enzymes. biological catalysts enzymes are complex proteins, usually having either tertiary or...
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ENZYMES
Biological Catalysts Enzymes are complex proteins,
usually having either tertiary or quarternary structure, and are responsible for mediating chemical reactions in organisms
Dissolving awayFor example, think about
hydrolysis reactions that use water to break apart major macromolecules
If hydrolysis reactions were that easy to initiate, that means you would dissolve every time you contacted water!
CatalystsMost reactions in organisms cannot
happen without the help of enzymes
These enzymes accelerate the rate of reactions and push them forward
Therefore, enzymes are known as catalysts –they lower the energy required to initiate a chemical reaction, increasing the likelihood that the reaction occurs
Lock and KeyEnzymes, structurally, are
designed to fit specific SUBSTRATES – the reactants in the biochemical reactions
This is known as a “lock and key” mechanism where each enzyme is specialized
Enzyme + substrate enzyme substrate complex
The substrate binds on the ACTIVE SITE of the enzyme where the chemical reaction will occur
Other binding sites might be present on the enzyme that are secondary to the active site. These are known as ALLOSTERIC SITES and generally do not result in the formation of a new product via a chemical reaction
Tertiary and Quarternary structureNotice, therefore, that enzymes are
complex proteins – often having at least tertiary structure and sometimes quarternary structure
The complex possibilities seen in protein folding produces a large number of structural shapes necessary to produce specialized enzymes for each possible chemical reaction
Specificity is keyBecause they are so specific,
each enzyme is designed to accelerate only one type of chemical reaction
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_enzymes_work.html
Enzymes are custom madeOn top of being specific to
certain reactions, enzymes are also designed to function optimally under certain conditions
The following factors can affect enzyme function:◦pH◦Temperature◦salinity
Why the sensitivity?Enzymes are located everywhere in
living organismsEach living organism must survive
in ecosystems that can affect their internal systems (for example, crustaceans living in high temperature sea vents)
Even organisms that have their internal systems well shielded from the external enviornment (like us)
Specialists in special systemsFor example, within a human being, pH
levels can vary within the digestive system
The stomach is a highly acidic area (pH = 1) whereas the duodenum is a more basic area thanks to the pancreas (pH = 5-6)
Therefore, enzymes that function in the stomach must be able to function in low pH vs. those that function in the duodenum that must function in higher pH
Why?This comes back down to
understanding the biochemistry of enzymes
Remember that functional groups in amino acids create enzymes that can be more basic, acidic, hydrophilic or hydrophobic
These characteristics help an enzyme to survive better in certain environments
Coming undoneEnzymes can “denature” - acidic/basic
environments or increased temperatures can interfere with basic bonds (disulfide bridges, Vanderwaals interactions, etc.) that will cause the enzyme to unfold
Remember: a loss of structure = loss of function
An enzyme that cannot hold its 3D shape loses its ability to “fit” with a substrate
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/proteinstructure.html
http://www.lew-port.com/10712041113402793/lib/10712041113402793/Animations/Enzyme_activity.html
Pepsinhttp://www.biotopics.co.uk/JmolA
pplet/pepsin.htmlPepsin will denature at pH levels
of more than 5.0This means that as food moves
from your stomach to your duodenum pepsin is inactivated by the increase in pH – this allows other proteases in the duodenum to take over protein digestion
TemperatureIn regard to temperature, the
ideal temperature for most enzymes is dependent on the average internal temperature of the organism
Human enzymes function optimally at internal body temperature = 370
However, as mentioned before, there are some enzymes that can function well at more extreme temperatures
Enzyme kineticsEnzymes are used widely in the
production of various chemical substances in manufacturing, or for laboratory tests because they are such efficient ways to speed up chemical reactions
Enzymes can be used over and over again to catalyze numerous reactions (they will degrade eventually though)
Therefore, the knowledge of optimal ranges of enzyme function are beneficial for this reason
Enzyme kineticsTherefore, enzyme kinetics is the study
of enzymatic function – how fast an enzyme can catalyze a reaction
The speed at which an enzyme can catalyze a reaction is best illustrated by how much product is produced in the chemical reaction over time
Substrate + enzyme product + enzyme
Vmax and KmVmax = fastest rate at which
substrate can be produced by the enzyme
Km is a rate constant - it describes how much the enzyme “wants” to binds to the substrate – it usually is related numerically to half of Vmax
Why does it plateau?In general it makes sense that if
you add more substrate to a given concentration of enzymes, you should get more product
However, you should notice that the curve plateaus eventually
Why?
Think about functionRemember that in order to carry
out a reaction, the enzyme must bind to a substrate
If a small concentration of substrate is added to a group of enzymes, it makes sense that more product can be produced as the concentration increases – because you are engaging more and more enzymes in the reaction process
Think about functionBut if the concentration of
enzyme is not increased, and more and more substrate is added, the rate of product production starts to slow down
If each enzyme in the reaction is attached to a substrate, adding more substrate will not increase the rate of reaction since each enzyme is already occupied with a substrate
Think about functionTherefore it can be said that the
enzyme concentration is the limiting factor
Increasing the amount of substrate will not cause the rate of the reaction to in increase unless enzyme concentration increases
InhibitionInhibition occurs when enzyme function
is tampered with – this is sometimes necessary to control enzymatic function
This can occur two ways:COMPETITIVE INHIBITION: another
substance binds to the active site of the enzyme
NON-COMPETITIVE INHIBITION: another substance binds to a non-active site – an allosteric site that prevents the binding of the main substrate
The most common form of non-competitive (allosteric) inhibition occurs when the binding of an inhibitor to an allosteric site causes a conformational change in the enzyme making it unable to bind with the usual substrate
Why does Vmax and Km change?
Binding the active site will make the enzyme less “desirous” to bind the substrate – since it is already bound to something else – this affects Km
Binding an allosteric site might not change the enzyme’s desire to bind the substrate, but it will affect its ability to carry out chemical reactions, therefore affecting Vmax