eoi unit 2

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OFFICIAL SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES

UNIT 2.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION.

LANGUAGE IN USE .

THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING.

1. INTRODUCTION

2.THE DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

2.1. The Cooperative Principle

2.2. Communicative Steps For Language Learners.

3. LANGUAGE IN USE

3.1. The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis

3.2. Input Generation And Language Learning

4. THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING

4.1. Strategies

4.2. Tactics

4.3. The Role Of The Learner

5. CONCLUSION

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1. INTRODUCTION

Communication has many purposes, including the exchange of information, thecreation and maintenance of social relationships such as friendship, the negotiationof status and social roles, as well as deciding on and carrying out joint actions.

Throughout all of these functions though, we can say that the primary purpose ofcommunication in our own language is probably social.

During the last several decades, while second language researchers have proposedmany theories of second language acquisition (SLA), there has been little agreementon any single SLA theory. Language acquisition theories have traditionally centredon ‘nurture’ and ‘nature’ distinctions, advanced by the social-interactionist andnativist camps respectively.

Social-interactionists see language as a rule-governed cultural activity learned ininteraction with others, while nativists perceive language ability as an innate capacity

to generate syntactically correct sentences. In other words, interactionists believeenvironmental factors are more dominant in language acquisition, while nativistsbelieve inborn factors are more dominant.

Vygotsky, a psychologist and social constructivist, laid the foundation for theinteractionists view of language acquisition. According to Vygotsky, social interactionplays an important role in the learning process and proposed the zone of proximaldevelopment (ZPD), where learners construct the new language through sociallymediated interaction (Brown,). Vygotsky social-interactionist theory was proposedabout 80 years ago, and still serves as a strong foundation for the interactionists’perspective today (Ariza and Hancock, 2003).

On the other hand, nativists’ such as Krashen assume that natural internalmechanisms operate upon comprehensible input which leads to languagecompetence. This is evident in Krashen’s input hypothesis of SLA. Krashen’s inputhypothesis was first proposed over 30 years ago, expanding from Chomsky’sLanguage Acquisition Device. Since that time, there have been many theories putforward under influence Krashen’s input hypothesis.

Although Vygotsky and Krashen can be categorized into distinct positions, theapplication of their theories to second language teaching shares a number of

similarities. According to Krashen’s input hypothesis, language acquisition takesplace during human interaction in the target language environment. The learner isthen exposed to rich comprehensible input in the target language. However, in orderfor acquisition to occur, the input would need to be slightly beyond the learner’scurrent level of linguistic competence. Both Vygotsky and Krashen put greatemphasis on the role of interaction in SLA.

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In this unit we are going to define communication, look at language in use and thenegotiation of meaning. The information that we will be using is taken from a varietyof sources, including Quirk, Greenbaum, Baugh, and Cable.

Let us begin with a brief definition of communication.

2. THE DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION.

Communication as a term can be used to describe any encounter or interactionbetween two or more people, either through spoken or written language. It’s theexchange and negotiation of information through the use of verbal and non-verbalsymbols, oral or written. In this way a writer communicates his ideas to the readerand the speaker to the listener.

Communication involves the presence of extralinguistic elements, such as thecontext where the communication takes place or any piece of information already

known by any of the individuals taking part in that exchange. This will certainly add ormodify the information being transferred between the members of the communicativeprocess. We can also find, as we mentioned above, verbal symbols, which, puttogether, form the words that we use to communicate. Finally in oral languageprosodic features like intonation add extra meaning to those other elementsmentioned before, and clearly differentiate between written and oral language sinceintonation can significantly alter the meaning conveyed by words.

It’s important to remember that any communicative process will only be successful ifit is conceptually relevant. Information must be constantly changed and qualified byfurther information, the context of communication and by continuous evaluation andnegotiation of meaning by the participants.

The basic unit of conversation is an exchange. This consists of two moves (aninitiating move and a response). Each move can also be called a turn, and a turn canbe taken without using words, i.e. by the nod of the head. Basically, the idea of takinga turn is to continue the conversation, and to give the recipient the idea that you areinterested in what is being said. Not taking your turn is an effective way of bringingan unwanted conversation to a close, although it must be noted that this wouldgenerally be considered to be rude. However, there are other factors that should betaken into account if we wish to conduct what may be termed as a normal

conversation.

When we look at normal conversation we notice that:

• usually only one person speaks at a time.

• the speakers change.

• the length of any contribution varies.

• there are techniques for allowing the other party or parties to speak.

• neither the content or the amount we say is specified in advance.

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These points are those which distinguish spoken communication from writtencommunication. In the latter all the communication is preset, the receiver has nopower to immediately alter the meaning of the message.

The success of the message relies on both the sender and the receiver using thesame code. The job of the language teacher is to teach the code to the students, inthis way, when a speaker or writer encodes a message, the receiver (reader orlistener) is able to decode it. Only when all parties are able to do this can asuccessful conversation take place. We will try to make this a little clearer throughthe use of the following diagram: It should be pointed out that this diagram wasdesigned by Jakobson, who we shall be looking at in greater detail later in this unit.

ADDRESSER COTEXT

MESSAGE

CHAEL

CODE

ADDRESSEE

Addresser HusbandAddressee: WifeContext: Dinner timeMessage: I’ll be home late tonight.Channel: TelephoneCode: English

Now that we have seen some of the ways that we can define language, we will lookat some of the factors that have to be taken into consideration in order that theconversation performs its function.

2.1.The Cooperative Principle.

Normal conversations proceed so smoothly because we cooperate in them, in otherwords, we generally don’t just have a conversation for our own sake, but also for thesake of the person with whom we are conversing. This means that we make an effortto help the person that we are addressing understand us.Grice (1975) has described four maxims or principles which develop cooperative

behaviour. These are:

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The Maxim Of Quality:

Make your contribution one that is true, specifically:

a. Do not say what you believe to be false.

b. Do not say anything for which you lack adequate evidence.

The Maxim Of Quantity:

Make your contribution just as informative as required, and no more. Too muchinformation could easily confuse or bore the listener.

The Maxim Of Relation:

Make your contribution relevant and timely. This means that you should try to avoid

saying anything that has no apparent relation to the rest of the conversation, or issaid too late to have any relevance.

The Maxim Of Manner:

Avoid obscurity and ambiguity. Language can sometimes be confusing if the wordsare not carefully chosen.

This can be summarised as :

BE TRUE, BE BRIEF, BE RELEVANT, BE CLEAR.

Native speakers of any language will realise that these rules are often broken, but weshould encourage our students to follow them as closely as possible. At least thenthey will reduce the chances of someone accusing them of being hard to understand.

This then, is another area that we all, not just learners, need to take into accountwhen studying either the native language or a foreign one. However, there are otherareas that need to be thought about and examined. One of these areas is that of thesteps that are taken by learners on their way to full communication. It is importantthat these steps are looked at, because they can help both the learner and the

teacher to understand the level of the student, and the work that remains to be done.

2.2 Communicative Steps For Language Learners.

There are three recognised steps for the language learner on the way tocommunicative competence.

one- way communication· · · restricted two-way communication

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· · · full two-way communication

One-way Communication is totally receptive. The learner does not have the capacityto participate in a conversation. This means that, as is the case with most languagelearners, the student is able to understand some of what is said to him, but is not

able to actually reply with confidence. It must be remembered that even in theacquisition of the native language, the listening skill comes before the speaking one.

Restricted two-way communication occurs when the learner does not respond in thetarget language. Responses may include gestures or using the L1. This is when thestudent wishes to participate in the conversation, but simply lacks the vocabularynecessary to do so.

Full two-way communication involves the speaker both encoding and decodingmessages in the target language. This is the aim of every language learner andteacher. However, this stage cannot be reached immediately, and a lot of time and

patience must be invested by both the learner and the teacher.

This theory can be applied to language teaching in such a way as to allow thestudent time to develop the productive skills, in much the same way that a childlearns its native language. The teacher will allow the student time to becomeconfident with the ability to receive, before pushing him to produce language.

Of course, it is not just sufficient to know how to use language, the student musthave some idea of what the language should be used for. This will form the next partof this unit.

3. LANGUAGE IN USE

The first thing that we have to do is to make a distinction between the linguisticknowledge that the student has, and how he actually uses this knowledge in acommunicative situation.

First of all, it is important to clarify that the Communicative Approach is based on thelinguistic knowledge of the language rules and the when, to whom and how to usethem. It focuses on the learner performance in real-life situations. It understandslanguage as a tool to communicate a message, therefore paying special attention to

the communicative competence of the learner.

The role of the teacher is to impart the knowledge of how to use language to hisstudents. He must also make sure that they have regular practise in the outputsection as well as input. In the past, language teaching was centred on learning therules, with there being very little chance to practise those rules in a communicativesituation. Today, the Communicative Approach to language learning is widelyaccepted as the best way for the students to learn how to speak and understand aforeign language.

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It’s important to mention at this point that there is a difference between languageusage and language use.

Language usage implies the consideration of general and specific rules of the

language code in order to understand and be understood. It includes phonology,morphology, syntax and semantics.

Language use considers other parameters and it mainly concentrates on how to usesentences appropriately. It points to the importance of being brief, true, relevant andclear, as we mentioned at the beginning of the unit, and the so-called cooperativeprinciples. Using the correct meaning and form for each speech event is known asregister. These two aspects fall under the category of coherence, whereas cohesionbasically refers to the way we use the different grammatical structures.

There have been many studies conducted on how students learn the L2. These have

resulted in three hypotheses:

3.1. The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis.

Here the theory is that students acquire the skill through its comprehensive use, inmuch the same way that we acquire our native tongue. This suggests that there is anelement of imitation involved in the learning of a language.

3.2. Input Generation And Language Learning

In this theory the learners generate their own input by means of classroomparticipation. As they ask questions and don’t only do the work that is set for them,they increase the knowledge that they receive. They have to take some responsibilityfor their own learning. This means that the students who sit quietly and don’tparticipate tend to learn slower.

The third hypothesis is the negotiation of meaning, which we will deal with as aseparate section.

4. THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING

A major feature of conversations involving L2 is that the learner and native speakerwork together in order to overcome the communicative difficulties that arise as aresult of the learner’s limited knowledge of the language. This has come to be knownas the negotiation of meaning. In order to facilitate this, the native speaker will makeuse of strategies and tactics.

4.1. Strategies

These involve conversational devices in order to avoid trouble. This may include

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devices such as:

Relinquishing topic control.

This means that the native speaker will allow the learner to control the topic of

conversation, thus allowing him to stay within the boundaries of his knowledge.There is nothing more frustrating for a learner of a language than to be engaged inconversation with a native speaker who continuously raises the level.

Checking Understanding.

The native speaker will ask the learner if he can understand, and will grade hislanguage accordingly. This way the native can keep a track on whether or not thelearner is following the conversation.

4.2. Tactics

These are devices for repairing trouble. They include:

Topic switching.

When the native speaker sees that the learner is not understanding he can changethe topic under discussion.· · ·Speed reduction.

The native speaker can slow down his speech until he reaches a velocity that thelearner can follow.· · ·Repetition and synonyms:

The native speaker can repeat sentences, or, if the learner is still showing troubleunderstanding, he can use synonyms.

4.3. The Role Of The Learner.

The learner also has a role to play in the negotiation of meaning. He can do so by

use of the following :

Signalling lack of comprehension.

This can include a request for clarification, clarification checks and confirmationchecks. The learner can tell the native speaker as soon as he fails to understandsomething, thus avoiding problems later in the conversation that may arise from thelearner missing a vital point.· · ·

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Extra Linguistic Resources.

These would include items such as gestures, expressions and so on, intended toconvey the meaning.· · ·

Persistence.

The learner should not surrender as soon as problems arise. Instead he must realisethat his problems are normal, and are not something to cause discouragement.

In the classroom, these tactics can help the students to interact and communicatethrough the process of negotiation of meaning.

The result of negotiation of meaning is that particular types of input and interactionresult. In particular it has been hypothesised that negotiation makes inputcomprehensible and in this way promotes second language acquisition. The one

thing that neither the teacher, nor any native speaker that the learner comes intocontact with should do, is to speak so fast, or in such a complicated way that thestudent finds it impossible to follow. This will only result in a lack of confidence. As faras the learner is concerned, he must never give up.

5. CONCLUSION

In this unit we have seen how language can be used in a wide variety ofcommunicative functions. The teacher must ensure that the input the studentsreceive is matched by the output, and that the students are encouraged to takeresponsibility for their own studies. However, factors such as age, social context,cultural factors, etc. are clearly related to the degree of learner’s initiation ofinteraction and therefore his chances of acquiring the L2 and becoming competent init. The teacher must always be aware of these variables and prepare the classesaccording to his judgement of his students’ needs, needs that should include not onlythe learning of a language, but also the acquisition of communicative ability.

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UNIT 2 . THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION.

Themes Notes

Communication: encounter between two or more people, through

spoken or written language. Involves the presence ofextralinguistic elements, e.g.: context where it takes place.Prosodic features can add to the meaning. Communicationprocess must be conceptually relevant. The basic unit ofconversation is an exchange. People take turns. Normally, onlyone person speaks at a time, the speakers change, the length ofcontribution varies, techniques can allow the other party to speak,neither the content or the amount that we say is specified inadvance. The success of the message relies on both the senderand the receiver using the same code. Maxims of Grice: True,Brief, Relevant, Clear. One way Communication, Restricted Two

Way and Full Two Way. The student must be allowed to developat his own pace. Distinction between linguistic knowledge that astudent has, and how he uses this knowledge in communicativesituation. The Communicative Approach is based on the whenwhom and how of language rules. Teacher imparts knowledge ofhow to use those rules. Comprehensible Output Hypothesis:Students acquire skill through use. Input Generation andLanguage Learning: Learners generate their own input.Negotiation of Meaning: Learner and native speaker work togetherto help the meaning become clear. The native speaker will usestrategies such as: Relinquishing topic control, checkingunderstanding and tactics, e.g Topic switching, speed reduction,repetition and synonyms. The leaner also has a role to play. Hecan signal his lack of comprehension, use extralinguisticresources and he must have persistence.

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Test your understanding of unit 2 by answering the following questions.

1. Give a brief definition of communication.

2. What is the cooperative principle?

3. Explain the comprehensible Output Hypothesis.

4. Explain the Role of the learner.

5. Which tactics can be used in the negotiation of meaning?

eoi unit 2

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