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Environmental

Science

and

Technology

(2010) Volume 1

Edited by

George A. Sorial

Jihua Hong

ISBN 978-0976885313

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Environmental Science and Technology 2010 (1) Proceedings from the Fifth International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, held July 12-16, 2010 in Houston, Texas, USA Includes bibliographical references ISBN: 978-0976885313 I. Sorial, George A. II. Hong, Jihua III. International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology (5th : 2010 : Houston : Texas) Printed in the United States of America Copyright © 2010 American Science Press. All rights reserved. This document, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the American Science Press. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to the American Science Press, 9720 Town Park Drive, Houston, TX 77036, USA Email: [email protected] Website: www.AASci.org/conference/env ISBN 978-0976885313 © 2010 American Science Press

Environmental Science and Technology

(2010)

Volume 1

Edited by

George A. Sorial Jihua Hong

American Science Press, Houston, USA

Environmental Science & Technology 2010 (I)

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION George A. Sorial and Jihua Hong …………………………………………………………....

1

PLENARY SESSION

Characterization of Atmospheric Particles from South America to Antarctic Ricardo Henrique Moreton Godoi ……………………………………………..…………..…………

4

Groundwater-Surface Water Flux Measurements. Carl G. Enfield …………………………………… 5

Continuous Treatments of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) by Artificial and Natural Oxidation Processes. Yutaka Sakakibara ……………………………………………………………

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Membrane Optodes for Heavy Metal Ions: Preconcentration and Quantification in Natural Waters Gurijala Ramakrishna Naidu …………………………………………………………………….……

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WATER POLLUTION AND WATER QUALITY

Rivers, Lakes and Estuary Systems/ Watershed Management

Water Management by YAN Technology, YAN Microorganisms (YANM) and Titanium Bio-Ball. Ki Hae Yang, Mi-Sug Kim, And Jee-June Song …………………………………………………….

Surveying the Problems in Developing Water Quality index in Iran. Farzam Babaie Semiromi, A.H Hassani, A. Torabiyan and A.R. Karbasi …………………………………………………………….

Freshwater Harmful Algal Bloom Suppression: Solar-Powered Circulation and Current U.S. Policy. Kenneth Hudnell, Joseph Eilers, Vic Lucero, Christopher Jones, Dennis R Hill, Amanda Williams …………………………………………………………………………………..…..

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21 Bacterioplankton Community in Highly Eutrophic Plateau Shallow Lake. Mingji Lv, Yi Huang Pilot Studies on Atmospheric Deposition in Mine Lakes Region Part I: Heavy Metals. Jatau-

Emeagha Glory Ladidi, Ufodike E.B.C. ………………………………………………. ….

22

Water Resources and Assessment

Environmental Impact of Return Flow on Groundwater Quality at Azraq Basin, Jordan. Yasin Al-Zu'bi , and Jarrah Al- Zu'bi ………………………………………………………………………...

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A New Technique of Discharge Release from Dam Reservoir for Flood Control. Yusei Kitada, and Tadashi Yamada ………………………………………………………………………………..

Optimal Spatial Allocation of the Economical Crops in Saudi Arabia, According to the Comparative Advantage. Ahmed M. Alabdulkader, Ahmed I. Al-Amoud, Fawzi S. Awad, Abdulrahman A. Alazba, Saad A Al-hamed, Ali S. Al-Tokhais, Jalal M. Basahi, bdulrahman M. Al-Moshailih, Yousef Y. Al-Dakheel………………………….…………………….

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Performance Assessment of Water Management in the Old Land of Egyptian Delta. Ahmed Mohsen Aly Mohamed, Ahmed M. ALY, Yoshinobu KITAMURA, Katsuyuki SHIMIZU ...

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Groundwater

Status of Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater of Southern Bangladesh: A Population-Based Survey. Nepal C Dey ……………………………………………………………………..

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Arsenate Removal from Simulated Groundwater by Donnan Dialysis. Bin Zhao and Huazhang Zhao ……………………………………………………………………………………………..………

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Residential Development Overlying a Complex Aquifer in Ontario, Canada - Science and Practice. Prem Manicks ………………………………….……………………………………………………….

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Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment of Groundwater of Coalmining areas, India. Prasoon Kumar Singh, Dipanwita Bhakat, Gurdeep Singh ………………………………………………...

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Assessment of Source Flows at a Mojave Desert Spring: Habitat to Endangered Species. Luz Vargas, Barry Hibbs, and Mercedes Merino ……………………………………………………….

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Groundwater Baseflows Contaminate Streams in Southern California Coastal Watersheds. Barry Hibbs, Wynee Hu, and Rachel Andrus …………………………………………………….

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Non-point Sources

Impact of Non-point Source Pollution on Bacterial Community Structure in River Water from a

Densely Populated Watershed. Mark Ibekwe, Richard M. Bold, Stephen. R. Lyon, and Menu B. Leddy ………………………………………………………………………………..…………………

59 Wastewater Discharge Management Biosolids as Foaming Reactive for Froth Flotation Processes. Lorenzo Reyes-Bozo, Alex Godoy-

Faúndez, Miguel Herrera and Rosanna Ginocchio …………………………………………

Drinking Water Optimization Models for Monitoring Station Sitting in a Water Distribution Network. Pei-Hao Li

and Jehng-Jung Kao………………………………………………………………………… Monitoring of Source Water Supplied to a Treatment Plant to Evaluate Its Effect on Influent Water

Quality. April Nabors ……………………………………………………………………….. Spatial Variation of Haloacetic Acids in the Indoor and Outdoor Household Drinking Water in

Kuwait. Humood F. Al-Mudhaf, Mustafa I. Selim, Aleksander Astel, Abdel-Sattar I. Abu-Shady Identifying Carcinogenic Potentials of Drinking Water Disinfection Byproducts using Normal

Human Colonocyte Cultures. Anthony DeAngelo, Yue Ge, Michael George, Carlton Jones, Steve Kilburn, Sheau-Fung Thai, William Ward, and Ernest Winkfield………………………..

Women’s Role in Managing Household Water in Rural Bangladesh. Nepal C Dey and AKM Masud Rana……………………………………………………………………………………………

Pre-treating Microcystis-laden Raw Water by Silver Carp in Water Works. Hua Ma, Fuyi Cui Hydrogen Peroxide with Potassium Permanganate to Replace Pre-Oxidant Chlorine in Drinking

Water. J. Cochran…………………………………………………………………………… Reduction of Perchlorate from Contaminated Waters Using Zero Valent Iron, Palladium as a

Catalyst, and UV Light. Q. Amy Zhao, E. Sahle Demessie, and George Sorial……………. Pipe Service Age Effect on Chlorine Decay in Drinking-Water Transmission and Distribution

Systems. A. O. Al-Jasser……………………………………………………………………… Water Quality Assessment/Management MRBC Dispersion Parameters Assessment by SA, GA and GNM Inverse Modeling. V. P. Huggi,

A. K. Rastogi………………………………………………………………………………… Assessment of Particles and Trace Elements in Selected Reservoir of Curitiba – Brazil. Ricardo

Henrique Moreton Godoi, André Virmond Lima Bittencourt, Patricia Yassumoto Hirata, Ana Flavia Locateli Godoi, Eduardo Felga Gobbi, Luiz Fabricio Zara, Miguel Jafelicci Jr, Rafael Bini, Jorge Eduardo de Souza Sarkis, José Manoel dos Reis Neto, José Eduardo F. C. Gardolinski, René Van Grieken………………………………………………………………

Innovative Non-Chemical, Electronic De-Scaling and Scale Prevention Technology for Heat

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Transfer Optimisation. Philip Acquah………………………………………………………… Monitoring of Drinking Water Quality in Regional Laboratory Gombe Nigeria. Bertha Abdu

Danja, Jürgen Ertel and Otmar Deubzer………………………………………………………… The Fecal Coliform Pollution in the Lanzhou Section of the Yellow River, China. Famin Liu and

Lirong Wang, Weishou Shen…………………………………………………………………. Management of Organic Waste from an Agricultural Enterprise (Dairy Farm) In Botswana. Gilbert

Kabelo Mmolawa, G.K. Gaboutloeloe and K. Ramolekwa…………………………………. Dairy Enterprises Environmental Pollution Risk Assessment in Gaborone Agricultural Region,

Botswana. Gilbert Kabelo Gaboutloeloe, and C.M. Tsopito……………………………….. E.Coli Chromogenic Reagent Selection Based on User Perception for Use in Field Based Water

Quality Tests. Tahmina Ajmal, N.E. Scott-Samuel, Germinal Magro, R.E.S. Bain, R.L. Matthews, A.P. Davis and S.W. Gundry……………………………………………………..

Contamination of Water Body Associated with Bird Nesting on Highway Bridges. Rania Bashar, Veysel Demir, Sazzad Bin-Shafique…………………………………………………………

Bacterial Indicators of Fecal Contamination in the Macagua Lake, Bolívar State, Venezuela. Rosa Vásquez Lic, Nailec Valdiviezo, Tibisay Gómez, Hilda Centeno and Lenny Moya…………

Utilizing the Water Quality Index as an Indicator of Surface Water Pollution: A Case of Damour River, Southern Lebanon. May A. Massoud…………………………………………………

Optimizing Readability of Escherichia Coli Selective Fluorogenic Assay for Testing Water Quality. Tahmina Ajmal, R.E.S. Bain, R.L. Matthews and S.W. Gundry…………………………….

Water Quality Processes at the Estuarine Interface of Upper Newport Bay, California. Barry Hibbs, Cherylee Sevilla, and Maryam Taiedi……………………………………………………….

Nitrogen-Phosphorus Wastewater Treatment / Sludge Treatment Encapsulation of Electroplating Sludge - Its Mechanical Strength, Leachate Studies and

Microstructural Analysis. H. Dayananda, Lokesh K. S. …………………………………… Investigation of Organic Loading Rates and Inhibition of Thermophilic Digestion. Sebnem

Koyunluoglu-Aynur, and Rumana Riffat, Sudhir Murthy…………………………………… Municipal Wastewater Biotreatment Biomedical Waste Prospective in India. Kodamagudi Padmini and Gurijala Ramakrishna Naidu

Industrial Wastewater Biotreatment Kinetic, Isotherm, Thermodynamic and Column Studies of Biosorption of Lead [II] by Modified

Shells of Portunus Sanguinolentus. TVN. Padmesh…………………………………………. Use of Duckweed Lemna minor for Reduction of BOD in TimTek Process Water. Lauren Heard

Mangum, Hamid Borazjani, S.V. Diehl, M. L. Prewitt,and Dan Seale ……………………. Design, Processing and Testing of Solid Waste Derived Microbial Support Material for a

Wastewater Treatment System. Lam Van Giang , Franz Furby C. Ramos, Jocelyn B. Toga-on, Ma. Catriona Devanadera, Nguyen Phuoc Dan, Ohtaguchi Kazuhisa, and Wilfredo I. Jose

Biodegradation of Carbazole by the Pseudonmonas sp. Strains. Cui Zhao, Man DING, Donghui WEN, and Xiaoyan TANG…………………………………………………………………….

Performance of Consortium of Blue-Green Algal Species in Bioremediation of Tannery Effluent. V. Shashirekha, M. R. Sridharan, and Mahadeswara Swamy………………………………

Development of Noise Prediction Model and Traffic Management Measures-A Case Study. Sheetal Agarwal and B. L. Swami……………………………………………………………

A ZnFe2O4-Loaded TiO2 Nanotube Arrays Electrode with Enhanced Visible-Light Photoelectrocatalytic Activity. YangHou, Xinyong Li, Guohua Chen……………………..

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Bioaugmentation Treatment for Coking Wastewater Containing Pyridine and Quinoline. Yaohui Bai, Qinghua Sun, Cui Zhao, Donghui Wen & Xiaoyan Tang……………………………..

Performance of Aerobic Granulation and Phenol Removal in a Sludgy Blanket Reaction Process. Ngoc-Thuan Le, Dul-Sun Kim, Tae-Han Kim, Young-Kyung Lee, Su-Eon Jeong, Mi-Jung Cho and Dong-Keun Lee…………………………………………………………………………..

Bio-Treatability of Wastewater Generated during Machinery Washing in Wood-Floor Industries. Fabio Kaczala, Marcia Marques and William Hogland…………………………………..

Decolourization and Degradation of Dyes By Mixed and Methanogenic Cultures under Batch Conditions. Kapil Kumar, M.G. Dastidar and T.R.Sreekrishnan ………………………….

Adsortion/Desorption for Wastewater Treatment Removal of Dye from Aqueous Solution by Wet Peroxide Oxidation. Pradeep Kumar, Tjoon Tow

Teng, Arun Kumar Kondru, Shri Chand…………………………………………………….. Hydrophobic Zeolites for Removal of Organic Groundwater Contaminants - Adsorption Properties

and Regeneration. Rafael Gonzalez Olmos, Frank-Dieter Kopinke and Anett Georgi......... Biosorption of Cadmium (II) Ions by Citrus Peels in a Packed Bed Column. Abhijit Chatterjee and

Silke Schiewer………………………………………………………………………………… Sargassum Biomass Mediated Recovery of Gold Through Biosorption, Bio-Crystallization and

Pyro-Crystallization. M. Sathishkumar, A. Mahadevan, K. Vijayaraghavan, S. Pavagadhi and R. Balasubramanian…………………………………………………………………………..

Ammonia Adsorption on Fixed Beds of Different Inorganic Materials. Cong Duc Phan and Jae Young Kim…………………………………………………………………………………….

Purification of Oily Wastewater Using Composite of Polysilicate Ferro Aluminum Sulfate – Rectorite. Shi-qian Li, Pei-jiang Zhou……………………………………………………….

Pre-concentration of Uranium from Natural Water Using Itaconic Acid Based Sorbent. Gurijala Ramakrishna Naidu, Yakkala Kalyan, Sadananda Das and Ashok Kumar Pandey ………

The Effect of Fe2O3 Nanoparticles on the Removal of TCE by GAC. Hafiz Salih, George A. Sorial, Rajib Sinha, E. Radha Krishnan, Craig L. Patterson………………………………………..

Treatment of Refinery Wastewater Compounds (BTEX) by Chitin and Chitosan. M. A. Mohamed and S. K. Ouki…………………………………………………………………………………

Removal of Cyanide from Aqueous Solution using Fly Ash. Richa Sharan, Sunil K Gupta, Gurdeep Singh ………………………………………………………………………………………….

Ni Adsorption and Ni-Al LDH Precipitation in a Sandy Aquifer. Erwin J.M. Temminghoff and Inge C. Regelink………………………………………………………………………………

Removal of Methylene Blue from Dilute Aqueous Solutions through Biosorption. Ramesh D. Dod, G.Banerjee, D.R. Saini, R.D. Dod, Y.B. Sontakke…………………………………………..

Studies on the Competitive Adsorption of Cu2+, Pb2+, Cd2+From Composites Adsorbent. Shi-qian Li, Pei-jiang Zhou, Ming Zhang, A Yiguli…………………………………………………….

Physico-chemical Wastewater Treatment Improving Wastewater Oxygenation and Mixing Efficiency through Solar-Powered Circulation.

Kenneth Hudnell, Ron Vien, Scott Butler, Greg Rahe, David Green, Jerry Myers, Bruce A Richards………….……………………………………………………………………………..

The Study of Decomposition of BTEX in Groundwater by Persulfate - Analysis of Chloro-Alkyl Derivatives. Sunlong Lin, Te-Kun Huang, Ta-Lin Chen, and Wen-Chieh Lo…………………

Interaction of 2-Chloronaphthalene with High Carbon Iron Filings ( HCIF) in Semi-Batch and Continuous Systems. Alok Sinha, Purnendu Bose………………………………………………….

Membrane with Photocatalytic Capability and Its Potential in Water Treatment. Ning MA, Hongtao YU, Xie QUAN, Huimin ZHAO………………………………………………………………..

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Reduction of Chromium (VI) by Zero Valent Iron (ZVI): Impact of Chlorides. Rajneesh Kumar Srivastava, Gurdeep Singh, Alok Sinha……………………………………………………..

Ligninase-Mediated Removal of 4,4’-Dibromodiphenyl Ether from Water. Yijun Chen, Liang Mao, Jiuli Ruan, Yuan Gao, Shixiang Gao………………………………………………………..

Reactions and Degradation of Wastewater Contaminants Ozonation of Papermill Wastewater: Enhancing Biodegradability and Process Efficiency. Analiza

Palenzuela Rollon, Mercy Grace Dionisio and Marjorie L. Baynosa................................. Oxidation of Triclosan by Ferrate(VI): Reaction Kinetics, Products Identification and Toxicity

Evaluation. Bin Yang, Guang-Guo Ying, Jian-Liang Zhao, Li-Juan Zhang, Yi-Xiang Fang Nanotechnology Applications Effect of Ni (II) Doping On the CuFe2O4/Composite /Pistachio Composite. Saeedeh Hashemian,

Mohammad Hassan Dad…………………………………………………………………….. New Strategy to Fabricate High-Performance Microfiltration Membrane with Trimodal Porous

Structure. Yinan Wu, and Fengting Li, Guangtao Li………………………………………… Transport, Dispersion and Deposition of nano-Particles in Porous Media: Experimental and

Mathematical Modeling Study. Zhen Li, E. Sahle-Demessie, Ashraf Aly Hassan, George A. Sorial………………………………………………………………………………………….

Partition Of Hydrophobic Pollutants In Aquatic Systems And The Influence Of Nano-Scale Particles. Quiming (Amy) Zhao, E. Sahle-Demessie, George Sorial...................................

Green Synthesis of Nanocomposite of Silver Modified Titania to Eliminate Biological Impurity from Water. Xubin Pan and Jingbo Liu……………………………………………………..

Determination and Quantification of Mercury (II) Using Silver Nanoparticles Embedded Nafion Membrane. Yakkala Kalyan, Ashok Kumar Pandey and Gurijala Ramakrishna Naidu…..

Development and Evaluation of Ordered Mesoporous Carbon Materials for TOC Removal. Lu Lin and Daniel D. Gang…………………………………………………………………………….

Fabrication of a Novel Nanotube Anode and Characteristics in Organic Wastewater Treatment. Chao Tan, and Yijiu Li……………………………………………………………………….

A Novel Functionalized Mesoporous Nanofiber Membrane and its Applicaton for the Adsorption of Heavy Metal ions from an Aqueous Solution. Shengju Wu, Shihui We, Yinan Wu, Bingru Zhang and Fengting Li ………………………………………………………………………

SiC/p-Si Nanowire Arrays Cathode for Photoelectrocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants. Huan Chen, Hongtao Yu and Xie Quan…………………………………………………….

Environmental Remediation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons using Multifunctional Nanoparticles. Vijay T. John, Jingjing Zhan, Bhanu Sunkara……………………….……………………..

AIR POLLUTION AND AIR QUALITY CONTROL Aerosol Healthy Environment – Indoor Air Quality of Some Brazilian Elementary Schools nearby

Industries. Ricardo Henrique Moreton Godoi……………………………………………… Air Quality Assessment

Characterization of Road Dust in Nanjing and Its Impact on Cleaning Efficiency. Chuantong LI,

JIA Hehua, LI Fayang…………………………………………………………………………

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Effect of Road Development on Air Quality in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Akpabio, John Udo Henry,

John U.H. Akpabio, Anthony W. Akpan ……………………………………………………. Evaluation of Particulate Pollution, Local Meteorology and Urban Public Health. Dawn Roberts-

Semple, and Yuan Gao………………………………………………………………………. Gamma Emitter Radioactive Isotopes in the Atmosphere of Madrid (Spain). Saul García Dos

Santos, Castro Catalina Jesús, Aragón Santamaría Pilar, Veiga Ochoa Elena, Alonso Herreros Jesús, Barros Corcuera Diego, and Fernández Patier Rosalía ……………………………

Industrial Carbon Polluters and Control Strategies To Meet New Compliance Standards. Lawrence Goldenhersh ………………………………………………………………………………….

Quantification of N2O Fluxes from Irish Grasslands. Rashad Rafique, and Gergard Kiely….. Transport of Pollutants Ambient Air Concentrations of 210pb, 7be and 137cs in Gaborone (24.6°S, 025.9°E): Preliminary

Results. Alfred Sello Likuku, Jerzy Wojceich Mietelski, Renata Kierepko, Sylwia Blażej, Gilbert Gaboutloeloe………………………………………………………………………………….

Synthesis, Characterization and Catalytic Performance of Calcined Nialfe Hydrotalcite-Like Material for SO2 Removal. Xinyong Li, Ling Zhao, Qidong Zhao, Yong Shi and Guohua Chen

A Study on the Effect of Hydraulic-Conductivity JW Pavement on Diluting Air Pollutants Emitted from Vehicles. Chung-Ming Liu, Jui-Wen Chen, Wei-Shian Lin and M.-T. Yen…………….

Waste Gas Control Techniques Application of CFD Modeling to the Design of Droplet Separation Systems. Curtis Rhodes, Harry

Wechsler and Norman Mansson…………………………………………………………….. Structured Packing Performance – Experimental Evaluation Of Sulphur Dioxide Absorption in

Water. R. Hilda Chavezand Nicolas Flores-Alamo, Javier de J. Guadarrama……………… Evaluation of the Operating Suitability of an Amine Based Process for CO2 Removal of Flue

Gases. H. Fahlenkamp and V. Kubacz………………………………………………………. Photocatalytic Degradation of TCE and PCE in Air. Ngoc-Thuan Le, Dul-Sun Kim, Tae-Han Kim,

Young-Kyung Lee, Su-Eon Jeong, Mi-Jung Cho and Dong-Keun Lee………………………. Air Pollutant Monitoring The Relationship between Particulate Matters (Pm10) Emitted from a Cement Plant and Different

Climatic Factors. Jarrah Al- Zu'bi, Yasin Al-Zu'bi and Indira Al-Dahabi…………………….. Characterizing the Emissions of Persistent Organic Pollutants (PCDD/FS, PBDD/FS and PBDES)

From a Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator. Yi-Chieh Lai, Lin-Chi Wang, Ying-Liang Chen, Guo-Ping Chang-Chien………………………………………………………………………

PM2.5 Emission Factors and Chemical Profile from Light-Duty Vehicles in Monterrey, Mexico: Tunnel Study. Yasmany Mancilla, Alejandro E. Araizaga and Alberto Mendoza…………..

VOC Emission Factors and Profiles from Light-Duty Vehicles in Monterrey, Mexico: Tunnel Study. Alejandro E. Araizaga, Yasmany Mancilla and Alberto Mendoza…………………….

Atmospheric Mercury Monitoring at the Almadén Mining District (Spain). José-María Esbrí, Pablo Higueras, Willians Llanos, Miguel-Ángel López-Berdonces, Eva-María García-Noguero and Alba Martínez-Coronado……………………………………………………………………..

Hazardous Gas Biofiltration

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Narrowing Loading Fluctuations of Hydrophobic Gaseous Mixture Prior to Biofiltration. Ashraf

Aly Hassan and George A. Sorial……………………………………………………………. Fuel Gas DeSOx, DeNOx, and Metal Removal Environmental and Economic Impacts of Increased Efficiency in Coal Power Plants. Roger H.

Bezdek………………………………………………………………………………………… Air Pollution Prevention and Management New Approach to Improve Insulation in Gher Housing and Its’ Environmental Effects. Bilguun

Byambajav, Takeuchi Tsuneo, Wakuda Yukihiro, Sugiyama Noriko…………………………… ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT AND RESTORATION Ecosystem Assessment Ecological Evaluation and Management of Lake Arpi and its Watershed Basin. Ghzaryan Aramais The Self-Sufficient City. Karen Berberyan……………………………………………………… A Preliminary Study of Ecological Risk Assessment of PAHs in Hoping Harbor, Taiwan. Nien-

Hsin Kao, Ming-Chien Su, and Shih-Ying Li………………………………………………… Remediation of Eutrophic Water Body by Combining Typical Submerged Macrophyte and

Bioenergizer. Ma Limin. Meng Delei and Gong Bentao……………………………………. A Transactional “Glocal” Approach to Biodiversity Conservation through Sustainable Use. Stratos

Arampatzis, Robert Kenward, Basil Manos, Jason Papathanasiou………………………… Assessment of Habitat Scale of Zacco Platypus by Using Microsatellite DNA Markers. Naofumi

Kosaka, and Yutaka Sakakibara, Noriyuki Koizumi………………………………………… Research on Exploration of Main Factors Affecting the Aquatic Ecosystem Health of the Following

Rivers of Dianchi Lake. Yi HUANG, Hang WEN, Yu SU, Mingji LI, Jialiang CAI………….. Restoration of Ecosystems Morphological Adaptation of Aquatic Macrophytes in Response to Different Flow Velocities.

Shiang-Yuarn Chen, and Jen-Yang Lin……………………………………………………… ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS AND MEASUREMENTS Environmental Analysis and Field Technologies Formulation of New Hydrology –Finding of the Indication of Climate Change . Masato Okabe

and Tadashi Yamada…………………………………………………………………………. Fundamental Research on Open Channel Flow with Hump and Narrow Path . Akinori Katsuki,

Kazutomo Yamashita, Quimpo Maritess Sescar and Tadashi Yamada………………………..

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Determination of Residual Pesticides in Drinking and Surface Water by Liquid

Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Xiaoming Zhao, Chunyan Hao, Bick Nguyen and Paul Yang…………………………………………………………………………………

Verification of Qualitative Spot Test Kits for Lead in Paint. Julius M. Enriquez, Deepak K.C., Yukio KOIBUCHI, G W HUANG, Masahiko ISOBE…………………………………………

Hydraulic Experiments on River Bed Formation in Rivermouth. Makoto Aikawa, Shintaro Ichiki, Masato Okabe and Tadashi Yamada…………………………………………………………

New Method Applications Development of Analytical Method to Extract and Detect Pharmaceuticals in Plant Matrices. Reza

Kazemi, Tammy L Jones-Lepp………………………………………………………………… Environmental Monitoring A Study on Quantitative Evaluation of Mitigation Effects of Thermal Environment in the Vicinity

of Rivers in Urban Area. Shuhei Shuhei Ohno, Takuma KATO，Tadashi YAMADA……….

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INTRODUCTION The Fifth International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology 2010 was held in Houston, Texas, USA, July 12-16, 2010. The Program included 16 sections, containing 60 sessions with approximately 600 platform and poster presentations. This conference series strives to provide a platform for an extremely diverse group of environmental topics for engineers and scientists from around the world. Authors of the presentations accepted for the program were invited to submit their papers to the Conference Organizing Committee. More than 130 papers were received and then reviewed by the editors, session chairs, and the members of the Scientific/Technical Committee of the conference. Those papers and abstracts accepted for publication were assembled into two volumes. Sections are arranged basically according to their order listed in the original program except the sessions entitled Bio-Assessment and Toxicology and Modeling. This exception was made to balance the length of the two volumes. The conference also consisted of having a plenary session with four speakers from different universities at the United States and US Environmental Protection Agency. The abstracts of their talks are contained in this proceeding together with a link to their full presentation. Environmental Science and Technology 2010 (I) contains the following sections: • Plennary Session • Water Pollution and Water Quality Control • Air Pollution and Air Quality Control • Ecosystem Assessment and Restoration • Environmental Analysis and Measurements Sections included in Environmental Science and Technology 2010 (II) are as follows: • Land (Soil, Waste Solid) Pollution and Remediation • Bio-Assessment and Toxicology • Wetlands and Sediments • Global Warming • Metals (Distribution, Removal, Remediation, Speciation, and Phytoremediation) • Characterization and Degradation of Organic Pollutants • GIS for Environmental Assessment, Database, and Remote Sensing Applications • Society and the Environment • Environmental Planning and Management • Renewable Energy Development


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We would like to especially thank the session chairs who were instrumental in the success of the conference. The Conference was sponsored and organized by the American Academy of Sciences, with financial contributions from the co-sponsors and supporting organizations. The papers in these proceedings represent the authors’ results and opinions. No sponsors, cosponsors, participating organizations or editors should be construed as endorsing any specific contents or conclusions in the proceedings.

George A. Sorial, Ph.D.

University of Cincinnati Jihua Hong, Ph. D. American Academy of Sciences


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STATUS OF ARSENIC CONTAMINATION IN GROUNDWATER OF SOUTHERN BANGLADESH: A POPULATION-BASED SURVEY

Nepal C Dey (BRAC, Dhaka, Bangladesh)

ABSTRACT-This study explores the status of arsenic contamination in tubewell water in southern Bangladesh. Through a survey of 6,593 households, a total of 3,812 tubewells were sampled at baseline (2006/07) and 3,591 at midline (2009). Households were selected through multi-stage sampling procedure where each sub-district was considered as a cluster. Findings reveal that proportion of unmarked (to identify presence of arsenic) tubewells increased from 80% at baseline to 90% at midline (p<0.001). Proportion of tested tubewells was significantly decreased from 75% at baseline to 69% at midline (p<0.001). Of the tested tubewells, 60% was reported to be free from arsenic contamination. This study underlines that information, education and communication campaigns should be strengthened to raise awareness regarding negative effect of arsenic on health.

Key words: Arsenic, Bangladesh, Groundwater, Ultra poor INTRODUCTION The arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh is the biggest natural calamity in the world in terms of the affected population. When rural people had developed the habit of drinking tubewell water, arsenic was found in tubewell water in many parts of Bangladesh too high concentration which has drastically reduced the coverage of safe water (GED & UNDP, 2009). It was reported that the people in 62 out of 65 districts of Bangladesh were suffering from various diseases because of drinking arsenic-contaminated tubewell water. More than 70% of the country’s 150 million people are at risk and 32-52 million are potentially exposed to arsenic contamination above the Bangladesh drinking water standard (>5µgL-1) where about 90% people live in rural areas (Roy et al, 2008). It was reported that some proportion of tubewells are also contaminated with bacteria which are mainly due to poor maintenance. The Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) is responsible for marking arsenic-contaminated and arsenic-free tubewells as red and green respectively and warned the villagers against drinking water from the red tubewells. Arsenic contamination impacts on poor population of Bangladesh. It has been well documented that the first victims of such pollution are the people with low nutrition (often people with low body weight) (IMF, 2006). Women suffer from arsenic not only in terms of physical illness but also social consequences as they cannot get married and are seen as a burden to their families and their communities (SOS, 2010). In a recent survey conducted in all districts of Bangladesh, nearly 19,000 arsenic patients have so for been identified from 104.9 million arsenic-affected population. This may cause many health effects including cancer of the liver, lung, bladder and skin (Smith et al. 1992). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said that in Bangladesh with regard to protected future cases of arsenic-related health burden, skin cancer would affect 375,000 people (Roy et al., 2008). The estimate also suggested that in Bangladesh approximately 6,500 people may die from cancer every year and 326,000 people in 50 years, while 2.5 million people will develop some kind of arsenicosis during that period. Availability of arsenic mitigation technologies and improving habit for using these technologies are the basic options for safe drinking in the rural areas. Recently, a report on water and sanitation explained necessity of the immediate measures against the menac of arsenic contamination in Bangladesh (World Bank, 2006). Acceptance of alternative arsenic mitigation technologies depends not only on the level of awareness but also physiocultural and socioeconomic variations among communities (BRAC, 2003). Currently 16% population is covered by arsenic mitigation technology and it is expected that the coverage will be increased to about 22% by 2015 (GED & UNDP, 2009). The government of Bangladesh, incorporating stakeholders, has initiated different schemes to scale up access to safe water in rural areas and small towns. Still many rural people drink tubewell without knowing arsenic contamination level and some people drink even knowing as there is no alternate source


52

of water available to them. Lack of access to safe water and sanitary latrine, and poor hygiene behavior are responsible for death of thousands of people of Bangladesh in every year. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) programme of BRAC has been working with the government of Bangladesh since 2006 in 150 sub-districts for providing safe and sustainable drinking water, improving sanitation and hygiene practices to achieve Millennium Development Goals (MDG 7, target 10) by 2015 (BRAC, 2008). Although there are several reports published on the impact of WASH intervention. However, no study has yet been conducted on the impact of WASH intervention for safe water in the arsenic-affected areas of southern Bangladesh. Therefore, the aim of the study was to explore the changes in status of arsenic test and exposures to arsenic-contaminated tubwell water in arsenic prone southern Bangladesh.

MATERIALS AND METHODS This study was done in 11 sub-districts under BRAC WASH programme where arsenic contamination was found common (TABLE 1). Arsenic-related information was collected by using a structured questionnaire developed during the baseline followed by midline survey. Respondent was adult female member of a household who used tubewell water for drinking.

TABLE 1 STUDY SITES Name of district Name of sub-district Jessore Monirampur

Keshobpur Jhikorgachha Sharsha

Khulna Dumira Digalia Fultala Rupsha Botiaghata

Noakhali Sonaimuri Senbug

Sampling procedure for the household survey. Through survey of 6,593 households, the study sampled 3,812 tubewells in the baseline (2006/07) followed-up 3,591 in the midline (2009) in 11 sub-districts of the southern Bangladesh. Households were selected through multi-stage sampling where each sub-district was considered as a cluster. A total of 600 respondents were selected from each cluster. The economic status of the respondents was classified as ultra poor, poor and non-poor households according to WASH baseline findings (BRAC, 2008). The ultra poor people who were landless or homeless and had no fixed source of income were selected. The household who had up to 100 decimal of land (agricultural and homestead) and used to sell manual labour for living was considered as poor. On the otherhand, the household that do not fall in any of the above category called non-poor.

Data collection and quality control. Data were collected by the trained enumerators who had previous experience and completed at least fourteen years of education. Information on water and other demographic and socioeconomic variables for each sampling unit was collected using structured questionnaires and spot observations. After entry, 20% of the data were rechecked to identify any inconsistencies.

Statistical Analysis. The statistical analysis was performed with SPSS 16.0 software. The groups were compared for all variables using the chi-square test to compare categorical value. The differences were considered statistically significant at the p<0.05 (two-tailed test) level with admissible error of 5%.

Ethical consideration. Before the interview verbal informed consent was taken from the participants. The verbal informed consent form was read out to the participants in native language (Bengali) by the interviewer. Participants were informed about the objective of the study. They were also informed that their participation was entirely voluntary and they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time.


53

Furthermore, it was informed that they had right to refuse answers to any questions if they feel uncomfortable. Confidentiality was maintained; survey questionnaire was kept secure with the researcher and was not shared with anybody other than for research purpose. Permission to conduct this study was obtained early from IRPC (Internal Review and Publication Committee) of the Research and Evaluation Division of BRAC.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Profile of the respondents. The ecinomic status, educaton, main occupation, marital status, responsibility to household water collection and age of the participants are presented in TABLE 2. Around 53% respondents were non-poor and 30% were poor and remaining were ultra poor. The main occupation of most of the respondents was household works. Around 36% respondents were illiterate and 30% passed primary education, around 32% secondary, 1.2% higher secondary and remaining passed bachelor degree. More than 90% respondents were married. Among the respondents, 43% were in age limit 10-30 years, 49% in 31-50 years and remaining were in higher ages.

TABLE 2 PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS Indicators Percent Indicators Percent

Economic status Marital condition Ultra poor 17.7 Married 90.8 Poor 29.5 Unmarried 2.7 Non-poor 52.8 Others (widow,

separated & divorced) 7.5

Education Responsible for household water collection

Illiterate 35.6 Women 95 Primary 30.2 Other members 5 Secondary 31.7 Higher secondary 1.2 Bachelor 1.3 Main occupation Age (Year) Household works 93.2 11-30 43 Day laborer 1.9 31-50 49 Student 1.2 51-60 6 Employee 0.8 61-above 2 Business 0.2 Others

(Agriculture, rickshaw pulling, work in bus, etc.)

2.7

n = 6,593

Status of tubewell marking. Red-marked tubewells indicate arsenic contamination of water while green-marked tubewells indicate arsenic free. The percentages of unmarked tubewells increased significantly (p<0.001) in the midline (TABLE 3) though it was high risk area for drinking tubewell water. This might be because of lack of awareness among the households or lack of monitoring and improper management.

TABLE 3 STATUS OF TUBEWELL MARKING Status Baseline Midline P value

Red marked (%) 8.9 3.8

<0.001 Green marked (%) 8.7 5.9

Unmarked (%) 82.4 90.3

n 3812 3591


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TABLE 4 shows the marking status of tubewells in different districts. Marking of tubewells was less in Khulna district both at baseline and midline where more than 90% of the tubewells were unmarked (TABLE 4). Whereas, most of the tubewells (96%) were unmarked in the Noakhali district, the highest arsenic concentration (4730 µgL-1) area which was a new experience in 20 years in arsenic research [10].

TABLE 4 STATUS OF MARKING OF TUBEWELL IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS Marking status Arsenic contaminated tubewells

Jessore Khulna Noakhali Baseline Midline Baseline Midline Baseline Midline Red marked 13.9 6.9 1.2 0.9 9.7 1.8 Green marked 12.8 7.7 7.5 5.9 3.0 2.2Unmarked 73.4 85.4 91.4 93.2 87.3 95.9 n 1685 1584 1191 1246 936 761 TABLE 5 presents the status of marking of tubewells based on economic category of the participants. The proportion of unmarked tubewells increased in the midline among all categories (ultra poor, poor and non-poor) of households. The proportion of unmarked tubewells increased significantly from 81% at baseline to 93% at midline for ultra poor households which were found highest among all categories of households.

TABLE 5 STATUS OF MARKING OF TUBEWELL BY ECONOMIC CATEGORY Marking status

Household statuses Ultra poor Poor Non-poor

Baseline Midline Baseline Midline Baseline Midline Red marked (%)

11.5 2.6 8.2 3.7 8.6 4.0

Green marked (%)

7.5 4.0 9.1 6.7 8.8 6.0

Unmarked (%) 81.0 93.4 82.7 89.6 82.6 89.9 n 521 454 1061 998 2230 2128 Status of response on arsenic testing and results of testing tubewell water. The status of responses on arsenic testing and the results of testing in tubewell water among the study households are presented in TABLE 6 and 7. Proportion of tested tubewells significantly decreased from 75% at baseline to 69% at midline. However, around 24% of the tubewells were not tested at baseline and 29% at midline (Table 6). It indicates that though it was a high risk area for drinking tubewell water but people were not much aware of arsenic contamination in tubewell water and its affect on public health.

TABLE 6 STATUS OF RESPONSES ON ARSENIC TESTING OF TUBEWELL WATER Status of knowledge Baseline Midline P value

Tubewells tested for arsenic identification (%) 74.9 69.3 <0.001

Tubewells not tested for arsenic identification (%) 23.5 28.6 Don’t know whether tunewells water tested/not tested (%)

1.6 2.1

2212 2281 Of the tested tubewells, around 60% were reported to be arsenic-free and 40% had arsenic contamination (TABLE 7) which could be compared with the findings of other research where 43% of


55

tubewells were found to be arsenic-contaminated (Chakraborti et al., 2008) Some changes occurred where a small proportion likely to be increased at midline who did not know about testing of tubewell water for arsenic identification and the test results. This might be because of lack of awareness raising activities and lack of facilities for arsenic testing in the study area or both. Knowledge on the affect of arsenic in public health is important for raising awareness for safe water. It would be more effective for the people of that area if awareness raising activities could be increased on arsenic free safe water and mitigation options.

TABLE 7 STATUS OF RESPONSES ON THE RESULTS OF TESTING OF TUBEWELL WATER FOR

ARSENIC CONTAMINATION Status Baseline Midline P value Arsenic free tubewells (%) 58.0 59.8 <0.001 Arsenic contaminated tubewells (%) 41.8 39.7 Don’t know about the results of testing (%) 0.2 0.6 n 1656 1581

CONCLUSION This study reveals that the household members still drink water from arsenic-contaminated

tubewells. Proportion of respondents who did not know about arsenic test and test results of tubewell water increased in the midline. This might be because of lack of awareness or lack of facilities for arsenic testing in the study area where more than 95% of women were responsible for collecting water from tubewells. As proportion of unmarked tubewells was high both at baseline and midline though study area was a highly risk for drinking tubewell water, it is necessary to motivate people for marking their tubewells based on results of arsenic testing. Information, education and communication campaigns should be strengthened to raise awareness and thereby testing and marking of tubewells will be enhanced. Besides, availability of arsenic-free safe water needs to be urgently ensured to prevent health hazard.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Author takes the opportunity to thank the staff of BRAC WASH program supported by the

Netherlands Government for their kind help and suggestions during this study. Author is also grateful to Internal Review and Publication Committee of Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC for review and comments on the report. The author is grateful to all other members associated this study for their kind cooperation, constructive criticisms for its successful completion. At last, thankful appreciation to those who directly and indirectly helped in completion of this study.

REFERENCES

GED & UNDP. 2009. Millennium development goals needs assessment & coating 2009-2015 Bangladesh, General Economic Division, Planning Commission, GOB & UNDP, p: 175-251, www.undp.org.bd IMF. 2006. Bangladesh poverty reduction strategy paper. Dhaka: International Monetary Fund, p: 1-183 (Issues 5-410). SOS. 2010. “Women, silent victim of groundwater poisoning”, the International SOS www.sos-arsenic.net (accessed on February 2010) A. H Smith, C Hopenhayn-Rich, M. N Bates, H. M Goeden, I. Hertz-Picciotto, Duggan, H.M. 1992. “Cancer risks from arsenic in drinking water”, Envron. Health Perspec, vol.97, p: 259-267. K. Roy, N. C. Dey and MIM. Zulfiker. 2008. About Bangladesh and country’s arsenic problem: At a glance, In: Arsenic Calamity of Groundwater in Bangladesh: Contamination in Water, Soil and Plants, K. Roy, Ed. Nihon University, Japan, p: 1-11. World Bank. 2006. Bangladesh country environmental analysis, In: Bangladesh Development Series, Paper No: 12 www.worldbank.org.bd/bds (accessed on 15 February 2010)


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BRAC. 2003. The use of alternative safe water options to mitigate the arsenic problem in Bangladesh: community perspective, RED, Mono. 24, p: 1-61. BRAC. 2008. WASH programme of BRAC: Towards attaining the MDG targets-baseline findings, Research and Evaluation Division, ch.5. D. Chakraborti, B. Das, B. Nayak, A. Pal, MM Rahman, MK Sengupta, MA Hossain, S. Ahmed, KC Biswas, M. Sahu, KC Saha, SC Mukeherjee, S. Pat, RN Dutta, and Quamruzzaman, Q. 2008.Groundwater arsenic contamination and its adverse health effects in the Ganga-Meghna- Brahmaputra plan, In: Arsenic Calamity of Groundwater in Bangladesh: Contamination in Water, Soil and Plants, K. Roy, Ed. Nihon University, Japan, p: 13-52.


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WOMEN’S ROLE IN MANAGING HOUSEHOLD WATER IN RURAL

BANGLADESH

Nepal C Dey and AKM Masud Rana (BRAC, Dhaka, Bangladesh)

ABSTRACT- Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) programme of BRAC has been working in 150 sub-districts since 2006 for ensuring safe and sustainable drinking water, improved sanitation and hygiene practices in rural Bangladesh. The study aims to explore women’s role in managing household water i.e. collecting water and maintaining cleanliness of the tubewells in rural Bangladesh. Through survey of 29,993 households both in baseline (2006/07) and follow-up (2009), we interviewed the users of single, shared and publicly-used tubewells. Households were selected through a multi-stage sampling procedure where each sub-district was considered as a cluster. A total of 600 households were selected from each cluster. Respondents were the women of the households who had knowledge of the household day-to-day activities related to water, sanitation and hygiene. Findings indicate that 87% of women received water from single-used followed by 12% shared-use and the rest 1% from public tubewells. Most of the women (95%) were responsible for collecting water from all types of tubewells. However, contribution of other family members in collecting water increased by 2% in follow-up. Around 95% of the women were involved in cleaning platform of the tubewells. Most of the women reported that they did not need to follow any particular time to collect water from the tubewells. More than 80% of the women reported that collection of water in any particular time from shared-use tubewells are safe compared to 60% in public tubewells. It is necessary for other family members to come forward to collect water and maintain of tubewells that might play an important role in increasing participation of women in other productive work. Key words: BRAC, MDGs, Tubewell, WASH INTRODUCTION Water is the most important natural resource, which has a significant influence on life of human being as they cannot survive without water. Its hygienic management is crucial for prevention of waterborne diseases. Women’s involvement in managing water-related chores such as collecting and storing of water and cleaning is universally recognized. They are not only the providers of domestic water but also caretakers of family health and also managers of community water at the local level (Panda, 2005). World Water Day 2010 has also given importance to communicate messages on water quality, ecosystems and human well-being. According to World Bank (2002), contaminated drinking water and adequate supply of water cause diseases that account for 10% of the total burden of disease in developing countries. Around 1.1 billion people have lack access to improved water sources and two-thirds of them reside in Asia (UNDP, 2006). This may be alarming over the next 20 years when the average supply of safe water worldwide per person is expected to drop by a third (WHO, 2006). Arsenic contamination, urban and industrial pollution, anticipated increase of human excreta load, and gradual increase of existing solid waste load can be identified as major threat to safe water in Bangladesh. Worldwide every year about 5 million people die because of water-related diseases where 60% of which are children (WHEP, 2007). In spite of continued progress in the health sector, about 110 thousand under -5 children die of diarrhoea every year in Bangladesh (BRAC, 2008). Whereas, it is expected that basic water supply, sanitation, and hygiene together could reduce diarrhoeal diseases by 26% and mortality by 65% (WHO & UNICEF, 2006). In all developing countries, it is the females who walk miles to collect drinking water for the family, wash clothes, and boil rice. Women, in particular, are often deprived of opportunities to engage in income-generating activities because of the need to spend hours in fetching water. A study conducted by Asian Development Bank reveals that each female water carrier must reserve 1.3 hours per day during the monsoon season and an average of 2-3 hours per day in the dry season to fulfill their daily household need (ADB, 2000) which hinders the involvement of women in productive and income-generating activities (WHEP, 2007). A minimum of 30% of the total time could be saved and used for other economically productive activities if there is an access of water supply in the

76

community premises (Panda, 2005). Inadequate water supply nearby can also have a significant impact on sanitation (Devkota, 2007). The government of Bangladesh recognizes the importance of safe water and sanitation for a healthy and productive population and is working with other development partners and stakeholders to achieve the relevant Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets through innovative approaches (GED & UNDP, 2009). However, recently WHO/UNICEF (2010) Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for water supply and sanitation has identified that Bangladesh is still under the category of “progress but insufficient” and it would be difficult to achieve MDG10, if the present trend prevails. BRAC, the largest Non-Government Organization, has been working since its inception for empowering poor women with the right tools for changing their families and communities for better life. BRAC has undertaken a comprehensive programme in partnership with the government of Bangladesh and other stakeholders attaining the MDGs related to water, sanitation, and hygiene for all, especially for underprivileged groups in rural Bangladesh and thereby improve the health situation of the poor and enhance equitable development. Although there are several reports published on the impact of WASH intervention, however, no study has yet been conducted on the women’s role in managing household water. The aim of this study was therefore to examine women’s role in managing household water i.e. collecting water and cleanliness of tubewell in rural Bangladesh. MATERIALS AND METHODS Selection of study sites and sampling procedure. BRAC WASH programme has been working in three phases in 150 sub-districts where each phase consists of 50 sub-districts. In selecting study sites, 50 sub-districts from the first phase were considered for both the baseline (2006/07) and the follow-up (2009) survey. Through survey of 29,993 households both in baseline and follow-up, interviews were conducted among respondents of single-used, shared-used and publicly-used tubewells. Respondents were the adult women of those households who had knowledge of the households’ day-to-day activities related to water, sanitation and hygiene. Households were selected through multi-stage sampling procedures where each sub-district was considered as a cluster. A total of 600 households were selected from each cluster. The economic status of the respondents was classified as ultra poor, poor and non-poor households according to WASH baseline findings (BRAC, 2008). The ultra poor people who were landless or homeless and had no fixed source of income were selected. The households who had up to 50 decimal of land (agricultural and homestead) and used to sell 100 days manual labour per year for living was considered as poor. On the other hand, the household that do not fall in any of the above category called non-poor. Data collection and quality control: Data were collected by the trained enumerators who had previous experience and completed at least 14 years of education. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and spot observations. After entry, data were rechecked for identifying any inconsistency before analyses. Statistical Analysis. The statistical analysis was performed with SPSS 16.0 software. The groups were compared for all variables using the chi-square test to compare categorical value. The differences were considered statistically significant at the p<0.05 (two-tailed test) level with admissible error of 5%. Ethical consideration. Before the interview verbal informed consent was taken from the participants. The consent form was read out to the participants in Bangla by the interviewer. Participants were informed about the objective of the study. They were also informed that their participation was entirely voluntary and they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time. Furthermore, it was informed that they had right to refuse answers to any questions if they feel uncomfortable. Confidentiality was maintained. Ethical clearance was obtained Internal Review and Publication Committee) of the Research and Evaluation Division of BRAC.

77

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Profile of the respondents. The ecinomic status, educaton, marital status, main occupation and age of the participants are presented in Table 1. Around 53% of respondents were non poor and 44% were illiterate. The main occupation of the respondents was household work. Most of the respondents (92%) were married, and majority were under 40 years (73%).

TABLE 1 PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS Indicators Percent Indicators Percent Economic status Ultra poor 20.1 Marital

status Married 91.8

Poor 26.8 Unmarried 1.5 Non-poor 53.1 Widow 5.3 Education Illiterate 44.1 Age (year) 15-30 44.4 Primary 28.1 31-40 28.3 Secondary 26.3 41-50 18.1 Others (higher

secondary & bachelor)

1.5 51-above 8.2

Main occupation Housework 92.5 Day laborer 2.8 Employee 1.0 Student 0.9 Others (agriculture,

rickshaw puller, etc) 2.8

n = 29,819

Ownership of tubewell. Around 82% of the households owned single-used tubewells in baseline which increased to >87% at follow-up (p<0.001) (Table 2). This increase was mostly among the ultra poor households (9%). This indicates that household members became more aware of safe water, sanitation and hygiene practices using tubewell water. Ownership of shared tubewells has decreased among all the three categories of households.

TABLE 2 DISTRIBUTION OF TUBEWELLS BASED ON OWNERSHIP (%)

Economic status Single-used tubewell Shared tubewell Baseline Follow-up Baseline Follow-up Ultra poor 75.7 84.7 21.0 14.5 Poor 80.3 86.9 17.3 12.3 Non-poor 84.7 88.3 13.1 11.0 All 82.2 87.4 15.3 11.8 p<0.006 for single-used tubewells, p<0.005 for shared-use tubewell Status of responsibility in collecting water. It is noted that women in rural households in Bangladesh are concerned with the privileged domain of water - drinking, cooking, and washing water for household use. Involvement of women in collecting water has decreased significantly (p<0.001) among all three types of tubewells owners (Table 3). In case of single-used tubewells, 97% of women were responsible for collecting water in the baseline whereas in the follow-up it was 95% which can be compared with the findings of another BRAC study (2003) where 95% women were responsible for collecting water. In case of public tubewells, responsibility of women for collecting water decreased by <3% in the follow-up. We found that contribution of other family members in collecting water increased in the follow-up in all types of tubewells.

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TABLE 3 STATUS OF RESPONSIBILITY IN COLLECTING WATER (%)

Responsible persons

Types of water source Single-used tubewell Shared tubewell Public tubewell Baseline Follow-

up Baseline Follow-up

Baseline Follow-up

Women members

97.0 95.3 96.0 95.5 80.2 77.5

Others 3.0 4.7 4.0 4.5 19.8 22.5

n 14,046 14,421 13,992 13,070 7,885 7,167p <0.001 <0.011 <0.001

Cleaning tubewell platform. Women were not only responsible for fetching water in most cases, but also played a vital role in cleaning tubewell’s platform on regular basis. Around 94% females in the baseline were involved in cleaning tubewell platform, whereas in the follow-up, the involvement increased significantly (p<0.001) to 95% which indicates responsibility became higher for women (Table 4). Cleaning platform of tubewell on regular basis plays an important role in ensuring safe water.

TABLE 4 RESPONSIBILITY OF CLEANING TUBEWELLS’ BASEMENT (%) Family members Responsible status Baseline Follow-up Female members 94.3 94.7 Others 5.7 5.3 n 12,486 12,492 p<0.001 Particular time to use shared or public tubewells. The households who collected water from other’s (shared or public) tubewells were asked whether there were any restriction imposed on the use of those tubewells (Table 5 and 6). Most of the household members reported that they did not need to follow any particular time to collect water from both shared and public tubewells both in the baseline and follow-up. In case of shared tubewell users, around 81% mentioned that it was safe for women to follow particular time both in the baseline and follow-up. But, in case of public tubewells users, around 32% mentioned in the baseline that it was unsafe for women to follow particular time, whereas, in the follow-up, it increased to around 39% (p<0.1). Any interventions related to installation of shared tubewells should be based on consensus among potential users on the timing of their individual use.

TABLE 5 PARTICULAR TIME TO USE SHARED-USE TUBEWELL (%) Is there any particular time?

Response Whether maintaining particular time for collecting

water is safe for women?

Response

Baseline Follow-up Baseline Follow-up No 99.1 98.9 Safe 80.8 80.9 Yes 0.9 1.1 Unsafe 19.2 19.1 n 14,204 13,070 n 125 141 P<0.001

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TABLE 6 WHETHER FOLLOW PARTICULAR TIME TO USE PUBLIC TUBEWELL (%) Whether particular time is followed in collecting water?

Status Whether particular time for collecting

water is safe?

Status

Baseline Follow-up Baseline Follow-up No 98.2 98.4 Safe 67.7 61.2 Yes 1.8 1.6 Unsafe 32.3 38.8 n 12,543 10,307 - 229 170 P <0.001 <0.1 Table 7 shows that 30% of the women reported that their opinions regarding water, sanitation and hygiene related intervention were accepted by BRAC WASH programme compared to 28% of other NGOs. This indicates that women are aware of NGO activities and their opinions are getting priority in the decision-making process.

TABLE 7 WOMEN’S OPINION IN DECISION MAKING FOR COMMUNITY BASED NGOS ACTIVITIES (%)

Opinions in decision making Opinions in decision making for community based

activities on safe water, sanitation and hygiene practices

BRAC WASH programme Other NGOs Accepted in decision-making 29.7 28.0

n 3,844 763 CONCLUSION This study reveals that after two years of water, sanitation and hygiene intervention a significant improvement was noted in some of the indicators i.e. waterborne diseases decreased, and sanitation and hygiene practices increased. Contribution of women in household work still plays a vital role not only in collecting water for drinking and cooking but also in maintenance of water sources like tubewells. Although women play major role in collecting and use of domestic water, they have a small role to play in key decisions on community safe water schemes by other NGOs. However, women are more proactive in decision-making for any community-based development work by BRAC. This is because, BRAC has taken special initiatives to strengthen its existing programmes and undertaking water, sanitation and hygiene programme. To achieve the target participation of women and men at all level may play a crucial role. At village level no complete institutional infrastructure was ever formed to accomplish such programme. BRAC WASH services could develop individual/several committees or task forces to implement safe water and sanitation programme where women’s participation was common. As observed women’s participation in managing household water has decreased after WASH intervention, which may allow them to involve in other productive work. It is well known that scarcity of water during dry season in some areas is common in Bangladesh, because, ground water level goes down substantially during dry season. Hand pump and mechanized shallow tubewells cannot pump out water from the ground. Unavailability of enough safe water increase incidence of waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea a major killer of under -5 children. Therefore, sufficient safe water in the community should be ensured especially in dry season. It is necessary for other family members to come forward to collect water and maintain of tubewells. This may allow increasing participation of women in other productive work. People could save their pocket

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money because of better health status after WASH intervention. Moreover, familial civilization largely depends on women’s role in the household. It is interesting that women’s roles in decision-making process of NGO activities are increasing. This was because of BRAC WASH services where both men’s and women’s participation were common in decision-making for any community-based development work. REFERENCES ADB. 2000. Small towns water supply and sanitation sector project: gender and development. Nepal: Asian Development Bank (loan 1755-Nep). BRAC. 2003. The use of alternative safe water options to mitigate the arsenic problem in Bangladesh: Community perspective. Dhaka: BRAC, p: 1-61. BRAC. 2008. “Water sanitation and hygiene programme of BRAC: Towards attaining MDG targets”. Dhaka: BRAC, p: 1-123. Devkota Dinesh C. 2007. Drinking Water Policies and Quality issues in Nepal, Khatmunda. (http://www.nepal.watsan.net/page/398, (accessed on 5 August 2010) GED & UNDP. 2009. “Millennium development goals needs assessment & costing 2009-2015 Bangladesh”, General Economic Division, Planning Commission, GOB and UNDP. Dhaka, p: 1- 252. Panda, S.M. 2005. “Women’s role in local water management: Insights from SEWA’s Millennium Water Campaign in Gujarat (INDIA)”, EMPOWERS Regional Symposium: End-Users Ownership and Involvement in IWRM 13-17 November; Cairo, Egypt Pandey B. 2004. A Case Study on Women’s Role in Water Supply Management in Nepal. (http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/database/data_sheet/2007/DataSheet2007.p df) (accessed on 3 July 2010) UNDP. 2006. Human development report 2006, Beyond scarcity: power, poverty and the global water crisis. New York: UNDP, p: 1- 422. WHEP, 2007. Women in water management, Proc. Int. Workshop on Women in Water Management, 26-28 March 2008. Ifrane: Women in Health Education Programme, pp: 1-7. WHO/UNICEF. 2006. Water and culture: Where we are. Dhaka, p: 7- 29. WHO/ UNICEF, 2010. Progress on sanitation and drinking water 2010 update (http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563956_eng_full_text.pdf) (accessed on March 2010) World Bank. 2002. Social indicators. (http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/data/trends/water.htm) (accessed on 5 May 2010)

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