Europe for it to really do
anything besides increase Ferdinand's unpopularity.
Holy Roman Empire
51
1629
Beginning of the
Personal Rule of
Charles I
Also known as the Eleven Years Tyranny, this was when Charles I, with
the help of his chief advisor, Thomas Wentworth, was able to rule
England without going to Parliament for funds by exploiting every
single legal method of fund-raising they had. If not for a war with
Scotland over religion, he could've been able to rule this way
indefinitely. However, because of the Scottish rebellion, he called up
first a Short Parliament (which he immediately dissolved) and then a
Long Parliament, his last.
England
52
1630
Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden joins the
Thirty Years War
Gustavus Adolphus II led the Protestant forces within the empire. He
was controlled by the French (Cardinal Richelieu), who wanted to keep
the Habsburgs otherwise occupied, and the Dutch, who did not want to
be put under Habsburg rule again. With Prussia, Adolphus won a
massive victory at Breitenfeld, the turning point of the war.
Sweden, Germany,
France, Netherlands,
Prussia
53
1635 The French enter the
Thirty Years War
The French finally join legitimately, and fight with the Spanish through
the entirety of Germany. By the end of the war, the war had killed
approximately one-third of the German population.
France, Spain, Sweden,
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54
1648 Peace of Westphalia
The Treaty of Westphalia brought the Thirty Years War to a close, and
rescinded the Edict of Restitution, giving the Calvinists legal
recognition. The Swiss Confederacy and the United Provinces of the
Netherlands were officially declared countries, and France got
considerable territorial gain.
France, Sweden,
Prussia, Holy Roman
Empire, and the
Calvinist populations of
Europe.
55
1648 The Fronde
The Fronde was a series of rebellions among French nobles against the
policies of Cardinal Mazarin, one of Louis's advisors. These rebellions
convinced a young Louis that the nobles were too powerful and caused
him to create a more absolutist government.
France
56
1649 Cromwell comes to
power
After Charles' calling of the Long Parliament, the power of the
monarchy is severely restricted by Parliament who give themselves and
the people more rights in the Bill of Rights. He attempts to arrest some
of his opponents in the Parliament but they escape and after this fails, he
leaves London and raises an army, setting off a civil war that would
continue for another four years. Cromwell, at the time a radically puritan
country squire, leads this parliamentary army, and Charles is executed
by January 1649. England is a Puritan republic under Cromwell's rule.
After his death in 1658, England is ready for the Anglican Church and
the monarchy.
England
57
1651 Thomas Hobbes
publishes Leviathan
Hobbes wrote in support of absolute government, stating that
government is created to protect from the egotistical nature of man, and
that if your government is bad, you can do nothing about it.
Western Europe
58 1660 English Restoration
Because England is so sick of Cromwell's puritanism, they happily
return to a monarchy, this time, Charles II, Charles I's son.
England
59
1672 Declaration of
Indulgence
King Charles II issued a declaration suspending all laws against
Catholics and non-Anglican protestants, in attempt at instituting limited
religious freedom. However, he was forced to repeal this in 1673 in
favor of the Test Acts, which required anyone who wished to enter into
the English government, an act against the future Catholic James II. This
declaration was later reaffirmed in 1687 by James II.
France
60
1682 Versailles built
As King of France, Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King,
consolidated unprecedented power in the monarchy. Versailles was built
in part as an effort to control the nobles, since they were forced to move
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from their hereditary lands and the source of their power to Versailles if
they wanted to have the ear of the King. Versailles was also built in part
because of Louis dislike of Paris, due to the Fronde.
61
1685 Revocation of Edict of
Nantes
The Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed limited religious tolerance in
France, was revoked in favor of a return to Catholicism, because Louis
XIV thought religious unity was essential to a unified state. Louis paid a
high price for this religious intolerance, as some 200,000 Huguenots fled
France, negatively impacting the economy. This was worrying for
protestants, especially since the Catholic King James II took the English
throne around the same time.
62
1687 War of Devolution
One of Louis XIVs goals as king of France was to make his nation the strongest in Europe. To this end, he initiated a series of wars in the 17th
to early 18th century for the purpose of gaining more territory, beginning
with the War of Devolution. In this war, Louis supported his wifes supposed right of inheritance of the Spanish Netherlands. With this
excuse, Louis invaded Flanders and the Franche-Comt of the Spanish
Netherlands, but was driven back by the Triple Alliance. The Treaty of
Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war and gave France some of the towns
bordering the Spanish Netherlands. In the end, Louis was able to
strengthen France, though the war would contribute to the later-crippling
debt.
France, Austria
63
1687
Newton publishes his
Principia
Mathematica
Newton's masterwork combined the works of previous great thinkers of
the scientific revolution, such as Kepler's laws of planetary motion,
Galileo's laws of falling bodies, and his own ideas about gravity. This
proved to people at the time that the universe was strictly logical and
governed by laws that man could understand, through mathematics.
Later, the Enlightenment movement will draw on these ideas.
Western Europe
64
1688 Glorious Revolution
After Charles II died, his son, James II, took the English throne. Unlike
his father, James was a devout Catholic, which worried the Anglican
population, and when he had a son by his Catholic wife, Parliament
asked William of Orange, James son-in-law, to invade. When William arrived with his army, James fled to France and Parliament crowned
William William III, in a bloodless revolution. He ruled jointly with his
wife, Mary.
England
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65
1689 War of the League of
Augsburg begins
Louis continued upholding his army and attempting to expand his
territory. After he occupied the free city of Strasbourg in 1681, new
defense coalitions sprang up against him. From 1689, he fought the
League in Europe while England and France fought in North America.
The Peace of Ryswick stopped Louiss expansion, and France did not gain much territory from this.
England, Sweden,
Spain, the United
Provinces of the
Netherlands, all major
German states, and
France
66
1689 Act of Toleration
During the reign of William and Mary, Parliament made the Act of
Toleration, which extended limited freedoms to dissenters against the Church of England. This was an act of compromise between Parliament and Protestants.
England
67
1690
John Lockes Second Treatise of
Government
Stated that government is a social contract into which people enter, and
that if government is bad it breaks this contract, and the people can and
will rise up against the government to create a new contract.
England
68
1697 Grand Embassy
Peter the Great, motivated by a desire to modernize and a recognition
that Russia had fallen behind the rest of Europe, took a tour of Holland,
England, and other parts of Western Europe to learn their culture so that
it could be emulated in Russia. Prior to Peter, Russia was geographically
and culturally isolated from the rest of Europe and barely affected by the
ideas of the Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Exploration, and
Scientific Revolution. After his tour, Peter institutes such reforms as
requiring western clothing and cropped beards f the nobles, the Boyars,
requiring the court to speak French, expanding the army and navy, and
making agricultural improvements through the introduction of the
potato.
Russia
69 1700 Great Northern War Directly after the 30 years war, Sweden controlled entire eastern shore of
the Baltic, so Peter fought against Sweden to gain land on the Baltic
shore, thus gaining a window to the west through which Russia could interact and trade with Western Europe. This victory contributed
dramatically to Swedens decline.
Russia, Sweden
70
1701 Act of Settlement
After the Glorious Revolution, wherein the protestant William and Mary
took the throne from the Catholic James II, it was decreed that the throne
of England could only go to a protestant.
England, Germany
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71
1701 War of Spanish
Succession
Before the last Habsburg king of Spain, Charles II, dies without heirs,
Europe scrambles to find a division of his inheritance in a way that keeps
the balance of power. However, he left his entire inheritance to Philip of
Anjou, a distant relative and in line to the French throne which
completely upset the balance (with the possibility of a combination
France and Spain combined superpower) and sucked Western Europe
into a huge war. Philip ended up leaving the French line of succession
and became Philip V of Spain.
Western Europe
72
1702 Death of William III
of Orange
In the 17th century, the Netherlands were the only European power with
a confederation of provinces, rather than a strong central government.
Since William was Stadtholder in the Netherlands, in addition to King in
England, and his death signaled the loss of strong central leadership in
the Netherlands, and led to a decline in economic prosperity, naval
supremacy, and the Netherlands' position as a center of European trade.
Netherlands, Britain
73
1703 Founding of St.
Petersburg
Peter used land gained in the Great Northern War to build a new capital
and royal palace in St. Petersburg, calling the city a great window for Russia to look out at Europe. Additionally, Peter forces the Boyars, or nobles, to move to St. Petersburg so that he could better control them,
emulating Louis XIV and Versailles.
Russia
74
1713 Frederick William II
takes the throne
Frederick William II was the second King of Prussia, and spent a great
deal of effort developing the army, to the point that Prussia had the 3rd
or 4th largest army in Europe and the 13th largest population. For
Frederick William, this was a defensive move to prevent other countries
from invading the newly established Prussia, formerly Brandenburg.
This army was also played a large part in his son's future success in the
War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War.
Prussia
75
1713 Pragmatic Sanction
Charles VI knew that upon his death, because he did not have a male
heir, the country would be weakened and attacked by surrounding
countries. Through his reign, he made agreements with the countries
surrounding the Holy Roman Empire and the rest of the Habsburgs that
would ensure that his daughter, Maria Theresa, could inherit.
Holy Roman Empire
76
1713 Treaty of Utrecht and
Treaty of Rastatt
The two treaties brought an end to the War of Spanish Succession.
According to their terms, Philip V was allowed to retain throne of Spain,
as long as throne of Spain and throne of France were not united. England
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got Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca and became a Mediterranean
power, fishing rights and land in Canada, and the Asiento, or excusive
rights to trade slaves to the Spanish empire, which was incredibly
lucrative, making England the biggest winner in these negotiations.
Austria gets the Spanish Netherlands, plus Naples, Milan, Sardinia, and
the Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick, was recognized as King of
Prussia. France does, in fact, succeed in pushing its boundaries outward
because it gets Alsace. Ultimately, France is still a great European power
they were debilitated by wars, but so was everyone else.
77
1720
John Law sets up the
Banque Generale
Privee
Law exaggerated the wealth of the Mississippi territory and in an
effective marketing campaign rallied investors to his company. To pay
the investors' profits, he issued paper bank notes. However, when the
government was forced to admit that the bank notes issued were not
backed by real currency, a mass conversion bankrupted the company.
France
78
1722 Table of Ranks
The Table of Ranks was a system created by Peter the Great as a way to
keep the nobles under his control. It set up a direct correlation between a
persons merit and ability and their social standing, rather than taking social standing from lineage. In this way, not only was he able to keep
his bureaucracy strong, but also give people
Russia
79
1739 The War of Jenkins
Ear
Fought between England and Spain, the war of Jenkin's Ear began with
Jenkins, who had been smuggling goods into Spain in defiance of the
Asiento, but claimed the Spanish had cut his ear off without reason. The
war lasted approximately 1.5 years and was largely significant because it
was the first in a series of disputes over European trade & money, with
overseas colonies dragged into the fighting.
Great Britan, Spain
80
1740 The War of Austrian
Succession begins
Frederick II takes the throne of Prussia in 1740, the same year that Maria
Theresa succeeded to the Austrian throne, and immediately violates the
pragmatic sanction by taking the territory of Silesia, which was a very
rich area, thereby doubling his population and industry. Maria Theresa
fought to regain Silesia, and the scale of the war quickly expanded, with
the Austrians, Bohemians, Hungarians, and British fighting against the
Prussians and the French. The British and French do not care about
Silesia, but the French hoped to expand to the Rhine river by taking land
from the Netherlands and the British seek to deny France access to the
Netherlands. This dispute spills over into the Americas, where the
Prussia, Austria,
Bohemia, Hungary,
Britain, France, British
and French Colonies
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French and British colonists fight what for them is King George's War.
The first and second Silesian wars denote Prussian campaigns within the
larger war. Ultimately, Frederick wins Silesia and France does not
expand into the Netherlands.
81
1743 Death of Cardinal
Fleury
King Louis XV was a far weaker ruler than his predecessor, King Louis
XIV, a fact of which Louis XIV was very aware. The death of Cardinal
Fleury, a capable advisor to Louis XV, allowed Louis to enter into two
ill-advised wars, augmenting the existing debt that he was incapable of
managing and leading to the eventual collapse of the French economy.
France
82
1748 Treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle
Ended the War of Austrian Succession. Austria recognized Prussia's
conquest of Silesia, and the Asiento contract, which guaranteed trading
rights with Spain to England through the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, was
renewed.
Prussia, Austria, Britain,
France, Spain
83
1756 The 7 Years War
begins
Also called the Third Silesian war, this was another war in which Marie
Theresa of Austria and her allies Russia and France fought against
Prussia and England. It is notable that the change in allegiance of France
and England is known as the diplomatic revolution. By all rights, the
alliance of France, Austria, and Russia should have won, but they did not
have the sort of centralized command needed for an effective alliance.
Prussia's saving graces were that England kept France occupied so that
they never fought Prussia, that Prussia was fighting close to home, and
that when Elizabeth of Russia died, she was succeeded by Peter III who
was so militarily enamored with Frederick II of Prussia that he withdrew
from the war. Once again, Prussia kept Silesia, but Maria Theresa was
able to preserve the Habsburg empire. Other results were that Louis XV
increased France's debt and made the country even more vulnerable and
that Britain became a world power.
Prussia, Austria, Russia,
France, Britain
84
1748
Montesquieu
published Spirit of the
Laws
Montesquieu's most influential work calls for limitations on the abuses
of royal absolutism and holds up the British constitution, a constitution
with checks and balances and a separation of powers, as the best model
of government. However, he thought that democracy should only
succeed in small areas and advocated a reformed and revived
aristocracy. Montesquieu's work represents an attempt to create a social science," following the enlightenment pattern of applying the ideas of
the scientific revolution to all things by applying the methods of the
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natural sciences to the study of government.
85 1751
Diderot compiled the
first encyclopedia
Diderot's encyclopedia put all the known knowledge in one place to be
shared, so that knowledge could spread and be improved upon.
Western Europe
86
1759 Voltaire published
Candide
Voltaire was known for criticizing France's rigid government and
denouncing religious bigotry. His Candide attacked war, religious
persecution, and unwarranted optimism.
Western Europe
87
1762 Rousseau published
The Social Contract
This tract asserted that only the people, not the monarch, have the right
to legislate. This was called the General Will. He proposed democracy as
a solution to political problems of the time, which he said stemmed from
absolute monarchies and the abuse of power.
Western Europe
88
1763 The Treaty of Paris
The Treaty of Paris ended the 7 years war and returned Europe to the
status quo, antebellum, meaning that they reverted to conditions before
the first of the mid century wars. This however, did not include Prussian
and Austria, who signed a separate agreement in which Prussia kept
Silesia and Austria retained the remainder of the Habsburg territories.
Prussia, Austria, Russia,
France, Britain
89
1776
Adam Smith
published On the
Wealth of Nations
Smith's On the Wealth of Nations gave birth to modern classical
economic thought, and describes laissez-faire economics, a theory which
states that governments must not interfere with the free functioning of
the market, because supply and demand, the "invisible hand" creates a
self-regulating economy.
Western Europe
90
1762
Catherine the Great
took the Russian
throne
Catherine the Great consciously sought to create the image that she was
an enlightened ruler, reading and citing the works of philosophes, and
corresponding with Voltaire. Her familiarity with the enlightenment and
with the culture of western Europe convinced Catherine that Russia was
backwards and needed major reforms to remain a great power. To this
extent, she limited the practice of torture, allowed limited political
toleration of the Jews, and promoted economic growth. She also ignored
the arguments of the enlightened philosophes when it came to war and
fought wars in the Ottoman empires and Poland to gain territory.
Russia, to an extent: All
of Western Europe
91,
91
1772 First Partition of
Poland
Poland's government was made up of a king with no real power and a
Diet where each noble who sat on the Diet had the power of liberum
veto, meaning that they could dissolve the Diet at any time and nothing
Poland, Russia, Austria,
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could be accomplished except unanimously. This meant that nothing was
ever accomplished. In an attempt to shock Poland into reform, Russia,
Austria, and Prussia each annexed a part of Poland. This was
unsuccessful, and so happened twice more in 1793 and 1795
respectively, until Poland no longer existed.
92
February
1781
Necker publishes the
Compte Rendu au Roi
Necker's report on finances of the pre-revolutionary government was
falsified and led to large discontent both with debt and the current
regime's obscurity while complicating the jobs of current officials who
needed to fix the falsified debt.
France
93
1785
Catherine the Great
approves the Charter
of the Nobility
Catherine understood the fragility of the Romanov dynastys base of power and the necessity of widespread political and social support for
any significant reforms and convened a legislative commission to draft a
new enlightened law code. However, nobles refused to concede any of
their privileges, and little was accomplished save limited administrative
reform in the form of the Charter of the Nobility, which gave strong
support to the rights and local power of the nobility In this, Catherine
had to favor the nobles because they could topple her from the throne.
Russia
94
1785 Imperial Patent of
1785
Joseph II of Austria, and enlightened monarch who sincerely wanted to
improve the lot of his people, gave freedom to the serfs and abolished
the robot, a forced work program. This program of reform was bitterly
opposed by Austrian nobles.
Austria
95
August 8th,
1788
Louis Summons the
Estates General
Louis's summons mark the beginning of the end for absolute monarchy
in France. By calling the legislature to session, they are now able to
make demands and pass laws that Louis's predecessors had managed to
avoid. It is an admission of his loss of power and therefore he must rely
on the Estates General to maintain his power. This also belies the extent
of the French debt at the time that Louis would see this as the better of
the two evils.
France
96
June 20th,
1789
Oath of the Tennis
Court
Power shifts from the monarch and the first estate to the third estate and
the mob. With the formation of the National Assembly, France is
beginning to move towards a constitutional monarchy. Later, when
Louis XVI gives in to the newly formed national assembly, and the
second and third estates join, the weakness of the absolute monarchy is
further exposed. Most significantly, the Oath of the Tennis Court marks
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the beginning of the French revolution.
97
July 14th,
1789 March on the Bastille
As the Bastille was a symbol of the Old Regime and its power, the
March on and subsequent fall of the Bastille mirrored the mob's intent to
overthrow the Old Regime. The March also provided weapons for the
rebellion when the Bastille was sacked.
France
98
August 8th,
1789 August Decrees
The August Decrees were decrees issued by the National Constituent
Assembly that saw the nobles give over many of their traditional rights,
as feudalism was abolished in France. Required tithing to churches was
also abolished. This signaled a transition away from the rigid class
system of l'Ancien Rgime towards a more equal France while the
church was marginalized. They also show the decline of the NCA's
power as, despite their power over the church and nobility, the NCA is
unable to quell the uprisings without catering to the rebels.
France
99
August 26th,
1789
The Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of
Citizens
This declaration states that all men are created equal (although not all
women) thus legally abolishing the aristocracy in favor of a meritocracy
and wealth based system. The declaration also clearly defines the
government's duty to the citizen, the citizens' duty to the government,
and the limitations of both entities rights.
France
100
October 5th,
1789
Womens March on Versailles
The Women's March on Versailles shows the failure of the NCA and of
Louis XVI to relieve the debt crisis in France. Holding the king
accountable, they surrounded Versailles and forced him and the court to
return to Paris, effectively ending their independent activity.
France
101
July 12th,
1790
Civil Constitution of
the Clergy
All Church lands were confiscated for public property and any monastic
orders were abolished. The lands were used to back a new currency
which eventually failed, and the Constitution led to severe backlash from
the church parishes, the nobility, and the Church itself.
France
102
June 20th,
1791
The Flight to
Varennes
The Flight to Varennes was Louis XVI's failed attempt to flee France
and stage a counter-revolution from Austria. It contributed to the public
hatred of him and his family and was the grounds for the charges of
treason on which he and his family were executed. The Flight more
immediately led to Louis's removal from power.
France
103 August 27th, Declaration of Pillnitz The Declaration of Pillnitz stated that, should Louis not be allowed to France, Prussia, Austria
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1791 return to power or his rights be further infringed upon, Austria and
Prussia would go to war if other European powers agreed. This showed
Leopold II's and Frederick William's support for the French nobility and
monarchy while they were still unwilling to commit to war on their
behalf and would not have to, since Britain did not support war with
France.. The National Assembly misinterpreted this, however, and later
declared war against Prussia and Austria at the urging of Louis XVI who
hoped a resounding defeat would return him to power.
104
September
3rd, 1791 Constitution of 1791
Following the ideals of the general will, the new constitution redefined
the French government, its limitations, and its citizenship. The
constitution established a government based on checks and balances
between the legislature and the monarch finalizing the creation of a
constitutional monarchy for France.
France
105
September
30th, 1791
End of the National
Constituent Assembly
With their new constitution in place, the National Constituent Assembly
peacefully hands power over to its successor, the Legislative Assembly
and, at Robespierre motion, does not allow its own members to serve in
the new legislature.
France
106
1792
Wollstonecraft
published Vindication
of the Rights of
Women
In response to the prevailing misogyny of the time, especially that of
Rousseau, Wollstonecraft advocated for the rights of women and
asserted that the difference between men and women was a difference in
educational opportunities, not in talent.
Western Europe
107
February 1st,
1792
Declaration of War
Against Britain and
the Dutch Republic
These wars lead to the Leve en Masse as France begins to fight its way
into the Netherlands while quelling internal rebellions. The battles
following were where Napoleon first gained prestige and also were the
one's in which Demouriez defected to the side of the counter-
revolutionaries.
France, Britain,
Netherlands
108 February 25th
-28th, 1792 Food Riots in Paris
Denote the Legislative Assembly's failure to correct the debt crisis while
also lending power to the Jacobins. Girondins were the primary party
blamed for the food crisis, adding to their disfavor.
France
109
April 20th,
1792
France Declares War
on Austria and Prussia
Having overreacted to the Declaration of Pillnitz, the new government,
at Louis XVI's urging, declares war on counter-revolutionary Prussia and
Austria. These wars continue throughout the Revolutionary period and
serve to deepen national debt while becoming a focus for patriotic fervor
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in the nation.
110
June 20th,
1792 Protests of 20 June
The mob invaded the Tuileries demanding the removal of the king. He
was offered help by both Lafayette and the Girondins who sought to
become his ministers in return for their aid. Meanwhile, the Jacobins and
the mob united to overthrow him.
France
111 August 10th,
1792
Overthrow of the
Monarchy
The National Convention, led by the mob-backed Jacobins, votes to
remove Louis XVI from office while reinstating the dismissed Girondin
ministers. 205 years later, Sarah Zoellick will be born.
France, United States of
America, Universe
112
September
1792 September Massacres
Upon rumors that important political prisoners intended to escape and
initiate a counter-revolution, the mob broke into prisons and killed the
prisoners, most of whom were no more than common criminals.
Following the Massacres, the crowd demands the disbandment of the
Legislative Assembly and the institution of universal male suffrage for
the first time in history.
France
113
September
20th, 1792
National Convention
Takes Over
The new tri-partisan governments advent heralds the beginning of the
Radical Phase of the French Revolution. Sentiment is strongly negative
towards the old monarch and nobility, while the mob largely drives
political power in the new government favoring the Jacobin party.
France
114 September
20th, 1792 Battle of Valmy
The first victory of the French revolutionary armies, the battle of Valmy
served to drive the advancing Austrians away from Paris and out of
France opening Belgium to French assault.
France, Austria
115
September
21st, 1792
Abolition of the
Monarchy
The Monarchy is legally abolished in the new National Conventions
debut legislature. This secures alliance between the Jacobins and the
mob while marking the new government as a republic rather than a
constitutional monarchy. Year one of the Republic begins here.
France
116 May 31st,
1792 Girondin Expulsion
In reaction to mob uprisings in Paris, the Jacobins expel the Girondins
from the National Convention securing their control over the legislature.
France
117 January 21st,
1793
Execution of Louis
XVI
Terminates the monarchy as Louis and his family are executed for
treason. Also marks a divide between the Girondins who opposed
Louis's execution and the Jacobins who supported it with the mob.
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118
April 5th,
1793
Committee of Public
Saftey established
The Committee of Public Safety, originally led by Danton, served to
centralize power under its nine members for the autonomous defense of
the republic from threats within and without. This allowed its members
unchecked power leading to the rise of The Terror.
France
119
February 1st,
1793
Declaration of War
Against Britain and
the Dutch Republic
These wars lead to the Leve en Masse as France begins to fight its way
into the Netherlands while quelling internal rebellions. The battles
following were where Napoleon first gained prestige and also were the
one's in which Demouriez defected to the side of the counter-
revolutionaries.
France, Dutch Republic,
Britain
120 July 27th,
1793
Robespierre elected to
the Committee of
Public Safety
Robespierre drives the new government with an iron fist while laying the
groundwork for the Terror. He almost single handedly pushes a radical
agenda with the mob's support and his new power.
France
121 August 23rd,
1793
Leve en Masse
Decreed
The leve en masse was a largely successful mass conscription that
helped secure French power while taking advantage of the
overwhelming patriotism in the nation.
France
122
September
11th, 1793
Law of Maximums
established
The Jacobin government infuriates the peasants in favor of pleasing the
urban poor by fixing a price cap on grain and other commodities. This
initiates many uprisings in rural France and turns many peasants to
counter-revolutionary views.
France
123
September
19th, 1793 The Terror Begins
In the conflict between Girondins and Jacobins, Robespierre utilizes
totalitarian tactics to eliminate any and all opposition and some of his
allies to maintain power. The years in which he uses these tactics are
known as the Terror. Initially supported with fervor by the French
populace, the executions soon turned the people against the Jacobins as
they exercised an authoritarian and tyrannical rule.
France
124
12/4/1793 National Convention
Established by Law
The National Convention now is able to exercise power without concern
of removal due to its legal support by the Constitution of 1793. In light
of this, it begins a massive secular movement, recreates the calendar,
abolishes slavery, and removes any record of the kings from public sight.
France
125
4/5/1794 Danton and
supporters executed
Robespierre turns against his former ally and one-time leader of the
Committee of Public Safety for fear that he will regain the favor of the
mob. Due to this, the mob begins to turn against Robespierre to favor
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more conservative leaders.
126
6/10/1794 Law of 22 Prairial
By openly decreeing that no hard evidence is necessary to execute
people on charges of treason, the National Convention ensures that the
public views any executions as unjust, undeserved, and as abuses of
power. Both peasants and the mob are beginning to sympathize with the
targets of the Jacobins (primarily the Girondins) while the Jacobins
become the focus of their disdain.
France
127
6/26/1794 French Victory at
Fleurus
This French victory over the allied forces of England, the Dutch
Republic, Austria, and Prussia led France taking the Austrian
Netherlands and conquering the Dutch Republic. Also was the first use
of aircraft (a reconnaissance balloon) for battle.
France, England, The
Dutch Republic, Prussia,
Austria
128
7/28/1794 Thermidorian
Reaction
In the initiation of the Thermidorian Reaction, Robespierre and about 80
of his followers are executed after being brought down by the mob. The
Girondins are then reinstated to the National Convention beginning the
move towards the recovery phase. To prevent the repeat of the power
abuse utilized by Robespierre, the new Convention reorganizes the
Committee of Public Safety along with other parts of the government
France
129
12/24/1794
Law of Maximum and
Law of 22 Prairial
Abolished
The abolition of these laws marks a return to more conservative views in
France, a view shared by the populace as shown by the conspicuous lack
of riots at this action
130 4/6/1795-
7/22/1795 French Peace Treaties
France establishes peace with most of its enemies thus dividing the First
Coalition allowing France to emerge as a dominant power in Europe.
France, Prussia, Spain
131
8/22/1795 Constitution of the
Year III
The Constitution of the Year III secures the ascent of a conservative
government while maintaining the centralized power of the Committee
of Public Safety in the five person Directory. A bicameral legislative
system is set up in this constitution to check the Directory and appease
the public.
France
132 August 30th,
1795 Decree of 2/3 Passed
The legislature passes a law requiring that two thirds of the legislative
body be from the Plain or Girondin political parties to ensure their
majority.
France
133 December
18th, 1795
Napoleon captures
Toulon
Napoleon begins to gain prestige and power within the French military
with this victory over the British.
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134
October 5th,
1795
Napoleon defends
Directory from mob
Napoleon furthers his prestige and his favor with the Directory by
quelling a mob uprising effectively (very different from Lafayettes attempted quashing of the Women's March on Versailles and the Protests
of 20 June).
France
135 August 3rd,
1798
Napoleon invades
Egypt
Napoleon fights the British Lord Nelson in an attempt to cut of Britain's
cotton supply from Egypt but loses. After losing the majority of his
navy, Napoleon abandons his army to escape back to France.
France, England
136 November
9th, 1799 Coup of 18 Brumaire
Napoleon deposes the Directory establishing himself as the head of the
new Consulate. Due to his prestige, there is little public opposition to
this action.
France
137 December
24th, 1799
Constitution of the
Year VIII
Napoleon passes a constitution instituting universal male suffrage, a
system of checks and balances, and a council of state. He, however, does
not adhere to this at all and continues to act autonomously.
France
138
July 15th,
1801 Concordat of 1801
Napoleon and Pope Pius VII agree upon terms that the church lands
confiscated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy remain in control of
France, clerical wages will be paid by France, the Papacy reserves the
right to consecrate priests, and Catholicism is recognized as the majority
religion of France. Their agreement reestablishes some Catholic power
in France while the Consulate would maintain power over the local
church.
France
139 December
2nd, 1804
Napoleon Crowns
himself Emperor of
France
By crowning himself Emperor, Napoleon establishes himself as ruler for
life of France without placing anyone over him by allowing them to give
him his crown.
France
140
March 21st,
1804 Code Napolon
The first uniform law code for the entirety of France, the Code Napolon
destroyed local customs but brought about domestic order throughout the
nation. Enforced by a prefect system, the code protected private
property, outlawed trade unions, subjugated women and children,
confirmed a meritocracy, and suppressed freedoms of speech and press.
France
141 October 21st,
1805 Battle of Trafalgar
Lord Nelson yet again defeats Napoleon and, by destroying Napoleon's
navy, restrains him to the continent and prevents any action against
Britain.
France, Britain, Europe
142 December Battle of Austerlitz In perhaps his greatest victory, Napoleon crushed the Third Coalition France, Austria, Holy
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2nd, 1805 thus removing Austria from the war. As a direct result, the Holy Roman
Empire is dissolved and the Confederation of the Rhine is formed.
Russia is allowed to retreat home.
Roman Empire,
Confederation of the
Rhine, Russia
143 December
26th, 1805 Treaty of Pressburg
In this treaty, Austria backs out of the war, cedes Venice to Italy (which
Napoleon is already king of), surrenders land to Napoleon's German
allies, and pays heavy fines to France.
Austria, Italy, France,
Confederation of the
Rhine
144 June 14th,
1807
Russians Defeated at
Friedland
Napoleon again defeats Russia and ends the Fourth Coalition and the
defeat leads Alexander I to agree to the peace terms offered.
France, Russia
145 June 25th,
1807 Treaty of Tilsit
France and Russia form an alliance thus protecting the French empire's
eastern front allowing them to focus on the Western European countries.
France, Russia
146
December
15th, 1808
Beginning of
Peninsular War
France declares war on Spain and Portugal in order to enforce the
Continental System and cut off Britains trade. The war becomes a stalemate and Napoleon eventually withdraws from the Iberian
Peninsula.
France, Spain, Portugal,
Britain
147
1812 Invasion of Russia
Napoleon invades Russia in response to their withdraw from the
Continental System and due to Russia violating parts of the Treaty of
Tilsit. The invasion was a massive failure as Napoleon's army was
unprepared for the invasion and could not support itself during the
Russian winter.
Russia, France
148 October 19th,
1813 Battle of Leipzig
The European Coalition wins a decisive victory over Napoleon and
manages to press into France as he retreats. They then force Napoleon to
abdicate the throne and send him into exile in Elba in 1814.
France, Russia, Prussia,
Austria, Sweden
149 February
26th, 1815 Escape from Elba
Napoleon escapes Elba and returns to France where he takes power at
the head of a defected army. The subsequent time period is known as the
Hundred Days of Rule.
France
150 June 18th,
1815 Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon is defeated for the last time by the Coalition and Prussian
armies led by the Duke of Wellington. As a result, he is again forced
from power and is exiled to St. Helena where he lives the rest of his life.
France, Prussia
151
1816 Treaty of Vienna
finalized
This unified treaty, created by representatives from all parties involved
including the defeated French, shows a move by Europe as a whole
towards unified peace. The majority of Europe is returned to its pre-war
France, Prussia, Russia,
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state as lands are given to the victors as compensation and a valid
attempt is made to balance power in Europe. France is also returned to
Bourbon rule.