environmental economic theory no. 2 - keio …web.econ.keio.ac.jp/staff/hosoda/pcpno.3.pdf1...
TRANSCRIPT
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Environmental Economic Theory
No. 3
The Economics of Environmental Quality
Instructor: Eiji HOSODA
Textbook: Barry .C. Field & Martha K. Fields (2009) Environmental Economics - an introduction,
McGraw-Hill, International Edition
Professional Career Program
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PCP Environmental Economic Theory
Homework 4
16 October 20181. Theme: Describe what benefit-cost analysis is, and show how it works.
Explain merits and demerits of the benefit-cost analysis. Language:
English.
2. Volume: A4 two pages. Single space. 12 points.
3. Submission period: 9 a.m. 22 October 2018~ 9 a.m. 23 October 2018.
4. Submission: Submit your paper in an pdf. file. A file name must be
“HW4.xxx.pdf” (xxx=your name). Send your file to
5. Remark: Sources other than internet documents are recommendable. If
you use internet information, check plural sources and compare them. List
references you have used. “References” must not be skipped.
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The purpose of this lecture
• Markets do not always promise good environmental quality.
• There is a gap between the welfare level (the total surplus) attained in markets and the level which could be attained in a ideal situation.
• Why so? We should analyze why and how such a gap has appeared. (Positive analysis)
• Next, we should consider what should be done to fill the gap? (A policy question.)
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The purpose of this lecture (cont.)
• The followings are required:
• (1) To identify the most appropriate level of environmental quality.
• (2) To allocate environmental quality goals among polluters.
• (3) To decide how the benefits and costs of environmental programs be distributed across society.
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Trade-off and pollution control
• The essence of environmental issues is, often,
characterized as trade-off between two factors.
• One aspect of the trade-off: benefits and damages
from environmental disruption (e.g. coal burning).
• Another aspect of the trade-off: benefits of
keeping good environmental quality and costs to
do so (e.g. abatement costs).
• Pollution control always faces the above trade-off,
particularly in a short-run.
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Explanation by means of a figure
Environmental
quality
External benefits
Plant
Emission
Profits
Damages
External costs
Trade-off
Abatement
activity
Abatement
cost
Trade-off
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A few remarks
• Trade-off which is often seen in environmental
problems in a short-run may possibly
disappear in a long-run.
• This is because production possibility frontier
shifts upward, thanks to technical progress,
new arrangement of social structure and so on.
• Thus, economic growth and environmental
conservation may go together, hand in hand.
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The Trade-off may disappear in the
long run
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Market goods
Environmental quality
Production possibility frontier
may shift upward, thanks to
technical progress. Thus, a win-
win solution may be obtained.
O
Trade-off in a
short-run
There may be a win-
win solution in a
long-run.
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Porter hypothesis
• If well-planned environmental regulation is
introduced in an economy, efficiency and
innovations are induced so that commercial
competitiveness can be improved and
strengthened. This hypothesis was formulated
by the Harvard Univ. professor Michael Porter
in 1995, so that it is called Porter Hypothesis.
This hypothesis implies that the production
frontier could expand thanks to properly
planned regulation. 9
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What are pollution damages?• There are many types of pollution damages; health
damages, damages of constructions, amenity loss,
damages of eco-systems, and so on.
• Actually, it is very hard to evaluate environmental
damages, since we do not know how to give weight
to each types of pollution damages.
• Damages are not comparable to each other in many
cases.
• Particularly, it is not easy to evaluate pollution
damages in pecuniary terms.
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The relationship between a residual
and damages• There are two types of damage function: (1) an
emission damage function, (2) an ambient damage
function.
• The former describes a relationship between the amount
of emission and damages.
• The latter describes a relationship between
concentration of a certain pollutant and damages.
• Which type of function should be used depends upon
what circumstances should be considered.
• Usually, damages are valued by money terms if possible.
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Flow type of pollution vs. stock
type of pollution
• Flow type of pollution: a source of pollution
affects victims directly by discharged
substances. Eg., noise pollution, smoke
pollution and so on.
• Stock type of pollution: a source of pollution
contributes the accumulation of substances,
which affects victims. Eg., global warming
caused by CO2 concentration and so on.
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A Remark
• If we try to analyze a stock type of pollution,
we have to take a time structure into account.
• This is because a stock of pollution changes as
time goes, and the change of stock affects the
pollution level.
• Thus, a dynamic feature must be taken into
consideration, and so an analysis becomes
much more difficult.
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Shapes of marginal damage functions
(I)
Emission
Damages
Emission
Damages
Ambient concentration
Damages
Ambient concentration
Damages
Threshold
Threshold
In the case of toxic
substances?
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A remark
• Suppose that there is a threshold level of
emission or concentration and that damages
appear only when the actual emission or
concentration goes beyond the level.
• Then, it may possibly be easy to determine the
regulation level which prevents damages from
appearing by setting the regulation level at the
threshold level.
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Marginal and total damages (1)
Emissions
Damages
e1
MD
Total damages when the
emission level is e1.
If MD = x2 and the emission level
is e1=1, then TD = (1/3)x3 +c and
the total damage is 1/3, since c
usually equals 0.
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Marginal and total damages (2)
• If a marginal damage curve takes a form in the
former slide, damages increase more than
proportionately.
• Clearly, there is a cost curve which does not
take that shape.
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Marginal damage curve; another
expression
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Reductions in
Emissions
Damages
r1
MD
Notice that this cost curve is fundamentally the same
as the curve which appeared in slide no. 15. (Make sure
why so.)
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Position of a marginal damage curve
Emissions
Damages
e1
MD2
MD1
The position of marginal damage
curve depends upon time, places,
surrounding conditions, and so on.
If the curve shifts upward due to
some reasons, the total damages
increase if the same amount of
pollutants is emitted.
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Uncertainty, non-measurability and
irreversibility
• Uncertainty is often unavoidable for damages caused by pollutions. (e.g. global warming.)
• No one knows exactly what damages will be caused by pollutions.
• Furthermore, some damages are difficult to measure (e.g. loss of scarce plants).
• Things would be complicated due to the fact that some pollution damages are irreversible. (Some damages are reversible.)
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Another type of trade-off: abatement costs
• Abatement costs are costs which are required to cut off the amount of residuals, pollutants and so on.
• Scrubbers are used to reduce the amount of SO2 emission. Then, the plants can abate SO2
emission at a cost of running scrubber.
• CCS (carbon capture and storage) can fix carbon underground, but at a huge cost, at least now.
• Usually, the concept of marginal abatement costs is used more often than total abatement costs.
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Marginal abatement cost function
• Marginal abatement cost function is expressed
as MAC = F(emax – e), where emax is the
maximum amount of emission, and e is the
actual amount of emission. Clearly, (emax – e)
is the amount of abated residuals or pollutants.
• MAC is assumed to be an increasing function
of (emax – e), or a decreasing function of e
(Please do not be confused!)
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Shapes of abatement cost functions
(I)
O e
Emissions
Costs
emax
emax – e
The total abatement
costs when the
emission level is e.
e
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Shapes of abatement cost functions
(II)
z Emission
reductions
Costs
The total abatement
costs when the
emission-reduction
level is z.
(= emax – e)
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Position of a marginal abatement cost
curve
O e
Emissions
Cost
emax
MAC2
MAC1
A marginal abatement cost curve shifts
upward or downward due to some reasons.
For example, if technical progress occurs
for abatement technology, the curve shifts
down and the total abatement costs
decrease for given amount of emission.
But it must be noticed that the same
amount of reduction may not be made after
the shift-down of the curve.
emax – e
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Aggregate marginal abatement costs• Consider there are two plants both of which emit
pollutants, and the total amounts of emission is e
= ea + eb.
• Thus, amount of reduction must be allocated to
each plant.
• TAC(emax – e) is obtained by minimizing
TACa(emax – ea) + TACb(emax – eb). (We suppose
that emax is the same for the two plants.)
• Minimize {TACa(emax – ea) + TACb(emax – eb) – l
(e - ea - eb. )}
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Equi-marginal principle holds
again!• Solving the above, we have
MACa(emax – ea) = MACb(emax – eb) = l.
• This means the equi-marginal principle,
which we have already learned.
• MAC (emax – e) = MACa(emax – ea) =
MACb(emax – eb) where e = ea + eb.
• This is a very important result, and must be
understood clearly.
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Aggregate marginal abatement function
• From e = ea + eb and MACa(emax – ea) =
MACb(emax – eb) = l, we can get a vector (ea, eb)
for given e.
• Then, we have a relationship between e and (ea, eb).
• This means that we have a relationship between e
and MAC (emax – e) , which equals MACa(emax – ea)
= MACb(emax – eb).
• This is nothing but aggregate marginal abatement
function.
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Explanation by means of a figure
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2emaxemaxemax e = ea + ebea eb
MACa MACb MACT
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Summary: How to deduce TAC
and MAC.
• From the equi-marginal principle and e = ea +
eb, we have the relationship e → (ea, eb).
• Then, we can define TAC = TACa (za) + TACb
(zb) ( i = a, b) and differentiate it.
• MAC = MACa (d za /ea) {dea/d(emax – e)} +
MACb (dzb /eb)(deb/d(emax – e)}) = l (– 1) {d (ea
+ eb)/d(emax – e)} = l.
• Notice that zi = emax – ei (i = a, b).
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(= – 1)
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The socially desirable level of
emissions: an efficiency criterion
• The social costs of pollution damages and
abatement costs are expressed by the addition
of the two types of costs.
• Then, the socially desirable level of emissions
is determined by the cost minimization if an
efficiency criterion is adopted.
• Minimize TD(e) + TAC (emax – e) .
• Then, MD(e) = MACT (emax – e) is obtained.
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Explanation by means of a figureMD
MACT
emax
ea b
The efficient level of the
emission is e*, and the social
costs are expressed by the
area (a + b).
At the emission level e*, the
social costs are minimized.
e*
a
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What if e which does not equal e*
is emitted?
33
MD
MACT
emax
ea b
e*
a
e0
Dead weight loss
e1
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Some remarks
• The socially desirable or efficient level of
emissions are basically defined by the social cost
minimization.
• The socially desirable or efficient level of
emissions is not attained in a market economy
where no environmental concern is reflected in
actors’ behavior in a market.
• We must distinguish between a positive analysis
(an analysis of what is) and a normative analysis
(an analysis of what ought to be).
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Some remarks (cont.)
• The socially optimal solution does not
necessarily mean so-called zero emission of
pollution.
• This is because that zero emission implies too
costly reduction of pollution, and is not
optimal from a viewpoint of social welfare.
• For very toxic substances, zero emission is
possible as an socially optimal solution.
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Zero emission: Explanation by
means of a figure
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MD
MACT
emax
e
e*
In this case, the optimal
amount of emission is
nearly equal to zero.
Clearly, the total abatement
costs may be huge.
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Change of circumstances and shift of
curves
• If there is a change in circumstances which affects marginal damage curves or marginal abatement curves, the socially desirable or efficient level of emissions will change.
• If a marginal damage curve shifts upward owing to deterioration of the surrounding conditions, the social costs will increase.
• If a technical progress occurs in abatement technology, causing shift-down of a marginal abatement cost curve, the social costs will decrease.
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Explanation by means of figures
MAC
O
MD2
MD1
e*1e*2
O
MAC1
MAC2
MD
e*2 e*1
a
bc
If a marginal damage curve shifts
upward, the socially desirable or
efficient level of emissions decreases,
and the social costs increase.
If a marginal abatement cost curve
shifts downward, the socially
desirable or efficient level of
emissions decreases, and the social
costs also decrease.
If c > a holds, the
abatement costs
increase. If c < a
holds, they decrease.
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An incentive of technical progress
• If c > a holds in the former figure, the
abatement costs increase even though the
social costs decrease.
• The efficient level of emission after the
technical progress requires more abatement
costs.
• Then, the firm may not have incentives to
pursue the technical progress for abatement
technology. 39
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40
Enforcement costs
• To implement pollution preventing activities,
part of resources must be allocated to the
enforcement activity.
• This expense must be counted as costs, in
addition to the abatement costs.
• Thus, the abatement costs in a broad sense
increase, and marginal abatement cost curve
shifts up.
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Explanation by means of a figure
e*2 e*1
MDMAC + E
MAC
If the enforcement costs
are counted, the socially
efficient level of emissions
increases, and the social
costs also increase.