FINAL DRAFT

Engendering ICT:

Ensuring Gender Equality In ICT for Development

September 5, 2003

Global Information and Communication Technologies Department Gender and Development Group

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Acknowledgments

The study “Engendering ICT” was conducted by Knowledge Management International Co.,Ltd. (KMI) and its associated professional group, with Nancy J. Hafkin as study coordinator,Deepti Bhatnagar, Subhash Bhatnagar, Sophia Huyer, and Nidhi Tandon. Funding for this studywas provided by the Government of Japan. World Bank task managers for this study wereKayoko Shibata, Knowledge Management Analyst, Gender and Development Group, PovertyReduction and Economic Management Network, and Robert Schware, Lead InformaticsSpecialist, Policy Division, Global Information and Communication Technologies Department.Thanks are due to Michael Bamberger, external reviewer, for his poignant critique that helpedfocus the study, Shampa Banerjee, for her painstaking and perceptive editorial work, and BenHuffman, who prepared the CD-ROM training materials derived from the study for Bank taskmanagers. Their contributions are gratefully acknowledged, along with those of dozens ofothers, particularly from the staff of the World Bank, who helped by giving time, information,and views. The views reflected in this study are those of the contributors and not necessarilythose of the World Bank or its members.

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Executive Summary 1Gender and development 1Removing gender disparities in ICT 2Gender issues in ICT 2Gender-based differences in the ICT economy 3Gender, ICT, and education 4ICT and political empowerment 5Using ICT to deliver social services 5Gender focus in national ICT policies 6Gender issues in the World Bank ICT projects 6Conclusions 8Recommendations 8

Introduction 10Why this study? 10What is ICT? 11Methodology 12What is gender? 13Why is gender a development issue? 13Why a concern for gender equality in ICT projects? 13What is engendering ICT? 13Why concentrate on women if we are talking about gender? 14Why do women need ICT? 14Engendering ICT 17

Women in the ICT Labor Market 21Current status of women in the ICT labor market 21Crowding of women at the lowest levels 23Labor market participation 27Country profiles 28Initiatives at the organizational level 30Summary 32APPENDIX 1: CASE STUDIES ON LABOR MARKET PARTICIPATION 34Datamation, India 34CyberHost, Kenya 35Mongolia Telecom, Mongolia 36Centre for Computer and Language Training, Sri Lanka 37International Telecommunication Center, Vietnam 38APPENDIX 2: COUNTRY STUDIES ON LABOR MARKET PARTICIPATION 40India 40Jordan 44

Contents

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

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Executive Summary 1Why this study? 1Methodology 2What is engendering ICT? 2Why concentrate on women if we are talking about gender? 2Why do women need ICT? 2Gender issues in ICT 2Gender-based differences in the ICT economy 3Gender, ICT, and education 4ICT and political empowerment 5Using ICT to deliver social services 5Gender focus in national ICT policies 6Gender issues in the World Bank ICT projects 6Conclusions 8Recommendations 8

Introduction 10Why this study? 10What is ICT? 11Methodology 12What is gender? 13Why is gender a development issue? 13Why a concern for gender equality in ICT projects? 13What is engendering ICT? 13Why concentrate on women if we are talking about gender? 14Why do women need ICT? 14Engendering ICT 17

Women in the ICT Labor Market 21Current status of women in the ICT labor market 21Crowding of women at the lowest levels 23Labor market participation 27Country profiles 28Initiatives at the organizational level 30Summary 32APPENDIX 1: CASE STUDIES ON LABOR MARKET PARTICIPATION 34Datamation, India 34CyberHost, Kenya 35Mongolia Telecom, Mongolia 36Centre for Computer and Language Training, Sri Lanka 37International Telecommunication Center, Vietnam 38APPENDIX 2: COUNTRY STUDIES ON LABOR MARKET PARTICIPATION 40India 40Jordan 44

Contents

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

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Micro and Small Enterprises and ICT: A Gender Analysis 47The importance of the issues 48A macroeconomic context 48MSE and ICT — the promise and the reality 53Integrating MSE and ICT for women 56Business service providers, extending ICT support to women 62A guide to gender-sensitive ICT development for MSE 64How to build on the momentum 66

Women and ICT: Social Service Delivery and Political Participation 70Social service delivery and political participation: a framework 71Data collection 71Social service delivery 71Political participation 74Impact of ICT on service delivery and political participation 77APPENDIX 1: CASE STUDIES ON SOCIAL SERVICE DELIVERY 79Community telecenters, Chile 79Gyandoot, India 80TARAhaat, India 81Virtual Delivery Room, Slovenia 83Association of Uganda Women Medical Doctors, Uganda 84Rural Extended Services and Care for Ultimate Emergency Relief, Uganda 85APPENDIX 2: CASE STUDIES ON POLITICAL PARTICIPATION BY WOMEN 87Women mussel pickers of Esmeraldas, Ecuador 87Women’s ICT project, Kenya 88Internet-driven women’s movement, Mexico 89Bayanloco Community Learning Center, Nigeria 90www.WomensNet.org.za, South Africa 91

Gender, ICT, and Education 95Education status of girls and women worldwide 95Gender barriers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics 98Computer science and IT education 101Strategies to encourage women’s participation in scientific and

technical education 102Training women for the IT workplace 103Technologies for basic education 106Out-of-school literacy training 107Computer-mediated education 109Computers in schools: ensuring that girls benefit 109Distance learning, another use of ICT 111Recommendations 114ICT in education and the World Bank 115

Gender Focus in National ICT Policies 120Review of national ICT policies and gender focus 121Review of Case Studies 123Addressing women’s issues in national ICT policies 124APPENDIX 1: COUNTRY PROFILES 131Brazil 131

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

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Chapter 7

El Salvador 132Hungary 133India 134Israel 135Malaysia 136The Philippines 138Romania 139Russia 141South Africa 143United Arab Emirates 146

From a Gender Perspective:

Review of World Bank ICT Sectoral Projects 150Methodology 150Analysis of results 152Gender and ICT 157How do these findings compare? 157Determinants of the inclusion of gender in ICT components 161Gender and other social issues in ICT projects 162Conclusions: ICT as the gender perspective frontier 170How to ensure that World Bank ICT projects incorporate gender concerns 171

Authors 173

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Executive Summary

Engendering ICT:Ensuring Gender Equalityin ICT for Development

Executive Summary

* OP/BP 4.20 Gender and Development http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/institutional/manuals/opmanual.nsf/TextTOC1?OpenNavigator&Start=1&Count=30&Collapse=1.2.3

Men and women often experience different real-ities. Compared to men, women generally enjoyfewer rights and resources. These gender-basedinequalities reduce women’s ability to benefitequally from the opportunities offered by infor-mation and communication technologies (ICT),and to contribute toward the shaping of the de-veloping global knowledge economy. ICT hastremendous potential for promoting and achiev-ing gender-equal sustainable development — apotential that is yet to be realized. The purposeof this study is to identify selected areas, describeinnovative projects and activities, and set forthsuggestions on how the World Bank and otheragencies working for global change can contrib-ute to realizing this potential.

Gender and development

Awareness of the disparities between men andwomen that affect women’s access to the benefitsof development has increased worldwide sincethe 1970s. There is also a growing consciousness

of the centrality of gender equality issues in pov-erty alleviation and sustainable development. TheWorld Bank gender policy (OP 4.20)* has been inexistence since 1994. In 2002 the Bank’s OperationsEvaluation Department (OED) called for better in-tegration of gender considerations in Bank-sup-ported projects so that both men and women canaccess the benefits of development equally. Thisstudy responds directly to this call. As many Bank-supported projects have ICT components, takingthe gender dimension into account is imperative.

ICT covers a wide range of technologies, fromradio, television, and telephones to the Internet.This paper will examine the entire range.

Decisions about which ICT is appropriate to usehave gender implications. The study has chosena number of areas on which to concentrate be-cause of their importance for both social and eco-nomic development. They are:• Employment, both in the formal information

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ENGENDERING ICT

technology (IT)** sector, and in the informalmicro and small enterprises (MSE) sector

• Education, which provides the prerequisitesfor effective use of ICT as well as new modelsof delivery

• ICT-enabled delivery of social services• Use of ICT for political empowerment• National policies for ICT development.

The study also examines a sample of World Bankfinanced projects that cuts across many sectors toexamine whether gender issues were consideredin their efforts to employ ICT as transformativedevelopment tools.

Most of the research was based on desk study,although the authors of both the chapter on MSEand the chapter on women in the IT labor forceconducted primary research in the course of pre-paring their work. While the full potential of ICTfor advancing gender equality has not yet beenrealized, some very interesting and challengingsteps have already been taken. The case studieschosen illustrate these steps.

ICT as a tool for social and economictransformation

Along with globalization, ICT provides the toolsthat can transform the way production is orga-nized and information shared around the world.These technologies offer flexibility of time andspace, a way out of isolation, and access to knowl-edge and productive resources. They are enablingtools for economic development and socialchange. Arguably, ICT can be most valuable tothose who suffer most from limited time avail-ability, social isolation, and lack of access toknowledge and productive resources: women indeveloping countries.

Removing gender disparities in ICT

In recent years, gender advocates have givenan additional meaning to engender — that of“integrating gender into development work”.

“Engendering ICT” is the process of identify-ing and removing gender disparities in the ac-cess to and use of ICT. It is also the process ofadapting ICT to the special needs, constraints,and opportunities of women, by taking advan-tage of women’s special knowledge and of theirstrong informal networks and support systemsin order to better combine electronic commu-nication with traditional communication sys-tems.

When the underlying concern is gender, we fre-quently find ourselves talking about the situationof women because existing gender inequalities inaccess to vital rights and resources generally af-fect women and girls more negatively than menand boys. In the case of ICT, access to and use ofICT for girls and women are directly affected bygender-based inequalities.

Women need ICT for the same reasons as men.They need ICT to get more information to carryout their productive, reproductive, and com-munity roles; they need ICT as tools to conducttheir businesses and to work in the IT indus-try. They need ICT to find resources for them-selves, their families, their work, and theircommunities. They need ICT to have a voice intheir lives, their community, their government,and the larger world that shares their issuesand problems. They need ICT to compete in adigital world. Additionally, they bring knowl-edge and perspective that can enrich the worldof information technology. These advantagesneed to be captured and included.

Gender issues in ICT

Some of the major gender issues that affect theimpact of ICT on men and women include:• Lack of reliable sex-disaggregated statistics,

which constrain our knowledge of gender is-sues in ICT

• Concentration of ICT infrastructure in urbanareas, while many women in developing

** Although the terms ICT and IT are frequently used interchangeably, in this study IT will be used to primarily refer tothe information technology industry.

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Executive Summary

countries live in rural areas, with limited ac-cess to new technologies

• Social and cultural issues that frequently pre-vent women from accessing ICT facilities

• Women’s lower educational levels, especiallyin scientific and technological education

• Negative attitudes about girls and technology• Technophobia or disinterest in ICT on the part

of many women• Women’s lack of disposable income to pur-

chase ICT services• Lack of Internet content of interest to many

women in developing countries.

ICT-specific gender issues

Other gender issues in ICT projects are specificto the technology. For example, when choosing aparticular kind of telephone technology, was thenumber of female-headed households unable toafford it taken into consideration? Would estab-lished pricing encourage widespread adoption(and increased use) of the technology by women aswell as men? Do the databases created for healthmanagement information systems include fullinformation about women’s health problems andpossible use of alternative, indigenous treatments?

Gender-based differences in ICT

employment

Some major points about gender and the ICT la-bor market emerging from the study were:• In general, across countries, women consti-

tute about 30 percent of those working in theIT industry.

• Throughout the IT industry in developingcountries, women are concentrated in routinejobs at lower levels and lower salaries thanmen.

• Low enrollment rates of girls and women inscience and technology hinder their advance-ment in IT employment.

• Women constitute a disproportionately highnumber of employees in call center services,data entry, and programming, but their num-bers are very small at the project managerlevel.

• Upward mobility in organizations tends tofollow along gender lines, with women tak-ing more time than men to move from entryto middle levels and from middle to manage-rial levels.

• Upward mobility in IT employment forwomen in developing countries tends to behigher in the public sector than in the privatesector.

• Countries with higher Gender Equality Indexand a large ICT sector offer the greatest op-portunities for IT employment of women.

• Although one of the characteristics of the ITindustry is its flexibility of workplace andhours, developing countries show no evi-dence to date of applying this flexibility towomen’s employment in the ICT sector.

Women’s access to and use of ICT in microand small enterprises

Women increasingly dominate the MSE sector inmany developing countries. Women in businessneed ICT for connectivity, communication, com-puting, and commerce. Women find it harder thanmen to use ICT to support their businesses, as itis more difficult for them to generate capital toinvest in ICT. They also face higher barriers tocomputer literacy. Women often find it harderthan men to get training in the use of computersor engage in ICT-related employment. Manywomen entrepreneurs are also losing out on theinformation and networking that come from ICT.This is a serious deficit, particularly in the con-text of globalization where businesses requiremore information and communication capabili-ties to be competitive.

Many women-owned microbusinesses are begin-ning to use ICT. Mobile phones are particularlyvital for those who do not have fixed work loca-tions. A matrix of the types of ICT that women-owned businesses look for showed that:• Microbusinesses want cell phones and e-mail

accounts (public access).• Small enterprises want cell phones, e-mail

accounts, and the use of ICT applications for

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ENGENDERING ICT

accounting and conducting e-commerce.• Medium enterprises want cell phones, per-

sonal computers (PC), dial-up connections,computerization of basic business processes,as well as their own web sites.

New ICT-enabled businesses and businesses ser-vicing the ICT sector are particularly fruitful ar-eas for women entrepreneurs. A number ofe-business ventures, including examples fromCambodia, India, and Peru, illustrate how self-employed women working in the informal sec-tor can exploit economic opportunities offered bye-commerce. Chambers of commerce and otherbusiness service providers too can be very help-ful in delivering ICT-related services to womenentrepreneurs.

Many women entrepreneurs recognize thedifference that ICT can make in their businessactivities and are ready to adopt the new tech-nologies, but can only do so effectively withadequate support.

Gender, ICT, and education

Education is arguably the single most importantfactor in improving the ability of women in de-veloping countries to take full advantage of theopportunities offered by IT at all levels. Currently,because of their low educational levels and lim-ited access to scientific and technical education,women tend to be poorly placed to participate inand benefit from the knowledge economy. Theyalso tend to have less access to skills training anddevelopment, which would enable them to gainIT employment. The participation of women inIT design and development is particularly low.These gaps are closing in some countries, but notin most.

This study, therefore, is also concerned withwomen’s education and its relationship to ICT:education allows women to have equal accesswith men to ICT, and the use of ICT helps womenovercome gender-based differentials in education.Education can enable women to work in or with

IT at increasingly high levels, and ICT can helpwomen acquire education where they were pre-viously unable to do so.

Education for equal access to ICT

Support and encouragement are needed for theincreased participation of women and girls atevery level of scientific and technical education.Initiatives to achieve this include:• Encouragement of girls and women to con-

tinue their education past the primary level• National programs, especially at the tertiary

level, to increase the recruitment and reten-tion of girls and women in science and tech-nology

• Curricula and program requirements to en-courage female participation, which couldconsist of:

- Bridging programs that allow updatingand reentry for women who are alreadyqualified in technological subjects

- Conversion programs that provide firstentry to technological education for maturewomen, early school dropouts, and learn-ers who wish to change direction

- Community-based programs geared tolocal and environmental issues of directrelevance to the lives and responsibilitiesof women.

Despite their substantial participation in the ITlabor force women continue to be an overlookedtarget group for IT skills development. ICT canprovide innovative ways for women to obtainand update skills for equal participation in theknowledge economy. The experience of the CiscoNetworking Academies and other initiatives in-dicate that, when opportunities are available,women successfully take advantage of them toobtain high-level technical education. Some mea-sures supporting such efforts include reservingplaces for women in skills-training programs andtraining aimed at women.

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Executive Summary

Using ICT to overcome gender differentialsin education

ICT can provide new possibilities for women atall levels and for all types of education throughdistance learning. Flexibility of access and studytimes and the potential to reach women in ruralareas make distance learning via ICT a promis-ing educational approach for women. Much moreresearch and gender analysis, however, areneeded on the efficacy and benefits of distancelearning programs, including the use of comput-ers and Internet strategies.

Women in several countries have enthusiasticallytaken advantage of e-learning, or the teaching andlearning that take place through the Internet.Challenges to e-learning include the high cost ofon-line access in much of the world. Increasedcosts of higher education, in general, also tend torestrict access to higher education (whether on-line or off-line) mainly to groups in higher socio-economic brackets. In order to reach women andgroups at other socioeconomic levels, alternativeaccess strategies need to be investigated.

ICT and political empowerment

ICT can play a significant role in increasingwomen’s voice and overcoming inequities andbarriers in political participation. A small num-ber of women have already been utilizing ICTfor awareness generation, networking, advocacy,and their own political empowerment.

Some of the cases studied illustrate the use of ICTto generate collective support for women’s causes.ICT has helped women find a voice and exertpressure on policymakers to incorporate wom-en’s perspectives and concerns, particularly in de-veloping countries where they are often isolated,invisible, and powerless in a male-dominated so-ciopolitical milieu. The political empowermentof women can lead to more women-friendlypolicies and practices in social service delivery.

Using ICT to deliver social services

ICT offers the possibility of greater transparency,accountability, and accessibility in the delivery ofsocial services, which frequently come under therubric of e-government. Travel time can be savedby delivering services at convenient locations; thenumber of visits to delivery points can be mini-mized; and the time taken to deliver services canbe shortened. With ICT-enabled service delivery,corruption can be controlled and transparencyenhanced, and poor women in developing coun-tries can be among the first to benefit.

The basic gender issue is whether men and womenbenefit equally from ICT-enhanced services. Areservices designed and implemented keeping inmind the special requirements, convenience, andpreferences (time and location) of women?

Some examples of women benefiting from ICT-enabled social service delivery include:• The Virtual Delivery Room in Slovenia, where

the imaginative convergence of medical andInternet technologies brought positive resultsfor mothers and their infants

• The Association of Uganda Women Medical Doc-tors in Uganda, which combined the Internetwith traditional methods of information dif-fusion to help extend the benefits of the latestbreakthroughs in health to rural women de-spite severe limitations in infrastructure andskills.

• Rural Extended Services and Care for UltimateEmergency Relief in rural Uganda, which usedVHF radios to ensure quick communicationand reduce maternal mortality rates

• TARAhaat in India which has ushered in so-cial change — the idea of girls receiving com-puter education and becoming wage earnersis becoming increasingly accepted in an oth-erwise conservative social environment

• Gyandoot, also in India, where rural womenhave learned to use the Internet and e-mail toredress some of their problems.

As the use of ICT for any type of service delivery

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by government or nongovernment organizations(NGO) is still in its infancy, it is too early to passjudgment on the effects of such efforts on genderequality. Much work remains to be done in en-gendering ICT services, especially in e-govern-ment, which can bring enormous benefits towomen.

Gender focus in national ICT policies

Another purpose of the study was to assess theextent to which existing national ICT policies havetaken gender into account, and to what extentthese policies have impacted employment, entre-preneurial opportunities, and political participa-tion by women. The study found hardly anymention of gender concerns in ICT policies for-mulated by most countries, with Korea being anotable exception. A number of national ICT poli-cies refer to the situation in rural areas and amongthe poor, but say nothing about gender. A likelyresult of this invisibility at the policy level is thatgender issues will not appear in the implementa-tion of ICT policies. Gender needs to be taken intoaccount not only in the content of ICT policiesbut in the process of policy elaboration, imple-mentation, and evaluation.• Engendered national ICT policies can fulfill

the following objectives for women: greateraccess to and use of ICT; more employmentin IT and related industries; more opportuni-ties to set up MSE utilizing e-commerce; moreaccess to social services in health, education,and communication; and higher political par-ticipation and economic empowerment.

• ICT policies need to consider the gender di-mensions of legal issues and attitudes of la-bor unions, as well as constraints on women’smobility, control over productive resources,and access to credit.

The gender focus of policies relating to ICT is dif-ficult to review and evaluate because the policypronouncements on these varied technologies fre-quently fall under the purview of more than oneministry or sector. Many governments are nowgrappling with institutional restructuring to take

a holistic view of these media as the technologymoves increasingly toward convergence. Poli-cies in areas other than ICT may affect womenand ICT. For example, national industrial andlabor policies would affect the promotion ofwomen’s employment in the IT industry. Edu-cation policies may encourage women’s scien-tific and technological education and have asignificant impact on their preparedness to en-ter the labor market.

The effort to engender national ICT policies needsto proceed on at least two fronts: sensitizingpolicymakers to gender issues, and sensitizinggender advocates to ICT issues. Very fewpolicymakers are trained to think from a genderperspective and unless this is done at all steps ofthe process, gender concerns are rarely integratedinto policy. Likewise, gender advocates are un-likely to understand ICT issues. To become effec-tive advocates of women’s interests in this area,they need to understand the technical issues thatare the standard content of ICT policy.

The study elaborates the gender dimensions ofthe following ICT policy issues: infrastructure,regulatory frameworks, labor policies, educationpolicy, licensing, and e-government.

Gender issues in World Bank ICT projects

The study examines a broad sample of WorldBank projects from the ICT sector, as well as thosewith ICT components from other sectors to de-termine the extent to which they incorporatedgender issues.

The half-full glass

Nearly half the projects consider gender as an el-ement in the overall rationale for the project, butoften this is limited to a simple mention of gen-der, or to a description of the varying social rolesof men and women.

The other half of the glass...

At the same time, more than half the projectsin the sample pay no attention to gender issues.

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Executive Summary

Only a third of the projects include any actionthat target women or strengthen institutionsthat are likely to target women. Again, about athird of the projects aim to undertake actionsthat promote gender-equal access to resources.

These results apply to the projects overall and notnecessarily to the ICT components of theseprojects. As far as the ICT components of theprojects are concerned, fewer than 10 percent con-sider gender issues. The tendency is to treat theICT component as a technical part of the project,without consideration of its social impact. In thoseprojects that do consider gender issues in ICT, thecritical factors seem to be the degree of genderawareness of both the World Bank and the coun-try teams.

Despite the low number of projects in the samplethat consider the gender dimensions of ICT, thereare some outstanding examples of successful in-corporation of gender issues in World Bankprojects. Among these are:• An education project in Argentina teaching

IT in secondary schools and analyzing resultsby sex and class

• A land registration information system inBulgaria that recognized the gender issue inwomen’s access to land registration informa-tion

• An agricultural services ICT project in Ghanathat targeted women farmers for the diffusionof information and established a sex-disag-gregated database of food and agriculturalstatistics

• An IT technician training project in India thatthrough the provision of hostels and scholar-ships supported women students studying intheir own states

• ICT training for youth in Macedonia aimingto improve the situation of girls from minor-ity ethnic groups who are underrepresentedin education

• A project to deliver ICT services to microen-terprises in Mexico that allocated funds totrain women

• A mineral resources information managementproject in Mozambique that addressed gen-der issues in artisanal mining

• A higher education project in Mozambiquethat increased Internet access for institutionsof higher education with a focus on genderequality

• An agricultural extension project in Peru thatselected IT service providers among otherthings on the basis of their capability to workwith rural women

• Agricultural extension information and com-munication centers in Tanzania that reserved30 percent of places for women and includedwomen’s issues in training.

Missed opportunities

A number of project areas that seemed suitablefor gender analysis did not have a gender dimen-sion. Although distance learning, as outlinedabove, has many features attractive to women,given their multiple roles and time constraints,some distance learning projects did not incorpo-rate social awareness or gender analysis. Whilemany of the projects in telecommunications policyand regulatory reform showed a high level ofawareness of their potential for social reform, fewmentioned gender issues. The study details manypotential gender issues in these areas.

Some typical problems encountered were:• While a large number of projects paid some

attention to gender, in most cases this was notdone in a meaningful way.

• Assurances of gender consideration or men-tions of gender were not matched by projectactions.

• The overall norm was to ignore gender issuesin all projects studied.

• Despite a mandate to include social analysisin all project preparation documents, therewere many cases where social analysis wasrelevant but not applied.

• Fewer than 10 percent of ICT projects or ICTcomponents of projects considered gender is-sues.

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ENGENDERING ICT

• Stand-alone ICT projects had poor overallresults on the integration of gender issues.

These findings indicate that there is need to en-hance consciousness of gender and ICT issues.

Conclusions

It is clear that the potential of ICT to help achieveequitable and sustainable development will notbe realized without special efforts and increasedattention to gender issues. In the ICT domain, asin other development areas, the key to alteringthe distribution of resources is through the ap-plication of gender analysis and gender-awareproject design, implementation, and evaluation.Development interventions must work with bothmen and women stakeholders to ensure that op-portunities to utilize technologies are not inhib-ited by restrictions on mobility, the gendereddivision of labor, or traditional customs.

ICT projects wanting to involve women aswell as men should see that:

• Women are involved in the design and imple-mentation of projects

• Projects target men and women equally (es-tablishing separate access and training strat-egies if necessary)

• Account is taken of the social division of la-bor, by which most domestic responsibilitiesfall upon women

• Content is locally appropriate and of value towomen as well as men.

ICT: beyond the technology focus

ICT is not about technology alone. It is used byboth men and women to satisfy their need forinformation, communication, and entertainment.Just as every good or resource has its gender as-pect, so does ICT. Some of the questions to askare:• Are there factors that impact men and women

differently?

• Do men and women have equal access?• Do the media transmit both men’s and

women’s knowledge?• Do men and women have the same needs and

requirements for the media?

It should not be assumed that technology impactsmen and women equally. In seemingly exclu-sively technical ICT areas such as network archi-tecture, radio spectrum allocation, and regulatoryframeworks, there are gender issues outlined inthe study that task managers can use as guide-lines in engendering ICT projects and projectcomponents.

Virtually every ICT project has gender issues: Acommon misconception in ICT projects is thatby using ICT to accelerate development, all willbenefit equally, without the need to take anyspecific measures to include disadvantagedgroups.

Gender issues should be considered from the earlierstages of project design. They should not be added inhindsight or as a midterm correction. A fully partici-patory process will most likely include genderexperts and input from organizations that workon gender issues.

Successful ICT projects do not need to use high-endtechnology when addressing gender issues. Judiciousapplication of available and affordable ICT, in-cluding intermediate technology, can have muchgreater impact than a preoccupation with usingthe latest technology for its own sake.

Recommendations

In order to better achieve development objec-tives, there is a need to sensitize World BankTask Team leaders in the ICT sector and thosefrom other sectors who have ICT componentsin their projects to the gender issues in theseprojects. Since the vast majority of Bank projectshave ICT components, this implies a need forincreased gender awareness on behalf of theleaders and their teams. In order to incorporate

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Executive Summary

gender issues into ICT projects and ICT com-ponents, it is recommended that:

1. Task Team leaders should use tools andgood practice examples, such as those illustratedin this study and the accompanying toolkit, toensure that gender and ICT are taken into accountin the initial stages of project preparation.

2. Both stand-alone ICT sector projects andprojects with ICT components should routinelybe reviewed for consideration of gender issuesin ICT. This advisory should help to bring anawareness of gender issues in ICT to Task Teamleaders who might otherwise be unaware ofthem.

3. Resources should be assigned to providetraining on gender issues for World Bank staffinvolved in ICT project design and formulationor in formulating ICT components in projects inother sectors.

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ENGENDERING ICT

Men and women live in separate realities. Theworld over, most women are poorer than men andoften not as well educated. Women have a higherlevel of illiteracy. They tend to earn less and holdfewer positions of power and decisionmaking inthe family, in businesses, and in political and pub-lic life. These gender-based inequalities impactwomen’s ability to benefit equally from the op-portunities offered by information technologyand to contribute fully to shaping the develop-ing global knowledge economy and society. Thisstudy highlights several areas of high potentialfor gender equality within ICT, while noting theconstraints to women’s full participation withmen in this area, and outlines some steps for mak-ing the ICT sector gender-aware and responsive.

Why this study?

Since the 1970s awareness has increased of thedisparities in rights and resources between menand women that affect women’s equal access tothe benefits of development. This realization tookon a global dimension at the five world confer-ences of women held from 1975 to 2000, and

achieved its culmination at the United NationsMillennium Summit in 2000 where both devel-oped and developing countries adopted the Mil-lennium Development Goals. One of the maingoals is the promotion of gender equality and theempowerment of women. Specifically in the areaof ICT, the 16th Plenipotentiary Conference of theInternational Telecommunication Union (ITU) inMarrakesh (2002) gave a strong mandate to en-sure the inclusion of a gender perspective in allITU contributions to the World Summit on theInformation Society to be held in Geneva in 2003and Tunis in 2005.

The World Bank’s commitment to genderin development

The World Bank has been working steadily topromote gender equality in both staffing and op-erations since 1994 when its gender policy cameinto operation. The Bank’s Poverty Reduction andEconomic Management (PREM) network has aGender and Development Board whose main taskis to establish an official approach to promotinggender concerns. In 2001 the Bank issued its most

1Introduction

11

Introduction

comprehensive treatment of gender to date in thepolicy research report Engendering Development:through gender equality in rights, resources, and voice(World Bank, 2001), bringing together pro-pooreconomic growth strategies with a rights-basedapproach to human development. In 2002 theWorld Bank’s Operations Evaluation Departmentcalled for better integration of gender consider-ations into the design of projects supported bythe Bank so that both men and women receivethe benefits equally. The Operational Policy onGender and Development issued in March 2003provided an operational strategy for gendermainstreaming in World Bank projects.

While part of the overall growing awareness ofthe centrality of gender issues to sustainable de-velopment and the achievement of human equal-ity, this study responds directly to the call forbetter integration of gender considerations in thedesign of Bank-supported projects. It describesgender issues in key sectors in developing coun-tries and suggests ways in which they can be ad-dressed. In the last chapter, it specificallyaddresses the record of the Bank in incorporat-ing gender in its ICT projects and project compo-nents, and makes recommendations on how thismay be improved. As ICT has become a Bank sec-tor and as many Bank-supported projects havean ICT component, increasing the gender dimen-sion in this sector is a central concern in achiev-ing the Bank’s goals, specifically for genderequality and the alleviation of poverty. This mes-sage was included in the Sector Strategy Paper(SSP), “Integrating Gender into the World Bank’sWork: A Strategy for Action.” (World Bank,2002a). The Bank’s SSP on ICT (World Bank,2002b) recognized gender issues, although in thecontext of ICT use in other sectors, and not as cen-tral to ICT itself.

What is ICT?

Information and communication technologies arethe hardware, software, networks, and media forcollection, storage, processing, transmission, andpresentation of information in the form of voice,

data, text, and images. They range from tele-phone, radio, and television to the Internet. Giventhe focus of using ICT to reach women and menequally in developing countries, particularlythose in peri-urban and rural areas, this paper willlook at the full range of ICT and not only at themore advanced technologies. As we will see later,decisions about which ICT is appropriate to usehave gender implications.

ICT has high potential for promoting and achiev-ing equitable and sustainable growth and devel-opment. These tools can help women participatein economic and social development on an equalbasis with men. However, the tremendous poten-tial of the sector for promoting gender-equal de-velopment has not been realized. The purpose ofthis study is to describe that potential in selectedareas, underline innovative projects and activi-ties, and set forth suggestions on how the poten-tial can be realized by the World Bank and others.

If there is one message that emerges from all thechapters, it is this: the potential that ICT has forhelping to achieve equitable and sustainable de-velopment will not be realized without specialeffort and attention to gender issues. Consider-ation of gender issues is not automatic. It doesnot happen by pronouncing an activity gender-neutral. If fact, this study calls into questionwhether there are any ICT projects or project com-ponents that are without gender issues. Withoutspecific focus and attention on gender issues, gen-der-neutral results — those with equal impact onmen and women — cannot be achieved. Anyspecial action is time-consuming and arduous, butthe results are often worth the doing. As Goetzsays, “despite the rhetoric, outcomes of manyprograms [involving gender and development]have failed to alter asymmetrical distribution ofresources and social values which contribute tothe social construction of gender inequality anddifferences” (Goetz, 1997). In the ICT domain, asin other development areas, the key to altering

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ENGENDERING ICT

the distribution of resources and social values isthrough the application of gender analysis andgender-aware project design, implementation,and evaluation.

The purpose of this study is to help World Banktask managers incorporate gender issues into ICT

that such interventions will lead to improved ef-ficiency in ICT policies and programs of clientcountries by responding to the needs of both menand women equally. The study should be of in-terest to other development practitioners, as wellas researchers working on gender-equal devel-opment in any specific area, and in the long runmake a difference in the lives of women, men,and their families in many developing countries.

The study is not exhaustive; rather it has chosena number of areas on which to concentrate be-cause of their importance for both social and eco-nomic empowerment. They are:• Employment both in the formal IT sector as

well as in the informal and semiformal areaof MSE

• ICT-enabled delivery of social services• Use of ICT in political empowerment• Education, which provides the prerequisites

for effective use of ICT as well as new mod-els of delivery

• Policies that provide an enabling frameworkfor ICT development at the national level.

It also examines a sample of World Bank projectsthat use ICT cutting across many sectors, to askwhether they have considered gender issues intheir effort to employ ICT as transformative de-velopment tools.

The topics chosen address the following issues:• The impact of ICT on women’s work where

it differs from that of men, in the ICT indus-try and labor market as well as in self-em-ployment, especially in MSE where womenpredominate

• How ICT can help to economically empower

women with their chronic lack of access toresources, through creative and proactiveapproaches to adapt ICT to their needs

• How women can use new technologies todayin diverse spheres of activity to improve theirlives

• How education, both through and in ICT, canimprove women’s opportunities to be part ofthe information society and knowledge econ-omy

• How ICT can help women politically, andprovide them with a voice that will be heardglobally

• Women’s access to ICT-delivered services inhealth, education, and government

• The need for Internet content relevant to bothmen and women in developing countries, ina form that is accessible to them

• Whether national policies in ICT and relatedareas take into account gender inequalities inaccess to and use of resources in ICT

• The extent to which World Bank projects in ei-ther ICT alone or in projects with ICT compo-nents, take account of gender-based differences.

The corrective measures suggested stem from theprinciple that gender-based differences can beexploited to advantage, while disadvantages inaccess to and use of ICT need response in the formof adequate policies, programs, and strategies.Above all, development interventions must workequally with men and women stakeholders toensure that opportunities to utilize technologiesare not inhibited by cultural dictates on seclusion,restrictions on mobility, or the gendered divisionof labor.

Methodology

Most of the research was based on desk study,although the authors of both the chapter on wom-en in the IT labor force and the MSE chapterconducted primary research in the course of pre-paring their work. The case studies were chosenprimarily for the possibilities of innovation thatthey demonstrate. While the full potential of ICTfor advancing gender equality has not been real-

13

Introduction

ized, some very interesting and challenging stepshave been taken along that path. The case stud-ies chosen are illustrative of these steps.

The reader will notice that a disproportionatenumber of examples are taken from India. Thisis because India has become a world leader inlooking at and trying out ways to use ICT to ad-dress the relationship between poverty and de-velopment, frequently with an awareness ofgender issues. These applications also presentsome of the more innovative approaches.

Before proceeding to an in-depth considerationof the areas outlined above, this introduction willaddress some general issues on gender and ICT.

What is gender?

Gender is used in this paper to refer to the so-cially constructed roles and socially learned be-haviors and expectations between women andmen in a particular society. These relations andthe roles that women and men assume are cul-turally defined and institutionally embedded.Whereas biological sex (being male or female) isnot easily altered, gender as a social identitychanges over time (historically) and space (geo-graphically). Gender roles of men or women inone society may differ from another. In many cul-tural contexts it will be difficult to convince mento allow or encourage their daughters or wivesto receive training or to invest in ICT, unless mencan see that they and the whole family will ben-efit from such action. Gender needs to considerboth men and women and the relations bewteenthem.

Why is gender a development issue?

Research has established the business case for con-sideration of gender issues: development projectsthat take gender relations into account are morelikely to achieve their objectives than those that donot (Murphy, 1997). The achievement of genderequality is directly correlated with the alleviationof global poverty. Social considerations, however,are not easily incorporated into policies, laws,

markets, and organizations. It is particularly dif-ficult to incorporate them into technical projects.The process of incorporating gender consider-ations into development institutions, projects, andprograms is often referred to as the “main-streaming” of gender. Studies confirm that with-out direct intervention, gender mainstreamingwill not occur (Kimani, 2000; IFPRI, 2000).

Why a concern for gender equality in ICTprojects?

Along with globalization, ICT provides tools thattransform the way production is organized andinformation shared around the world. They of-fer flexibility of time and space, a way out of iso-lation, and access to knowledge and productiveresources. They are enabling tools for economicdevelopment and social change. Arguably, be-cause of these attributes, they are most valuableto those who, as a result of gender inequality,suffer most from limited time availability, socialisolation, and lack of access to knowledge andproductive resources: women in developing coun-tries. Unfortunately, many women have numer-ous constraints that do not allow them to takeadvantage of the opportunities of the new tech-nologies. If the dissemination of information tech-nology proceeds without taking note of women’sparticular needs in accessing and utilizing it, theywill continue to be removed from its benefits.

What is engendering ICT?

The standard meaning of “engender” is “give riseto”. In recent years, gender advocates have adopt-ed the word and given it an additional meaning— that of “integrating gender into developmentwork”. Although not explicitly defined, this newconnotation of the word was used for the first timein the World Bank report Engendering Development(2001). The report reiterated the Bank’s commit-ment to a world free from poverty. The close as-sociation of poverty with gender meant that thealleviation of poverty entailed the elimination ofgender inequalities. The present study sees ICTas a tool that can help alleviate poverty as wellas gender inequality. In order to do so, existing

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ENGENDERING ICT

gender disparities that are part of the digital di-vide need to be identified and removed, and thepotential of the media for empowerment of bothmen and women exploited in full. This study,therefore, understands “engendering ICT” as theprocess of identifying and removing gender dis-parities in the access to and use of ICT, as well asthat of adapting ICT to the special needs, con-straints, and opportunities of women. Any suchadaptation should take advantage of women’sspecial knowledge and their strong informal net-works and support systems that may make itpossible to combine electronic communicationwith traditional communication systems.

Why concentrate on women if we are talk-ing about gender?

When the underlying concern is gender, we fre-quently find ourselves talking about the situa-tion of women because the existing genderinequalities in access to vital rights and resourc-es generally affect women and girls negativelymore than men and boys. These inequalities in-clude disparities in basic human rights, in polit-ical participation, and in access to resources suchas schooling, credit, and jobs. As globally wom-en generally face more situations of gender-basedinequality, the concern for correcting those ine-qualities shifts the focus on women. In the caseof ICT, areas in which girls and women suffersuch inequalities directly affect their access to anduse of ICT.

A caveat needs to be inserted whenever the term“women” is used. All women in the developingworld do not belong to a single homogeneousgroup. There are highly variable political, socio-economic, and cultural differences that affect thelives of both men and women across differentregions of the world, in addition to factors suchas age and health. We do not want to lose sightof this complex reality. Not all women are disad-vantaged (for example middle-class women willusually have much greater access to ICT thanmost poor men). There are also major differencesbased on age and ethnicity, and substantial re-

gional variations in the relations between gen-der and ICT. While in North America, for in-stance, girls shy away from computer science, itis often regarded as a women’s field in somecountries of south and west Asia.

At the same time, however, it should be notedthat gender inequality is more pervasive acrosssocieties than other forms of inequality. It is a fea-ture of social relations in most societies, althoughit takes different forms in different societies. Gen-der inequality also cuts across other forms of in-equality so that it is a feature of the rich as wellas the poor, the racially dominant as well as theracially subordinate. All the same, it is usually,but not always, more marked among the poor.

It is necessary to emphasize that gender analysisis not achieved by a narrow focus on women.Strategies should be discussed for maximizingthe welfare of the household rather than just fo-cusing on women as an isolated group.

Why do women need ICT?

Women need ICT for the same reasons as mendo. They need ICT to get more information tocarry out their productive, reproductive, andcommunity roles; they need ICT as tools to con-duct their businesses and to work in the ICT in-dustry. They need ICT to find resources forthemselves, their families, their work, and theircommunities. They need ICT to have a voice intheir lives, their community, their government,and the larger world that shares their issues andproblems. They need ICT to compete in a digitalworld. But existing gender inequalities hinderboth their access to and their use of ICT. Addi-tionally, they bring knowledge and perspectivethat can enrich the world of information technol-ogy. These advantages must be captured and in-cluded.

There are gender issues in virtually every area ofdevelopment activity. Development does not takeplace in a vacuum, but rather in a social contextin which gender is a fact of life. As long as devel-

15

Introduction

opment efforts consider the “human factor”, gen-der is a necessary part of the equation. Everydomain has its particular gender issues. Here aresome that are central to an understanding of theapplication of IT to society.

Statistics and indicators

The lack of reliable statistics is a major constrainton our knowledge of gender issues in ICT. Themain collector and disseminator of statistics onICT is the International TelecommunicationUnion (ITU). The ITU, however, does not disag-gregate any of its ICT indicators by sex. As a re-sult there are few, if any, reliable statistics onwomen’s use of ICT in developing countries. Inthe absence of reliable statistics, those looking fordata have to fall back on sources of dubious reli-ability. Many of the country studies that showlarge numbers of women Internet users are mar-keting studies, conducted by or for firms thatwant to market products to women consumers.It would not be remarkable to find that they iden-tify and project large numbers of women usersfor their clients. In other cases, the studies are lim-ited country surveys, generally based on the sub-scriber lists of a few, small Internet serviceproviders (ISP) or e-mail services. In many coun-tries, where public access is the dominant mode,subscriber lists may identify only a third or lessof users. Few studies provide statistics on theusers of public access facilities by sex. In almostall that do, the number of women users is muchsmaller than that of men.

Gender issues in accessing ICT

The most basic gender issue in ICT is access,which is inextricably linked to the availability ofthe necessary infrastructure. In virtually all de-veloping countries, communications infrastruc-ture is weaker and less available in rural and poorurban areas, where the majority of women tendto live. Internet connectivity is frequently avail-able only within capital and major secondarycities in many developing countries, especiallyin Africa, while the majority of poor women liveoutside these cities. The urban bias in the provi-

sion of information technologies and the fact thatmost poor women in developing countries livein rural areas make infrastructure a gender issue.Simply by being the majority of the populationin rural areas, women have a smaller chance thanmen to access the new technologies. It is likelythat phone lines are fewer, that there are no relaystations for mobile phones, and no earth stationsfor satellites. As the United Nations DevelopmentFund for Women (UNIFEM) and the Institute forNew Technologies of the United Nations Univer-sity (UNU/INTECH) have noted, “Women, withtheir special responsibilities for children and theelderly, find it less easy than men to migrate totowns and cities. The urban bias in connectivitythus deprives women, more than men, of the uni-versal right to communicate.” (UNIFEM andUNU/INTECH, 2000).

Social and cultural issues

Women often do not have equal access to thoseICT facilities that do exist. Frequently, informa-tion centers or cybercafes are located in placesthat women may not feel comfortable about vis-iting, or that are culturally inappropriate for themto visit. Since most communication facilities indeveloping countries are in offices or shared pub-lic access, women also have problems of time.Given gender-defined multiple roles and heavydomestic responsibilities, their leisure hours arefew, and the public centers may not be open whenwomen can visit them. Or they may be open eve-nings, when it is problematic for women to visitthem and then return safely to their homes in thedark. Their mobility (both in the sense of accessto transport and ability to leave the home) is alsomore limited than that of men. Some accommo-dations that may be needed to ensure genderequality in access and use of ICT for women areschedules to suit women’s hours and availabili-ty of women support staff and trainers.

Another cultural aspect of gender and ICT isgender bias in attitudes toward women studyingor using ICT. Throughout the world, attractingyoung women to science and technology studies

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ENGENDERING ICT

can be a problem as we will see in the section oneducation. The problem is worse in Africa thanin any other region, with the lowest percentageof women studying science and technology at alllevels. Many (predominantly male) math andscience teachers in Africa hold outmoded viewsthat girls do not possess the scientific temper andthat science is too mechanical and technical forthem, thus discouraging female students (Hafkinand Taggart, 2001). In many countries tradition-al cultural attitudes discriminate against womenhaving access to education in technology. Girlsare encouraged to take any job or get marriedrather than seek higher education. The presump-tion that ICT is not for women is not limited toformal education. In a project for rural farmersin Peru, when women undertook ICT trainingwith men, the men mocked them, saying thatcomputers were for men, not women.

Sometimes gender-based cultural attitudes, andnot the immediate gender identification of tech-nology use, prevent young girls and women fromaccessing and using ICT. In Uganda, girls did notget equal access to the limited number of com-puters installed in school (under a World Linksprogram) because of the sociocultural norm that“girls do not run”. Boys ran and got to the com-puters first and refused to give them up to thegirls. Additionally, the earlier curfew hours forgirls at boarding schools further constrained theiraccess. In India, in the well-known “hole in thewall” experiment, the aggressiveness of boys whopushed the girls away prevented the girls fromusing the computers.

Technophobia and disinterest intechnology

A generalization that is often true is that womenare disinterested in new technologies, until bysome fortunate accident they actually experi-ence how useful ICT can be for them. Low femaleparticipation in ICT is not always a result ofwomen’s inability to participate, but of their lackof interest — the project may not be within a nat-ural sphere of interest for women. In addition,

women themselves sometimes subscribe to thesame social attitudes that restrict them. They maysee technology as something “male” in use andutility, and suffer from lack of self-confidence andtechnophobia. At the same time, in regions wherepeople have no preconceptions about informa-tion technology, both women and men can becompletely unafraid and equally inclined to ex-periment with it.

Education and skills

With two-thirds of the world’s 876 million illiter-ates being women, it is fair to say that women indeveloping countries are less likely than men tohave the requisite education and knowledge touse ICT. Technologies that do not require litera-cy are being developed, such as the Internation-al Development Research Centre (IDRC) soundand graphics CD-ROM on rural women in Ugan-da, but to date these are available in only widelyscattered pilot projects. Compared to men, fewerwomen know the international languages thatdominate the Web. Given their limited access toschooling, women, especially those in rural ar-eas, are hardly likely to acquire computer skills.Information literacy essentially involves usinginformation contextually, a skill that women, of-ten isolated and neglected, do not have the op-portunity to learn.

Financial resources

Almost all communication facilities cost money.Women are less likely than men to own radiosand televisions, or to access them when they wantto, even when the household possesses the tech-nology. When it involves paying for informationaccess, such as at a rural information center or acybercafe, women may not have the disposable in-come to do so (or may hesitate to use family food,education, and clothing resources for information).

Limitations of content

The Internet has hardly any content that meetsthe information needs of women in developingcountries in a form they can use. The amount ofcontent in local languages, which women tend to

17

Introduction

use exclusively more than men, is minuscule. Ifinformation technology is to be useful to womenin developing countries, it must meet the test ofrelevance. Without it ICT will remain of little in-terest and value to many women in developingcountries, particularly those living in rural areas.

Use of ICT

There are gender differences in the way ICT isused in developing countries. To date, most wom-en’s use of ICT has been confined to e-mail andsometimes to e-mail discussion lists, generally inconnection with advocacy and networking activ-ities. The main reasons for this are the cost of ac-cess and limitations of time, bandwidth, andtechnical skills. Relatively few women have usedit for business, for entertainment (the predomi-nant use in the developed world), or for educa-tion, including education in matters related tolivelihood and well being of themselves andtheir families (for example, health and nutritioneducation). Promoting women’s use of new tech-nologies for business (including improved agri-culture and agricultural products) and foreducation is an important undertaking.

Industry and labor

As we will see in the chapter on work in the ICTsector, the patterns of work in the IT industry arehighly gendered. Women are found in dispropor-tionately high numbers in the lowest paid and leastsecure jobs. Few are found at higher levels, particu-larly in hardware and software engineering or man-agement levels. Many women have been displaceddue to increasing automation and computerizationof workplaces. Men continue to crowd out womenin training required for high-skill work.

Power and decisionmaking

Women are underrepresented in virtually all ICTdecisionmaking structures, including policy andregulatory institutions, ministries responsible forICT, and boards and senior management of ICTcompanies. ICT decisionmaking is generallytreated as a purely technical area, where civil so-ciety viewpoints are given little or no space.

Privacy and security

One of the negative aspects of ICT is the use ofthe Internet for sexual exploitation and harass-ment. The pernicious elements include traffick-ing of women through the Internet, pornography,sexual harassment, and use of the Internet to per-petuate violence against women. Regrettably, in-creasingly graphic pornography is easily availableto all who seek it and even to those who do not. Anumber of cases have appeared recently wheremen use web sites to harass women and violatetheir privacy. Legislation is needed that preventsICT from threatening human rights.

Engendering ICT

This study draws a number of lessons, observa-tions, and conclusions from its survey of genderissues in ICT in the areas of employment, educa-tion, social services, political participation, poli-cies, and in the design and implementation ofBank projects. Some of these are:

GENDER ISSUES CAN BE ICT-SPECIFIC

Gender issues in ICT projects are both generic (thenormal gender issues encountered in other kindsof projects) and specific to ICT. They are genericin the sense that most often unequal gender re-sults emerge because the needs and interests ofboth men and women are not taken into accountat the design stage. This is a standard caveat ofgender training that has not yet penetrated mostICT projects or project components. For example,ICT training projects may not have women train-ees because no specific effort was made to recruitwomen or take into account that they might needspecial accommodations in the hours of trainingto make it safe for them to attend, or make itflexible enough to carry out their domestic re-sponsibilities. These are issues that can be foundin virtually any project. The ICT-specific issuesemerge in the analysis of the gender impact ofprojects. For example, when choosing a particu-lar kind of telephone technology for rural areas,were the demographics of the region considered?Does the region contain many female-headedhouseholds that would be unable to afford it?

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ENGENDERING ICT

INCLUDING A GENDER FOCUS BRINGS EXTRA BENEFITS

ICT projects and project components can reapmany benefits by including a gender focus. Theseinclude:• A greater likelihood that the project will

achieve its objectives through the inclusionof a larger percentage of the target clientele

• A clearer perspective on the issues under con-sideration through the inclusion of a wider,more diverse group of stakeholders

• A crucial step toward the achievement of gen-der equality.

INTERVENTIONS MUST BE CHOSEN WITH CARE

Awareness of the sociocultural context is of over-riding importance in ensuring the participationby, and the distribution of benefits to, both menand women. In some cases, this happens best byensuring that men and women work together. Inother cases, it may mean separation of the sexesin training and meetings.

TECHNICAL PROJECTS NEED TO BE PROACTIVE

Technical projects must ensure the participationof women as well as men. Where the pool of eli-gible women in technical areas is small, correc-tive measures may be needed to include them.For instance, in technical training, women mayhave lower skill levels than men and some reme-diation may be necessary.

GENDER AWARENESS WORKS BETTER

Gender-neutral interventions, in general, do notwork. Gender-aware interventions have a muchbetter chance of producing gender-equal out-comes. ICT projects wanting to involve womenas well as men should see that:• Women are involved in the design and im-

plementation of projects• Projects target men and women equally

(establishing separate access and trainingstrategies if necessary)

• Content should be locally appropriate and ofvalue to women as well as men

• Account is taken of the social division of la-bor, by which most domestic responsibilitiesfall upon women.

VIRTUALLY EVERY PROJECT HAS GENDER ISSUES

The most common misconception about technol-ogy is that it is gender-neutral. Project designersoften assume that everyone will benefit equallywhen ICT is used to accelerate development. Thegender-neutral intervention says, “this is abouttechnology; it will naturally impact men andwomen equally.” The assumption, that ICT willbenefit an entire population regardless of gender,disregards the impact of gender relations on tech-nology and the social constraints faced by womenin accessing and using such technology.

GENDER ANALYSIS REMOVES BLIND SPOTS

Technology does not operate in a vacuum. ICTprojects, like any other, need to be grounded inlocal reality. In itself, IT cannot combat constrain-ing sociocultural forces (such as gender discrim-ination, negative male attitudes, and stereotypesabout women), but needs to be complementedby gender analysis and corrective measures. Tech-nology alone cannot correct gender bias in em-ployment. Lack of gender awareness on the partof project designers means that the economic rolesthat women play and the ways in which they canbenefit from the new technology are often over-looked. The absence of gender analysis can lead toblind spots about the different ways that a pro-posed reform may impact men and women. With-out gender analysis, a project manager may notrealize that women are underrepresented in theproject activities, and therefore may not take pro-active measures to recruit them.

Awareness of the social context of technology isthe first step towards gender awareness and gen-der sensitivity in projects with ICT components.Does the technology impact all sectors of societyequally? Do both men and women have equalchances to access it? Is the technology designedso that men and women can use it with equalease? Are there aspects of the social milieu thatmake the technology more suitable for and moreaccessible to men rather than women? These arejust a few of the questions that can make a differ-ence in a project’s effectiveness.

19

Introduction

GENDER NEEDS TO BE INTEGRATED IN PROJECT DESIGN

It should not be added in hindsight or as a mid-term correction. How a project may impact localgender perceptions and to what extent it canbring benefit equally to both men and womenshould be concerns that are taken into accountduring the design stage. The number of womeninvolved in project design and implementation,or as participants, is no guarantee of genderawareness. There are many cases where womenfeature prominently in design and implementa-tion teams, but are themselves not aware of thegender issues associated with the projects goals.A fully participatory process will most likely needto include gender experts or input from local or-ganizations that work with women and on gen-der issues.

SUCCESSFUL ICT PROJECTS DO NOT NEED HIGH-END TECH-NOLOGY TO ADDRESS GENDER ISSUES

Judicious application of available and affordableICT, including intermediate technology, can havea greater impact than a preoccupation with thelatest technology for its own sake. The relevance,usefulness, and practicality of the application arethe most important considerations. In order tobe successful, the ICT interventions need to beprimarily needs driven and not simply technol-ogy driven. This approach affirms the importanceof using radio, television, and telephones to ac-celerate gender-focused development. The RES-CUER project in Uganda uses radio and walkie-talkies to reduce maternal mortality. The Com-monwealth of Learning has a project for womenin Ghana that employs radio to develop function-al literacy as well as provide information in locallanguages on a wide range of topics, includingAIDS, teenage pregnancy, nutrition, communityempowerment, income generating activities, foodpreservation, animal husbandry, child labor, andenergy saving. Development Through Radio hasbecome an interactive means of putting womenin contact with government officials in southernand western Africa. The GrameenPhone in Bang-ladesh is the classic model of an ICT-enabledproject that has brought employment, income,

self-esteem, and increased status to largely un-educated women.

ENSURING WOMEN’S OPPORTUNITY TO BENEFIT EQUALLY

FROM THE NEW TECHNOLOGIES

Unless special interventions are undertaken, it isunlikely that the majority of women will haveaccess to new technologies. In addition, outreachefforts are essential to ensure that women areaware of the project services and opportunities.These must consider appropriate channels incommunicating with women (which, for exam-ple, may not be an advertisement based on theInternet or on e-mails, but rather a poster inschools or women’s support organizations), andmust try to provide women with the necessaryconditions to participate in project activities (suchas daycare assistance or schedules that considerwomen’s multiple work responsibilities). Aboveall, the content needs to reflect women’s needsand interests.

Gender equality concerns should be part of ev-ery ICT effort. The process needs to begin withits rationale and project design, continue throughparticipatory consultations with stakeholders,project implementation, and monitoring, to theevaluation of outcomes with statistics that dif-ferentiate impact by sex.

To this end, the study will first look at gender-based differences in ICT between men andwomen in the world of work — in the labormarket and in self-employment. Next, it will ex-amine the relationship between gender, ICT, andeducation, followed by political empowerment,social service delivery, and the identification ofgender concerns in national ICT policies. Lastly,it will present an in-depth perception of how gen-der is incorporated in World Bank ICT projectsand ICT components.

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ENGENDERING ICT

REFERENCES

Goetz, A. M. 1997. Getting Institutions Right forWomen in Development. London: Zed Press.

Hafkin, Nancy and Nancy Taggart. 2001. Gender,Information Technology and Developing Countries:An Analytic Study. Washington, D.C.: Academyfor Educational Development for USAID. http://www.usaid.gov/wid/pubs/it01.html

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).2000. Women: The Key to Food Security. Washing-ton, D.C. http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/ib/ib3.pdf

Kabeer, Naila. 2003. Gender mainstreaming in povertyeradication and the Millennium Development Goals.London: The Commonwealth Secretariat, theInternational Development Research Centre,and the Canadian International DevelopmentAgency.

Kimani, L. 2000. “Institutionalizing Gender in theKenyan Agricultural Research Institute” (mim-eo). The Hague: International Service forNational Agricultural Research. http://

www.isnar.cgiar.org/gender/index.htmMurphy, Josette. 1997. Mainstreaming Gender in

World Bank Lending. Washington, D.C.: TheWorld Bank. Operations Evaluation Depart-ment.

UNIFEM and United Nations University Institutefor New Technologies (UNU/TECH). 2000.“Gender and Telecommunications: An Agendafor Policy.” http://www.unifem.undp.org/pap_itu.htm

The World Bank. 2001. Engendering development:through gender equality in rights, resources, andvoice. Washington, D.C.

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The World Bank. 2002b. Information and Communica-tion Technologies: A World Bank Group Strategy.Washington, D.C.

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Women in the ICT Labor Market

2Women in the

ICT Labor Market

Women in developing countries already bear adouble burden: they are at the wrong end of boththe economic and the gender divide. To this hasbeen added a third divide — the digital divide— and once again women in developing coun-tries are at a special disadvantage. Historicallywomen’s presence has been marginal at best inany profession. It is feared that if they do not havea significant presence in the ICT sector, they willbe left behind once again. The purpose of thischapter is to examine the extent and level ofwomen’s participation in the ICT labor marketin the developing world.

The ICT labor market is not a homogeneous en-tity. It covers a wide area and a large number ofactivities, occupations, and professions. It is alsonew and relatively undocumented, especially inthe developing world. This study, therefore,draws upon data from different subsectors.

Here are some important questions to considerin this context:• How many women in developing countries

work with ICT?• Are they mostly in operating or entry-level

jobs?• How many of them occupy management po-

sitions?• How many participate in decisionmaking that

will influence future policies?• What factors facilitate the presence of women

in the ICT labor market?• What kind of career path can they follow in

this area of work?• Do organizations provide special facilities for

women?• Does the ICT labor market make special de-

mands on women employees?

Current status of women inthe ICT labor market

For the purposes of this study the ICT labor marketstretches beyond the IT industry to include IT-en-abled services. Software and electronic goods manu-facturing industries are part of the ICT sector, asare a range of outsourced or remote processing ser-vices, such as medical transcription, legal database

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ENGENDERING ICT

processing, digital component development, re-mote data maintenance, back office operations inaccounts and financial services, data processing,call centers, insurance claims processing, revenueaccounting, geographic information services,human resource services, and web site services.The extent of preparedness of women for each ofthese services is different, and dependent on thelength of time the particular service has been avail-able. For example, software development has beenoutsourced to developing countries for twenty-fiveyears, whereas outsourcing of call center activi-ties is of recent origin. The nature and size of theseactivities are different in each developing coun-try.

Like any labor market, the ICT labor market toois governed by professional and business net-works, market forces of demand and supply, sys-tems of work organization, pay determinationstructures, and the overall labor legislation of acountry. There are industry associations whichmonitor major developments in the market andproject future trends. At the same time from agender perspective, issues such as female partici-pation rate, male-female pay differentials, femalecrowding at lower skill levels, and gender-basedemployment segregation continue to be some ofthe major concerns.

Since the consolidation and growth of the ICTlabor market are directly linked to the forces ofglobalization across the world, compared tomany other markets, labor mobility is relativelyhigh here. As the ICT sector deals with new andemerging technologies, the workforce is edu-cated, well-informed, and often very young,which adds to mobility and turnover. Unlikemany other well-established markets, however,being relatively new, the ICT labor market hasvery little available data, particularly sex-disag-gregated data, from developing countries. It ishoped that as the industry matures, more re-search, analysis, and documentation will accumu-late and form a body of significant information.But for the present, sex-disaggregated data are

almost nonexistent in developing countries, andeven when pooled from diverse sources, the dif-ference in years, measures, and methodolgiesacross countries makes any generalization almostimpossible.

ICT, nature of work, and workplace

As they have to deal with new and emerging tech-nologies, organizations in the ICT sector offer toemployees workplaces which have modern in-frastructure including equipment and peripher-als, continuous power supply, and a clean workenvironment. The population of young workersand managers often have a liberal outlook. Thesefactors make organizations in the ICT sector de-sirable workplaces for everyone, especiallywomen. In some industries within the sector, forexample call centers, there seems to be a prefer-ence for employing women. The strereotypicalimage of women offers a natural advantage.Women are perceived to be naturally adaptive,quick to acquire a foreign accent, and able to dealwith problems patiently. These reasons are con-jectures at this stage, and they need to be investi-gated through empirical research.

Work in the ICT sector poses challenges towomen. Many organizations, particularly infields such as software programming, medicaltranscription, and call centers work with clientsin distant countries. Because of time differencesbetween the countries, at times employees haveto work late hours, which can pose problems ofsafety for women. Working for a client often in-volves travel to the work site, or travel abroad.Because of strict deadlines, software projects of-ten require unconventionally long hours of work.These can adversely affect the work-family bal-ance that women must maintain, especially be-cause women usually carry a much heavier loadof domestic responsibilities than their male col-leagues.

Data on women’s participation in the ITlabor market

There were no comparable data available for

23

Women in the ICT Labor Market

developing countries. It was difficult to find in-formation on total employment in the ICT sectoras compared with the overall labor market. Dataon components within the ICT sector were rarerstill. Gender-disaggregated data were simplynonexistent in most cases. Often ICT was groupedwith broader categories such as in the servicessector, and in science and technology.

As a result, primary data were collected fromsome Indian companies and organizations todetermine women’s employment in whicheverICT subsector the company was involved in. Evenso, there were some successes: for example, thequestionnaire did help in collecting the latest sex-disaggregated data for the medical transcriptionindustry in India.

Case studies and country profiles

In order to supplement findings from the la-bor market data and empirical studies, and toincrease the understanding of organizationalrealities experienced by women in areas of re-cruitment, training, promotion, project assign-ment practices, and so on, it was thought usefulto draw lessons from case studies. Case studiesprovide rich insights for action as they captureand present realities at the workplace. Appendix1 contains selected case studies that providepointers for new policy initiatives to promotewomen’s employment in the ICT sector. Care wastaken to include cases which represented differ-ent regions from the developing world. Appen-dix 2 provides country studies developed fromsecondary sources, which include employmentopportunities for women in the ICT sector in re-lation to the overall economy.

Women’s presence in the IT labor market is de-pendent on factors such as adult female literacy,women’s enrollment in natural sciences courseswhich lead to careers in the ICT sector, Internetuse by women, government policies on ICT andgender, and other cultural factors like social biasagainst working women. These issues are cov-ered in other chapters of this publication.

Crowding of women at the lowest levels

Table 1 provides data on women’s share of em-ployment in the ICT sector for eighteen develop-ing and emerging market countries. Table 2presents data on factors contributing to prepared-ness of women for employment in the ICT sectorfor some of the same countries. The data werederived from a variety of sources, many of whichare specific to the country or region. A compari-son across countries is therefore difficult to make.

The tables show that the ICT sector is indeedimportant for women. In Israel, as indicated inTable 1, employment of women in the ICT sectoris 51 percent, while women’s share in total em-ployment is 44 percent. In India women form 30percent of those employed in the ICT sector, whiletheir share in the industry and service sectors isonly 15 percent. The data also indicate that em-ployment potential in the ICT sector is not uni-form across countries. In some countries the ICTshare in employment is as low as 0.2 percent (Ro-mania), while in some others it is as high as 10.7percent (Korea). Clearly, policies intended to in-crease employment of women in the ICT sectorwill bear fruit in countries where the ICT sectoris a significant employer.

Table 1 also presents the potential scope forwomen in the ICT sector in some of the coun-tries. For example, Malaysia may be able to in-crease women’s employment by 0.25 percent if,through proactive policies, women’s employ-ment in in this sector is pushed up to 50 percent.In a country like Ireland where the ICT share intotal employment is as high as 7 percent, proac-tive women’s employment policies in ICT canraise the overall share of women’s employmentby 1 percent.

To see whether there exists any relationship be-tween women as percent of Internet users (col-umn 1) and the GDI rank (last column), acorrelation was computed. For the fourteen coun-tries where data were available for both the

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ENGENDERING ICT

Table 1. Employment in the ICT sector

Country Year ICT share ICT employ- Average Female Female Remarksin total ment annual share in share ofemploy- growth ICT em- paid em-ment ployment ployment

in indus-tryand serv-ices

Barbados 1997 2 % 3,000 47 %Brazil 1999 38,400 –4.82 % 27.7 % * 44 % * Among fifty largest

manufacturers ofIT goods inBrazil

China 1999 0.8 % 1,604,000 4.3 % 39 %

Costa Rica 2001 1 % 13,500 38 %

Czech Rep. 1997 3.1 % 152,000 46 %

El Salvador 32 %

Hungary 1998 63.3 % * 51 % *Technical workers

India 2001 1.85% 522,250 21.42 % 30 % * 15 % * Estimated figurefrom ILO website, 2001

Ireland 1999 7.1 % 97,000 18 % 34.5 % 45 %

Israel 1999 3.2 % 65,000 3.5 % 51 % * 47 % * 1997 figures from 194firms (ILO WorldEmployment Report,2001), of a total of over14,300 employees inIsraeli electroniccomponent sector.

Jordan 2000 27.4 % 23 %

Korea 1998 10.7 % 39 %

Malaysia 2001 1.35 % 128,861 * 1.93 % 30 % ** 36 %* *Estimated figure**Share among ITprofessionals

Philippines 2001 65.1 % * 40 % * Professional andtechnical workers

Romania 1996 0.2 % 56 % * 43 % * Professional andtechnical workers

Russia 1998 70.5 % * * Technical workers

South Africa 1999 1 % 54,000 27.18 %

Turkey 1997 0.5 % 100,000 10 %

Sources: http://www.statistics.gov.my/English/framesetKeystats.htm; Malaysia’s country paper on HRD in response to Advancement ofICT; ILO World Employment Report 2001; www.utoronto.ca/onris/newsletterlink26.htm; Dirk Pilat and Frank C. Lee, Productivity Growth

in ICT-Producing and ICT-Using Industries: A Source of Growth Differentials in the OECD? Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (June, 2001); DSTI/DOC (2001); NASSCOM Strategic Review 2002, “The information technology revolution: Widening orbridging gender gaps?” http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/inf/pkits/wer2001/wer01ch4.htm; Department of Labor StatisticsJordan, 2000 Labor Survey; SAITIS Jobs and Skills Scan, 1999, Saitis 2000, http://www.saitis.co.za/studies/jobs_skills/index.html,www.aed.org, UN/ECE database based on national sources; Yearbook of Labor Statistics 1999, ILO; Miller & Mitter, Background Paper forthe World Employment Report 2001; Gender profile — South Africa, http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/cida_ind.nsf/8949395286e4d3a58525641300568be1/0eae7ab371afd86885256b57007112d4?OpenDocument.

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Women in the ICT Labor Market

Country Women as Total Total Internet Popula- Female Female Female GDI% of Inter- women Internet users as tion in prof.& literacy GDP per Ranknet users, Internet users in % of total ’000s tech rate capita 1/1742000 users in ’000s popula- workers (US$)

’000s tion % oftotal

Brazil 43.0 1,075 2,500 2.1 169,807 63.3 83.9 3813 67

China 30.4 6,840 22,500 0.7 1,265,530 45.1 74.5 2485 79

Colombia (3) N/A N/A 350.0 0.0 38,581 45.6 90.8 4725 51

Czech Rep. 12.0 48.0 400.0 6.8 10,286 54.1 99.0 7952 34

Estonia 38.0 57.0 150.0 14.1 1,421 66.8 99.0 4236 49

Ethiopia 13.9 0.83 6.0 0.1 58,390 N/A 29.2 349 172

India 23.0 115.0 500.0 0.2 983,377 20.5 39.4 902 112

Indonesia N/A N/A 300.0 0.2 212,942 40.8 79.5 2359 88

Jordan 6.0 3.7 60.8 1.8 4,435 N/A 81.8 1429 N/A

Lebanon * 6 N/A 200 N/A N/A N/A 80.4 N/A N/A

Mexico 42.0 567.0 1,350 2.5 98,553 45.2 87.9 4594 48

Pakistan N/A N/A 61.9 0.1 135,135 21.0 25.4 701 116

Peru N/A N/A 200.0 1.5 26,111 39.4 83.7 2335 71

Philippines 51.0 76.5 150.0 0.6 77,726 65.1 94.3 2510 65

Poland 18.7 295.6 1,581 5.4 38,607 61.2 99.0 5061 40

Romania * N/A N/A 600 N/A N/A 56 96 N/A N/A

Russian Fed. 38.0 4,560 12,000 1.8 146,861 N/A 98.8 3503 61

South Africa 51.0 645.6 1,266 4.2 42,835 46.7 83.2 4637 84

Senegal 12.0 0.9 7.5 0.3 9,723 N/A 24.8 1253 127

Thailand N/A N/A 200.0 1.3 60,037 54.5 92.8 5000 58

Turkey N/A N/A 450.0 2.3 64,567 33 73.9 4681 73

UAE * 6 N/A 735 N/A N/A N/A 76.8 N/A N/A

Uganda 31.5 4.73 15.0 0.1 22,167 N/A 35.0 944 131

Vietnam N/A N/A 10.0 0.1 76,236 27.6 89.0 1385 91

Zambia 37.5 1.13 3.0 0.2 9,461 31.9 67.5 753 125

Sources: Hafkin and Taggart (2001), 2000 World Employment Report, UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1999.The Human Development Index (HDI) was developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to evaluate the achievementsof a country by three basic measures of human development — longevity (measured by life expectancy), knowledge (measured by adultliteracy and primary, secondary, and tertiary enrolment), and income (measured by per capita GDP in PPP$). An HDI closer to 1indicates a reasonably good level of human development in any country. The Gender-Related Development Index or GDI is essentiallythe same as the HDI but adjusted for gender disparities in achievements. The greater the gender disparity in human development, thelower a country’s GDI compared with its HDI. Countries with highest GDI ranking are those with least gender disparities and an HDIcloser to 1.2

Table 2. Women’s Internet use and other enabling factors

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ENGENDERING ICT

variables, the correlation was 0.29, which was sta-tistically not significant. At the same time, incountries like India, although the software sec-tor is a large employer of professionals, only 20percent of those employed are women. There ispotential to enhance women’s employment inthis sector. This can be exploited by addressingthe current bottlenecks such as low registrationof women in engineering and technical courses.

Countries with a high female literacy rate suchas Estonia, the Philippines, Brazil, and Polandhave a high percentage of women among profes-sional and technical workers. Countries wherewomen’s literacy levels are low like Senegal,Ethiopia, and Uganda seem to have a negligibleshare of women among professional and techni-cal workers. These examples suggest that educa-tion can increase the share of women in ICTemployment.

Jordan displays a distinct situation: there aremore women employed in the public sector thanin the private sector for most categories of em-ployees. In fact, it is significant that the publicsector seems to provide greater employment towomen for higher skilled jobs, while the privatesector tends to hire women in jobs involving thelowest level of skills. Again, in the case of Jor-dan, the lower proportion of women in the ICTsector seems to be a result of lower enrollment ofwomen in technical and natural sciences.

The United Arab Emirates, on the other hand, isa striking example of high preparedness ofwomen to take on ICT jobs, but it also illustratesthe negative influence of cultural factors whichinhibit the employment of women in ICT orother sectors. Sixty percent of students enrolledin engineering courses are women, but the pro-portion of women employed in the ICT sectoris insignificant. In the Philippines and South Af-rica, the proactive policies and social environ-ment have played a vital role in encouragingwomen’s participation in ICT economy. This sug-gests that besides education, proactive policies

and women-friendly social environment too playan important role to encourage women’s partici-pation in the ICT employment.

Identifying strategies by analyzingcomparative data

In countries where there is little ICT activity, gen-der awareness in the sector is not going to pro-duce a significant impact on women’s employment.Therefore, countries where there is enough po-tential to increase the number of women em-ployed in ICT were identified. These are countrieswhere the ICT sector’s current employment issignificant (10 percent or more), and the sector isexpected to grow over the next four to five years.Next, the factors that would enable employmentof women in the ICT sector were documented(referred to as “enabling factors” throughout thischapter). These are the literacy level of women,percentage of women in technical education pro-grams, cultural factors influencing the role ofwomen in broader economic activity, and thepresence of affirmative policies at national andorganizational levels.

Countries were classified in a 2x2 matrix accord-ing to the following four categories.

Quadrant 1 represents a large ICT market and ahigh level of enabling factors. These countries aredoing well in terms of women’s participation inthe labor market. They provide a benchmark forwhat can be achieved. Understanding their poli-cies, strategies, and programs at government andorganizational levels can help define engender-ing strategies for other countries. There are onlya few countries under this classification, such asIsrael, with 50 percent participation of women inthe electronic component sector. For such coun-tries, more detailed information across differentcomponents and the current participation levels ofwomen in these components can help identifysectors where further growth of women’s em-ployment is possible. Affirmative action and poli-cies can then be proposed for such components.

27

Women in the ICT Labor Market

Table 3. Market size and enabling factors

Enablingfactors High Low

Size of the ICT market

Large 1 3

Small 2 4

Quadrant 2 represents a small ICT market and ahigh level of enabling factors, where action onengendering ICT cannot make a significant dif-ference. Should policies be designed to encour-age the growth of this sector, however, it isobvious that more women can get employmentbecause of the existence of the enabling factors.

Quadrant 3 represents a large ICT market and alow level of enabling factors. These are countrieswhere any engendering action can produce sig-nificant increase in women’s employment. Someof the countries that fall in this group are Brazil,India, China, and Malaysia. A more detailedanalysis of the enabling factors needs to be car-ried out in such countries. In most countries, theproportion of women in technical and engineer-ing education is small compared to that ofwomen in the ICT workforce. One of the ways inwhich the presence of women in the ICTworkforce can be increased is to help increaseenrollment of women in technical and engineer-ing courses. There also exist countries, particu-larly in the Middle East, where cultural barriersprevent women from seeking employment.

Quadrant 4 represents a small ICT market and alow level of enabling factors. The largest numberof countries fall into this category, where any af-firmative action without the expansion of the ICTsector cannot produce any significant impact.Once again, information on discrete components

may reveal opportunities to increase women’semployment.

Although ICT employment represents a smallportion of total employment, through special ef-forts it may be possible to significantly increasewomen’s employment even when the enablingconditions are not very favorable. For instance,even though the overall proportion of women inthe Indian ICT sector is low, the Datamation CaseStudy (Appendix 1) shows that women fromlower socioeconomic classes can be successfullyemployed in the ICT sector through encourage-ment and proper training. The case study ofMongolia Telecom (Appendix 1) in Mongolia, atransition economy, demonstrates that trainingand women-friendly company policies can actu-ally increase the number of women at manage-rial positions.

Unfortunately, information on women’s partici-pation in the ICT workforce is often hard to comeby. Web sites and annual reports of the five larg-est IT software companies in India do not usegender classification when reporting their em-ployment data. Any effort to create gender aware-ness must be preceded by an attempt to makesuch data more visible. For example, statutoryagencies providing guidelines for publishingannual reports can require gender segmentationof all employment data that are made public.

Labor market participation

A number of studies (MacFarlene, 1990) haveshown that though women account for a signifi-cant portion of the workforce and occupy increas-ingly senior positions in the economy, in the ITprofession they seem to be concentrated more inthe lower ranks. Truman and Baroudi (1994) ar-rived at the conclusion that IT, like many otherfields, is not immune to the problems of genderdiscrimination. Analyzing the data gathered bythe Society of Information Management, theyfound that women received lower salaries thanmen even when job level, age, education, andwork experience, were comparable. The number

28

ENGENDERING ICT

of men in management in their study was foundto be disproportionately high. Igbaria andBaroudi (1995) reported that though there wereno significant differences in job performance rat-ings of women, they were perceived to havefewer chances for promotion than men. Morecurrent studies in the western world indicate thatwomen account for only about 25 percent of tech-nology workers in the European workforce andabout 20 percent in the United States technologyworkforce. Hafkin and Taggart (2001) indicatethat in the developing world, the Philippines has65 percent women among its technical and pro-fessional workers, Mexico and China 45 percent,Zambia 32 percent, and Pakistan 21 percent. Eventhough these figures seem to demonstrate thatwomen’s labor market participation in develop-ing countries is more promising than in devel-oped countries, with differences in data sources,the comparison cannot be pushed very far.

Wirth (2001) found that even while representingmore than 40 percent of the world’s total workforce,women’s overall share of management jobs rarelyexceeds 20 percent in most countries. Examiningthe position of women in the computing indus-try in the U.S. and the U.K., Shuttleworth (1992)found that a majority of women were employedin routine and specialist work, while men wereengaged in analytical and managerial activities.It was found that 10 percent of men and only 3percent of women in the survey had achievedmanagerial positions. In 1996 women occupied30.8 percent of computer programmer and 28percent of systems analyst positions. The propor-tion of women in highly technical and analyticalpositions (30.6 percent in 1996) has practicallyremained constant for over a decade.

Coming to developing countries, because of adearth of data, the picture is not as clear. Someobservations, however, could be made from thelimited data available. According to Hafkin andTaggart (2001), presumably because of the legacyof Communist emphasis on promoting full em-ployment and providing childcare facilities, in

countries like Bulgaria women’s presence in theengineering profession is as high as 32 percent.This percentage dwindles to a mere 2.5 in SouthAfrica. Within the ICT sector, there seems to be agender-stereotyped division of labor which leadsto a fair representation of women in desktoppublishing and software programming, andunderrepresentation in hardware design, oper-ating systems, and computer maintenance. InSouth Africa, for example, while women consti-tute overall 26 percent of IT employees, only 19percent of data communications and networkingjobs, 14 percent of hardware and computer ar-chitecture jobs, and 18 percent of informationsystems and IT management jobs are held bywomen.

While the sex-disaggregated labor market par-ticipation data in the ICT sector is woefully in-adequate from developing countries, we presentbelow two country profiles which throw furtherlight on the “crowding” of women at lower or-ganizational levels.

Country profiles

(For detailed country studies on India and Jor-dan, see Appendix 2.)

India

Data from the newly emerging medical transcrip-tion industry in India confirmed the crowding ofwomen at lower levels of employment. An analy-sis of data from 88 percent of all medical tran-scription companies in India show medicaltranscription to be one of the few industries inwhich the overall participation of women isgreater than that of men. In September 2002,women constituted 58.3 percent of the total 13,600employees, most of them working as transcrip-tionists or as office assistants. When it came tosupport staff including managers in the industry,women’s presence declined sharply to a mere 24percent.

A recent survey of the Indian software labor mar-ket (Rothboeck, Vijayabaskar, and Gayathri, 2001)

29

Women in the ICT Labor Market

Level Duration

Men Women

Entry-level 1—2 2—3

Middle Level 4—5 5—6

Managerial Level Stable* -

(* More than 7 years in the same firm)

Table 5. Average stay by levels of IT employment(years)

based on seventeen software organizations inBangalore and Delhi provides the information inTable 4.

The same source provides a comparison of the av-erage duration of stay by men and women at dif-ferent organizational levels as presented in Table 5

The study also explored reasons for leaving a jobin the software sector, as seen in Table 6.

A much greater proportion of men leave their jobsfor better opportunities compared to women, andthe proportion of women leaving for personalreasons is significantly greater than that of men.Industry sources suggest that a large number ofwomen professionals leave at the time of mar-riage or for child rearing. The study reported thatwith the exception of two firms, the rest of thesoftware firms offered no childcare provision toenable young mothers to continue to work. Or-ganizational policies did not indicate any attemptto post spouses at the same locations. Also, giventhat women devote more time to looking afterthe family and household than men, it is possible

that as their responsibilities increase, women pro-fessionals opt out of the labor market. This is oneof the reasons why there are fewer women inmiddle and upper level positions. Women’scrowding in the medical transcription industryappears to be a typical phenomenon of large sec-tors of the ICT industry.

Another recent study of women in ICT in India(Arun and Arun, 2002) presents the results of a sur-vey carried out in Kerala, a state which has beenimplementing an ICT-based strategy seeking to cre-ate growth and employment through software pro-duction. The survey included a sample of 110software professionals from 20 software firms, eachof which employed between 10 and 300 medicaltranscription employees. The sample was a fair rep-resentation of organizations, employee experience,and other factors, but not when it came to gender.Although an average 40 percent of the workforcein the firms were women, 56 percent of the selectedsample were women.

The study also indicated that men and womenhad different attitudes toward the appraisal sys-tem in these firms. Three-quarters of the men feltthat the appraisal system based on performancewas fair. Only 37 percent of the women felt thesame way. Most women felt that the appraisalsystem was not objective. On the contrary, theprocedures were secretive and subjective, andtherefore, in an industry where senior managers

Position Male Female

Call services 40.0 60.0

Programmer/Software Engineer 54.7 45.3

Consultant 75.0 25.0

Project manager 94.4 5.6

Total 67.1 32.9

Table 4. IT Position by gender (percent)

Table 6. Reasons for leaving IT employment bysex (percent)

SexMale Female

Unstated 1 2

Lack of internal job mobility 15 18

Inadequate salary 23 18

Lack of challenge 23 18

No chance to go abroad 1 -

Better opportunities 32 20

Personal 5 24

Total 100 100

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ENGENDERING ICT

Private PublicSector (%) Sector (%)

Managers 13 30System Analysts 19 40Programmers 22 50Engineers 5 13

Data Entry 93 74

are predominantly male, “the potential for botha perception and a reality of gender bias creepsin” (Arun and Arun, 2002, 45). Thus while entry-level pay may be the same for men and women,appraisal and promotion systems may still reflectlarger social biases against women in a technicalworkplace. Despite the sample being skewed infavor of women, only two women as comparedto eighteen men were found to be project lead-ers.

Though officially the employees were supposedto work eight-hour days six days a week, theyspent much more time on the job because of tightproject deadlines. Around 82 percent of women,compared to 69 percent of men, felt that their do-mestic responsibilities were affected by the longworking hours. No organizational support wasprovided for pregnant women or young moth-ers. The working conditions and practices werenot family-friendly. Policies and practices suchas flexible office hours, part-time working, work-ing from home, adequate paternity and mater-nity leave, and childcare facilities, which are oftentaken for granted in comparable organizations inthe developed world, were nonexistent in theorganizations surveyed. Since such practiceswould have benefited women much more thanmen, their absence had a distinctly adverse ef-fect on the women employees.

The study shows that it is not enough to look atthe macro labor participation data for women;the “internal market” of the organization has areality of its own, that includes stereotypes, un-fair treatment, and unequal practices experiencedby working women.

Jordan

The situation in Jordan is somewhat similar to thatin India. Women constitute 27.4 percent of the ICTworkforce. A National Information Centre of Jor-dan study in 2001 provided the data on women’sshare in Jordan’s ICT sector presented in Table 7.

The study reflects the same broad pattern of

women’s presence at different organizationallevels reported in western studies as well as inthe study on India cited above. Women seem tobe mainly employed at the lowest position of dataentry operators, particularly so in the private sec-tor. As the organizational level moves upwardfrom programmers to systems analysts to man-agers, women’s presence declines drastically. Themuch more favorable figures for women in thepublic sector suggest that a different set of or-ganizational policies that provide training,childcare, and other enabling interventions canincrease women’s presence in the senior manage-ment positions.

Initiatives at the organizational level

In addition to the country studies, five case stud-ies looked at workplace reality for women andnonprofit gender-oriented IT employment initia-tives (for details see Appendix 1). Summaries ofthe case studies are given below.

India: Datamation

Founded fifteen years ago with the objective ofproviding ICT services, Datamation has estab-lished a reputation for high quality, and its cli-ents include Fortune 500 companies such asMicrosoft, Nestle, KLM, British Airways, GECapital, and HSBC. It employs over 1080 peopleacross 24 locations in India. It has forged allianceswith organizations that provide IT education tothe deprived. It has also collaborated with NariRaksha Samiti (NRS), an NGO for women, andhas provided training, support, and employmentto disadvantaged women.

Table 7: Share of women’s employment in Jordan’sICT sector

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Women in the ICT Labor Market

More than 15 percent of all employees, and 55percent of women working with Datamation arefrom voluntary organizations. About 25 percentof all employees are women. Training disadvan-taged women to deliver high quality industryrequirements in technology is a major challenge.Frequent refresher programs are organized. Train-ees start with low-end jobs, but there are equalopportunities for promotion for everyone.

Datamation is an example of an unusual technol-ogy company, which combines a profit motivewith social objectives. Women workers are givenconstant encouragement and support to helpthem meet their conflicting work-family respon-sibilities. New mothers are offered paid mater-nity leave. There are plans to start a day carecenter. Women who work in software develop-ment are groomed for network administrationand maintenance jobs as well.

Kenya: CyberHost

CyberHost, the Budalangi Village Women’s PostOffice Project in Kenya, is a striking example of arural women-focused ICT project bringing thebenefits of the Internet and e-mail to poor villag-ers, and in the process generating employmentfor women. The objective was to combine the bestfeatures of the Internet and e-mail with those ofthe traditional postal system to offer the villagersa cheap, simple, and swift means of communica-tion. Groups of women were given training in theuse of the Internet and e-mail, and rudimentarycomputer maintenance, and were made respon-sible for sustaining the project by training otherwomen and acting as mentors. CyberHost, runby women and acting as a community post of-fice, receives e-mail for community members,distributes them to the addresseess, obtains theirwritten replies, and sends them back by e-mail.Given the fact that the nearest post office istwenty-eight miles away, and CyberHost is rightin the neighborhood, the new system, and thewomen who make it work, have both becomevery popular among the villagers.

Mongolia Telecom, Mongolia

A public sector enterprise privatized in 1995,Mongolia Telecom (MT) offers various servicesin the telecommunications sector. More than halfof its 4500 employees are women.

To enable professional development of women,MT adopted strategies that included participatorytraining, and incentives for women workers. Sup-portive organizational policies helped women toacquire skills that put them on an equal footingwith their male counterparts and gave them theopportunity to move up the organization ladder.

MT’s enlightened regulations and well-conceivedinterventions have been instrumental in creatinga gender-equal work environment.

Sri Lanka: Centre for Computer and Lan-guage Training

The Foundation for Independence of Womenwith Disabilities (FIWD) in Sri Lanka realized thetremendous employment potential for womenwith disabilities in the ICT sector. It set up a Cen-tre for Computer and Language Training wherewomen with disabilities are taught English, andbasic and advanced computer skills. Taking ad-vantage of a Sri Lankan law which mandates that3 percent of the workforce in any sector needs tobe filled by disabled people, FIWD has been get-ting its computer-trained women members com-fortably placed in the mainstream workforce. Itis hoped that eventually the leadership abilitiesof these women will be recognized the way theirother skills are. This is a striking example of howproactive measures intended to take advantageof affirmative laws and policies can use ICT todraw more women into the workforce.

Vietnam: International TelecommunicationCentre

International Telecommunication Center (ITC) isa subsidiary of Vietnam Telecom International(VTI), which in turn is a subsidiary of VietnamPost and Telecommunications, a national agency.

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ENGENDERING ICT

ITC has three units: ITC 1 at Hanoi, ITC 2 at HoChi Minh City, and ITC 3 at Da Nang. In the Ha-noi unit, women form about 50 percent of the to-tal labor force, and almost 90 percent of theworkforce. The top management of VTI consistsof 23 percent women, and ITC 3 was headed by awoman until recently. More than 95 percent of thestaff are required to use IT. ITC rearranged itsemployment system to meet the new job require-ments. Though ITC provided training, the tradeunion could not negotiate with the managementto retain the old women workers, and many hadto leave. Jobs at ITC require knowledge of a for-eign language, technical and professional skills,along with personality attributes such as patience,dedication to routine tasks, and the ability to com-municate. It was felt that women would be tem-peramentally suited to certain jobs that wereconsidered “feminine”, while men were regard-ed as more suitable for highly skilled jobs, andtherefore, were offered better pay. In some caseswomen received relatively lower salary than menin positions requiring comparable skills.

It is evident that even in an organization with ahistory of employing women, women workers aregenerally given routine jobs and lower salariesthan men. At the same time, professional train-ing provided in ITC 1 allowed 27 percent of thewomen to take on jobs requiring higher technicalefficiency, and four of them were promoted tomanagement positions. VTI aims to promotegreater participation of women in leadership, andis planning have a woman manager in every di-vision where women form at least 30 percent ofthe workforce.

While there are no consistent numbers on theparticipation of women in IT, especially at higher-paid levels, a review of five countries — the U.K.,the U.S., Canada, Ireland, Taiwan, and Spain —brought up the following issues:• Women are severely underrepresented in ICT

occupations and their participation has beendeclining.

• Women in ICT occupations generally have a

lower status and in the U.K. and the U.S. arepaid less than men, the pay differential in-creasing with occupational status.

• In some countries women in ICT jobs are bet-ter educated than men.

• Where there is part-time work, women arebetter represented.

• There are smaller proportions of women inICT jobs in the ICT sector than in ICT jobsoutside the sector. In the U.K., for example,the majority of women reported to be in ICTjobs are in low-skilled, nonprofessional occu-pations with limited career opportunities,such as sales or assembly line jobs. Womenare particularly rare in engineering-relatedICT work.

• Most graduates currently in ICT jobs have notgraduated in an ICT-related subjects.

• Women in ICT jobs are on average youngerthan men (Millar and Jagger, 2001).

Summary

Gender-disaggregated data on women’s partici-pation in the labor market are extremely scarce.When pooled from different sources, it is diffi-cult to compare the data across countries becauseof differences in the definition of the ICT sector,focus and format of the survey, year of data re-porting, and so on. Bearing in mind these limita-tions, the following observations can be made.• Though women have varying rates of labor

market participation in ICT across countries,by and large it seems to be low, hoveringaround 30 percent.

• Country studies of India and Jordan and areview of empirical studies confirm that mostwomen are employed at lower levels of theICT sector. A disproportionately high num-ber of women are found in call centers andworking as programmers. A very smallnumber reach the project manager level.

• Women seem to take more time than men tomove from the entry level to the middle level,and from that to the management level in or-ganizations.

• An empirical study demonstrates that even

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Women in the ICT Labor Market

REFERENCES

Arun, S. and T. Arun. 2002. “ICTs Gender andDevelopment: Women in Software Productionin Kerala,” Journal of International Development,14, 39–50.

Hafkin, Nancy and Nancy Taggart. 2001. Gender,Information Technology and Developing Countries:An Analytic Study Washington, D.C.: Academyfor Educational Development for USAID. http://www.usaid.gov/wid/pubs/it01.htm

Igbaria, M. and J. J. Baroudi. 1995. “The impact ofjob performance evaluations on career advance-ment prospects: an examination of genderdifferences in the IS workplace,” MIS Quarterly,19, 107–123.

MacFarlene, J. R. 1990. A Perspective on Women’sPlace in Work. Management Services, 34, 16-17.

Millar, J. and N. Jagger. 2001. Women in ITEC Coursesand Careers. London: U.K. Department forEducation and Skills, Department for Employ-ment, The Women’s Unit.

Rothboeck, Sandra, M. Vijayabaskar, and S. Gayathri.2001. Labor in the New Economy. New Delhi:International Labor Organization.

Shuttleworth T. 1992. “Women and computertechnology. Have the promises of equal oppor-tunities been fulfilled?” Women in ManagementReview, 7, 24–30.

Truman, G. E. and J. J. Baroudi. 1994. “Genderdifferences in the information systems manage-rial ranks: an assessment of potential discrimi-natory practices,” MIS Quarterly, 18, 129–141.

Wirth, Linda. 2001. Breaking through the glass ceiling:Women in Management. Geneva: InternationalLabor Organization.

when the entry-level pay is the same for menand women, the appraisal and promotion sys-tems replicate a social bias against women.

• In Jordan, there are more women at lower lev-els of work in the private sector than in thepublic sector. The study indicates that withsupportive policies and practices in the formof awareness generation, training, childcarefacilities, and affirmative action, the genderimbalance can be corrected.

• The case studies demonstrate the positive ef-fect of deliberate organizational interventions.As a result of proactive steps, some of theseorganizations could generate awarenessabout objective evaluation and fair treatmentof women, help women acquire competencies,and help them move up in the organizationalhierarchy.

• Employment generation for women in the ICTsector can sometimes involve identifying ex-isting laws and regulations in other domains(such as reservations for the disabled, man-dated by the law) and utilizing them towomen’s advantage.

The globalization of ICT implies that the work-place realities prevalent in the sector in developedcountries, such as long working hours and high-pressure jobs, are present in the developing coun-tries as well. Yet, flexible office hours, part-timejobs, working from home, generous maternitybenefits, and satisfactory childcare facilities arealmost nonexistent in developing countries. Be-cause of a gendered division of labor in the house-hold, the presence of such facilities would benefitwomen much more than men, while their absencecreates an adverse effect on women working inthe sector. Moreover, given the competitive na-ture of the market and the fact that these facili-ties are offered in very few companies indeveloping countries, the companies providingsuch facilities would surely benefit in terms ofattracting more employees. For instance, provid-ing special facilities to female employees can be con-sidered a major reason behind 54 percent of theworkforce at Mongolia Telecom being women.

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ENGENDERING ICT

APPENDIX 1Case Studies onLabor Market Participation

Datamation, India

Datamation was started fifteen years ago and to-day has over 1400 employees including womenacross twenty-four locations within India. Theaim of Datamation is to provide quality ICT ser-vices to leading firms. To do so, Datamationhelps train the disadvantaged to work with ICTand generates employment for them. The ser-vices offered include document management,scanning and imaging, data conversion and dataentry, application programming, e-services, por-tals, e-commerce solutions, and geographical in-formation system (GIS) applications. Datamationmaintains alliances with organizations that pro-vide IT education to the poor.

In order to achieve one of its major targets ofwomen’s welfare, Datamation has collaboratedwith Nari Raksha Samiti, an organization forwomen in Delhi. During the two years of this part-nership, women from poor families have foundsupportive and stable employment. Datamationrecruited nearly thirty such women, after theyacquired basic IT skills at NRS.

The selection procedure at Datamation includeswritten aptitude and attitude tests for analyzingfundamental skills, data entry speed and accu-racy, and database accession, along with knowl-edge of English. The selected candidates face theinterview committee. The stringent selection pro-cedure allows Datamation to retain a competitiveedge in the market, and service clients such asBritish Airways, GE Capital, HSBC, KLM,Microsoft, and Nestle, as well as large local firms.

According to Datamation, the company was thefirst to establish an alliance with a voluntary or-ganization to deliver high quality services to

international clients. More than 15 percent of thetotal number and 55 percent of women workingwith Datamation are from voluntary organizations.The trainees start with lower end jobs but there areequal opportunities for promotion.

Overall, about 25 percent of Datamation’s 1400employees are women. Among them more thanforty-five women who work in the Delhi officeand about ninety-five women who work at dif-ferent locations throughout India are from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds.

Training and employing women are not simpletasks, as social pressures exist which demand thatwomen stay at home. It is not easy for women togo on working after marriage, and especially af-ter the birth of a child. Only about 40 percent ofthe women continue to work after giving birth tothe first child. In such cases Datamation tries toprovide a more favorable and comfortable workatmosphere for them.

Datamation is looking toward increasing women’saccess to ICT, which can benefit them at a laterstage in pursuing better jobs. There are plans tooffer hostel facilities to those women workers whootherwise cannot afford to live in urban areas likeDelhi. Those who are already employed can con-tinue their education in IT, have sustainable ca-reers, can get special advantages such as paidmaternity leave, and a supportive work environ-ment before and after the birth of a child.Datamation is also trying to work out with gov-ernment agencies the establishment of a daycarecenter.

Impact

The alliance of Datamation and NRS is a promis-ing one: twenty-nine women employees inDatamation are from NRS. As a result of theireconomic empowerment these women can nowlead independent lives. The women workers arealready involved in software development, andthere is increasing demand for them in networkadministration and maintenance.

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Women in the ICT Labor Market

Inhibiting factors

• Social pressure is a major constraint in recruit-ing more women from poor and deprivedbackgrounds.

• Updating skills among the employees fromdisadvantaged families is not an easy task.

• High standards of work need to be main-tained at all times.

• Without a daycare center, the turnover result-ing from marriage and motherhood can be achallenge.

Facilitating factors

• The alliance of NRS and Datamation as wellas the links of Datamation with big firms indomestic and international markets

• Growing demand for IT and related servicesin the market

• Government support of telecommunicationinfrastructure

• A comprehensive selection procedure assur-ing quality work

Lessons learned

• Women, even those from deprived back-grounds, can become a valuable resource oncetrained.

• Women need guidance and support, espe-cially during child rearing, so that they cancontinue working.

• Social pressure against women’s employmentcan be countered by employing more femaleemployees.

• Providing residential facilities can help tosolve the problem of staying in costly urbanarea.

• A daycare center is needed in order to sharethe burden of working mothers.

CyberHost, Kenya

Denise Odhiambo, a young Kenyan informationtechnologist who received his training in the U.S.,Japan, and Switzerland, initiated the project. Hewanted the rural people to reap the benefits ofthe ICT revolution and found that in Kenya, as in

other developing countries, rural areas had veryweak infrastructure facilities. As considerablenumbers of rural men move out to urban areas insearch of higher education or better employmentopportunities, mostly women are left behind toface the grim rural reality. They are caught in thetrap of poverty, disease, ignorance, and isolation,with no access to information and means of com-munication.

The objective of the project was to provide uni-versal access to information and communicationfor sustainable development of the rural poor inKenya. The idea was to combine the best featuresof the Internet and e-mail with traditional mail tooffer the villagers cheap, safe, simple, and swiftmeans of communication. Villagers had to betrained in using e-mail, which provided fast andcheap communication globally, and to learn tocombine it with the traditional mail system thatensured fast distribution over a small area.

The project proposed that CyberHost acting as acommunity post office would receive e-mail mes-sages for community members from the Internet,print them out, and distribute them in envelopesto the addressees as the post office does. The ad-dressees would hand over their handwritten re-plies to be e-mailed through the Internet. The mailwas collected and distributed by three people onbicycles. Villagers could come to the center tocheck for and send their mail. Given the fact thatthe nearest post office was twenty-eight milesaway, and this center was in the vicinity of thevillage community, the new system was quickerand much more convenient for sending and re-ceiving mail. The villagers could enjoy the ben-efit of the Internet at low cost without having toown a computer and get an Internet connectionat home.

Making it work

The CyberHost team required physical resourcessuch as computers, printers, Internet connection,phone, office space, bicycles, and money. It alsoneeded people who could coordinate the activities,

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ENGENDERING ICT

or train the operators. It was decided to launchthe project in the Budalangi, one of the poorestareas in the Busia district, which borders Uganda.The Budalangi Women’s Group with a member-ship of 3,000 women was involved. The local ad-ministration provided the premises of anabandoned health center. Teleafrique providedInternet connection and technical support. Pub-lic meetings, health centers, and churches wereused to publicize the project. A memorandum ofunderstanding was signed between CyberHost,the Budalangi Women’s Group, and the local ad-ministration. After much effort to raise funds, helparrived from an individual working at Keio Uni-versity (Japan), Africa Connections, and the U.S.and the Royal Netherlands embassies in Nairobi.The Network Start-up Resource Center, U.S.A.,donated network accessories and a modem.

The project started in March 2000 with eight net-worked computers and a printer. Three solar pan-els were used for power. They had to be placedon the roof every morning and removed in theevening. The women’s group selected the ninetywomen to be trained. They were made respon-sible for sustaining the project, training otherwomen, and acting as mentors later on. A three-month training in the use of the Internet and e-mail was given to batches of fifteen women forfour hours every day. At the end of the training,women participants had learned computer basics,word processing, sending and receiving e-mail,printing, photocopying, and rudimentary com-puter maintenance.

Impact

For local women who received training, theproject opened up new employment opprtunities.Also, during the outbreak of the Ebola virus inGulu, Uganda, the border between Kenya andUganda was closed. With the help of e-mail, sev-eral times a day, the villagers could get informa-tion about their suffering relatives on the otherside of the border. Women communicated regu-larly with their children in Nairobi and othercities.

Inhibiting factor

• Funds were not easily available.

Facilitating factors

• Successful training of local rural women• The premises of an abandoned health center

provided by the local administration• Internet connection and technical support

given by Teleafrique• Public meetings, health centers, and churches

publicizing the project• The alliance of CyberHost, the Budalangi

Women’s Group, and the local administration• Funding from various sources

Lessons learned

• The new technology can prove instrumentalin reaching out to the people under extremesituations, such as the outbreak of a disease.

• Rendering a service that is directly useful tothe community can ensure project sustainabilityand related gains for women.

Mongolia Telecom, Mongolia

Mongolia Telecom started in 1992 as a public sec-tor enterprise, and was privatized in 1995. It of-fers services such as international telephone calls,telex, leased lines, television and radio broadcast-ing, the Internet, payphone, cable television, andfacsimile services. Of its 4500 employees, 54 per-cent are women.

In 1996, with the help of the Telenor ConsultantFirm, MT adopted a human resource develop-ment plan that reduced the crowding of womenat lower levels by equipping them to move tomanagerial levels. The two-pronged strategy in-cluded measures to help women cope better withtheir dual responsibilities at home and work, andmeasures enabling professional development ofwomen that could lead to their career growth. Thetarget was to have women fill at least 20 percentof the managerial positions. A large number oftraining and management development programswere organized which drew extensive participation

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Women in the ICT Labor Market

from women employees. The company under-stood the work-family conflict experienced by itsfemale workers. To help ease pressure on womenemployees, a number of measures were taken.These included company assistance for singlemothers and financial aid for childbirth and edu-cation of children. There is an annual “bestwoman achiever” award with a two-week stayin a rest house or health resort at company ex-pense. As a result of proactive steps, women nowconstitute over 20 percent of senior managers,compared to just 9 percent when the plan wasintroduced.

MT avoids gender discrimination and the Mon-golian Labor Law, a regulating as well as worker’sprotection law, has contributed to maintaininggender equality. The human resource developmenthas been very successful. In 2000, thirty-seventraining programs were conducted, and 735 par-ticipants attended the courses. More than 65 per-cent of the participants were women (Purevsuren,2001).

Inhibiting factors

• Lack of training and opportunities for women• The work-family conflict that affected women

most• Lack of incentive and appreciation for women

Facilitating factors

• Being a large public sector enterprise to be-gin with, MT could continue to be a majoremployer of women after privatization.

• Enlightened regulations helped maintain gen-der equality.

• MT contracted professionals to roll out thehuman resource development plan.

Lessons learned

• Proactive and supportive organizational poli-cies can help women acquire relevant com-petencies and move up the organization lad-der.

• Enlightened official regulations and well-conceived organizational interventions can

together help women overcome the invisibleglass ceiling common to many organizations,specifically in the ICT sector.

Centre for Computer and LanguageTraining, Sri Lanka

In 1990, the Foundation for the Independence ofWomen with Disabilities was established to com-bat the discrimination faced by women with dis-abilities in Sri Lanka. Women with disabilitiesin rural areas were educated by FIWD about theirrights and how to overcome prejudices. Womenparticipated in a microcredit program, along withlearning sewing and tailoring, to better their eco-nomic conditions.

FIWD carried out a survey in 1986 with the Cen-tral Council of Disabled Persons. The survey inUva province showed that 7 percent of its totalpopulation had disabilities, half of them beingwomen. It indicated that 81 percent of the dis-abled people (ages sixteen to thirty-five) receivedno vocational training, nor were they employed.

The IT revolution, however, has brought moreand more computer jobs to Sri Lanka. FIWD real-ized the great employment potential for womenwith disabilities in the ICT sector. Despite ad-vancements in IT, the country has only one na-tional computer center. FIWD decided to developa computer training program for its members bytaking full advantage of a 1987 law, according towhich 3 percent of the workforce in any sectorneed to be filled by disabled persons.

In 1999, FIWD established the Centre for Com-puter and Language Training with the help of aseed grant from the Global Fund. The Centreseeks to teach English, and basic and advancedcomputer skills (such as word processing, data-base and spreadsheet programs, and Internet use)to women with disabilities.

Impact

After ensuring the competitive employment skillsin women with disabilities, FIWD has been able

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ENGENDERING ICT

to place them comfortably in the mainstreamworkforce. It has also challenged the prevalentnegative stereotypes of women in Sri Lankan so-ciety. FIWD is optimistic that in course of timethe leadership abilities of women with disabili-ties will be valued too, along with their otherworking skills.

Inhibiting factors

• Women with disabilities encounter discrimi-nation.

• A majority of the disabled received no voca-tional training, nor were they employed.

• Despite IT advancements, the country hasonly one national computer center.

Facilitating factors

• The 1987 Sri Lankan law stating that 3 per-cent of the workforce in each sector need tobe filled by disabled persons

• The initial grant coming from the Global Fund

Lessons learned

• The ICT sector has great potential to employwomen with disabilities.

• Despite their disabilities, the trained womencan make their mark while becoming a partof the IT labor force.

• Proactive policies can extend equal opportu-nities to all women, including the disabled.

International Telecommunication Center,Vietnam

In Vietnam, telecommunication has spearheadedtechnological advancements, which in turn haveproved to be vital for socioeconomic reform inthe country. Although previous studies suggestthat women workers have fewer opportunities toreceive training in case of technological change,not all women are excluded from training andprofessional jobs in telecommunication. At theInternational Telecommunication Center, Hanoi,about 50 percent of the total labor force arewomen, while almost 90 percent of the workforcein post and telegraphy are women.

ITC is a subsidiary of Vietnam Telecom Interna-tional. VTI, founded in 1990, is a subsidiary com-pany of Vietnam Post and Telecommunications(VNPT), which is involved in nationwide activi-ties. There are three ITCs — ITC 1 at Hanoi, ITC 2at Ho Chi Minh City, and ITC 3 at Da Nang.

In the top management of VTI, 23 percent arewomen. Until recently a woman headed ITC 3. Areport on training activities of the company in2000 indicates women’s participation in techno-logical training sessions, but the number of fe-male participants varied from 0 to 100 percent,based on the training content.

In the mid-1990s almost 50 percent of the ITCworkforce were women and most of the staff wererequired to use IT. Today a majority of the em-ployees are young, the average age of women em-ployees being thirty-six. During the installationof the new technology the trade union failed tonegotiate with the management to retain the olderwomen workers. Although ITC provided train-ing opportunities, the older women (particularlywomen with young children) were unable to ben-efit from it.

The work requires knowledge of a foreign lan-guage, technical and professional skills, alongwith patience, dedication, and the ability to com-municate. This was the main reason behind em-ploying women. Women are allocated tasks with“feminine” requirements, while men do thehighly skilled jobs and therefore get higher pay.In some cases, women receive lower wages thanmen in comparable occupations.

Impact

Recently, a survey of 112 employees (36 percentof the total labor force) conducted at ITC 1 showedthat:• Gender gaps exist in work allocation and pro-

fessional qualifications of women and men.• In order to reduce existing gender gaps, in-

service training for women is essential.• There is urgent need for gender-sensitive

39

Women in the ICT Labor Market

changes in the firm’s organizational structureto promote women’s involvement in technol-ogy.

Inhibiting factors

• Older women and women with children haveto look for other employment alternatives.

• Gender gap in professional qualifications in-hibits better work allocation for women work-ers.

• Women in skilled occupations are paid lessthan men doing the same work.

Facilitating factors

• Regular training courses are available for allemployees.

• Women are allowed to work at all levels.• The requirement to have female employees

in telecommunications has increased.

Lessons learned

• Efforts are needed to removing the gender gapin work allocation and salaries.

REFERENCE

Purevsuren, Batsukh. 2001. “Women’s Issues in ICTin Mongolia.” Mongolia Telecom. Paper pre-sented during Asia-Pacific Regional Workshopon Equal Access of Women in ICT (22–26October 2001, Seoul, R.O.Korea). http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/gender/documents/Asia-PacificWrkshopKorea/ Doc5-4.pdf

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APPENDIX 2Country Studies onLabor Market Participation

India

Education differentials

Table 1. Literacy

Department of Education figures for 1988 showthat there were 285,137 boys and 57,968 girls en-rolled in engineering, technology, and architec-ture at the graduation level — a 5:1 ratio. 1

Internet use

About 0.2 percent of the country’s total popula-tion have access to the Internet. There are 115,000female Internet users, accounting for 23 percentof India’s total Internet users.2

Labor market participation of women

Women constitute 31 percent of the officialworkforce in India (ILO, 2001). They have a share

No. literate % literatePersons 566,714,995 65.4Males 339,969,048 75.9Females 226,745,947 54.2

Source: Census of India 2001, Series 1, Paper 1

Female secondary school enrollment 48Females among tertiary students 36Females among tertiary students innatural sciences* 30.4Females in tertiary teaching staff 19

*Natural sciences include computer science, engineer-ing, math, architecture, town planning, transport, andcommunications.Source: UNESCO 1999 Statistical YearbookIndia Literacy Projecthttp://www.ilpdc.org/ILP/education.htm

http://genderstats.worldbank.org

of around 15 percent in paid employment in in-dustry and services (UNIFEM, 2000).

IT labor market participation of women

According to the National Association of Softwareand Service Companies (NASSCOM), womencurrently constitute 37 percent of the employeesin the IT-enabled service sector. Women hold 27percent of professional jobs in the Indian softwareindustry, which accounts for $4 billion annually.The overall participation of women in the soft-ware industry was estimated to be around 30 per-cent in 2001.3 However, according to the DataquestIndia web site, just three out of the top 200 IT com-panies in India have women CEOs. 4

AED’s analytical study on gender and IT in de-veloping countries (Hafkin and Taggart, 2001)suggests that India, along with China, Singapore,

Table 2. Enrollment (%)

Table 3. Employment in the Indian ICT sector

Category 1990-91 1999-2000 2000-01 2001-02(Estimated)

Software exports sector 110,000 162,000 170,000Software domestic sector 17,000 20,000 22,000In-house software development 115,000 178,114 224,250IT-enabled services 42,000 70,000 106,000

Total 56,000 284,000 430,000 522,250

Source: Strategic Review 2000, NASSCOM, which also indicates that the present share of IT in India’s Gross Domestic Product is2.87 percent.

41

Women in the ICT Labor Market

and Vietnam, is one of the largest vendors ofoutsourced data processing. Call centers and sat-ellite offices performing back office functions arealso offering ample employment opportunities.The study also indicated a 20.5 percent share ofwomen among the total number of professionaland technical workers.

Women at different skill levels in MTindustry

The following table covers 139 companies, whichare about 88 percent of all medical transcriptioncompanies across India (September 2002). This isone industry in which the overall participationof women is greater than men. But interestinglywomen seem to be “crowded” at lower levels. Forsupport staff including managers, they constituteonly 24 percent.

Gender-disaggregated data on networking pro-fessionals in India were not available, but accord-ing to Hafkin and Taggart (2001), there are fewerwomen employed in networking than in the soft-ware industry. The reason lies in the preconcep-tion that such physically strenuous jobs, whichoften involve long hours of work and travel, are

Table 4. Female employees (%) in major Indiansoftware firms (2002)

Company Female employees

Infosys 19Tata Consultancy Services 20Wipro 17

Source: E-mail from Infosys, TCS & Wipro

Table 5. Females (%) among IT professionals inIndian software companies (estimated)

Company Female Professionals

NIIT 29Cognizant Technology 25Philips 25Iflex 20Hughes Software Systems 20SAP 20TCS 20Kshema Technologies 20Wipro 19Infosys 16.7Cadence Design Systems 16.7HP 16.7Sun Microsystems 14.3HCL Technologies 14.3Digital Globalsoft 12.5Datacraft India 11.1Adobe 8.3HCL Infosystems 7.7Mascon Global 5

Rolta 4

Source: IDC (International Data Corporation), 2002

Occupation Male Female Total Female %

Transcriptionists 4,899 7,383 12,282 60.1Proofreaders 575 406 981 41.4Office Assistants 65 93 158 58.9Support Staff incl. Mgrs. 131 41 172 23.8Total 5670 7923 13,593 58.2

Source: Maj. Dr. Amit Chatterjee, www.mtindia.org, September 2002

Table 6. Participation in medical transcription companies, India

unsuitable for women. However, a survey carriedout by NASSCOM discovered female program-mers to be 38 percent more efficient than maleprogrammers, signifying better potential forwomen in the ICT sector.

It is expected that by 2007, around one millionjobs in call centers will be created in India, andabove 350,000 women will be employed in remotedata processing by the year 2008.5

The IT-enabled services sector is expected to expand

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ENGENDERING ICT

and offer even more employment opportunitiesfor Indian women in coming years. According toa NASSCOM projection based on the McKinseyanalysis, the IT industry in India will employ over4 million people by 2008.6

Government policy on ICT

The government of India has incorporated mea-sures to increase the number of trained profes-sionals to encourage the growth of the ICT sectorin the country. A national task force was set up in1998 by the government to look after growth pros-pects in the industry. The Information Technol-ogy Bill of 2000, based on suggestions of the taskforce, emphasized implementation of a legislative

mechanism for extended IT applications, whichwas expected to act as a catalyst in promoting ITthroughout the country. For employment oppor-tunities in the sector, accessibility is a major areathat needs to be taken care of. A Working Groupon IT was created in May 2000, but the recom-mendations of this group lacked specific empha-sis on women. The suggestions were on access,education, and increasing awareness about ad-vantages and uses of IT, which would also be use-ful for women after implementation. No specificagenda on access and skill development forwomen was discussed.

Some of the state governments such as Andhra

Rs Crore 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 (estimated) 2008 (forecast)

E R E R E R Growth in E R

revenue (%)

Customer interaction 8,600 400 16,000 850 33,000 1,650 94 270,000 20,000services includingcall centers

Back office 15,000 950 19,000 1,350 35,000 2,850 111 300,000 21,000operations/ revenuaccounting/data entrydata conversionincluding finance andaccounting/HRservices

Transcription/ 5,000 120 6,000 160 5,200 150 -6 50,000 4,000translation services

Content 15,000 820 27,000 1,600 30,000 2,100 31 300,000 21,000development/animation/engineering anddesign/GIS

Other services 1,400 110 2,000 140 3,000 210 50 180,000 11,000including remoteeducation/data search/market research/network

Total 45,000 2,400 70,000 4,100 106,200 6,960 70 1,100,000 81,000

E = employment; R = revenues. Source: NASSCOM

Table 7. IT-enabled services — market segmentation, India

43

Women in the ICT Labor Market

Pradesh have also started developing their ownIT infrastructure and pool of skilled profession-als. According to the Ministry of InformationTechnology, the central and state governmentshave initiated steps to promote computer use inmarginalized areas, for instance by setting up in-formation kiosks with computers run by localentrepreneurs in rural areas. Some other statessuch as Uttar Pradesh are also taking interest inthe sector.

In 1988, the central government established aWorld Market Policy focusing on software devel-opment for export, reform in telecommunicationspolicy, privatization, and a more comprehensiveapproach toward ICT. The Software TechnologyParks of India scheme was also initiated.

Government policy on gender

The Indian government has certain policies inplace that should help promote women’s statusand overcome the problems they face in the soci-ety. The education ministry has education pro-grams for girls. The Department of Women andChild Development formulates strategies, poli-cies and programs, enacts or amends legislation,and guides and supports work done by other gov-ernment or nongovernment bodies for improv-ing the lives of women and children. Thedepartment has initiated training programs foremployment, awareness building, and gendersensitization; it has also established hostels forworking women, which are likely to work againstthe mobility barrier that stops women from tak-ing up IT jobs in urban areas. The impact of suchinitiatives is not known because of lack of statis-tics in this area.

An important education policy from women’sperspective has been observed in the state ofAndhra Pradesh where one-third of all places ininstitutes for higher education are reserved forwomen. Such a policy is likely to increase thenumber of women opting for IT and related fieldsat higher levels.

Accessibility

Internet is usually inaccessible for the majority ofthe country — especially in the rural areas — dueto the dearth of telecommunication infrastructure.With a total population of over a billion, the coun-try has only 26 million fixed telephone lines, andteledensity is just 24 per thousand people as com-pared to the global average of 150 per thousand.The lack of telecommunication infrastructure isthe greatest hurdle in extending IT applicationacross the country.

Indian villages now have somewhat better facili-ties as 60 percent of the villages have at least onetelephone connection. There are about 0.8 millionVillage Public Telephones (VPTs) in India. In fourstates of the country, Worldtel is carrying out apilot project for upgrading these VPTs by provid-ing access to the Internet.

Social and cultural factors

The education of girls in India is a priority for thegovernment. Still, not many girls have the oppor-tunity to go for higher-level studies, especially intechnical fields, except for a few from the middleand upper classes who can bear the expenses ofprofessional education. Another reason behindthe smaller number of girls in professional edu-cation is that initially such courses were consid-ered unnecessary and inappropriate for girls.Although this situation has changed over time,there is still much to be done to improve the ratioof women workers in this sector. The low shareof women in the ICT workforce is largely due tothe low enrollment of women in IT and relatedcourses.

The country has a number of NGOs working onwomen and education, but there is a dearth ofICT initiatives for poor, uneducated women.

Mobility is a concern, especially when womencontribute a secondary income to the family andhave the primary responsibility for the household.It is unlikely that they will be able to move withthe job. Nor are they able to take on night jobs

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ENGENDERING ICT

which global time differences often require.

Women’s low status in the society is partially re-sponsible for their dismal share in the ICT sector.Although things have changed to some extent inthe urban areas, there is much scope for changein rural and peri-urban areas.

Conclusions

India’s female literacy rate is improving, and anincreasing number of girls now attend second-ary school; but women continue to be inad-equately represented in IT and other technicalcourses. With growing employment opportuni-ties in the ICT industry, the share of women mayrise in the coming years. To make women equalparticipants in the ICT industry, however, a pro-active policy environment will be required. As amajor part of the Indian population live in vil-lages, targeting women from poor and remoteareas for ICT employment and education shouldbecome a crucial part of the government’s agenda.

Jordan

Education differentials

Jordan’s female adult literacy rate has increasedfrom 46.8 percent in 1972 to 84.4 percent in 1996.Today girls constitute around 50 percent of thetotal number of students at primary, secondary,and tertiary levels. At the tertiary level, womenaccount for 35.5 percent of students in naturalsciences (the predefined stream for IT-relatedjobs), which is higher than in most other MiddleEastern countries.

Female adult literacy 84.4Female secondary school students 55Female tertiary students 42Female tertiary students in natural sciences 35.5Female teaching staff at tertiary level 8

Source: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1999,

World Development Indicators 2000.

Table 8. Status of women’s education inJordan (%)

Twenty-nine per cent of students enrolled in com-puter science and 13.8 percent of students in com-puter engineering are female.7

Internet use

Internet access is increasing in Jordan at a fastpace: there were 87,500 users representing 2.2 per-cent of the total population in February 2000. Thenumber of female Internet users in Jordan is 3,700,which accounts for 6 percent of the total users inthe country (Hafkin and Taggart, 2001).Amongthe Maktoob.com users in 2001, over 26 percentusers were female.

Labor market participation of women

Better education for women, reduced wages, andincreasing costs initiated by economic liberalizationhave resulted in an increase in the number ofwomen joining the labor force in Jordan during thelast decade. Still, women’s share in the labor mar-ket was found to be quite low; in 2000 women ac-counted for just 11.7 percent of Jordan’s totalworkforce. The contribution of women is mostly inthe education sector where they are around 51 per-cent of the workers and 62 percent of the teachers.8

IT labor market participation of women

Women workers constitute 27 percent of the ICTworkforce in Jordan. According to a study con-ducted by the National Information Centre of Jor-dan in 2001, women hold about 13 percent ofmanagerial positions in the private sector and alsohave a 22 percent share among the programmers.The study revealed a higher share of women in thepublic sector where they hold 30 percent of mana-gerial positions and a 50 percent share among theprogrammers.

Table 9. Share of women in Jordan’s ICT sector(%)

Private Sector Public Sector

Managers 13 30System Analysts 19 40Programmers 22 50Engineers 5 13Data Entry 93 74

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Women in the ICT Labor Market

Wage differentials

Information on wage differentials in Jordan showsthat higher education has been unsuccessful indrawing higher salaries for women. Studies alsoshow that the social viewpoint that considers menas family breadwinners explains why men in Jor-dan earn higher salaries.

Government policy on ICT

Jordan’s government has been trying to modifyits telecommunication sector for the last few years.In 1999, the Reach Initiative was planned forachieving job creation, ICT sector investment, andexporting of IT-related products and services by2005. The government has privatized around 40percent of Jordan Telecommunications Corpo-ration, which was set up as a public sector ini-tiative.

The King of Jordan recently opened an Informa-tion Technology Community Center in Tafileh forbasic training on computer and Internet skills,with the aim of supporting economic activitiesand building an Internet literate population.Internet access continues to be free from govern-ment restrictions or censorship.

Government policy on gender

The policy environment in Jordan has becomemore open to women’s issues because of theinvovement of the Queen and Princess of Jordan.The Princess heads the Jordanian National Com-mittee for Women (JNCW), a government bodythat was established in 1992. JNCW promotespolicies related to women’s social, economic andpolitical interests. In 1993, JNCW played a majorrole in the formation of the National Strategy forWomen, and it continues to work with organiza-tions in public and private sectors to implementthe strategy.

The National Strategy for Women is based on thevalues of Arab and Muslim society and principlesof human rights. It emphasizes women’s equal-ity as well as their contribution to a society wheretheir primary role is to raise children. The strategy

favors equal access to education but does not fo-cus on women’s right to access or acquire non-traditional skills training and education.

Sociocultural factors

In Jordan, as in most of the Middle Eastern coun-tries, women get government support for educa-tion and economic and political participation. Yetthe social values, which designate men as pro-viders and women as caretakers in the family,discourage women from taking up paid work. Inthe private sector, a dearth of daycare centers andproblems with maternity leave become hurdlesfor working women with families, and often in-fluence employers to select unmarried women.In addition to social constraints, the pooreconomy and social patterns obstruct women’sparticipation in the workforce. As a result thereis a high unemployment rate among women inthe formal sector. In rural areas accessibility andhigh cost are major constraints besides the basicproblem of illiteracy.

Conclusions

Jordan is an example of a country that has seennoticeable improvement in women’s literacy lev-els in recent years. Their presence in computerscience (29 percent) and computer engineering (14percent) courses, however, indicates that there isstill scope for improvement. Though the govern-ment is actively encouraging the growth of theICT sector and working toward gender equality,conservative social beliefs still prevent womenfrom benefiting from the emerging opportunitiesin this sector (Heresh, 2001).

As with a number of developing countries, how-ever, today Jordan too is influenced by globaliza-tion and IT trends, and the country’s ICT sectorappears to be full of opportunities for enterprisingyoung women. In the last few years the participa-tion of women in the ICT sector has increased.

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Notes

1. Ministry of Human Resource Development,Government of India. http://www.education.nic.in/htmlweb/iamr2.htm#top

2. World Development Report 2000, UnescoStatistical Yearbook 1999, Hafkin & Taggart, 2001.

3. ILO. “The information technology revolution:Widening or bridging gender gaps?” http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/inf/pkits/wer2001/wer01ch4.htm

4. Multi-tasking Manager. http://www.d•india.com/content/search/showarticle.asp?arid=38644&way=search

5. Bianca Tonetti. 2001. Presentation on ICT forWomen Entrepreneurs in Asia-Pacific. Asian andPacific Centre for Transfer of Technology (APCTT)Expert Group Meeting on ICT Policy from a GenderPerspective. Bangkok.

6. http://www.nasscom.orgartdisplay.asp?art_id=553

7. Council of Higher Education, Jordan. 1998-99.

8. Department of Statistics, Jordan. 2000. LaborSurvey.

REFERENCES

Hafkin, Nancy and Nancy Taggart. 2001. Gender,Information Technology and Developing Countries:An Analytic Study. Washington, D.C.: Academyfor Educational Development for USAID. http://www.usaid.gov/wid/pubs/it01.htm

Heresh, Jumana. 2001. “Women forge ahead inJordan’s IT sector.” Jordan Times, October 31.

ILO. 2001. World Employment Report. Geneva: ILO.

47

MSE: A Gender Analysis

Women dominate the micro and small enterprises(MSE) sector in most developing economies.1 Itis increasingly recognized that women’s micro,small, and medium enterprises stimulate domes-tic economic growth while promoting a more eq-uitable distribution of social and developmentbenefits. This chapter focuses on the use of ICTin the MSE sector and existing gender transpar-ency issues in developing and transition econo-mies. It draws upon representative documentedcase studies as well as first-hand experience andobservations. Where MSE specific data are notavailable, data and examples from medium en-terprises are included.

The chapter is divided into seven sections. Thefirst section provides a framework within whichto understand the implications of MSE devel-opment for both poverty alleviation and wom-en’s economic development. The secondoutlines the context within which women en-trepreneurs conduct their businesses. The thirdidentifies the primary concerns that the typicalwoman entrepreneur faces — these include the

trade regulations that continue to work againsther export potentials, the implications of ICT tak-ing her out of the informal and into the formalsector, her time issues, and cost implications ofinvesting in ICT. The following three sectionsbuild on experiences from the field. The fourthsection contains a brief status report on howICT has affected women-run businesses andwomen entrepreneurs. With the help of case stud-ies, this section investigates the impact of ICT onwomen’s access to credit, training, networkingand strategic alliances, and new markets, con-cluding with a summary of the main challenges.The fifth examines the critical roles that businessdevelopment service providers should and canplay in relation to the needs of women entrepre-neurs. The sixth suggests an approach to goodpractice to encourage ICT development for MSErun by women with an emphasis again on busi-ness development services. The final section looksat possible future steps within the World BankGroup.

3Micro and Small Enterprises

and ICT:A Gender Analysis

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ENGENDERING ICT

The importance of the issues

Some of the gender differentials specific to theMSE sector include the following:• There are distinct differences between men

and women in their access to resources, in-formation, and support that have a directimpact upon their business sustainability andsuccess. Women usually face higher barriersto computer literacy or engagement in ICT-related employment than men. They also haveless access to collateral or to capital that wouldenable them to invest in ICT. Also, comparedto men, women have less time in which tobalance out the tension between earning anincome and caring for their home and family.

• At the same time much of women’s work re-mains unpaid. In developing countries,women spend only one-third of their time inpaid standard National Accounts activities,compared with three-quarters for men. If un-paid labor is counted, women do more workthan men (ILO, 2001). This means that manymore women remain in the informal sector,which has a direct negative impact on theiraccess to capital, information, support, and byextension, to ICT.

• At national levels, the business sector contin-ues to be male-dominated. Male bias is re-flected, for instance, in the gender balance ontrade team representations at national levels.Some of this is cultural bias and some institu-tional.

• Women are less likely to be members of busi-ness or employers’ associations than men.There remains great opportunity for represen-tative associations, such as employers’ orga-nizations or chambers of commerce, to in-crease the number of women members.

On the positive side, over the past two decades,there are many women entrepreneurs, withwomen in advanced economies owning morethan 25 percent of all businesses. The number ofwomen-owned businesses in Africa, Asia, East-ern Europe, and Latin America is growing rap-idly, and with that growth, their direct impact on

job creation and poverty reduction (UNCTAD,2002). The Internet has had a real impact on thegrowth rate of women-owned enterprises. InChina women initiate about 25 percent of busi-ness start-ups, and in Japan four out of five smallbusiness owners are women.

The World Bank has identified pro-poor marketdevelopment as one of its five priority areas. Itfollows that women are an especially importanttarget group to support, given their roles andnumber in the MSE sector. One of the four sectorstrategy papers produced by the World BankGroup in 2002 was on integrating gender into theWorld Bank’s work. Two others were on ICT andprivate sector development. There is a need forcross-fertilization of ideas and policies, andinteractivity between these three sectors to ensurea systemic approach to poverty alleviationthrough women’s business development.

A macroeconomic context

Any examination of the increasing participationof women in the MSE sector has to include thechanging economic context within which theyoperate. This understanding will allow us to ap-praise their motivations, their avenues of support,and the applicability of ICT to their business func-tions

Economic rights and globalization

An article in the July 2000 special edition of WorldDevelopment outlines “a rights-based approach toeconomic policy which aims directly at strength-ening the realization of human rights, includingsocial, economic and cultural rights, as well ascivil and political rights” (Cagatay, Elson, andGrown, 2000). This approach indicates a profoundpolitical shift that became evident during theFourth World Conference on Women, where therights focus extended beyond a narrow range ofwomen-specific economic issues to the broaderarenas of economic policymaking. This new en-gagement in economic rights goes hand in handwith the realities of globalization that women aredealing with on a day-to-day basis.

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MSE: A Gender Analysis

The World Bank’s World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty delineates the singular fail-ure of traditional prescriptions of balanced bud-gets, sound currency, and free trade to bythemselves significantly reduce poverty in mostdeveloping economies. While it is true that glo-balization drives a level of integration for indi-viduals, corporations, and nation-states whichreaches farther, faster, deeper, and is cheaper thanever before,2 it has also brought with it wider eco-nomic disparities, greater feminization of poverty,and increased gender inequalities.3

Trade and investment regime

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP) and themore recent Poverty Reduction Strategies papers(PRSP) of the World Bank and the InternationalMonetary Fund (IMF) base their premise on pre-paring economies for liberalization of trade andinvestment. With liberalization, however, hascome greater competition and deeper economicfluctuations. The Asian financial crisis of the late1990s virtually wiped out the livelihoods of menand women in Thailand, Korea, and Indonesia.The prescriptions to relieve the Asian crisis werebuilt on the traditional SAP model that continuesto shift the responsibilities of social developmentaway from government to the private sector andsociety, where women generally absorb the extraload of social services. It is no coincidence thatsome of the more advanced MSE initiativesamong women are now in these economies.

One woman’s gain, however, may be anotherwoman’s loss. In African economies, in some sec-tors, women’s informal sector businesses andwomen employed in small-scale industries havebeen adversely hit by trade liberalization. Womeninvolved in sisal bag manufacturing in Kenya arenow losing their market share to imported mass-produced imitations from Southeast Asia.4 Whatis needed with globalization of economies, isgreater mobility of labor between sectors, and byimplication, more information, training, and ca-pacity building.

In most economies, the globalization process haspushed policy strategies in favor of removingbarriers to trade and financial flows, privatizingstate-owned enterprises, and, in some cases, low-ering public spending, particularly on social ser-vices.

These policies have transformed patterns of pro-duction, contributed to accelerated technologicaladvances in information and communication, andimpacted the lives of men and women. Forwomen in developing and transitional economies,the cumulative effects of these changes have beenparticularly negative, making more demandsupon them, while simultaneously diminishing thesupport systems upon which they depend.5 Thegender impact of these changes has not yet beensystematically evaluated. Even so, there is suffi-cient evidence to conclude that although somewomen have been able to take advantage ofgreater economic opportunities and indepen-dence — either through establishing their ownbusinesses or securing employment — manymore have been unable to take advantage of pos-sibilities offered by open markets, leading to in-creasing inequalities within countries.

Definition: micro and small enterprise

For the purpose of this study, we will use the defi-nitions provided by the small and medium en-terprise (SME) department of the World BankGroup.6

• Microenterprise: up to 10 employees, totalassets of up to $100,000 and total annual salesof up to $100,000

• Small enterprise: up to 50 employees, totalassets of up to $3 million and total sales of upto $3 million

These definitions are broadly consistent withthose used by most international financial insti-tutions. Despite its size, the MSE sector is a frag-ile one; at the same time it shows tenacity in itsability to adapt to and survive the shocks andstresses of economic swings. There are other defi-nitions of MSE that are arguably more relevant

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ENGENDERING ICT

when analyzing the issues facing enterprises indeveloping economies — such as those framedin a Ugandan policy paper (Snyder, 2000):• Microenterprises are, in quantitative terms,

“business undertakings employing less than5 people, often family members; value of as-sets excluding land, buildings and workingcapital is below USh 2.5 million; annual turn-over is below USh 10 million (about $10,000at the time of the interviews), which is thethreshold for business-related tax.... They op-erate seasonally; usually they are not regis-tered formally and hence have no formal ser-vices. They do not pay enterprise-related taxesand their management is rather weak in termsof both education and administrative capa-bilities.”

• Small enterprises are “enterprises employinga maximum of 50 people; value of assets ex-cluding land, buildings and working capitalis less than USh 50 million; annual turnoveris between USh 10 to 50 million, which is thetax bracket for one per cent business tax onannual turnover.... They operate the wholeyear round, are formally registered and taxed,and owners/managers are educated and/ortrained.”

ICT and e-commerce in the context of MSE

The three defining characteristics of ICT are theirconvergence, speed, and reducing operatingcosts, which have created a range of possibilitiesfor information collection, manipulation, trans-mission, storage, and presentation. A combina-tion of these possibilities has ushered in a wholenew approach to conducting business.

ICT in the small business sector lends itself to anexpanding universe of applications such as elec-tronic mail, electronic data interchange, virtualenterprises and groupware. E-commerce is themost visible aspect, but it is just one segment of alarger whole. E-commerce is limited to those en-terprises that have the technical and financial in-frastructure to support encryption, onlinetransaction processing, just-in-time production

systems, and order handling and managementsystems. Enterprises in developing countries thathave less reliable access to this infrastructure maybe excluded from harnessing the power offeredby these new tools.

The increasing virtualization of the three compo-nents of a market (agents, products, and pro-cesses), allows for a better envisioning of thefuture of ICT in the MSE sector of developingcountries. Internet access and wireless commu-nication are already of critical importance to busi-nesses, small and large. A business transactionconsists of many successive processes (informa-tion gathering, comparison, negotiation) most ofwhich can be carried out more efficiently over theInternet, even if the final step of the transactionis taken offline (UNCTAD, 2001).

Meanwhile, convergence — the pulling down ofthe technical and commercial barriers that holdtelecommunication and computing apart — willcontinue to open up all kinds of avenues for busi-ness development. The economies of scale in run-ning all types of communication through the sameconduit are especially realizable in developingcountries where the bulk of the population hasstill to be wired for television and telephones. Atthe same time, technology trends demostrate thatbusinesses can rely more and more on wirelesstelephony as their primary connectivity.

If we regard ICT applications for MSE as three-dimensional (Table 1), it would be fair to concludethat most such enterprises are still grappling withthe first dimension of ICT development.

Differentiating between businesses

The most important difference is between thoseenterprises that are purely income-survival enti-ties and those that are financially viable, sustain-able businesses. Survival-oriented enterprisesprobably form the largest component of MSE,which also produce the lowest value and arecaught in a poverty trap (see Figure 1). The gen-erally accepted argument is that ICT can extend

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MSE: A Gender Analysis

the reach of a business beyond its immediatemarket — and thus widen its customer base.However, at this point, it is difficult to assess how,if at all, ICT may contribute to the financial vi-ability of microbusinesses.

Case studies will focus on businesses that sug-gest long-term viability (though they may still beat pilot stage). Broadly speaking, these businessescan be categorized as:• Existing businesses that introduce an ICT plat-

form to their commercial functions andmodify or expand their markets (such as,bookkeeping services)

• New businesses that are built entirely aroundICT (such as portal entities or virtual outletsthat sell crafts or services through commer-cial sites, offshore outsourcing companies)

• New businesses that service the ICT sectorthrough product and service supply (such ascall centers, software programming busi-nesses).

MSE trends from a gender perspective

Gender-differentiated data on MSE are especiallydifficult to come by, because this sector is oftenoutside the realm of national surveys. A 1994 sur-vey of SME in the Asian Pacific Economic Com-munity (APEC) countries, however, found thatthey account for 90 percent of all MSE. Between1978 and 1996, women-led enterprises accountedfor a quarter of all business start-ups in the re-gion. Between 1995 and 1997, women businessoperators increased by 9 percent while male busi-ness operators increased by 2.6 percent. Thesebusinesses typically specialized in small farming,retail, or handicraft (UNIFEM and CIDA, 1998).In Tanzania, MSE and the informal sector domi-nate the economy — earning about 35 percent ofGDP in 1999, employing 20 percent of the popu-lation, of which 50 percent was in the trade orretail sector.7 More recent figures in Asia suggestthat women head 35 percent of small and mediumsized enterprises in the region (UNCTAD, 2002).

I. Connectivity and II. Computing III. CommerceCommunication (changes business and (changes modes of

(changes economic information management production andand social organization) practices) distribution)

• Access points, public and • Management software • Virtual malls/commercialprivate choices sites

• B2B networking and • Training • Cooperative producers/special interest groups retailers

• Support groups • Software support services • Teleservices

• Chambers of Commerce • Financial and accounting • Entirely new kinds ofmembership packages economic activities and

services

• Interest representation • Inventory stockto policymakers

• Revenue forecasting

• Simplifying applications

Source: Networked Intelligence for Development

Table1. Three-dimensional aspects of ICT business applications

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ENGENDERING ICT

Socicultural issues from a genderperspective

Any policy debate around MSE in developingcountries must take into account the historical andeconomic roles of women in the development ofsmall-scale enterprises. Entrepreneurship is cul-turally mediated. Many women entrepreneurs inWest and Central Africa for instance, boast a longhistory of crossborder barter trade. In contrast,women in South Africa have had a good portionof their traditional systems dismantled over a longperiod of time, and do not have established busi-ness instincts. Entrepreneurship development isinfluenced by political, cultural, and economicconsiderations, which have propelled women intoextra-wage pursuits for a whole range of reasons.8

In sub-Saharan Africa, small-scale enterprises inthe formal and informal sectors have absorbedrelatively large numbers of workers at low cost.A combination of economic and political policiesboth pre- and post-colonialization in countriessuch as Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Ugandaconfined women almost entirely to the agricul-tural sector, because many of them were notinitially engaged in wage labor and were not in a

position to legally establish themselves in busi-ness. They earned an income working in fringe(often illegal) activities such as prostitution, foodselling, beer brewing, and domestic service. Theirmarkets were also limited to the poorer groupsof the community. Studies on women entrepre-neurs in Zimbabwe show that women tend to beemployed in small-scale, home-based, low capi-talized enterprises that supply goods and com-modities to low-income consumers particularlyin the urban areas . This clearly restricts their pos-sibilities for growth and outreach. They are notable to absorb labor beyond the household andrely on credit from personal savings. Most of theentrepreneurs use labor-intensive methods ofproduction in activities such as baking bread,tailoring, and agricultural production and pro-cessing.

Women in the MSE sector — convenienceor necessity?

It is important to distinguish between the pushand pull factors that draw women increasinglyinto the arena of micro and small enterprise de-velopment. The push factors include:• Withdrawal of or decline in state expenditure

on social programs as a result of structural

Figure 1. Micro-enterprise caught in the poverty cycle

Micro

Enterprise

Services poorsection of localmarket

Low revenue earnings

Low rates ofsavings and

capitalinvestment

Political andeconomic

context

Cultural and

historicalcontext

Low asset base

53

MSE: A Gender Analysis

adjustment programs, which continue toplace a disproportionate burden on women

• Flexibility of formal employment and result-ing insecurity of income rising from increasedcompetitiveness through trade liberalization9

• Scarcity of alternative occupations and pro-fessions that women can engage in.

The pull factors are expectation led. Women areturning to innovative means of livelihood, andwant to take advantage of ICT and new knowl-edge sources that may create business opportu-nities in expanding markets.

Over and above these issues, there are factorsspecific to women. These include limited accessto and control of resources and marketing out-lets, and less access to formal channels for net-working.

MSE and ICT — the promise andthe reality

In many developing countries, the adoption ofICT-based functions within formal business andfinancial services sectors is rapidly catching upwith parallel sectors in industrialized states. InIndia, for instance, most of the high street banksdepend on the top 5 percent of their customersfor 70 to 80 percent of their margins and these arethe customers who are already wired to theInternet.

In developing countries, demand among smallbusinesses for basic communication services suchas local and long distance phone and fax servicesis constantly rising. As new telecommunicationservices have become more available, a widerange of businesses has emerged as some of themore avid consumers. In many sub-Saharan coun-tries for instance (Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa,Uganda, to name a few), public phone shopswhich have upgraded their services to offer e-mailand Internet-based information and training ser-vices, have mushroomed in the last five years.

Business-to-business transactions currently account

for 80 percent of e-commerce worldwide, a trendlikely to continue in both developed and devel-oping countries. The vast majority of these ex-changes continue to be among the informationrich.

In the immediate term, the domestic MSEInternet subscriber base in most developingcountries is too thin to make e-commerce viablefor local business-to-consumer transactions. Rela-tively speaking, most small enterprises are stillcharacteristically “information poor”. At the sametime, they provide a critical source of employmentfor the world’s poor — especially women in de-veloping and emerging economies — by gener-ating much needed revenue and low-cost jobs.

While awareness and demand for the higher endof value-added services is still low, there are agrowing number of initiatives in the developingworld where ICT is being incorporated into smallbusiness models. Small and medium enterprises,and in certain situations, micro enterprises, areseeing the new technologies for what they are —cheaper and more effective means of communi-cation — which can be adapted to a multitude ofbusiness purposes. The case studies included inthis paper outline some of these adaptations.

ICT does not flatten trade barriers

Current arguments for the adoption of ICT byMSE point to their potential to become more com-petitive using the Internet to access informationabout cheaper finance or markets, or learn aboutimproving customer service and reorganizingprocurement processes. While the Internet maymake it easier to directly access new, better qual-ity suppliers and markets, the MSE participationin international trade continues to suffer frominadequate trade-supporting services, includingfinance, insurance, transport, and business infor-mation. Time and again, however, it is the termsof international trade and national regulationsthat work against the aspiring MSE exporter (notwithin the scope of this study). According to theWorld Bank’s Global Economic Prospects 2002, the

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average poor person selling in global markets con-fronts barriers that are roughly twice as high asthose facing the typical nonpoor worker. If weagree that the larger proportion of the poor aremade up of women, it is possible to conclude thatwomen-run MSE face even more stringent busi-ness conditions than most. ICT does not flattentrade barriers. Nor does ICT automatically takean MSE to overseas markets. The aspiring MSEexporter has to reinvent its supply chain (see CaseStudy 1) to cater to new markets.

Case Study 1: Cottage Industry Global Market(CIGM), India

CIGM is essentially a network with horizontaland vertical linkages. The core of the network con-sists of women’s weaving cooperatives in ruralHimachal Pradesh, northern India, whose mainproducts are handmade woolen shawls and otherwoolen attire. CIGM fosters links between thecooperatives as well as with other players, includ-ing local NGOs, local government, GeorgetownUniversity in the U.S., and the World Bank’s De-velopment Marketplace (the funder). Threewomen are responsible for coordinating materi-als supply, marketing and recordkeeping out of acenter that also provides training to the coopera-tive members. Government provides support inthe form of loans, training, and marketing. Plansto set up a marketing portal for the products werelaid aside when it became clear that productioncapacities would not meet the demand or qualityrequirements from international markets. Theimmediate needs were identified as managementtraining, accounting procedures, product stan-dardization practices, and computer training asa means to streamlining and systematizing thecooperatives’ business. Motivating the coopera-tives toward a business model has proven diffi-cult so far.

Non-formal sector implications

Typically, an MSE operates in what is loosely de-fined as the informal sector. ILO studies of majorAfrican cities report figures for the urban laborforce engaged in the informal sector ranging from

30 percent in Abidjan, to 50 percent in Dakar andLagos, 73 percent in Ouagadougou, and 80 per-cent in Accra. Globally, women represent 75 per-cent of workers in the informal sector, whichcomprises over 55 percent of the economy inLatin America, 45 to 85 percent in parts of Asia,and close to 80 percent in African countries(Taggart, 2002).10

For the most part, enterprises are classified as“informal” when they fall outside the state sys-tem of licensing, taxation, and regulation, andtherefore do not form part of the official economicstatistics. In reality there is a substantial gray areabetween the formal and informal sectors. Smallbusinesses operating in retail markets for in-stance, might not declare income, but are none-theless required to pay regular market stall, retail,and related taxes. Because of the irregular way inwhich these businesses sometimes function, it isdifficult to track or forecast their spending pat-terns, income sources, and costing.

How does the entrepreneur perceive the introduc-tion of ICT into this kind of business? Most en-trepreneurs of microbusinesses have no optionbut to remain in the informal sector because theycannot afford to pay the taxes required in the for-mal sector, and this influences the kind of ICT theyare willing to invest in. Usually it begins and endswith the ownership of a mobile telephone. Al-most all the participants in training events forwomen entrepreneurs in Cameroon, Lithuania,Mozambique, and Tanzania have mobile tele-phones — reflecting the dramatic growth of cel-lular subscribers in these countries. Trainingworkshop reports from Networked Intelligencefor Development (NID), a consultancy firm en-gaged in ICT training and mentoring programsin developing countries, state that participantswould be requested to switch off their mobilephones during training courses, otherwise therewould be incessant ringing! In fact, in sub-Sa-haran Africa and central Asia, the numbers ofmobile phones exceed line phones, an indicationof the unmet demand for telephones in those

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MSE: A Gender Analysis

regions (Eggleston, Jansen, and Zeckhauser,2002).

A larger or more ambitious business, however,whose market extends beyond the immediatecommunity, may consider investing in ICT to sup-port both communication and computerization.Small pharmaceutical stalls in Burkina Faso, forexample, have benefited from using data softwareto track and stock their inventory, and thereforetheir past and projected income.

NID has found that the typical woman-led en-terprise that participates in its e-commerce train-ing events straddles both the informal and theformal sector. Women pick and choose those ele-ments of the formal sector that will enable thebusiness entity to maintain accountability andtransparency, critical for business auditing andexport-trading purposes. But they also run a“shadow” business that keeps some of the income“safe” from declaration.11

By implication, the application of ICT to MSE maypush the business entities from informal to for-mal economies; and while this may be desirablefrom a national economy perspective, it may notbe considered desirable from an individualentrepreneur’s point of view.

Members of the Uganda Women’s Finance Trust(Case Study 4) for instance, use loan-tracking soft-ware, which is diffused nationally through localpost office outlets for lenders to track their ac-count balances, and repayment plans. This partof the lender’s business is clearly “formalized”and financially documented, but that does notmean that all other elements of the business aresimilarly documented or accessible.

Women’s management and structure issues

There is growing evidence that generally womenstructure their enterprises differently from men,establishing flatter management structures, usingconsensus building approaches to decisions, andevaluating performance results differently.

In most APEC economies, women earn half of thehousehold income. Women are often heads ofhouseholds — in Korea, 18 percent of femaleworkers are principal breadwinners. Three yearsago as a percentage of the male rate, the femaleeconomic activity rate ranged from 94 percent inVietnam to 43 percent in Peru, while the averagefor all APEC economies was 70 percent.

At the same time, women have less time to de-vote to their businesses than men, and are usu-ally forced to strike a balance between work,family, and childcare. Women also tend to be morehesitant to seek counseling and advice often be-cause these services do not target women-ownedMSE, are provided in “male” settings, and are notadapted to the specific needs of women. In a num-ber of e-commerce training events organized byNID, simply creating the space to foster dialoguebetween women entrepreneurs and representa-tives from financial intermediary services,Internet service providers, local government, andIT policymakers was of critical and timely impor-tance. For example, at a training event in Tanza-nia in 2002, NID brought together 30 womenentrepreneurs with the senior staff of the NationalMicrofinance Bank who recently launched a 2.5percent MSE microloan program of which the par-ticipants were unaware.

Cost implications and opportunity costsfor women

The poor in Chile spend more on telecommuni-cations than on water — a reflection of the perceivedopportunities associated with acquiring ICT(Melo, 2000). Latest trends show consumer pref-erence for prepaid cellular phones that do notrequire strong credit records and where expendi-ture can be controlled in detail. In several poorcountries where payphones are scarce, some in-genious microbusinesses provide ambulantpayphones in the form of cellular phones charg-ing a modest markup (as in Bangladesh). In Peru,these entrepreneurs of microbusinesses makethemselves more visible in public places by wear-ing brightly colored headwear and clothing, and

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have become known as “cholos celulares” or “cel-lular Indians” (Melo, 2000).

Training experiences show that women entrepre-neurs are prepared to invest in their own train-ing on e-commerce — between $10 and $20 perparticipant — a measure of the desire for andvalue given to information and know-how. Inmost of these economies, $10 is a significantamount in local currency. As costs of connectiv-ity continue to drop, the obstacles women facetypically have less to do with hefty hardware orconnectivity costs and more to do with purchas-ing and applying the most appropriate kinds ofsoftware applications, and functioning in a policyenvironment that influences their access, use, andopportunities.12 Small enterprises that understandthe importance of business applications often facedifficulties in making informed choices on simplebusiness software, and resort to investing in pi-rated software that is substantially cheaper thanoff-the-shelf packages.

Summary remarks

A great opportunity exists in introducing ICT towomen entrepreneurs. In many ways, preciselybecause of the business challenges that womenface, women recognize the quantum differencethat ICT could make to their business activitiesand are ready to adopt the new technologies. Theyneed resource and information support to• Assess the risks and benefits of using ICT• Adapt ICT to both informal and formal sec-

tors work• Allocate time to integrate ICT into business

strategies.

Integrating MSE and ICT for women

ICT-based small businesses are part of a rapidlychanging market and an environment of experi-mentation and reinvention. ICT has introducednew ways of conducting business, such as homeworking via the Internet, outsourcing, andtelecommuting which are especially attractive towomen. Online training manuals, search engines,virtual international telephone directories,

sources of business management models, andsoftware are all effective learning tools for womenentrepreneurs.

Transformation of financial servicesdelivery

One of the most exciting applications of ICT forthe direct benefit of MSE is in the arena of ex-tending and managing credit support to busi-nesses. As yet, it is in its infancy. The shortage ofaffordable capital is one of the most critical con-straints for MSE. The World Bank’s microfinanceprogram Consultative Group to Assist the Poor-est (CGAP),13 was set up in 1995 to respond tothe demand from low-income people for accessto loans which would help them to establish theirenterprises on a firm financial footing. Accord-ing to Women’s World Banking (Barry, 1995), toreach just 10 percent of the low-income entrepre-neurs by 2025 requires lending capital of about$12.5 billion. To reach a target population of about180 million low-income entrepreneurs by 2025would require about $90 billion (current total aidtransfers are valued at approximately $54 billion,and the World Bank Group’s total disbursementsin fiscal 2002 was $11.5 billion). Microfinance isserious business. About 1200 institutions world-wide provide microcredit to 13.8 million peoplefor a sum of $7 billion. Nearly all the loans arerepaid, with interest; loan sizes vary, but a mere$150 is the typical amount borrowed. More than75 percent of loans are made to women.

Like other international finance institutions, theWorld Bank Group has found that intermediaryservice models work best and has concluded thatnew financial products and initiatives must bedesigned and made available to MSE (WorldBank, 2001). Arguably, communities of businessnetworks have been ingenious in pooling re-sources and capital; the barter system continuesto work for MSE in both industrialized and de-veloping economies, and these models can befurther extended and built upon.

The financial intermediary sector that services

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MSE: A Gender Analysis

small business is doing some radical thinkingaround extending its reach to poorer sections ofthe economy and taking its services to those cli-ents who might not otherwise have access. Whileit is early days yet, the potential uses of IT andsoftware systems to service the credit and sav-ings expectations of the small entrepreneur areimmense. Some of these are:• Adapting accounting software to service tra-

ditional accounting or barter systems• Extending credit outreach in creative ways,

such as mobile banking (see Case Study 2).• Computerizing financial reporting and per-

formance measures to make them cost effec-tive, transparent, and accessible to borrowersand lenders (see Case Study 4)

• Providing individual borrowers with secureaccount access

Mobile banking brings in a number of playerstogether, providing interaction through connec-tivity and integrating with existing financial ser-vice support. The leading credit and loan agenciesare keen to retain and maintain customer loyaltyand to improve information flow from their cli-ents so as to keep a finger on the pulse of theirlocal credit rating and markets.14

Case Study 2: Mobile banking for blue collarworkers, India

The Global Alliance (GA) is an alliance amongthe World Bank, global brands, and the Interna-tional Youth Foundation. Its mission is to promotethe development and aspirations of workers,mostly young women, in the global supply chain.GA’s program consists of surveying workers todetermine their needs and aspirations followedby intervention programs, mostly related tohealth, personal finances, and life skills. Early in2002, GA entered into discussions with the Inter-national Finance Corporation (IFC) to pilot bank-ing services among blue-collar workers insouthern India, many of whom are women. TheIFC is in the process of developing the plan forthe feasibility study. Once a plan and budget arefinalized, efforts will begin with a private bank

in India and with outside donors to raise fundsfor the project.

Bringing banking services directly to women isnot a new phenomenon — there is ample evi-dence of the economic value of extending creditservices to rural women, but introducing the elec-tronic factor to the sector has major implications.It would enable women to track their own ac-counts, conduct their own financial planning, andmaintain the transparency of accounts at bothindividual and institutional levels.

Case Study 3: Milk cooperative smart cards,Rajasthan, India

The all-women Dhoblai Milk Cooperative Societyof Naila Village has pioneered a business account-ing and payment system, using smart cards forits members. It helps maintain authentic and ac-curate milk supply records as well as secure pay-ment transactions. The card has replaced theexisting error-prone, paper-based records, whichwere open to misappropriation. Smart Chip Ltdhas developed this concept for the milk collec-tion center and has implemented it through thestate-owned Rajasthan Electronics and Instru-mentation Ltd. The managing director of SmartChip Ltd explained, “There were times when theirspouses or other male relatives would collect dueson their behalf, leaving them with little or noth-ing at all. But after the smart card revolution, thishas changed. The cash can only be given to asmart card holder. It also serves as an identitycard as the photograph of the woman is printedon it.”

Cash flow restrictions and capital investmentlimitations notwithstanding, the typical MSE con-tinues to face foreign currency restrictions andrelated clearinghouse broker facilities that workagainst crossborder trade. The application of ICTwill eventually make these processes less timeconsuming and bureaucratic than they are now,but first the regulatory environment needs tochange.

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Case Study 4: Uganda Women’s FinanceTrust (UWFT), Uganda

Clients of UWFT are able to access their accountsat post office outlets across the country using asoftware package that was customized for UWFT.The LOAN PERFORMER program was initiallydeveloped as the “Trust Information System” andstarted as a DOS-based client data entry programin 1995. Later, the client module was rewrittenfor Windows95 and new modules were added.The Kampala Branch now has almost 15,000 cli-ents and has registered over 150,000 savings trans-actions and 6,000 loans in their database.Development at UWFT took about three years,from 1995 to 1998. As of today, development ofthe software product continues, and more andmore organizations want their requirements in-corporated into the program. Toward the end ofJuly 1998, LOAN PERFORMER became availableas a commercial product. Since then many otherUgandan and non-Ugandan microfinance insti-tutions have started working with LOAN PER-FORMER. The installed base as of today is about50 organizations with more than 100 sites. LOANPERFORMER is now used by CGAP as one ofthe ten major off-the-shelf software packages formicrofinance institutions.

Established as a trust in 1984, UWFT began op-erations in 1987. Its mission is to economically em-power low-income women by providing aconsolidated package of products and servicesthat includes savings and credit. All of UWFT’sclients live below the poverty line and 80 percentlive in rural areas. The majority are in commerce(64 percent), with a smaller percentage in services(15 percent), agriculture (14 percent), and manu-facturing (8 percent).

Among the first to mobilize savings from low-income women in rural and urban areas, UWFTcollects savings from its clients and deposits thefunds into savings and fixed deposit accountswith commercial banks. For the fiscal year end-ing June 2001, the portfolio outstanding was

$3,156,515 and the amount of savings mobilizedfrom clients was $1,704,192. It now reaches 31,656borrowers and 43,594 savers. Women are able toaccess their personal accounts at local post officesand banks at computer terminals.

Investing in training for women

Enabling women to understand the potentials ofICT in its three dimensions (Figure 1 above) isfrequently the critical turning point. Too often ICTis seen purely as a set of connectivity tools, andnot as networking, information management, orbusiness system tools. In a recent survey of fortyAfrican women entrepreneurs,15 less than half feltcomfortable using computers but only nine re-spondents did not have access to a computer. Witha little keyboard training, many of these womenwould make use of the computer as a businesstool quickly and comfortably. All the businessesresponding to the survey had access to the tele-phone, 88 percent had access to and used elec-tronic mail, and 79 percent had email addresses.Only one business had a web page, and another’swas in process of construction. Without excep-tion, all the businesswomen were keen to learnmore, own a computer, and access Internet con-nectivity. About 80 percent of the businesses werein the textiles and garment design sector. Whenasked for specifics on their training needs, thesurvey respondents singled out• Easier access to in-house training and more

diffusion of basic ICT awareness• Introduction to specialized computer pack-

ages adapted for small businesses• Retaining trained staff and the constant need

to retrain.

The women unanimously called for access tosponsorship for basic training, distance learning,and more exposure to the technologies. None ofthe responses contained any concern about secu-rity or legal issues, which may be because thesebusinesses are still at the very basic level of com-puter use, and are not conducting any transac-tion over the Internet.

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Table 2 presents a simple matrix of the ICT needsand training priorities of women running differ-ent sizes of businesses, gathered from trainingexperiences in recent years.16 While by no meanscomprehensive, this matrix can serve as an indi-cator of the different levels of expertise and ob-jectives that the World Bank may need to addressfor women-run MSE. The matrix, however, doesnot reflect the complexity of women entrepre-neurs, who are not a homogeneous group. Targetgroups include women, women entrepreneurs,women entrepreneurs of microindustries, andwomen who are active in SME, MSE, andwomen’s self-help organizations.

A summary review of the training content bringsup the following:• A primary objective should be to remove pre-

conceptions about the technology.• ICT lends itself to problem-based learning.

Women are unlikely to invest the time re-quired to explore ICT on their own, but aremore inclined to ask questions and to deter-mine their training needs in a workshop.

• MSE users still have not grasped the full im-plications of virtual networks, user supportgroups, freeware, shareware, and basic com-puterization software. Diffusion, and makingthese basic tools free and user-friendly are thefirst steps to taking businesswomen across thethreshold to full ICT use.

• There is a growing trend toward investing inICT training for small-scale businesswomenwith new “sponsors” joining the small rankof agencies that support MSE development,such as the Inter-American DevelopmentBank’s recent initiatives for women in CostaRica and Bolivia.

Case Study 5: The International Women’sTribune Centre (IWTC) CD tool, Uganda

Working in partnership with the International De-velopment Research Centre’s Eastern and South-ern Africa Office, IWTC developed a training toolthat offers direct access to information forwomen who are among the most marginalized

in development — poor women with little or noreading ability. The starting place for this initia-tive is Africa and the starting point is a CD-ROM,Rural Women in Africa: Ideas for Earning Money.

Networking, special interest groups (SIG),and new alliances

Given that MSE have less access to formal mar-ket-support institutions than their larger counter-parts, networking is especially important.Unfortunately, in the competitive environmentthe tendency for the successful enterprise is notto network, or share information publicly, or con-sider strategic alliances with potential competi-tors. Encouraging MSE owners to pool resourcesor to join networks goes hand in hand with rais-ing awareness among small scale entrepreneursabout the global marketplace where they mustconduct their business.

Case Study 6: Tortas Peru

Initiated in 1996, Tortas Peru is a woman-ownedenterprise that uses ICT to reach and service awider market to sell cakes and desserts. A net-work of housewives takes Internet orders for theircakes and uses the net to provide baking tips inSpanish and English. The company covers themajor cities of Peru, including Lima, and guaran-tees delivery within seventy-two hours. TortasPeru also targets over 2 million Peruvians wholive outside the country. Through their websitehttp://www.tortasperu.com.pe/, clients in SanFrancisco or New Zealand can send a home-madecake to friends or family in Cusco, Lima,Arequipa, Trujillo, Ica, Juliaca, and Puno. Thetortas are prepared and delivered by one of thehousewives in the network. Customers can or-der a cake from a catalog and pay by credit card,check, money order, or electronic payment to thebank. The order is sent by e-mail and dependingon the destination they contact a housewife-mem-ber of the network to bake and deliver the cake.

To maintain low prices, the company is basedmainly on the Internet, making it necessary for thehousewife-member to be familiar with computers.

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Entrepreneur Infrastructure Interventions Informatics and applicationsinterests/ ICT (training needs)dimension

Microbusiness Cellular phone, Access to micro Usually interested in getting an emailsometimes an credit scheme. account set up.email account potential client(through public for mobile (phone) Wants to understand the web, the functionsaccess point) based financial of search engines, how to find information,

services and navigate the web.

Requires introduction to concepts of strategicalliances, and B2B (business to business) businessmodels.

Needs to access information on governmentprograms, credit schemes, market prices.

Small enterprise Cellular phone, Some financial Wants to use listservs, group discussions,email account intermediary user support groups, and virtual networks.access at public services may beor other cyber delivered with Interested in applying simple accounting software,center ICT, or by curious about other MSE-specific applications.

traditional means. Looking for online courses.May havegraduated from Wants to understand how software can bemicrocredit downloaded off the Net. Interested in “free”schemes to formal software until it is understood that “free”banking and credit means nonproprietary as opposed to nonmonetary.sources.

Curious about other web sites that marketMarketing through products or services, digitization of images, andtrade shows. secure transactions over the web.

Usually member of Keen to compare business models with like-sizeda business support businesses.organization.

Beginning to understand the businessInterested in ICT opportunities of providing telecommunicationpolicy and likely services to other businesses.impact onbusiness.

Medium-size Cellular phone, Usually a member Looking at different operating systems,enterprise personal computer, of local Chamber of curious about LINUX.

dial-up connection Commerce orbusiness association. Beginning to computerize some basic business

processes, payroll, accounts. A few beginning toUsually a B2B link information systems within the business.networker, even if Interested to compare and use CD ROM businessICT is not applied tools. Most are keen to set up a business web sitein the network. and build virtual company profiles.

Table 2. Dimensions of ICT and training needs — MSE matrix

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MSE: A Gender Analysis

Peru has an innovative national network of pub-lic computer booths where Internet access ischeaper than phone calls. Prior to starting in thetortas business the housewives in the project haveto participate in a course designed to give themthe basic knowledge of marketing, preparationof the tortas, and the use of Internet tools for e-commerce. The most important experience fromthese courses is computer knowledge. With justthree hours of instruction the women learn to usee-mail, find the web site, and interact with cli-ents. Once they familiarize themselves with thesetools, they can use public computer booths andget the information they needed.

Information-only networks

The networking element of ICT is invaluable andoften understated. There are research studies thatmeasure, or attempt to measure, the results ofnetworking on entrepreneurial activity.17 Thegrowing numbers of women joining, forming, andusing virtual networks is almost a natural phe-nomenon of the Internet. At the time of writing,it is fair to make the following assumptions:• While virtual networks of women entrepre-

neurs at national level tend to be informationonly (as opposed to commercial) hubs, someare quite sophisticated in managing informa-tion between members.

• Often a web site entity is an indication of theexistence of a nonvirtual business network.

• It is impossible to measure the amount ofbusiness traffic between (informal) wirelessnetworks, but it must play a significant partin MSE business links.

• Costs of hosting sites are still prohibitive forMSE and MSE associations and many sitescontinue to be hosted overseas.

• There are a number of “externally driven”initiatives to pull businesswomen together.

• Successful, self-sustaining virtual networks ofwomen that work together under one busi-ness entity are few and far between.

Les femmes chefs d’entreprises mondiales18 (FCEM)(World Association of Women Entrepreneurs) was

established in 1945 and now hosts a web site thatlinks together members from thirty-three coun-tries. This has allowed them to be interactive; theyboast a marketing list of around 45,000 members.The more recently established National Associa-tion of Women Entrepreneurs of Malaysia19

(NAWEM), formed in 1993, now has 170 mem-bers. The Alliance of Micro-Enterprise Develop-ment Practitioners20 is a subsection of the Womenand Enterprise section of WomensNet, a SouthAfrican initiative still in the making. Organiza-tion of Women in International Trade (OWIT) isan example of a special interest group that bringstogether women exporters from developingand industrialized countries.

At the time of writing, there are a number of newinitiatives underway. In association with col-leagues in the Gender Promotion Programme(GENPROM), and with the support of the U.K.Department for International Development(DFID), a global program aimed at assistingwomen entrepreneurs to gain better access to in-ternational markets is being initiated. This willexplore innovative approaches to help womenproducers and entrepreneurs to bridge the prod-uct-market divide.

The ILO’s Women’s Entrepreneurship Develop-ment and Gender Equality services (WEDGE)supports women entrepreneurs through a num-ber of innovative services and alliances in Cam-bodia, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand,Viet Nam, and a number of African countries thatshould be examined for their use of ICT.21 Newalliances between government, financial interme-diaries, and small business sectors are also in themaking in support of MSE development.

Case Study 7: Industrial InformationNetwork, Pakistan

In May 2002, United Nations Industrial Develop-ment Organization (UNIDO) launched the Indus-trial Information Network (IIN) in Pakistan incollaboration with SME Bank, COMSATS Insti-tute of Information Technology22 and Small and

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Medium-Size Enterprise Development Author-ity.23 Poised to service the development of SMEin the country, IIN aims to be the largest sourceof information generation, exchange, and dis-semination for providing value-added support toSME in Pakistan. The SME Bank will extend itslending and other financial services and financevarious projects on recommendation fromUNIDO. UNIDO will help identify an agreednumber of new SME clusters as well as potential“cluster development agents”. It will also providetechnical expertise to improve the efficiency ofthe selected clusters and their members.

Assistance in improving the quality of products;access to new and unexplored markets; informa-tion on the new technology; distance learning andtraining opportunities for SME; and a platformfor investors to invest in this sector in Pakistanwere some of the benefits expected from this ini-tiative. Information regarding rules, regulations,and laws; opening of new export avenues andvirtual shops; business information centers andcybercafes where people can learn about IIN willalso be made available on the portal.

New markets, increased competitiveness,virtual cooperatives

MSE entrepreneurs are hoping that ICT will trans-form their businesses. While these are early daysyet in the use of ICT by small businesses in de-veloping countries, there is no doubt that man-agement information systems (MIS) and newconnectivity tools are introducing changes to theways in which small firms do business. ICT in-creasingly plays a role in all aspects of competi-tiveness: the converging technologies compensatefor size and distance and enable companies togrow and “go global”. Electronic conferencing,the Internet, electronic commerce, electronic net-working, and home working via the Internet aresome of the key technological innovations thatallow women entrepreneurs to be competitiveand creative in their effort to develop their busi-nesses.

Case Study 8: AQ Solutions, Ghana

AQ solutions is an offshore outsourcing companythat provides software development and otherrelated services through professionals working inAccra. Established in 2000 by a Ghanaian busi-nesswoman based in Connecticut, AQ Solutionsnow employs twenty-five people in Ghana whoservice American companies. The company so-licits women employees by making presentationsat educational institutions and head hunting fortop students graduating in computer sciences.

About 85 percent of Ghana’s ICT sector employeeswork in end-user support, and only about 10 per-cent of them are women. At the same time, whilethe national government supports a telecommuni-cations policy that encourages ICT business devel-opment, employment laws in the country actuallyban women from working in the evenings — andthis presents a major obstacle to women’s employ-ment in the ICT sector, particularly for those whowant and need to work odd hours.

Business service providers, extending ICTsupport to women

Enterprise support agencies, business intermedi-aries, and the whole array of membership andnonmembership agencies that are broadly re-ferred to as business service providers (BSP) canplay a critical role in supporting women entre-preneurs. This is a highly neglected area, an im-pression that is confirmed by the Donor Guidelinesfor Business Development Services that state thatit is a field yet to be developed (Hofstede, 2002).

Chambers of commerce and industry and smallenterprise representative associations are activein practically every developing country. Com-pared to their counterparts in developed econo-mies,24 membership is not obligatory and theyoften lack the funding and the political clout re-quired to service their members. In most Africanand Asian countries, it is still the governmentagencies that, for the most part, dominate MSEsupport programs.

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Chambers of commerce do have the potential toplay an important role in facilitating the growthof ICT-based services for local enterprises and forthe markets they service, but are often under-resourced themselves. All the same, in many waysthey are ideally positioned to cater to the e-busi-ness needs of MSE. They:• Can straddle both the private and the public

sectors• Can be demand-driven, customer-led organi-

zations• Already provide business development ser-

vices• Are an intermediary agent that MSE have ac-

cess to.

There are at least three critical areas that requireexpansion and consolidation:• ICT and ICT-related services: BSP can comple-

ment their existing services — providingweb-based support — by introducing an in-tegrated platform for the services they offer.

• ICT-related services targeted at women: cli-ent-specific business services that reach outto women entrepreneurs, catering to their in-terests and needs, could include women-onlytraining sessions, and incentive packages forwomen-run businesses.

• New alliances, user groups and networks:initiated and maintained by BSP to encour-age membership and involvement of women-owned MSE, these new alliances can use ICTto pull together a number of different play-ers. Businesswomen can be given a seat at thedrawing board to make the best use of busi-ness networks.

The recommendations and examples that followare by no means comprehensive, but serve to sug-gest the range of existing services that can be of-fered to MSE and to women to enable both tointegrate ICT into their business activities.

ICT services targeted at women

It is important to recognize the different startingpoints of men and women entrepreneurs, so that

a BSP may cater to demand-driven client-spe-cific needs differently. A BSP will do well toconduct regular membership drives aimed atwomen entrepreneurs and market client-spe-cific business services that attract women en-trepreneurs.

Case Study 9: Centro de Promocion Integral(CEPI) business service center, Peru

CEPI is a private services center (externallyfunded) that enables SME access to large orders,by coordinating the work of SME in the clothingindustry. CEPI is based in a workshop especiallyequipped for sample products, participates ininvitations to tender, and subsequently monitorsthe completion of orders through technicians.CEPI guarantees that orders will meet both thenecessary quality standards and delivery dead-lines within the SME. CEPI also supports twobranches outside Lima. The system makes it pos-sible, on the one hand, for the SME to gain newclients and, on the other hand, to transfer the pro-duction of larger orders to the smallest enter-prises, thus contributing to the move towarddecentralization in the region.

After eight years of operation, CEPI undertook aparticipatory diagnostic to acquire a better un-derstanding of their female clients, and to knowmore about their business potential, family situ-ation, and so on. The findings of this diagnosticallowed CEPI to make important gender-orientedadjustments in their services.

Case Study 10: Association pour le soutienet l’appui a la femme entrepreneur (ASAFE),Cameroon

ASAFE, an association to support and helpwomen entrepreneurs, was created in 1989 to pro-vide information, business support, and bankingservices to its membership of medium and small-scale business-owners who live and trade inBenin, Cameroon, Chad, Guinea, and Mali. It hasfocused its attention on the needs of women en-trepreneurs through awareness raising, counsel-ing, providing specific training programs such as

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bookkeeping and accounting, and through deliv-ering credit support.

The demand for ASAFE’s services is not onlygrowing, but is also changing in nature as womenentrepreneurs face increasing competition in theface of globalization. With domestic markets satu-rated and the possibilities of using informationtechnologies to access overseas markets, ASAFEis taking the unprecedented step of introducingan IT platform to consolidate upon and amplifyits existing functions.25

ASAFE realized that introducing an ICT platformto its existing functions would transform thescope, depth, and efficiency of these services, andopen channels for new functions. ASAFE’s ICTstrategy has evolved over three phases: first,understanding how ICT might be used to supportcurrent functions; second, determining the physi-cal infrastructure that would house an ICT platform;and third, identifying the kind of connectivity mostappropriate to support this ICT platform.

Business incubation: the next step

Business incubation, arguably the next step toproviding business support services, can:• Nurture a young MSE by providing services

such as raising the profile of young businessesand attracting local sponsorship, organizingtrade and marketing fairs, promoting productand process technology upgrades, and manag-ing office space on a shared, affordable basis

• Provide the financial, marketing, and designsupport, and the managerial training that theemerging entrepreneur requires

• Foster the internal dynamics and businessnetworks and contacts that are critical to thelaunch of successful ventures.26

Case Study 11: GrameenPhone, Bangladesh

At the end of 2001, Iqbal Quadir demonstratedhow a venture in a developing country can beprofitable to investors and provide a useful ser-vice to the community, when GrameenPhone, thecellular phone company he founded in Bangladesh,

made $27 million in pretax profits. It turned thatprofit after just five years — far sooner than manyindustrialized country start-ups. With help fromTelenor, the Norwegian telecommunications gi-ant, and Grameen Bank, an established lender inBangladesh, GrameenPhone began operations in1997. Investment to date has totaled nearly $200million. The enterprise has two tiers: it sellsphones and time to urban customers, and it spon-sors Village Phone, a program in which peoplewithout phone service in rural areas take outsmall loans for cellphones and buy air time at cost.Most borrowers are women; Grameen Bank’sfounder, Muhammad Yunus, claims that womenare better credit risks. The borrowers then chargeother villagers the market rate to make calls.GrameenPhone now has 575,000 subscribers in12,000 villages, and the number is rising rapidly.27

Case Study 12: Gender Sensitive VentureCapital, Thailand

The Gender Sensitive Venture Capital (GSVC)project started in 1993 to introduce a new finan-cial instrument — commercial loan and equityfinancing — especially to women entrepreneurswho ran small businesses. The project promoteswomen’s ownership of business and financialassets, and trains women in entrepreneurial skills.The aim is to:• Provide women in disadvantaged rural areas

of Thailand with access to capital for enter-prise development activities

• Provide opportunities for women to own as-sets and establish linkages with mainstreamfinancial institutions, so that they can increaseand retain control over their incomes

The project began with a seed capital of $150,000and has financed MSE in bread making, silk flowerproduction, pottery, and retail fish sales.

A guide to gender-sensitive ICT develop-ment for MSE

This is meant to guide Bank task managers andother development practitioners who, it is hoped,will consider each stage from project design topost-implementation.

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Stage I: A depository of information

The first stage involves building a depository ofinformation on differences in the way men andwomen would run their MSE. These are sug-gested steps to build such a depository:• Gather information on the role of women in

financial management, local business prac-tices, in decisionmaking and its relation totheir earnings, responsibilities, and ambitions.

• Determine existing systems of financial andbusiness management that women have ac-cess to, what kinds of business associationsand service centers women already tap into,and what needs are not currently met.

• Involve businesswomen and their represen-tative organizations in discussions on the rolethat ICT can play and learn more about theirneeds and objectives.

Stage II: Setting objectives

This stage involves processing the informationgathered and setting collective objectives basedon World Bank goals. When setting objectives thefollowing need to be considered:• Identify those women-run businesses that are

viable businesses and not just income-for-sur-vival initiatives.

• Design and conduct training “outreach” work-shops that provide an “applied training” envi-ronment to enable businesswomen to under-stand the three dimensions of ICT in business.

• Work with regulatory bodies to determinewhat policies need to be implemented in or-der to ensure that women have equal accessto ICT with men.

• Identify the support services that wouldprove helpful to women entrepreneurs; de-termine the feasibility of the World BankGroup providing and supporting some ofthese client-specific services.

• Determine strategies to ensure that women’sperspectives and input are incorporated intothe decisionmaking processes around WorldBank Group initiatives.

Stage III: Implementation

The implementation stage brings together thepredetermined objectives and strategy. Outreachand access are two important features to focuson. There is need to ensure that businesswomenare encouraged to become not only end-users ofICT but also designers of applications. A commu-nity-based approach to reach out to business-women and their networks can provide the bestmeans for including women from the start.Telecenters are a good example of such an ap-proach.

Telecenters operate under many labels: “commu-nity technology centers,” “virtual village halls,”“telelearning centers,” and “telecottages” aresome of them (Anderson, 1998). In the last fewyears, development agencies and private sectororganizations have established telecenters in bothrural and urban areas, to tap the growing demandfor telecommunication services in both develop-ing countries and in disadvantaged communitiesin industrialized nations. Telecenters usuallyserve a specific community. In rural areas, the tar-get community may be a set of villages. In largecities, the telecenter may serve particular neigh-borhoods within the city, such as low-income ar-eas. There are a number of telecenter initiativesthat ensure that their outreach includes womenor are exclusively geared toward women.Telecenters can build on these models to allocatetime and space exclusively for e-marketplace ac-tivities that target businesswomen by:• Conducting active outreach, advertising, and

sponsoring training events. A side productwould be increased use of telecenter servicesby a wider audience whose comfort level in-creases with each visit.

• Sponsoring training events to ensure that ini-tial training and sensitization for business-women is nominal in cost, thus reaching outto the small business owner in low-incomeurban and rural communities.

• Ensuring physical accessibility. This includesnot only reasonable and safe distances forwomen, but also possibly extending opening

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and closing hours to reach women whose pre-ferred times may be early mornings or lateevenings. Some telecenters may also consideroffering other services such as childcare fa-cilities.

• Extending beyond training services to providewomen with an opportunity to gain invalu-able work experience within the telecenter it-self.

• Ensuring relevance of services to business-women who must make choices among com-peting demands for their time. Telecenters canensure relevance by providing training andservices directly linked to women’s needs,particularly those driven by economic pres-sures and family responsibilities.

• Continuing participation strategies. Telecenterscan only serve women’s needs if the barrierswomen face are well understood, and suchunderstanding will emerge only with thedirect involvement of women in decisionsabout operations and management. Womenclients may identify needs and obstacles thatare invisible to telecenter staff. They may alsobe able to help develop effective, efficientways to meet those needs.

• Developing alliances with women’s businesseducation institutions, chambers of com-merce, and other intermediary business asso-ciations that already have a strong business-women membership base.

Stage IV: Evaluation

The following key data, qualitative and quanti-tative, should be collected and considered in thisphase:• Collect average monthly statistics on how

many women participants come to trainingevents, how many drop out and why, howmany return to further training events.

• What are the main marketing research sitesthat women entrepreneurs frequent.

• What software, software training, and supportservices do women entrepreneurs in the re-gion prefer, and what is the upward trend inthe use of ASP services.

• How have women responded to the financialand support services offered. How have theybenefited personally, in the context of theirfamily, and with respect to larger society.

• Which groups of women have or have notbeen reached with the services.

Stage V: Maintaining flexibility in programdesign

A feedback mechanism can translate the lessonslearned from the previous stage into managementdecisions. Staff and clients should collaborate todetermine if and how the program design shouldbe changed to improve results.

How to build on the momentum

The World Bank Group has a substantial portfo-lio of investments in SME related activities. In thefiscal year running from June 2001 to 2002, theWorld Bank and the IFC together provided $5billion in new SME support.28 The Bank clearlyrecognizes that small businesses are a powerfulforce against poverty. So far the focus has beenon supporting a better business environment,capacity building, technical assistance, access tocapital, and information technology. This is afoundation that can be built upon.

A number of IFC’s SME initiatives include women,or have employed women’s groups in cooperativebusiness efforts. India’s Self-employed Women’sAssociation (SEWA), for example, is preparing tomarket its handicraft products overseas. IFC pro-vided $400,000 in seed capital and technical as-sistance to upgrade SEWA’s trade facilitationcenter.

All the same, strategic steps are required at thepolicy level to ensure that the Bank addresseswomen’s needs in all its MSE development projects.These may include:• Incorporating the Operations Manual guide-

lines on gender, ICT, and MSE development, inpolicies that will impact project management

• Examining how the Bank’s microfinanceprogram, CGAP, responds to the specific

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needs of women• Evaluating the impact of SME initiatives on

women, and providing gender-disaggregateddata

• Furthering the goals of the World Bank Groupin technical assistance and capacity buildingthrough service providers, by extending theseservces to include women

• Incorporating gender awareness in all project-reporting procedures.

By building on its commitment to the MilleniumDevelopment Goals, the Bank can:• Champion MSE development by underpin-

ning this to the Bank’s and International Mon-etary Fund’s (IMF) poverty reduction strate-gies and country assistance strategies (CAS)

• Build alliances with national governmentsproactive in MSE development

• Support women-run MSE, for example,through the Small Enterprise Donor Commit-tee, which has incorporated neither ICT norgender in its agenda so far

• Take the lead in promoting women entrepre-neurs by investing in their businesses.

The Small Enterprise Donor Committee servesmainly as a forum for member agencies to shareinformation, organize conferences, and producedocuments such as the “Guiding Principles”drawn up for microfinance (in 1995) and businessdevelopment services (in 2001). The Committeeserves more to coordinate work that several agen-cies are doing in a common area, rather than todirect the work. There is interest among some ofthe agencies in information on how ICT and gen-der may relate to MSE, but at present these donot appear to be very likely areas for coordinatedwork. The Donor Committee could be a possiblechannel for disseminating knowledge that hasalready been developed on gender–ICT issuesthat relate to MSE.

In Asia, national governments have been ac-knowledging the roles of women-run MSE forsome time now, and the APEC Readiness Initia-

tive 2000: a partnership of the Business Commu-nity with APEC economies is one of the few as-sessment guides that addressed policy supportfor MSE.

The Bank’s role in today’s internationaltrade regime — a final note

The success of local efforts to address povertydepends on supportive policies that promote andsustain the economic viability of small income-generating projects, and help to develop domes-tic markets. The trade and investment regimeinstitutionalized during the 1990s restricts deci-sionmaking at national levels in a way that isdetrimental to women. Trade rules continue tofavor transnational corporations at the cost ofcommunity-based, family-based, and other small-scale enterprises.

To quote a World Bank publication, Global Eco-nomic Prospects 2002, the average poor person sell-ing into global markets confronts barriers that areroughly twice as high as those facing the typicalnonpoor worker. The document suggests thatseizing the opportunity to reshape the globaltrade architecture will reduce poverty and lift anadditional 300 million people above the povertyline of $2 a day. In 2002 the developed world spent$300 billion on agricultural subsidies to its ownfarming communities, and $8 billion in agricul-tural aid to developing countries. This is tanta-mount to a net reverse flow of resources from thedeveloping world to the develped world. Untilthese more fundamental aspects of trade and aidrelations between and within developed and de-veloping countries are addressed, project-basedassistance for MSEs will provide at best short-term palliatives.

Any work on sustainable MSE development,therefore, has to take a hard look at trade regimebarriers to local economic development and self-reliance.

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Notes

1. www.unifem-eseasia.org/resources/globaleconomy

2. Keynote Speech, Chamber of CommerceAnnual Convention, Mohamed Muhsin, VicePresident and Chief Information Officer, The WorldBank Group, October 2001.

3. See the Beijing+5 Outcomes document for ananalysis of the negative effects of the continuingdebt crises and global economic integration onwomen.

4. http://www.unifem.undp.org/trade/text/tsa8.htm — UNDP study on Trade in Services andWomen’s Employment.

5. See “Engendering Adjustment for the 1990s,”Report of the Commonwealth Expert Group onWomen and Structural Adjustment, 1989.

6. World Bank Group Review of Small BusinessActivities 2001: its definition of medium sizedenterprise is — up to 300 employees, total assets ofup to $15 million and total annual sales of up to $15million.

7. Networked Intelligence for Development,2002, training for women entrepreneurs, back-ground analysis, www.networkedintelligence.com

8. See Claire Maneja’s thesis for impact of socio-political models on women in Kyrgyztan is anexample of the complex context for women intransition (post-Soviet) economies and how theirentrepreneurial activities are culturally and eco-nomically mediated. M.A. thesis, GeorgetownUniversity. http://cct.georgetown.edu/thesis/ClaireManeja.pdf.See also “Women, Weaving, andthe Web: An Analysis of Rural Indian Women’sAgency in Attaining Economic Empowerment,”Cottage Industry — Global Market, 2002.

9. Suggested further reading on women ininformal sectors and income implications areavailable from fact sheets put up by “Women inInformal Employment Globalizing and Organizing”at www.wiego.org

10. Further information also available fromwww.wiego.org and from Simel Esim, “See HowThey Grow: Business Development Services forWomen’s Business Growth.”

11. Networked Intelligence for Development,training experiences 1999 to 2002.

12. That is not to downplay the challenge ofcapital investment for connectivity. Most MSE,however, do not have to concern themselves about

infrastructural investment. In India, for instance alocal entrepreneur with $1000 can get a phone, PC,web cam, speakers, UPS, and printer with Indianlanguage software. Profits of $2/day pay for thiscost. (“Connecting rural areas of developing na-tions,” by Ashok Jhunjhunwala, TeNet group IITMadras, conference presentation, Montreal GlobalCongress for Community Networking in the DigitalEra, October 2002).

13. See www.cgap.org for further information.14. Interview with Hany Assaad, Head of Micro

and Small Business Finance and Financial Technolo-gies, International Finance Corporation, June 2002.

15. Findings from a sample survey of e-com-merce use and capacity at a meeting of the AfricanFederation of Women Entrepreneurs, 2000, con-ducted by Networked Intelligence for Development.

16. NID regional training courses for womenentrepreneurs: Cameroon 1999, Lithuania 2001,Tanzania 2002.

17. One study put together a model in whichthe structure of the network linking the members ofa population of entrepreneurs affects the amount ofknowledge each has available to apply in theprocess of production. This in turn affects theiroutput, and under certain assumptions, leads tosustained economic growth. Abigail Barr, “Socialcapital and technical information flows in theGhanaian manufacturing sector,” Oxford EconomicPapers 52 (2000).

18. www.fcem.org19. www.nawem.org.my20. http://womensnet.org.za/enterprise/

mdep.html21. ILO: The Services Wedge: Developing

support services for women entrepreneurs. WithinIFP/SEED, special emphasis is placed on “increas-ing economic opportunities for women”, as well ason “gender mainstreaming”. A unit has beendeveloped on Women’s Entrepreneurship Develop-ment and Gender Equality, or WEDGE, to spear-head SEED’s work in this field.

22. www.comsats.net.pk23. www.smeda.org.pk24. Support for MSE in developed countries

mostly comes from associations, federations andchambers of commerce. In most European countries,North America, and Japan, there is a strong move-ment to create small firm representative bodies thatare distinct from the larger associations. The mainpurpose of these bodies is to advocate and lobby

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governments to respond to the interests of small-scale businesses in the formulation of nationalpolicies. In many of these countries, membership inthe local chamber of commerce is obligatory.

25. www.asafe.org26. Further information available from

www.unido.org27. “Helping the Poor, Phone by Phone,” New

York Times, May 26, 2002.28. 2002 review of small business activities, IFC,

The World Bank Group, Small and Medium Enter-prises Department.

REFERENCES

Anderson, J. 1998. “Applying the lessons of partici-patory communication and training to ruraltelecenters.” The First Mile of Connectivity, D.Richardson and L. Paisley ed. Rome: Food andAgriculture Organization.

Barry, Nancy. July 1995. “The missing links: finan-cial systems that work for the majority.” GlobalPolicy Forum Report.

Cagatay, Nilufer, Diane Elson, and Caren Grown(ed.). July 2000. World Development. Special Issueon Growth, Trade, Finance and Gender Inequal-ity.

Eggleston, Karen, Robert Jansen and RichardZeckhauser. 2002. Chapter 7: “Information andCommunication Technologies, Markets, andEconomic Development,” in The Global Informa-tion Technology Report 2001-2002: Readiness for theNetworked World. World Economic Forum.

Giri, Jacques. “Formal and informal small enter-prises in the long term future of sub-SaharanAfrica,” World Bank LTPS, background paper.

Hofstede, Gerry. September 2002. “Gender bestpractices and quality of business developmentservices.” ILO/SEED Third Annual Seminar onBusiness Development Services, Turin.

ILO. The Knowledge Wedge: Developing theknowledge base on women entrepreneurs —what have we learnt. www.ilo.org/public/english/

Melo, Jose Ricardo. 2000. “Telecommunications andthe Poor.” Paper presented at Infrastructure forDevelopment: Private Solutions and the Poor.London.

Snyder, Margaret. 2000. Women in African Economies:From Burning Sun to Boardroom. Kampala:

Fountain Publishers.Taggart, Nancy. 2002. E-commerce in developing

countries: opportunities for women. Academy forEducational Development for USAID, Washing-ton, D.C.

UNCTAD. 2001. “E-commerce and DevelopmentReport.”

UNCTAD. 2002. “Gender, E-commerce and Devel-opment, E-Commerce and DevelopmentReport,” 3.

UNIFEM and CIDA. 1998. Women in a Global Economy:challenge and opportunity in the current AsianEconomic Crises. Bangkok: South East AsiaGender Equity program.

United Nations. 2000. The World’s Women. NewYork.

World Bank. 2002. Global Economic Prospects 2002.Washington, D.C.

World Bank. 2001. World Bank Group review ofsmall business activities. Washington, D.C.

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4Women and ICT:

Social Service Delivery andPolitical Participation

As the ICT sector unravels unprecedented ben-efits and opportunities the world over, a wide-spread concern is how do women, especially indeveloping countries, stand to gain from thesedevelopments. How far are women in the devel-oping world really benefiting as passive recipi-ents of the latest advances in technology? Arethere social service delivery and e-governmentefforts that are tailored to benefit women in par-ticular? Are women using ICT for awareness gen-eration, networking, advocacy, and their ownpolitical empowerment?

There are lessons to be learned from the successand failure of other engendering efforts that canprovide the basis for designing new engender-ing programs.

This paper is based on case studies and data fromsecondary sources that describe the current sta-tus of social service delivery for women throughthe use of ICT. They also indicate the kind of ac-tions and proactive measures that can increasewomen’s economic and political empowerment

with the help of the ICT. Additionally, primarydata were collected for case studies such asTARAhaat where the organization was contacteddirectly for information.

ICT-led service delivery is expected to radicallyimprove the delivery of social services to the poor.Services can be delivered at convenient locationssaving on travel time; number of visits to deliv-ery points can be minimized; time taken to de-liver the services can be shortened. Often whengovernment is delivering the services, corruptioncan be minimized and transparency enhanced. Itis important to ascertain how far women benefitfrom such ICT-enhanced services. Do the serviceplanners and deliverers keep women at the cen-ter of their service design and delivery efforts?For example, in the delivery of health services,are there special programs geared to women’sneeds? Will ICT serve larger number of women,generate greater awareness among women aboutchild and health care, improve the mobility, reach,or effectiveness of the auxiliary nurse midwives(ANM) who deliver the medical and extension

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services to poor women? Do e-government ini-tiatives view women as a special category ofservice recipients with unique needs and pref-erences?

An equally important concern is political empow-erment. Do women use ICT to empower them-selves by networking, mobilize themselves aspressure groups, and give voice to their specialconcerns?

Social service delivery and politicalparticipation: a framework

ICT can directly help women in both social ser-vice delivery and political participation, but therole of women in relation to ICT is different ineach area. In social service delivery, women arerecipients of benefits arising from the use of ICT,especially through services such as health andeducation. Being passive beneficiaries of theseservices, women have little power to influence theuse of ICT. It is necessary, therefore, that theseservices are designed and implemented keepingin mind the special requirements, convenience,and preferences of women.

If empowerment can be defined as helping peopleacquire “choice” and “voice”, ICT provides anexcellent opportunity for women to gain both andtransform their status from passive beneficiariesto interested users and participants, active watch-dogs and influential advocates. ICT can be usedas a powerful tool to participate in governanceand in strengthening democracy. Use of ICT forpolitical participation by women represents theenabling factor by which women can assume anactive and assertive role and emerge as an influ-ential group. ICT can help empower women byproviding more information which was not avail-able earlier. For example, the power of e-mail tobring together a large group of widely dispersedpeople can help mobilize women around theirshared concerns. Also it is much cheaper to dissemi-nate one’s point of view through e-mail to a largenumber of concerned people. All these featuresof ICT help contribute to women’s empowerment.

Data collection

This paper uses case studies to understand howICT can provide greater convenience in the de-livery of social services, and increase the politicalparticipation of women. Thirteen case studieswere developed for this section. The case studieswere selected from a variety of secondary sourcesthat provide pointers for new policy initiativesin this area. Attempt has been made to analyzeeach case in terms of the context, women’s par-ticipation, facilitating and inhibiting factors,policy implications, and lessons to be drawn forengendering ICT. A conscious effort was made toinclude rural as well as urban experiences, andto report examples of a variety of activities un-dertaken in different regions and countries, es-pecially from the developing world. The lessonsindicate the replicability of these projects in a simi-lar context. The detailed case studies are pre-sented in Appendix 1 and 2.

Social service delivery

The case studies confirm that the use of ICT todeliver any kind of social service in developingcountries is currently very limited in scope andextent. Electronic delivery of services by govern-ments is largely confined to regulatory agencies,such as issue of certificates, licenses, and tax col-lection. There are very few examples of e-govern-ment where health and education services arebeing delivered through the use of ICT. In mostof these examples there is little focus on contentthat is especially useful for women or on servicesthat are primarily used by women. There aremany more examples of services delivered byprivate sector and NGOs working in the healthand education sectors. For example, in AndhraPradesh, India, ANMs use hand-held computersor the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) to recordservice data on mother and child health care andfamily planning. The use of PDA makes the taskof the ANMs less burdensome, increases effi-ciency in data collection and storage, and stream-lines the actual delivery of services.

Summaries of some case studies provide insights

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into the use of ICT for the benefit of women inthis sector. These cases reflect various possibili-ties for service delivery through ICT to womenliving in rural as well as urban areas. The casescover countries from different regions. The tech-nology for service delivery mentioned in themranges from the Internet to virtual reality com-puter program and simple radio technology.

Case Study 1: TARAhaat, India

Started by an NGO with a strong social commit-ment, TARAhaat is a business entity dedicatedto offering ICT-related services to the rural poorin central India. Located in a region where a tra-ditional view of women is still pervasive,TARAhaat offers women encouragement, train-ing, and economic opportunities through its net-work of franchised information-cum-educationkiosks. Its web site is designed to give informa-tion on education, health, government schemes,governance, women’s rights, and important is-sues concerning ordinary villagers. Out of theeighteen currently functional training centers thatprovide training in computer and Internet literacy,two are run by women, and almost every centerhas at least one woman instructor. Although bothgirls and boys attend the courses, the presence offemale instructors encourages more girls to comeforward for training and education in an other-wise conservative social milieu. Girl students of-ten outnumber the boys. The physical proximityof the training centers to their homes, presence ofsupportive women trainers who also serve as rolemodels for young girls, and the use of the ver-nacular language (since rural children, particu-larly girls, are not conversant in English) are someof the factors contributing to the success of thiseffort. Rural parents are now becoming more opento the idea of their daughters learning new skillsand becoming financially independent.

Case Study 2: Virtual Delivery Room,Slovenia

The Virtual Delivery Room (VIDERO) project inurban Slovenia is a successful prototype of anInternet-based virtual reality interactive medical

training program that allows instructors to guidethe delivery and resuscitation of a virtual humaninfant. Started in collaboration with the SystemSoftware Laboratory, Stanford University, andHewlett Packard, the project allows trainees tolearn from their mistakes without endangeringlives of mothers and newborns. This convergenceof the latest tools in the new medical and Internettechnologies will ensure safer childbirth and im-proved health of new mothers.

Case Study 3: Association of Uganda WomenMedical Doctors, Uganda

A study of electronic dissemination of informa-tion on reproductive health by the Association ofUganda Women Medical Doctors (AUWMD),Kampala, demonstrates how basic Internet train-ing could help NGOs to scout for and downloadinformation on the latest advances in reproduc-tive health, make the information easy to under-stand for rural women, repackage it, and printand circulate it extensively through differentwomen’s groups, especially in rural areas. Thepositive feedback from NGOs, clinic records, andexit interviews with clients, as also an increase inrequests for smear tests at clinics in rural areas,were evidence that this combination of electronicand traditional methods of information dissemi-nation had lifted the awareness level and healthstatus of rural women.

Case Study 4: Rural Extended Services andCare for Ultimate Emergency Relief, Uganda

The Rural Extended Services and Care for Ulti-mate Emergency Relief (RESCUER) is anotherUgandan initiative adopted by the Ugandan Min-istry for Health, to reduce Uganda’s high mater-nal mortality rate through improved local careand referral. Arguing that it would be impracti-cal to provide expensive Internet facilities in ru-ral Uganda, but realizing the importance of quickcommunication for maternal health, the projecthas installed very high frequency (VHF) radiosat base stations, health units, referral hospitalambulances, and the medical officers’ vehiclesand given walkie-talkie sets to birth attendants.

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This has been a source of empowerment for thebirth attendants who can now deliver their ser-vices more promptly and can consult health offi-cials swiftly in case of emergency. The image ofmidwives has improved, they can attend to manymore patients, and their clients have greater con-fidence in them. Most importantly, maternal mor-tality has been reduced by 40 percent.

Does ICT make services more convenientfor women to access?

In most cases, the use of ICT makes services moreconvenient for both women and men to access.However, no special attention is paid to the needsof women in choosing the location where suchservices are offered or the timings when they areoffered. For example, individual entrepreneurshave set up nearly 600,000 public call booths inthe last decade in India. This was a very innova-tive initiative, which significantly increased theaccess to phone services. In designing this initia-tive no thought was given to promoting accessby women. For example, the policy did not pro-vide any incentives to women to apply for theownership of such telephone booths. Ownershipby women usually promotes access by women.Also, the policy did not specify a preferred loca-tion for such centers. Most of the centers in ur-ban and peri-urban areas are located in the homesof the male owners, making it inconvenient forwomen to use them.

Case Study 5: Gyandoot, India

The Gyandoot project, initiated by the MadhyaPradesh government at Dhar District in India,is an example of providing a platform for e-gover-nance through Intranet links between cybercafes.These kiosks were located on the roadside of cen-tral villages, and they were maintained and runon commercial lines by youth from local vil-lages. Using the local language, they providedinformation about agricultural commodities,examination results, and gave an opportunityto villagers to lodge complaints through e-mails about the inefficiencies in service deliv-ered by government officials. These complaints

were supposed to be redressed promptly.

Though the enthusiasm and efficacy of the projecthave lost their initial vigor, and there was no spe-cial effort to benefit women, the project succeededin helping a few rural women. For example, wid-ows in villages could send e-mails at negligiblecost to the local bureaucracy to put pressure re-garding payment of pensions that had not beenpaid for several months. Small town women trad-ers could check the latest market price for theirproducts through the computer so that they wereno longer at the mercy of middlemen.

Despite the project’s potential for benefitingwomen, the study team could not locate a singlewoman user. The waning effectiveness and de-clining popularity of the Gyandoot project andits kiosks indicate that any well-meaning effortneeds to be supplemented by hard work and pro-longed commitment to the project so as to ensureits sustainability. Also, in such fledgling experi-ments, the space for women needs to be carefullyprotected. If this is not done, women tend to getcrowded out.

Does ICT use promote greater use of theseservices by women?

Most of the service delivery applications are ofrecent origin and have not been evaluated in de-tail to determine whether the ICT use promotedgreater use of these services by women. How-ever, in one study of an e-government applica-tion commissioned by the World Bank, there isevidence that electronic delivery has promoteduse by women.

Case Study 6: FRIENDS, India

FRIENDS in Kerala, India, provide one-stop ser-vice centers to collect all kinds of payments madeto government agencies, including utility bills,university fees, and license fees. An evaluationof the project in 2002 showed that the number ofwomen making such payments at the FRIENDSservice centers was more (11.3 percent) than thenumber of women making similar payments at

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departmental counters (3.1 percent). Eighty per-cent of women respondents indicated a prefer-ence for using the FRIENDS center. Whether thishelps women in any particular way is difficult tostate.

Has ICT been used to facilitate provisionof services specifically for women?

In some cases ICT have been used to facilitateprovision of services specifically for women.

Case Study 7: Swayam Krishi Sangh, India

Swayam Krishi Sangh (SKS) provides microcreditto women’s self-help groups in Medak district ofAndhra Pradesh. For the last two years SKS hasbeen using a smart card — a plastic identifica-tion card for each member, which carries a chipthat can store transaction information. The use ofsmart cards has made the transactions faster andmore flexible as various data records that are usu-ally stored in branch offices need not be accessedto perform the transactions. This has led to anoverall increase in the efficiency and effectivenessof the microcredit program that exclusively tar-gets women.

Can appropriate content make ICT moreattractive to women?

It has often been argued that the appropriatenessor otherwise of the content can make ICT attrac-tive or unappealing to women. The following casestudy suggests that the design of appropriate con-tent is an important factor in promoting the useof ICT by women.

Case Study 8: Sub-secretariat forTelecommunications, Chile

The Sub-secretariat for Telecommunications(SUBTEL) of the Chilean government launched aprogram of IT integration that aimed at exposinga large section of the Chilean population to com-puters, the Internet, e-mail and other uses of digi-tal networks such as information sharing. Twocommunity networks were set up in rural areas.The content as well as the locations for telecenterswere chosen on the basis of a community survey.

At both locations the government partnered withlocal NGOs to promote the telecenters. Althoughone of the telecenters had to be closed down forwant of financial and infrastructural support, anevaluation of the pilot project revealed that 55percent users were women.

The high participation of women happened with-out any special effort, and only because the con-tent which included health, AIDS, domesticviolence, and assistance for women farmers, wasof direct relevance to women. Evidently, if theprogram content is valuable for women, theycome forward and benefit from a project. The casestudy underscores the importance of the contentif projects are to find acceptance among women.

Political participation

ICT presents powerful tools for women in devel-oping countries to come together and form influ-ential groups to safeguard their own interests,assert their rights, and to give voice to their aspi-rations.

ICT can be used effectively for women’s politicalempowerment in numerous ways. Informationtechnology can be used for networking womenfor political and social advocacy; for reducingtheir isolation and giving them a collective voice;for improving women’s access to informationabout government schemes of concern to women;and for encouraging women’s participation in thepolitical process. In essence, it enables women tofind allies across the globe and to consolidate sup-port for causes of special significance to women.The power of the new technology to supportwomen’s mobilization and information sharingwas highlighted dramatically during the FourthWorld Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995.Thousands of women from across the worldworked electronically to develop the agenda andinfluence the conference deliberations. Largenumbers of women accessed draft versions of the“Platform for Action” document, regional actionplans, and caucus documents. Documents weredownloaded, analyzed, alterations suggested,

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discussions initiated, support mobilized, and con-sensus reached, all with considerable IT help(Gittler, 1999).

The Beijing Conference provided a major boostto networking among women’s groups, particu-larly for political advocacy, and numerouswomen’s groups are actively networking today.For example, Virtual Sisterhood operates in all thesix official languages of the United Nations plusJapanese and German to disseminate information,give advice, and share experiences with womenaround the world. Women from developing coun-tries participate with enthusiasm. The LatinAmerican and Caribbean Committee for the De-fense of Women’s Rights is a new entrant, pro-viding advocacy for women’s rights. Anothernotable addition is a group called Arab WomenConnect. Operating from Jordan, it came into ex-istence in February 2001 and uses website, e-mail,and an electronic newsletter to raise importantissues such as questioning Arab governments’official position on women. Women members ofparliament in South Africa and West Africa us-ing e-mail to build solidarity are other examplesof networking for political empowerment (Hafkinand Taggart, 2001).

Since there are very few e-government applica-tions in use, the contact between women citizensand government has not increased through theuse of ICT. There are, however, examples whereICT use has improved the status of women in thefamily, community, and the larger society, therebyempowering them in some areas. Studies indicatethat in the case of GrameenPhone in Bangladesh,the ownership of mobile phones by women liv-ing in rural areas has improved the status of theowners. In many cases women’s earnings havebecome the main income for their families, in-creasing their importance and influence withinthe family. Both men and women in the villagesare now dependent on these cell phone ownersfor a valued service. The fact that women ownersneed to take the cell phones to other homes (incase of incoming calls), deliver messages, and

remain privy to many conversations, has giventhem more awareness, knowledge, and power intheir communities.

In the case studies reported here, there are manyexamples of web sites being used by women’sgroups to carry on discussions on gender-relatedissues. Women also use the web sites to draw pub-lic attention to government policies that need tobe changed. It is possible that the maximum im-pact of ICT on women is in the area of politicalparticipation and networking.

Case Study 9: Chasquinet, Ecuador

A nonprofit organization, Chasquinet in SantaRosa, Ecuador, demonstrates how ICT could beused to protect the economic interests of poorwomen, empowering them to assert their rightsand build international support for their cause.When the livelihood of the women who harvestmussels from the mangroves of Santa Rosa wasthreatened because the town mayor decided tobuy the mangroves to build shrimp farms in vio-lation of local environmental laws, Chasquinetand leaders of the Mussel Pickers Associationdecided to garner support for their cause. Womenmembers were trained in local telecenters to carryforward the information campaign. These impov-erished mussel pickers needed to be convincedthat they had the right to make legitimate de-mands and feel valued as women. Through sus-tained training and encouragement, and withguidance, these women could use the Internet tolaunch an information campaign and draw theattention of ecological activists in Latin Americaand the Caribbean to their plight. As a result ofthe pressure mounted through women’s use ofthe Internet and other information outlets, thegovernment had to issue a directive ordering ahalt on the construction of shrimp farms.

Case Study 10: Women’s Information andCommunication Technology, Kenya

The objective of the Women’s Information andCommunication Technology (WICT) project inKenya was to develop a methodology to enable

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the poorest members of the community to par-ticipate in decisionmaking at the policy levelthrough the use of ICT. The project was based insome informal settlements for the poor in Nairobi.These settlements suffered from overcrowding,disease, poverty, and lack of basic amenities likeelectricity and running water. Though manywomen played a key role in community devel-opment and neighborhood improvement,women’s concerns were completely ignored bythe policymakers in the government. The WICTproject focused on creating opportunities for par-ticipation by these poor women at the policylevel. Selected women from these settlementswere given extensive training in the use of thevideo camera and other related skills such asscript preparation. They made videos in Swahilititled “Telling Our Story”, which vividly capturedthe reality of living in these settlements. Launchedceremoniously in an assembly of policymakers,these videos became powerful tools for womento share their viewpoints and influence the think-ing at the policy level. The women who madethese videos have acquired a reputation for theirthoughtful and authentic reporting of immediateproblems. In times of civic unrest they are invitedto cover the events and officials often seek theiradvice and suggestions. They earn additionalmoney from the documentary assignments theyreceive from time to time. Many young girls seetheir new skills and growing professionalism aspossible career options.

Case Study 11: Modemmujer, Mexico

Modemmujer, the women activists’ e-mail net-work in Mexico, used the Internet to generate sup-port for a rape victim, Claudia, to save her frompossible imprisonment of 15 years for her act ofself-defense that resulted in the death of herwould-be rapist. Modemmujer has alliances withnearly 400 women’s organizations, activists, andacademicians across Latin America. It updatesmembers on women’s activities, events, an-nouncements, and documents, and provides ana-lytical summaries of scholarly work and NGOreports. It reaches out to provide support to

women through the Internet despite the physicaldistance separating them. In case of Claudia,Modemmujer spread the word through theInternet about Claudia’s suffering as an under-trial prisoner and her poignant words: “If I’dknown I was going to live this nightmare, I wouldhave let him rape me,” to mobilize support fromhundreds of women and organizations acrossLatin America and North America. As a result ofstrong local and international pressure generatedthrough the Internet, Claudia was given her free-dom.

Case Study 12: Bayanloco CommunityLearning Centre, Nigeria

Bayanloco Community Learning Centre (BCLC)trains women in rural Nigeria to use ICT for peaceand poverty alleviation. With the help of theFantsuam Foundation, a community-based, com-munity-sustained computer center was started totrain rural women in using ICT for income gen-eration and networking against communal vio-lence. It was realized that the fast communicationbetween women could save lives in an emergency.Now there are plans to provide scholarships torural girls to pursue IT training, and to start Com-munity Learning Centers for women in other lo-cal communities.

Case Study 13: WomensNet, South Africa

WomensNet in South Africa demonstrates howICT can be used not only to exchange gender in-formation but also to empower women and worktoward promoting gender equality. Thirty-threewomen from different organizations in SouthAfrica participated in developing the missionstatement and a blueprint for the WomensNet.Reviewing the experiences of “empoweredwomen” who could not exploit ICT, especially theInternet, they concluded that it was not sufficientto just upgrade the technology and the medium;the content was equally important. WhileWomensNet is dedicated to promoting the devel-opment of South African women through activeparticipationin community affairs, activism,leadership, and developing awareness about

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law, public policy, and legislative proceedings onwomen’s issues, it lays special emphasis on in-formation content to make it useful particularlyto women.

Impact of ICT on service delivery andpolitical participation

The use of ICT for any type of service delivery bygovernment or nongovernment organizations isevidently in its infancy. Perhaps no more than afew hundred service delivery applications existtoday in all the developing countries of the world.Because of the small scale of these applicationsthe impact on the citizens is minimal, and anygender impact is unlikely to be discerned at thisstage. In some cases of e-government women haveemerged as unintended beneficiaries. For example,in Brazil’s efforts to provide e-government servicesin rural areas of Bahia, because men migrate to cit-ies to seek employment and women constitute thepredominant rural population, women happen togain most from the visits of the mobile SAC (As-sistance Service Center) unit. The SAC is a largetruck equipped with a computer and other facil-ities to provide birth certificates, identificationcards, labor identification cards, and criminalrecord verification to the rural community at theirdoorstep. It remains parked near a rural commu-nity for a few days before moving to the next ru-ral area; and most of the users are women becausemost of the men are away. Examples of consciousincorporation of women-friendly policies andpractices in e-government are almost nonexistent.

From an analysis of the applications of ICT forsocial service delivery and political participationpresented above, the following conclusions canbe drawn:• ICT applications do not necessarily have to

include the latest technology. The relevance,usefulness, and functionality of the applica-tions are more important. Thus a hybrid ap-proach combining, for example, the Internetfor accessing relevant information and tradi-tional methods for information disseminationcan have a positive impact.

• An understanding of women’s needs for so-cial service delivery and an imaginative useof appropriate technology such as VHF radi-os for midwives in remote rural areas canshow dramatic results in reducing mortalityrates. Thus a judicious application of relevanttechnology, even intermediate technology,can have a much greater impact than a pre-occupation with the latest technology for itsown sake. In order to be successful, ICT in-terventions need to be primarily need-driv-en, and not technology-driven.

• ICT not only improves social service deliv-ery, but also helps initiate social change whendedicated women acting as role models in-spire young girls to emancipate themselvesand move towards financial independence.

• For ensuring sustainability, initial high en-thusiasm needs to be backed by prolongedcommitment and effort, otherwise evenwell-meaning efforts will fail to take root.Planning for sustainability is as importantas planning for initiating an interventionthrough ICT.

• ICT projects meant to benefit women can suc-ceed, provided women are consulted and in-volved both at the design and implementationstages, and their concerns and requirementsare addressed through the project.

• ICT can be also used as powerful tools to gen-erate collective support for women’s causes.

• ICT can help women find a voice and exertpressure on policymakers to incorporatewomen’s perspectives and concerns.

• Relevant content for women should be a pri-ority in ICT projects and components. Whencontent is managed consciously, womenthemselves become eager to seek out a par-ticular service and benefit from it.

• Although current access of women in devel-oping countries to ICT-supported social ser-vices and political participation is severelylimited, there are some success stories thatshow that if ICT use is grounded in local real-ity and if the technology is used imaginative-ly, women have much to gain from the effort.

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REFERENCES

Gittler, Alice Mastroangelo. 1999. “MappingWomen’s Global Communications and Net-working.” In Wendy Harcourt, Women@Internet:Creating new cultures in cyberspace. London: ZedBooks.

Hafkin, Nancy and Nancy Taggart. 2001. Gender,Information Technology and Developing Countries:An Analytic Study. Washington, D.C.: Academyfor Educational Development for USAID. http://www.usaid.gov/wid/pubs/it01.htm

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APPENDIX 1Case Studies onSocial Service Delivery

Community telecenters, Chile

Chile, with a population of 14.6 million, is facingthe same challenges as other developing coun-tries in building its IT infrastructure. On the onehand Chile’s teledensity has tripled during thelast decade; on the other hand, the digital net-works are usually found either in large compa-nies or in government agencies.

Over a period of time, in an effort to embrace com-puterization, the government departments mod-ernized the IT infrastructure but not in a uniformmanner. This became a major challenge to theimplementation of any e-government initiative.Initially e-commerce was not perceived as a vi-able alternative because it required legal reformsas well as a regulatory agency which could stan-dardize transactions and ensure transparency. Thegovernment’s ability to formulate a strategy toput itself online for G2G (government to govern-ment), G2P (government to public), and G2B(government to bank) transactions was also re-stricted. To overcome these problems, the Chil-ean government established an intergovernmentcommittee, regulated by the Ministry of Economywith the participation of other ministries, to co-ordinate a new IT Policy. Since the cost associ-ated with IT remains the principal factor in thedigital divide, the committee decided to focus onproviding IT infrastructure and services to the sec-tors that had insufficient resources, such as smallbusiness, and regions or segments of society thatlack adequate access to information and knowledge.

The Program of Information Technology Integra-tion aims at promoting IT development and ex-posing a large portion of the population to theuse of digital networks. The Sub-secretariat for

Telecommunications (SUBTEL) created a develop-ment fund for technology, managed by the Indus-trial Engineering Department of the University ofChile. The fund is meant to provide rural areas withaccess to information and services through the tele-communication networks. Chile implementedthe Redes Comunitarias (Community Networks) asa pilot project. An interdisciplinary team led byInformatica Educativa de la Frontera de Temuco imple-mented the project. In 1997, the government startedtwo community telecenters as part of the project.

The aim of the pilot project was to define the in-formation and service needs of the community,develop a prototype of services that can be usedas the basis of a community information network,and work out an evaluation process to measurethe impact of the telecenters. It took two years toplan, implement, and evaluate the pilot project.The telecenters were located in two towns,Temuco and Cunco. An operator was employedto facilitate access to the services at each telecenter.At both the locations, the government partneredwith local NGOs and associations to promote thetelecenters and evaluate the impact of the projecton the community.

The evaluation found that 55 percent of the userswere women. Health, AIDS, domestic violence,assistance for women farmers, education, and ser-vices were the major areas in which people soughtinformation. Support from the mayors in bothtowns, particularly Cunco, was really helpful.However, the lack of initial support from themayor of Temuco in cofinancing the project, aswell as poor promotion, reduced the user rate.

The enthusiasm, commitment, and quality oftelecenter operators along with the efficient man-agement and development of the content proveduseful. The government’s awareness program forpromoting the telecenters through radio, local offi-cials, and opinion leaders also helped. At the sametime local businesses and associations receivedsome publicity while promoting awareness of thetelecenters.

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Keeping pace with the new technology proveddifficult, and contributed to the failure of theTemuco telecenter. It was observed, however, thatin general the utility of the telecenters could beimproved by providing more relevant contentand services.

The telecenters proved more beneficial to indi-viduals rather than organizations. A number oflocal organizations were situated too far awayfrom the telecenters to derive any benefit fromthem. Moreover, there was a dearth of informa-tion that would have helped these organizations,as some public services were unwilling to sharesuch information. In other cases, information in-put consumed too much time. As the local gov-ernments lacked enough resources to maintain thecenters, partnering with the local NGOs and uni-versities became a worthwhile option.

The study suggests that despite no emphasis ona particular segment of the population, womenemerged as prominent beneficiaries of the pro-gram. Health (AIDS, domestic violence), assis-tance for women farmers, education, and services— the major areas in which people sought infor-mation — were all areas of interest for women.1

Inhibiting factors

• Lack of financial support from the mayor ofTemuco and poor promotion at initial stagesof the project.

• Inability of many local organizations to usethe telecenters as they were situated at a dis-tance and proper information about them wasnot available.

• Unwillingness displayed by some public ser-vices to share information.

• In some cases the inputting the informationwas too time consuming.

• Local governments alone did not have enoughresources to maintain the centers.

Facilitating factors

• Support from the authorities, particularly themayor of Cunco

• Participation of local businesses, associations,NGOs, and universities

• The enthusiasm, commitment, and quality oftelecenter operators

• The efficient management and developmentof the content

• The government’s awareness program forpromoting the telecenters

Lessons learned

• If the content is relevant for women, theycome forward to participate and benefit froma project.

• When local governments lack infrastructureor resources for an ICT project, partneringwith the local NGOs and universities provehelpful.

• Keeping pace with new technology is diffi-cult but necessary for sustaining such efforts.

Gyandoot, India

“Digital empowerment is prodding slothful adminis-trations to become more accountable. In Premnagar,Dhar, Rami Bai, 87, a destitute widow and two neigh-bors didn’t get their Rs 150-a-month old age pensionfor four months last year. The three trudged to thenearest cyber-kiosk and paid Rs 5 each to e-mail theircomplaint to the administration. The next day, a teamof officials landed up at the village and found out that47 other villagers were sharing Rami Bai’s plight. SinceGyandoot kicked off a little over a year ago, over 6,000e-mail complaints have poured into the central serverof the district administration at Dhar.”2

The Gyandoot project initiated by the MadhyaPradesh Government at Dhar district in Indiaprovided a platform for e-governance throughIntranet between twenty-one rural cybercafes orkiosks known as Soochanalaya. Presently, there arethirty-eight such kiosks, and the youth from lo-cal villages have taken the responsibility of run-ning a majority of these cybercafes on commerciallines. Those who run the Soochanalayas are knownas soochak.3 The Intranet is spread in nine out ofthirteen Development Blocks in Dhar.

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The kiosks, which are located on the roadside ofthe central villages, serve a population of over halfa million. They provide prices of agricultural com-modities, and central examination results, as wellas register complaints via e-mail in the local lan-guage. Women may file complaints regardingtheir problems through the network using e-mailafter paying five to ten rupees. The complaintsare about anything from pensions for widows,to broken down tubewells, and paperwork forhousing or land. The government officials are heldaccountable since their superiors get a copy of thecomplaint. Some soochaks have come up with abasic computer course for girls, for which a fee ischarged. The girls are also able to use the kiosksto access their school-leaving examination resultsfor a payment of ten rupees.

The information available at the kiosks is timelyand easily accessible. However, with the lack ofpower supply and a raging drought in Dhardistrict for the last three years, a majority of vil-lagers are facing acute poverty. Thus, even spend-ing five to ten rupees at the kiosks is not alwaysfeasible. There is a clear lack of motivation amongthe villagers, and this is a major drawback.

A recent evaluation of the Gyandoot ruraltelecenter project had disappointing results. Theteam reported that only three kiosk owners outof thirty-eight were women. Of these, ownershipby two women is in the records, but in actual prac-tice men run the two kiosks. There was no spe-cial effort to recruit women. The only kiosk runby a woman was failing to attract users. Usersmade the largest number of complaints againstthis particular kiosk. There was no conclusiveevidence that the complaints made were a resultof a male bias against a women owner (as sug-gested by the owner) and not on account of poorservice, such as not keeping the center open ornot being helpful (as suggested by the male us-ers).4

Out of the thirty-two users surveyed, not a singlewoman user could be located, although anecdotes

were narrated to the study team of how a fewwidows had been helped by the system in expe-diting their pension.

Inhibiting factors

• Dearth of power supply• Drought in Dhar for past three years• Lack of motivation for the villagers to use

these kiosks

Facilitating factors

• The formation of an Intranet connectingtwenty-one rural centers helped at the initialstage.

• Information is available in a language easilyunderstood by the villagers, especially women.

• Rural youth showed interest in learning thenew technology and running the kiosks.

• Easy and timely information is available tothe farmers.

Lessons learned

• A program with great possibilities can failbecause of lack of monitoring.

• Easy access to senior officials made for greateraccountability in government service provi-sion.

• The fact that women were not really involvedin the program meant that a large percent ofthe population was left behind.

• It is important to motivate the beneficiariesto sustain such a program.

• Contextual and environmental factors such asdrought can adversely affect the fate of suchprojects, especially in rural areas.

TARAhaat, India

TARAhaat is a business entity with strong socialcommitment. Development Alternatives, a devel-opment agency, and its marketing wing Technol-ogy and Action for Rural Advancement (TARA)promoted the project. TARAhaat became opera-tional in September 2000 in the Bundelkhand re-gion of central India. Its success prompted thepromoters to start another similar venture inBhatinda, Punjab.

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Bundelkhand is the second poorest region in thecountry. As elsewhere in rural areas, girls aretrapped in a situation where parents do not seemuch point in educating them. Thus education andsubsequent self-sufficiency remain a distant dreamfor most women. In addition, the lack of infrastruc-ture further denies the rural poor, especially thedoubly disadvantaged women and girls, an accessto education, information, and employment, thethree most powerful tools for empowerment.

One of the major objectives of TARAhaat was tohelp rural women overcome their social obstaclesthrough a network of franchised information-cum-education kiosks called TARAkendras. TARAhaat’shomepage, http://www.tarahaat.com/tara/home,is user-friendly and can be handled even by a rela-tively less-educated person. The web site is in-tended to give information on education, health,government schemes, governance, women’s rights,and other important issues concerning an ordinaryvillager. A woman can be an instructor or a counse-lor for students, or even a TARAkendra owner.

Three determined and enthusiastic sisters, Rajmani,Madhuri, and Priti (also known as the Punavalisisters), from an upper class family in the remoterural area of Bundelkhand, trained themselves inusing IT. Presently they run a TARAkendra intheir home where PCs are installed and basic com-puter education is given to the villagers. One ofthe sisters is studying for her graduation, whilethe other two have already completed their post-graduation in sociology. Because of these girls,nearly all the family members know how to use acomputer and the Internet.

The dynamism of another woman, Vimender Gill,led to the establishment of a TARAkendra at theChak Fateh Singh Wala village of Bhatinda dis-trict in Punjab. The clientele are mostly womenand children. The courses developed by TARAgy-an, the education division of TARAhaat, are of-fered in the local language (Hindi or Punjabi) andare designed to allow the learner to follow at herown pace. Certificates are awarded on completion

of the course. The villagers are demanding moresuch courses.

Currently there are eighteen TARAkendras inBhatinda and Jhansi out of which women run two(one each at Bhatinda and Jhansi). Almost everyTARAkendra has at least one female instructor, orcenter manager, or counselor. Although both boysand girls take the courses, the presence of womeninstructors has encouraged more girls to comeforward to attend the courses. Further, the factthat the TARAkendras are not far from theirhomes has encouraged many girls to come for-ward to attend. At times girl students far outnum-ber boys. To date 160 girls have completed theirbasic IT course consisting of MS-Office andInternet training. These numbers may be smallbut they represent a major achievement for thesechildren, of whom 80 percent had never seen acomputer before entering a TARAkendra.

Many girls are coming forward to use theTARAkendra facility for sending e-mail or brows-ing the Internet. Many have enrolled in highereducation through distance learning schemes of-fered by different universities. Their experiencesat the facility have triggered this desire for highereducation. The successful experiences of thesegirls have led rural parents to take increasing in-terest in sending their daughters to learn newskills, so that they too can be financially indepen-dent. Thus TARAkendras are ushering in a vis-ible attitudinal change in some rural areas.

There is a plan to form a women’s club at Bhatindawhere women belonging to the local communitycan meet periodically at the TARAkendra to sharetheir experiences. Some needs can also be identi-fied through these experiences and can later beaddressed by the experts.5

Inhibiting factors

• There is widespread resistance to girls’ educa-tion.

• Lack of infrastructure is a pre-existing prob-lem in rural India.

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• The operations are costly, thus setting qualitystandards and bringing uniformity in thegrowth of the project became a demandingtask.

• There is a lack of quality instructors who arewilling to work in villages.

• Technical problems include having to provideinformation in multiple languages.

Facilitating factors

• Having women as trainers or in some otherleadership position in the TARAkendra en-couraged more girls to come forward.

• Not having to travel too far, and having thecenter close to home helped more girls to jointhe course.

• Conducting the classes in the vernacular lan-guage made it easier for the students, none ofwhom were fluent in English.

• Keeping the training program simple andflexible helped diminish the fear of the com-puter. Flexibility enabled the students to fol-low a learning pace that they could comfort-ably handle without getting intimidated bythe technology.

Lessons learned

• It is important to have people who aredeeply committed to women’s empower-ment through ICT. The Punavali sisters andVimender Gill played the role of catalysts.

• Initial experiences of success are important asthese women become opinion leaders and canpersuade other girls and women to come for-ward to benefit from ICT. They are also seenas role models.

• Locally designed content can make learningeasier. Courses developed by TARAgyancould be followed easily as they were in thelocal language and contained local flavor.

• Initiatives such as TARAhaat can change socialperceptions: families became interested insending girls to TARAkendras once they re-alized that the knowledge will help the girlsto earn an income.

Virtual Delivery Room, Slovenia

“Although pregnancy is not a disease, it does pose risksto the health and survival of a woman, in addition tothe risks faced by the infant she bears. These risks arepresent throughout the world and in every setting. Indeveloped countries they very rarely lead to death ordisability because every pregnant woman has accessto special care during pregnancy and childbirth. Thisis not the case in many developing countries whereeach pregnancy represents a journey into the unknownfrom which many women never return.”6

According to WHO figures (1998) almost 1,600women die from the complications of pregnancyand childbirth every day across the globe — a to-tal of 585,000 women every year. For every 100,000live births globally, there are 430 maternal deaths.In developing countries the figure is 480, whilein developed countries there are only 27 mater-nal deaths per 100,000 live births.

The System Software Laboratory at the Facultyof Electrical Engineering and Computer Scienceof Maribor City in Slovenia, along with StanfordUniversity and Hewlett-Packard, has createdVIDERO (Virtual Delivery Room), a prototype formedical training in virtual reality. The prototypeprovides a virtual environment of a delivery roomwith all the necessary medical devices and instru-ments. The prototype was installed at the LucilePackard Children’s Hospital at Stanford Univer-sity in October 2000 and functional testing is cur-rently under way.

VIDERO is a successful prototype of an Internet-based, virtual reality, interactive medical trainingprogram that allows instructors to observe andguide trainees from a distance in resuscitating avirtual human infant or in dealing with commonnormal and abnormal clinical scenarios during avirtual birth. As virtual patients are not realwomen, the trainees can make mistakes and thenlearn from them without endangering humanlives. The VIDERO prototype is being evaluatedby the medical students of Stanford University.

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The trainees use the program’s features, such as3-D modeling, motion tracking, and live commu-nication between instructor and trainee, to expe-rience the realistic web-based training program,where they can identify an intervention, apply it,and see the results in real-time. Navigation isavailable through either standard browser inter-faces or a special tracking device combined witha head mounted display.

Inhibiting factors

• The project may suffer due to lack of economicself-reliance.

• Internet connectivity and advanced technol-ogy has not yet reached a major part of thedeveloping world where such an innovationcan prove to be life-saving.

Facilitating factors

• Commitment of and initiative taken by lead-ing scientists

• The experience of successful collaboration inthe past among the research partners

Lesson learned

• An innovative technology-based solution canhave the potential for reducing maternaldeaths in developing countries.

Association of Uganda Women MedicalDoctors, Uganda

The Association of Uganda Women Medical Doc-tors (AUWMD), Kampala is an NGO workingtoward improving the health of women, youthand children in Uganda. It undertook an ICTproject in 2000-2001 to electronically disseminateinformation on reproductive health issues towomen’s NGOs. Four members of the associationwere trained in basic e-mail and Internet skills. Theynow scout for relevant information on the Internet,download it, repackage it to make it readily andeasily usable for the women’s NGOs, and e-mailit to the NGOs. The NGOs download informationon latest developments in reproductive health, andcirculate the printed information to their staff anddifferent women’s groups, particularly in rural

areas. This also helps promote networking amongwomen’s groups and women’s NGOs.

The NGOs can send their feedback through e-mail. There are occasional online queries from theNGOs showing an increased desire to use suchinformation. Clinic records and exit interviewswith clients, as well as an increase in requests forsmear tests at clinics indicate that awareness andconcern for reproductive health are increasingamong women. This suggests that a combinationof methods, such as dissemination of the latestinformation electronically from the AUWMD tothe NGOs, and through traditional methods fromthe NGOs to rural and urban women, can have asalutary effect.

Inhibiting factors

• The paucity of IT skills and infrastructure.• Not all women’s NGOs have a computer and

network connectivity.

Facilitating factors

• The fact that the association members andNGO office bearers are educated is a majorhelp. The only additional effort required is abrief training in using the Internet for brows-ing and e-mail.

• Availability of computers at the AUWMD andmany women’s NGOs.

Lessons learned

• This experience shows the tremendous powerof the Internet and how with a little imagina-tion, a simple application can lift the aware-ness level and health status of women.

• Instead of using an either-or approach, hybridforms of communication channels combiningInternet and e-mail with traditional methodsof information dissemination such as hardcopycan be a creative, less costly, and effec-tive approach.

• This approach is particularly useful in areassuch as health where it is important to have thelatest information available in the shortest time,and it may not be possible to provide ICT

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training to all possible women beneficiaries.

Rural Extended Services and Care forUltimate Emergency Relief, Uganda

The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA),Uganda’s Ministry of Health and Population Sec-retariat, and Iganga district authorities togetherinitiated the Rural Extended Services and Carefor Ultimate Emergency Relief (RESCUER) pro-gram. RESCUER is part of the Ministry’s effortto reduce Uganda’s high maternal mortality rate(506 per 100,000) by improving local care and re-ferral systems. Around 80 percent of 17 millionpeople in Uganda live in rural areas where thefertility rates are high. Traditional midwives, rela-tives, and friends handle over 60 percent of child-births.

Communications, transport, and quality healthservices are the three components of this project.The communication system uses VHF radios in-stalled at base stations, health units, referral hos-pitals, ambulances, and the District MedicalOfficers’ vehicles, while the walkie-talkies arewith the birth attendants, to be used variouslyfor help from more experienced medical staff.

According to Maria Musoke, an information spe-cialist who studied the communications componentof the pilot RESCUER project in eastern Uganda’sIganga district, training of the birth attendants wasstructured according to specific needs of a commu-nity that survives with few health care amenities. Itwas a refresher course for the midwives as some ofthem had been out of school for ten years or more.All health workers were given special training forusing the communication equipment.The authorities started the project by creatinghealth awareness and providing basic training.People began to see other benefits in the projecttoo. Earlier if a refrigerator broke down one hadto travel miles for repairs, but now a techniciancould be sent down to do the job with just a radiocall. Communication had a significant contribu-tion in the success of this project. If transportfailed, a midwife’s presence and the communica-

tion system played a vital role in saving lives. Thebirth attendants consulted health unit officialswho, in turn, consulted colleagues and seniors.The walkie-talkie technology proved to be a greatsource of empowerment for birth attendants. Itnot only improved their image, but also built con-fidence in their clients and helped them attend tomore women.

The initial cost of the project was below $124,000(including the cost of the equipment and train-ing for technicians and users). In the later phase,the running costs reduced. The system utilizessolar energy for electricity. After the initial invest-ment the usual maintenance cost is small and easyto bear, which indicates that even if the donorspull out, the project will survive.

The project has succeeded in reducing the mater-nal mortality rate by as much as 40 percent overthe past three years. Another significant devel-opment is that now health personnel are able tocall and get practical advice even when no ve-hicle is available. The project has also helped toovercome the major problem of absenteeismamong the health workers. Moreover, these callsare heard on the other receivers too, including theone at the Chief Medical Executive’s office. Thesenior officers contact the responsible officer incase a call is not taken care of within about thirtyminutes. Because of the positive results, the RES-CUER project is already being replicated in threeother districts, and there are plans to extend it tothirty more districts in the future.7

Inhibiting factors

• There are problems of transport in ruralUganda.

• Around 80 percent of 17 million people inUganda live in rural areas with a high fertil-ity rate.

• The traditional birth attendants are illiterate.• Some of the midwives have been out of school

for ten years or more.

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Facilitating factors

• UNFPA, Uganda’s Ministry of Health andPopulation Secretariat, and Iganga district au-thorities took the initiative.

• A multidimensional approach in respondingto different abilities and needs through inter-mediate technologies helped a lot.

• After the initial investment the maintenancecost is small and easy to bear.

Lessons learned

• Radio can play a vital role in improving basichealth and reducing the rate of maternaldeaths.

• Even if the donors pull out, the project cansurvive due to low maintenance cost.

• By providing convenient and appropriatemeans of communication, the project has re-duced the severity of the problem of absen-teeism in the hour of need.

Notes

1. “Community Telecenters: The ChileanExperience,” developed by the University of Chilefor the Sub-secretariat of Telecommunications,rough translation, 1999.

2. “Digital Empowerment: Seeds of E-Volution,”Outlook, April, 2000.

3. A Block may consist of hundreds of villages.A number of such Blocks come under Dhar Districtin Madhya Pradesh.

4. Data compiled by Center for ElectronicGovernance, Indian Institute of Management,Ahmedabad (India) during its survey onGyaandoot, Dhar, May 2002. Other sources: http://www.cddc.vt.edu/knownet/articles/womenandICT.htm; http://www.fao.org/sd/2001/KN0602a2_en.htm; http://gyandoot.nic.in/gyandoot/intranet.html

5. Document and e-mail from TARAhaat —Surender Rana, 8 May 2002.

6. WHO Press Release, 6 April 1998, WorldHealth Day highlights, “Scandal of 600,000 maternaldeaths each year.” Other sources: http://storm.uni-mb.si, http://www.who.int/inf-pr-1998/en/pr98-33.html

7. http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/vol13no4/26musoke.htm; George Koomson,“Telemedicine in rural Uganda”. Koomson is theeditor of African Agenda, an Accra-based bimonthlymagazine published by the Third World NetworkAfrica Secretariat.

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APPENDIX 2Case Studies onPolitical Participation byWomen

Women mussel pickers of Esmeraldas,Ecuador

The high cost of telecommunication infrastruc-ture is one of the greatest barriers faced by LatinAmerica, particularly countries such as Ecuador.Telecenters have the potential to bridge the gapbetween those who have access to technology andthose who do not. Telecenters (housing betweenone to ten computers with modem access to anInternet service provider) act as community-ac-cess points to the Internet. A telecenter not onlyresponds to the communication and informationneeds of a community, but is also a measure ofthe ability of the new technology to acceleratesocial equity and economic development at thegrassroots.

The Santa Rosa Association of Female MusselPickers is a group of 120 women whose primarywork is to harvest mussels from the mangroves.A majority of these women have minimal formalschooling; most have only basic education, whilesome are illiterate. Many have children who workin parking lots, taking care of cars at the nearbybeach resort of Muisne. Only a few children haveattended school. On average, each woman col-lects nearly thirty mussels an hour and gets $2per pound from the middleman. The meagerearning is what the women and their familiessurvive on.

In 1999, the mayor of the town decided to buy themangroves to build shrimp farms. He disregardedEcuador’s environmental laws which have desig-nated the mangroves as bioreserves and prohibittheir destruction and commercial development.

Upon learning about the situation of these womenin Santa Rosa, Chasquinet got in touch with theleader of the mussel pickers’ association and of-fered help.1 It was soon realized that the most im-portant step was to spread the word around onwhat was happening in Santa Rosa. This was achallenge as the mayor and the powerful ownersof the shrimp farms controlled the local mediaand major communication networks in the area.Therefore, a campaign was designed to catch theattention of ecological activist organizations suchas Greenpeace, Green Alert, and others in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, and persuade themto pressure the government to enforce the lawsguaranteeing protection of the mangroves. Tokickstart the movement, Chasquinet used itstelecenters at Esmeraldas and trained the womenin carrying forward the information campaign.

Initially, the women were skeptical because theywere computer-illiterate. Another part of the cam-paign was to use other mass media, such as radioand newspapers, besides the Internet. RadioNetherlands, Inter Press Service, Pulsar Informa-tion Agency, and some other media and informa-tion outlets were targeted. Eventually, Greenpeacecame to the rescue of the mussel pickers, and en-sured that the Ecuadorian environmental lawswere enforced to protect not only the women inEsmeraldas but also other poor communities.Greenpeace continues to serve as an internationalobserver in Esmeraldas. Most of the women inEsmeraldas have been through difficult life ex-periences. It was hard to elevate their self-esteemand keep their spirits up throughout the cam-paign. They needed to know that they have theright to make demands and feel valued as womenworkers.

As their culture is primarily oral, the womenended up writing long treatises on the Internetthat failed to make a strong initial impact anddraw people’s attention to the gravity of the situ-ation. They were then taught to adopt appropri-ate ways to communicate through the electronicmedia. Improvised training methods were required,

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founded on local realities and the culture ofEsmeraldas.

Eventually, as a result of the pressure generatedby the women’s groups through the Internet, thegovernment issued a directive, ordering a halt tothe construction of the shrimp farms. The womencould work again in the mangroves.

Today the local women regularly use thetelecenter installed by Chasquinet. They con-tinue collecting mussels in their mangroves anduse the telecenter as a meeting point to share theireveryday problems. Interestingly, the children toostarted taking advantage of the telecenter afterbeing encouraged by their mothers. Meanwhile,the Internet remains a very useful forum to carryout public campaigns on burning issues at thegrassroots by bringing a community’s struggleand appeal for solidarity and support to a globalaudience.2

Inhibiting factors

• The high cost of telecommunication infra-structure

• The local media and major communication net-works in the area being controlled by the mayorand the powerful owners of the shrimp farms

Facilitating factors

• Chasquinet’s initiative in helping the musselpickers

• Intervention by Greenpeace which ensuredthat Ecuadorian environmental laws wereenforced

• Improvised training methods for the womenin harmony with the local realities and par-ticular culture of Esmeraldas

• The encouragement given by mothers to thechildren to learn more that led them to takeadvantage of the telecenter at a later stage

Lessons learned

• Telecenters have the potential to bridge thegap between those with access to technologyand those without.

• Improvised training methods grounded in lo-cal realities and culture can empower thepoorest and the most disadvantaged.

• The Internet can play a key role in bringing acommunity’s struggles and their appeals forsolidarity and support to a global audience.

Women’s ICT project, Kenya

The objective of the project in Kenya was to de-velop a methodology for enabling the poorestmembers of the community to participate in de-cisionmaking at the policy level through the useof the ICT. The Intermediate Technology Devel-opment Group initiated the project on Women’sInformation and Communication Technology(WICT), and the Kenyan initiative was one ofthree pilot projects; the other two were imple-mented in Peru and Zimbabwe.

The Kenyan project was undertaken in some ofthe informal settlements for the poor in Nairobi.Living conditions in these settlements are char-acterized by overcrowding, poverty, disease, anda lack of access to modern amenities such as elec-tricity and running water. Although women formhalf the population living in these slums, and, inaddition to their maternal responsibilities, many ofthem are also heads of households, policymakersin the past had completely ignored them. This wasdespite the fact that in these settlements, womenoften played a key role in community developmentactivities such as neighborhood improvement,waste management, and self-help groups.

To correct this situation and give women a voice,the WICT pilot project focused on the participa-tion of these women in policymaking with thehelp of ICT, using interactive video as a tool forwomen’s empowerment. After careful scrutinyand planning, two settlements were selected forthe pilot project, and two women’s groups iden-tified. Twenty women received training. Many ofthem were over fifty; several were illiterate; amajority were single and sole breadwinners intheir families. Some were responsible for lookingafter grandchildren who had lost their parents to

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AIDS. Some women operated grocery stores,kiosks, and second-hand garment sales.

The women were given extensive training in us-ing a video camera and other related skills suchas script preparation. Armed with these skills, thetwo women’s groups made two videos of fifteenminutes each, capturing the problems and aspi-rations of women in these settlements. Titled“Telling our story” and made in Swahili, thesevideos depicted their everyday struggles andchallenges. The videos also captured favorablefeatures, such as women’s income-generating ac-tivities and community service initiatives (includ-ing a saving scheme in one of the settlements toacquire land for permanent housing). The videoswere shown at an assembly of policymakers andplanners, representatives from NGOs, the privatesector, and local functionaries.

The experience gave the women a feeling of em-powerment. Today, if there is civic unrest, thesegroups of trained women are often invited tocover the happenings, and offer their suggestionsand advice. They have entered into arrangementswith a leading Kenyan broadcasting company tosupply development videos. They often shootvideo and supply clippings of newsworthy sto-ries. Additionally, they have been documentingactivities of several NGOs in these settlements.The women are respected for their objective andauthentic coverage and enjoy far greater confi-dence of the community than many local mediaagencies. Their productions command high cred-ibility. Their newly acquired skills also bring theman income. At the same time, they provide valu-able feedback to policymakers about the problemsand improvements taking place in these settle-ments. The project received an internationalaward in 2001 in recognition of its contributionto social justice through ICT.

Inhibiting factor

• In the past, policymakers ignored the concernsof Kenyan women despite their significantrole in family and community development.

Facilitating factors

• The enthusiasm of promoters and the womenthemselves

• Getting visibility for early success through aformal launching of their videos

Lessons learned

• To ensure the usefulness of ICT, it helps toplan carefully so as to achieve success in thefirst round. The initial batch of participantsshould be selected and trained carefully. Af-ter a positive experience, the road to self-em-powerment becomes easier.

• Access to technology can create new possi-bilities for women. For example, training inhandling video cameras led to powerful newopportunities for these poor, often unedu-cated women, which included a chance toshape public policy, inform the communityabout their daily realities, win the confidenceof the people, emerge as dependable suppli-ers of authentic news, and earn an incomewhile rendering these services.

• Women can rise to challenges and opportu-nities offered by ICT. These need to be visual-ized and planned imaginatively by the projectfunctionaries.

Internet-driven women’s movement,Mexico

After spending more than a year in prison,Claudia Rodriguez could now go back to her rou-tine life with her children and a husband whoworked for the Mexico City Water Department.At the time of her arrest she was earning threetimes as much as her husband. Things would notbe the same anymore, but she had been savedfrom being victimized by an even worse situa-tion. There was a possibility of fifteen years’ im-prisonment for her act of self-defense that resultedin the death of her would-be rapist. In 1996,Claudia Rodriguez, a thirty-year-old mother offive went out dancing with her friend and herfriend’s boyfriend. The man tried to rape herwhile they were on an elevated walkway, andbecame violent when she protested. Claudia

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pulled a pistol from her purse (which she hadstarted carrying two weeks earlier after a robbery)and shot him to save herself.

Modemmujer, the women activists’ e-mail net-work, spread Claudia’s story through the Internetto hundreds of women and organizations acrossLatin America, and North America. Mobilizationby women’s organizations in Mexico City resultedin large gatherings of women at the hearing, andpublic protests. Letters were also sent to the gov-ernment from all over Mexico, Cuba, Argentina,Colombia, Bolivia, Canada, and the United States.Ultimately, in the face of a public outcry, Claudiawas freed.3

Modemmujer came into prominence during theUnited Nations’ Fourth World Conference onWomen in China in 1995. Its e-mail correspondents’network throughout Mexico comprehensivelycovered the conference in Spanish. Modemmujerhas built alliances with approximately 400women’s organizations, activists, and academi-cians across Latin America through e-mail. It pro-vides caring support for women through theInternet irrespective of the distances separatingthem. It also provides regular updates on events,announcements, documents, and analysis fromNGOs and the academic women’s community.

Modemmujer’s campaign for Claudia on theInternet is one of many instances where thewomen’s movement has succeeded through tech-nology to ensure that the Mexican governmentlives up to the commitment it made at theWomen’s Conference. Today, in countries such asMexico, the Internet is playing a key role in orga-nizing women’s networks and garnering politi-cal support and justice for victimized women.4

Inhibiting factor

• The reluctance and delay in decisionmakingby the authorities

Facilitating factors

• Modemmujer’s ability to remain in touch with

approximately 400 women’s organizations,activists and academicians across LatinAmerica and North America

• Support from a number of places, includingthe U.S.

Lessons learned

• The Internet has tremendous power and po-tential to establish networks which can givewomen’s concerns a voice.

• Problems (such as injustice for women) canbe addressed forcefully and speedily with theuse of technology and networking with theexternal world.

• ICT can be successfully used for improvingcommunication between women of both thedeveloped and developing countries.

Bayanloco Community Learning Center,Nigeria

The Bayanloco Community Learning Center(BCLC) trains women in rural Nigeria to use ICTfor peace and poverty alleviation. The first recipi-ent of the Association for Progressive Communi-cations (APC) Africa Hafkin CommunicationsPrize in recognition of outstanding uses of ICT,BCLC trains rural women in using ICT againstcommunal violence and acting as peace brokers.With the help of the Fantsuam Foundation, a com-munity-based, community-sustained computercenter was started a few years ago for theBechechet Bayinring clan of Kpunyai village aspart of the Foundation’s microcredit and povertyalleviation scheme. BCLC disburses loans towomen and provides them basic computer lit-eracy classes. Women are expected to pay feesfor training and using the computer facilities.

BCLC had to overcome numerous obstacles, in-cluding opposition from an all-male board oftrustees, technophobia among rural women,high levels of illiteracy, initial lack of Internetaccess, along with the absence of a phone link,and an irregular supply of electricity. Todaynew technology helps rural women in meetingtheir basic needs and even saves lives in times of

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crisis (where the women act not only as detectorsof potential flash points of communal violence butalso as peace brokers). There are plans for theBayanloco women’s microcredit groups to super-vise the community learning center and provideICT training in other local communities to helpthem start their own such centers.

Kazanka Comfort, the spirit behind the estab-lishment of BCLC, is concerned with helpinggirls overcome their technophobia. Initially, sherealized that fast communication between ru-ral women could make a difference between lifeand death in cases of emergency. She had seene-mail in action earlier while she was studyingabroad, and felt it could be a solution. She plansto use the prize money to finance IT scholar-ships for girls in rural Nigeria. The proposal isto start a “catch them young” initiative in girls’secondary schools in which students will begiven inputs on IT. It was proposed to orga-nize an essay competition, and the winners andrunners-up were to be given scholarships forIT training at Bayanloco. The rest of the prizemoney was to be used for providing BCLC withe-mail access.

Because of Kazanka Comfort’s determination andthe enthusiasm of local communities for ICT train-ing, eight more rural communities and two ter-tiary education institutions have requestedFantsuam Foundation’s help to start their ownlearning centers. The Bayanloco women’s micro-credit groups supervise the centers, and two train-ing colleges are using the facilities for theirdistance learning program for teachers in ruralcommunities. The success of BCLC in training andhelping rural women has had a significant effect:there is greater awareness among rural womenabout benefits from ICT education. As a resultthere is a demand for help to start learning cen-ters for women in the communities. There areplans to provide satellite-based e-mail and Inter-net access from a recent grant.

Inhibiting factors

• Resistance from board of trustees consistingonly of male members

• Technophobia suffered by women• High rate of illiteracy among women — a

common feature in rural areas• Lack of Internet access at the initial stage• Inadequate electrical supply and nonavail-

ability of phone links

Facilitating factors

• Kazanka Comfort’s exposure to the Internetand e-mail while studying abroad, and her de-termination to help rural women master thenew technology

• Support given by the Fantsuam Foundation• Enthusiasm of local communities for ICT

training• Apt use of technology to meet the basic needs

Lessons learned

• If applied thoughtfully, ICT can be a power-ful tool for poverty alleviation and maintain-ing peace.

• To provide ICT education to women, the prob-lem of illiteracy has to be addressed first.

• The training of young girls (as informationintermediaries for the older generation) canact as a catalyst for social change.

• A successful experience can generate interestand demand for ICT training among women.5

www.WomensNet.org.za, South Africa

In the past, South African women, black womenin particular, silently suffered economic and ra-cial discrimination in a male-dominated society.In 1994, the South African Constitution provided“constitutional equality” for women in SouthAfrica. Since then, the government has taken anumber of initiatives focusing on women’s rightsand equality among the sexes. Although the con-stitution now provides equality for women, it isonly a first step toward women’s equality in thereal sense of the term. South Africa approved theConvention on the Elimination of All Forms of

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Discrimination Against Women in 1995, whichproved helpful, as it adopted international stan-dards set for women’s equality.

An important indicator of equality for womenis their access to and utilization of new oppor-tunities that are unfolding rapidly in the fieldof communication technology. The key ques-tion is how many women benefit from thesenew technologies, or from the Internet. Accord-ing to a 1998 survey, only 19 percent of Internetusers in South Africa are women. So far womenwho use ICT are able to reap the advantages.They are able to identify ICT as the drivingforce in their search for equal opportunity inthe workplace. Initially, no South African website was interested in empowering the womenof South Africa. Yet some documents associatedwith women’s empowerment were accessiblethrough the Internet.

The survey found that in spite of having ac-cess to the Internet, a number of “empowered”women could neither exploit the medium fully,nor were they putting any information relevantto women on the net. As a result, there was notmuch relevant content available for women onthe Internet.

Systematic development and exchange of gen-der information in South Africa began withWomen’sNet (womensnet.org.za). This initiativewas started by the Southern African Non-Gov-ernmental Organization Network (SANGONeT,active since 1988 and a member of the Associa-tion for Progressive Communications or APC) inalliance with the Commission on Gender Equal-ity (CGE), an official body that advises the gov-ernment of South Africa on legislation related togender issues and the status of women. The aimof Women’sNet is to use ICT for empoweringwomen and to work toward promoting genderequality in South Africa. However, it is not pos-sible for a program to succeed by upgrading themedium and not the content. Women’sNet un-derstood the critical importance of content right

from the beginning and started generatingmeaningful and relevant content.

SANGONeT and CGE brought together thirty-three women from organizations around thecountry in online discussions. The discussionsgenerated a high degree of interest in the partici-pants for promoting gender equality in SouthAfrica through the new medium of the Internet.A mission statement and outline of informationfor further guidance were then developed by thewomen. APC also contributed considerably toshaping the project.

The major objectives of Women’sNet were to :• Support women for equal and active partici-

pation in society• Promote development of South African

women• Promote awareness about policy documents,

laws and legislative proceedings on women’sproblems

• Support women’s activism, leadership, andwork

• Discuss issues related to women at a globallevel

• Highlight the subjects from a “gender” per-spective.

As Women’sNet evolved, the members were par-ticularly concerned about reaping the benefitsof the reserved cyberspace for women. But it wasalso realized that the actual challenge would bein formulating a project to benefit disadvantagedwomen. It was decided that women who weredeprived of using ICT in the past had to be onthe top of the list. For increasing information ac-cess to women, it was decided to use approachessuch as “e-mail to print” and “e-mail to radio” aspotential means. Most of the women who builtthe project could not make the best use of ICTthemselves, and expressed a strong desire to gettrained by Women’sNet.

Women’sNet established an advisory group thatset down essential guidelines after considering

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the requirements of several communities. Theinformation content and form of Women’sNetwere designed by an information strategy team.To create the Women’sNet web site, an informa-tion strategy workshop was held in December1997, in which women from Uganda, Senegal, andZimbabwe participated. The workshop identifiedsome essential information areas, such as humanrights, health, ICT, education, and violenceagainst women. Later, Women’sNet added moresubjects, including women and enterprise, Inter-net links, gender in parliament, job and studyopportunities, and news. The site has a bulletinboard and a search engine. According to Lynn Dan-zig, a staff member, the objective of Women’sNetis not just to deliver the information to womenbut to make them participate in the developmentof that information.

Women’sNet is also involved in a telecenterproject that is being carried out by the UniversalService Agency.6 The project was conceived toprovide ICT access through telecenters to theunderprivileged in both urban and rural areas.The Universal Service Agency not only providessupport in establishing the telecenters but alsogives ICT training and helps in managing thesetelecenters. During the process of reaching out towomen through ICT, basic computer skills haveemerged as an important prerequisite. Womenhave been gaining practical experience at Internetcafes hosted by Women’sNet. Still, there is need toexpand the available training to cover the increas-ing number of beneficiary communities.

Women’sNet is also planning to pursue a“cross-media outreach” in the hope of influenc-ing the mass media to take an interest in wom-en’s issues.

The South African women who initially lackedthe required technical skills were able to constructand maintain the web site. The women are nowable to utilize these skills in more innovative ways.Women’sNet has shared information at organiza-tional and individual levels with different partners

in its attempt to develop the content effectively.

While often there is a lack of “gendered perspec-tive” on ICT at the public policy level, initiativessuch as Women’sNet should continue with their ob-jectives without waiting for policy changes to takeplace.7

Inhibiting factors

• No South African web site was previouslyinterested in empowering the women ofSouth Africa.

• Access to the computer and the Internet be-came a huge challenge in the absence of ad-equate infrastructure.

• Lack of “gendered perspective” on ICT at apublic policy level was an impediment.

• Women’sNet was unable to find partners inthe private sector to get assistance in terms ofresources.

• Women’sNet has not developed a trainingprogram of its own, although training was anintegral part of all past workshops.

Facilitating factors

• The alliance with the government’s Commis-sion on Gender Equality

• The gathering of thirty-three women fromorganizations around the country as a resultof combined effort made by SANGONeT andCGE

• A high degree of interest generated among theparticipants for promoting gender equality inSouth Africa through the Internet

• Contribution by APC that also shaped theproject

• The advisory group that gave essential guide-lines to Women’sNet after considering a num-ber of requirements

• Consultation, involvement, and participationof individuals and organizations resulting in“information partnerships.”

Lessons learned

• During the process of reaching out to womenthrough ICT, it was realized training basic

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computer skills was a prerequisite for furthertraining.

• ICT initiatives involving other more conven-tional media are likely to be more effective inareas with no infrastructure to support thesole use of ICT.

• Even among women who are relatively com-puter literate there is a dearth of technicallearning.

• Partners in the private sector can provide as-sistance with resources such as computers,software, and connectivity.

Notes

1. Chasquinet is a nonprofit organization inEcuador involved in empowering grassroot organi-zations and impoverished and minority groupsthrough the promotion and use of the Internet.Chasquinet considers the Internet a tool for enablingwomen and poor communities to improve theirliving standards, voice their opinions and demands,and create an impact on official policies that affectthem.

2. http://www.worldbank.org/gender/digitaldivide/Stories%20from%20Ecuador.doc;“Stories from Ecuador: Finding One’s Voice throughthe Internet”, in Acting Locally, Connecting Globally:Stories from the Regions, — Women in Sync: Toolkitfor Electronic Networking, Karin Delgadillo, Asso-ciation for Progressive Communications, Women’sNetworking Support Programme. http://www.apcwomen.org/gem/resources/phase4-stories.pdf

3. After she was charged with murder andjailed, Claudia had over thirty hearings on her case.The evidence supported her version of events, andthe judge was convinced that she was actuallyattacked. However, the prosecutor attempted tomake a case against her because of her perceivedlifestyle: “If she was a married woman, what wasshe doing out dancing?” he asked. Claudia statedthat unlike the usual marriage where the womanremains at home and the man works and goes outpartying, she and her husband shared the work.Occasionally, Claudia would go out with friends

without her husband. Claudia’s lifestyle obviouslymade officials unwilling to free her, and this in turnstimulated the women’s movement in Mexico.Claudia had neither money nor influence, butwomen (even those who can never be consideredfeminists) gathered for her sake and signed a letterdemanding her freedom. According to Ana LauraMagaloni, a professor of constitutional law whofought Claudia’s case free of charge, in Mexico Citya male executive shot and killed a robber who wastrying to grab his watch and “in 24 hours theydecided it was self-defense. Claudia’s case isn’tabout robbery, but about rape.”

4. http://www.connected.org/women/erika.html ; http://www.pacificnews.org/jinn/;Christine Bagge, “Mexico: communication betweenwomen in first and third world,” email posting, 12March 1997. http://csf.colorado.edu/forums/femisa/mar97/0076.html

5. http://www.apc.org/english/hafkin;http://www.apc.org/english/hafkin/2001/haf_hafkin_speech.txt;http://www.digitaldividenetwork.org/content/stories/index.cfm?key=199

6. An authoritative body aiming at enablingSouth African communities to utilize telecommuni-cation and information services. www.usa.org.za

7. Lydia Levin, “Women’sNet: InformationTechnology to Empower Women in South Africa,”Voices from Africa: Information and CommunicationTechnologies. http://www.womensnet.org.za/about/about.htm; http://www.unsystem.org/ngls/documents/publications.en/voices.africa/num-ber9/a10levin.htm

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Gender, ICT, and Education

As Hafkin and Taggart (2001) argue, “The singlemost important factor in improving the ability ofgirls and women in developing countries to takefull advantage of the opportunities offered byinformation technology is more education, at alllevels from literacy through scientific and tech-nological education.”

Women and girls are poorly placed to benefit fromthe knowledge economy because they also haveless access to scientific and technical educationspecifically, and to education in general. Theyhave less access to skills training and develop-ment which will enable them to gain employmentin the information technology sector, and whenthey do, they generally get work at the lower lev-els, with less pay.

These initial disadvantages have preventedwomen and girls from benefiting equally fromthe opportunities that the entire range of newtechnologies can bring; yet paradoxically, thesame technologies also offer many opportunitiesfor women and girls to gain the education and

technical skills required for them to participateequally in the knowledge economy.

Education status of girls and womenworldwide

Girls and women experience serious disadvan-tages in access to education in most developingcountries. In some regions gaps between theenrollments of girls and boys have narrowed —for example in East Asia — and there should beparity between them by 2005. North Africa andSouth Asia have also made some progress; butwith the exception of a few countries, in the de-veloping world, girls and women have less ac-cess to education at all levels and lower levels ofliteracy. The UNESCO Education for All Initia-tive recognizes that girls and women lag far be-hind boys and men in this sector:• Two out of three of the 110 million children in

the world who do not attend school are girls,and there are 42 million fewer girls than boysin primary school.

• Even if girls start school, they are far less likelyto complete their education.

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• Girls who miss out on primary educationgrow up to become the women who make uptwo-thirds of the world’s 960 million illiter-ate adults.

• A six-year-old girl in South Asia will typicallyspend six years in school, compared with nineyears for a boy.

• Living in the countryside widens the gap; agirl living in a rural area is three times morelikely to drop out of school than a city boy.

According to the 2002 UNDP Human Develop-ment Report, girls make up 60 percent of childrennot in primary school worldwide. Of the 113 mil-lion school age children not in school, 97 percentbelong to developing countries. Many countriesdo not even keep systematic data — the ninety-three countries whose population makes up 39percent of the world’s poor do not have enoughdata to be able to ascertain the access of childrento primary education. Of the twenty-one coun-tries in sub-Saharan Africa with data, fourteen arefar behind their primary education targets, orhave deteriorating enrollments.

International agencies have recognized that theimbalance between the enrollment of girls andboys is a global concern. The Millennium Devel-opment Goal 3 includes as its target the elimina-tion of gender disparity in primary and secondaryeducation, preferably by 2005, and at all levels ofeducation no later than 2015. The education-re-lated indicators consist of the ratio of girls to boysin primary, secondary, and tertiary education; andthe ratio of literate females to males between fif-teen and twenty-four years of age.

The related goals of the United Nations Girls’Education Initiative (UNGEI) are:• Building political and resource commitments

for girls’ education• Ending the gender gap in attendance and

completion• Eliminating gender bias within national edu-

cational systems• Supporting girls’ education in areas affected

by or recovering from armed conflict, natu-ral disasters, or external shocks

• Eliminating social and cultural discrimina-tion that limits the demand for girls’ school-ing (Unesco, 2002).

Girls who do enroll in schools participate less inscience and technology education and profes-sions. For example, even in countries like Brazil,where over half the students at the tertiary levelare female, girls form only 34 percent of the stu-dents who join the natural science courses thatinclude math, engineering, and computer sci-ences. Barriers to female participation in scien-tific and technical education include:• Perceptions of teachers and parents that girls

and women are intellectually unsuitable forscience and technology courses

• Tendency of teachers to pay more attentionto boys in math and science classes

• Intimidation of girls and women in scienceand technology classes

• Masculine image of science and technologyin curricula and media

• “Narrow” focus of technology courses whichoften may not connect to life outside theclassroom

• Social class.

Further, while literacy figures have continued toimprove substantially in all developing regionssince 1975 — East Asia, the Pacific, LatinAmerica, and the Caribbean have close to 90percent adult literacy — sub-Saharan Africa,South Asia, and the Arab States have much lowerrates of adult literacy, around 60 percent. Otherforms of literacy measures, although not appliedin a systematic way in many countries, also af-fect participation of girls and women in scienceand technology education. These include:• Functional literacy — the ability to under-

stand and use common channels of commu-nication and information in an everyday con-text, from newspapers and books to pam-phlets and instructions on medicine bottles(UNDP, 2002, 22).

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• Functional technological literacy — the kindof literacy required to operate a cell phone orInternet connection, as well as to understandthe implications of its use (Huyer, 2002).

• Scientific literacy — an everyday workingknowledge of science which enables someoneto respond in an informed way to the techni-cal issues of personal and national life. Scien-tific literacy is not only necessary for theworkforce required by modern industries, butalso for informed public discourse on publicpolicies in such areas as public sources of en-ergy, preservation, and use of natural re-sources; where and how public roads shouldbe built; and what form of health care systemwould best serve the needs of a particular lo-cality. It also pertains to the ability of com-munities and families to make appropriate de-cisions concerning resource allocation, diet,sanitation, and community development(Huyer and Westholm, 2001; Ayala, 1996;Gupte, 1996).

With their low levels of scientific and technologicalliteracy, women and girls are underrepresented inalmost every area of recognized scientific activity.Studies have shown that women’s employment isheavily concentrated in a few occupations. Theywork typically as home and farm helpers,nurses, lower-school teachers, and secretaries.Compared to men with similar qualifications,women are overrepresented in part-time em-ployment or unemployment and in low-paidand insecure jobs (McGregor and Harding, 1996).

In particular, the participation of women in ITdesign and development is generally low. Whilemany women in Asia, for example, engage in“telework” or remote processing, their participa-tion tends to be at the administrative or clericallevel, in data input and processing. Concentratedat the low or unskilled end of employment,women do not get the training that new jobsrequire. This is leading to fears of a global femi-nization of labor, whereby occupations in whichwomen predominate will see a drop in salaries,

status, and working conditions (Mitter, 2001;Hafkin and Taggart, 2001).

Women’s technical education and their participa-tion in science and technology-related professionsare critical for a nation’s future. Increasing thepool of human resources in the area of technol-ogy will contribute to increased creativity, exper-tise, and competitiveness in the technology sector.Increasing the pool of potential and available ex-pertise will allow a country to arrive faster at the“critical mass” of IT professionals who will fa-cilitate a national knowledge economy and attractforeign direct investment. The Gender WorkingGroup of the United Nations Commission on Sci-ence and Technology argues that it is importantfor all nations to move toward gender equality inscience and technology, so as to accelerate the paceof national progress and achieve sustainable de-velopment (Gender Advisory Board, 2001;Oldham, 1995).

In many countries women constitute the major-ity of the poor, and the connection betweenwomen’s poverty and national development (orlack thereof) is well-known. The World Bank rec-ognizes the links between gender equality, devel-opment, and public policy. Evidence presentedin the recent report, “Engendering Development— Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources,and Voices,” demonstrates that societies that dis-criminate by gender pay a high price in their abil-ity to combat poverty. Educated women are betterable to engage in productive activities, find for-mal sector employment, earn higher incomes, andexperience greater returns from schooling. Invest-ments in female education therefore tend to in-crease the incomes of families, with benefits formen, women, and children. For those women whowork in the informal sector, it has been demon-strated that access to primary education will in-crease the productivity of peasant farmers,particularly when they have access to the otherinputs needed to enhance their production; andthat the earnings of the self-employed, includingthose in urban and informal sector activities, are

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higher for the educated than for the uneducated(World Bank, 2002; Oxaal, 1997).

Consequently, strategies which increase the par-ticipation of women at all levels of the knowledgeeconomy will increase national human capacityand help to raise the standard of living.

Much needs to be done. Although gender-disag-gregated data are not gathered systematically andis often unreliable, it is clear that women’s accessto ICT in developing countries is much lower thanmen’s. In Ethiopia, men make up 86 percent ofInternet users; in Senegal, 83 percent; in China,70 percent; in France, 67 percent; and LatinAmerica, 62 percent (UNDP, 2001). Rates of ac-cess to the Internet for women range from lessthan 1 percent to over 40 percent in Mexico, Bra-zil, the Philippines, and South Africa. However,these numbers can be misleading, since the per-centage of internet users overall in those coun-tries is often around 1 percent of the totalpopulation (with the exception of Brazil andChina), and the only indicators available are ofInternet use, which is not the same as women’saccess to ICT (Gajjala 2002; Osted 2000). WomenInternet users in almost all developing countriesare not representative of the country as a whole,but make up a small, educated urban elite whohave computer and Internet access at their placeof work.

This chapter will look at:• The representation of girls and women in

technology education and employment, andstrategies to increase their participation

• The use of ICT to support a greater participa-tion of women and girls in education at alllevels through distance learning, including e-learning and the use of computers and theInternet for increased educational opportuni-ties

• Costs and benefits of the use of technologiesfor education

• Recommendations for World Bank projectsand policy.

Gender barriers in science, technology,engineering, and mathematics

While very little sex-disaggregated data are col-lected concerning women’s participation in sci-ence and technology education and professions,the data we do have indicate consistently lowparticipation by women and girls, with exceptionsin some developing countries.

The situation is similar for the participation ofwomen and girls in IT-related university coursesand research where, except for the U.S., data onuniversity enrollments and research are sporadic,not collected by a central agency, or subsumedunder the larger heading of “Engineering”. Re-search and data in this relatively new area areemerging; however, research on women’s partici-pation in science and technology has been ongo-ing for decades, and provides important insightsinto and assessments of the representation ofwomen and girls in IT education, research, andemployment.

While in some countries the number of womenundergraduates in science and technology disci-plines is increasing, we also find that the numbersteadily decreases as we move up the educationladder. Data on women’s representation in sci-ence and technology courses in universities arenot systematically collected in many parts of theworld, and it is almost impossible to make com-parisons on a national or regional basis. Even so,we do know that:• In the European Union women hold 11 per-

cent of full professor positions, while theymake up just under 50 percent of assistant pro-fessors (Laafia and Larsson, 2001).

• A study at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-nology in the U.S. in 1994 found that only 8percent of faculty (15 out of 194) in the Schoolof Science were women (MIT, 1999).

• In many Muslim countries, gender-based dis-crimination coupled with social and culturalbarriers limits the access and participation ofwomen in higher education (Hassan, 2000).

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• In the U.S. and Canada, the enrollment ofwomen students in first-year science coursesis greater in biological and health sciencesthan in courses such as engineering, whereenrollment generally remains below 30 per-cent.

• In Japan, women make up 6.8 percent of Ph.D.students in physics, and 7.1 percent in engi-neering (Kuwahara, 2001).

• The Caribbean is the only region where thepercentage of women working in science andengineering is over 50 percent — at 59 per-cent (UNDP, 2002).

• In Senegal, women make up 26 percent of stu-dents in medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry,and 15 percent in science and technology dis-ciplines (Der, 2002).

• In Nigeria, women make up 30 percent of alltechnical and related workers, however only1 percent of engineers are women (Chinye,2002).

In general, the overarching trend is that the per-centage of girls and women in science and tech-nology decreases steadily as one moves up theeducational structure, beginning with the primarylevel. The “leaky pipeline” is a concept that hasbeen used to refer to this steady attrition of girlsand women throughout the formal science andtechnology system (Barinaga, 1992). The leaks arefound at every stage of the process, resulting frombarriers that belong to four categories.

Cultural and attitudinal barriers

Cultural and attitudinal barriers, such as percep-tions about the role and status of women, existacross countries, despite widely different circum-stances. In some societies these barriers are al-most insuperable for women. At the pre-primaryand primary level, these include parents’ choicesto invest in boys’ education at the expense ofgirls’. Girls are required to help with domesticchores at home for all or part of the school day.The ones who do go to primary school, often arenot given the opportunity to attend at secondaryand tertiary levels. Preconceptions that women’s

responsibilities confine them to the home, and ex-pectations that married women will not workoutside the home, also contribute to restrictinggirls’ access to education.

Once girls enter school, they are discouraged fromlearning science and technology either con-sciously or unconsciously, as a result of parents’and teachers’ biases. Science and technology areoften not considered appropriate for girls andwomen, for reasons ranging from lack of intel-lectual ability to expectations that the primaryoccupation for women is to marry, bear children,and work inside the home. Other cultural reasonsinclude fear of sexual harassment by other pu-pils or teachers, or inadequate toilet facilities.Education costs — fees, uniforms, and books —often deter parents from sending girls to schoolwhen they could be earning money for the fam-ily. Additionally, in some cultures the concern isthat access to education will in fact make womenunsuitable for marriage and motherhood, andmake them undesirable to potential husbands.Studies in both industrialized and developingcountries show that teachers tend to respond toboys more often than girls in math and scienceclasses and pay more attention to girls in “softer”classes, thereby sending messages about gendercapacities. Teaching materials, textbooks, and lec-tures tend to depict science and technology asmale domains.

In countries where it is more socially acceptablefor girls and women to pursue independent ca-reers outside the home, other ingrained social at-titudes can restrict women’s participation inscience and technology. For example, althoughgirls in the OECD countries may have higher ratesof enrollment in science courses in primary andsecondary schools, their numbers tend to decreaseat higher levels of education and research.

Studies indicate that a narrow technology focusin the curriculum, while appealing to boys, canalienate girls, who are more interested in under-standing how the technology fits into a larger

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social, environmental, or work context (AAUW,2001; Bissell et al., 2002). There is increasing evi-dence that girls benefit from science and technol-ogy teaching curricula that emphasize hands-onactivities and application to everyday life and theenvironment, reflecting their critical role inhealth, agroforestry, and natural resource man-agement in most parts of the world.

There are other trends in science educationmitigating against the participation of girls andwomen:• The World Bank paper, “Women in Higher

Education”, notes that science and technol-ogy has a strongly masculine image not onlybecause men still dominate the field, but alsobecause they dominate the language and im-ages found in scientific literature (Dundar etal., 1994).

• Lack of women’s visible participation in tech-nology, and a dearth of female role modelsresult from, and perpetuate the socioculturalinvisibility of women in this area (Kan-daswamy, 2002; Hassan, 2000). The converseis true in the Middle East and North Africa,where higher or equal proportions of wom-en enroll in science and engineering coursesin comparison with many Western countries.This is attributed to social acceptance of wom-en in science. For example, in Egypt, a popu-lar weekly television show on science issuesis hosted by a woman scientist who is now anational celebrity.

Situational barriers

These include lack of family commitment, lackof partner support, and living in rural or isolatedareas. Cost of education, especially higher edu-cation, is a major barrier when women do nothave independent control of their resources, andbecause they tend to earn less than men to beginwith. In many cultures male partners tend to beunsupportive of women’s higher education, par-ticularly in nontraditional spheres that are con-sidered to be unsuitable for women. It is oftendifficult for women to travel to attend school for

reasons of time; cost of transportation; safety; andperceptions of the appropriateness of travelingon their own.

A study of the ICT sector in India showed thatwomen were expected to make sacrifices in theircareers for their families and their husbands,while men were not (Gajjala,2002).

Social class is also a factor in women’s access tohigher and technical education. Women in highersocial classes are more likely to have family sup-port for continuing their education and coveringthe cost of higher education (Gajjala, 2002; Evans,1995).

Qualification barriers

Qualification barriers make a difference to girls’education. Lack of formal math and sciences edu-cation or experience in computer programmingskills are often perceived as a barrier, both byadmissions departments and by the students andteachers. Evidence suggests that lack of previoustraining in these subjects is less of a barrier thanexpected: in the Philippines the success of poorly-educated and low-income women in the CiscoNetworking Academy Program, and the achieve-ments of young women without computer back-grounds in the Carnegie Mellon Universitycomputer science program, demonstrate thatwomen can master the basics of these disciplinesquickly and apply them to a higher-level courseof training or education.

Evans and Kirkup both refer to the breaks womenoften make in their professional careers for per-sonal and family reasons (including child rear-ing). Upon their return to the workforce they oftenfind their skills are outdated, or that they do nothave the latest skills and knowledge necessary tocontinue in their chosen professions. Kirkup notesthat women’s “career migration” tends to be tolower levels of the occupational hierarchy andthat they tend to migrate across and down ratherthan across and up (Evans, 1995; Kirkup, 2002).

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Institutional barriers

Finally, institutional barriers block women’s ac-cess to science and technology education. Theseinclude the lack of female teachers and the as-sumptions of male teachers mentioned above;inflexible admission, selection, and entry require-ments that do not take into account women’svarying educational backgrounds, approaches,and abilities; and heavy attendance requirementsfor practical skills and laboratory work that aremore difficult for women to meet in view of theirfamily responsibilities. Women also do not par-ticipate as fully in workplace networks, or “com-munities of practice.”1

As a result of these barriers, a series of “disjunc-tions” or mismatches occur between requirementsof educational programs and the situations andexperiences of women. These disjunctions applygenerally to women’s participation in education,but particularly to technological education, andoccur between:• Maintenance and achievement of formal en-

try requirements, and overall level of educa-tional attainment among women

• Domestication of women’s labor and theireducational or career aspirations

• Educational fees and women’s financial de-pendence and lower incomes

• Traditional curricula and women’s experienceand approach to knowledge

• Instrumental pedagogies and women’s pre-ferred learning modes (Evans, 1995).

In Africa, Williams (1987) has shown that lowparticipation of girls and women in science andtechnology education is compounded by lowenrollment rates in formal education, with the gapbetween girls and boys widening at higher levelsof education. Barriers include:• Relegation of women to the home• Parental perceptions of cost-benefits of edu-

cating girls, particularly affecting low-incomefamilies

• Female seclusion practices and early marriage• Fear of cultural loss

• Conflicting demands on girls of traditionaland school learning

• Discriminatory labor market practices• Irrelevance of curricula in science and tech-

nology to girls’ views and experiences of theworld

• Masculine image of science projected in textbooks, media, and popular assumptions

• Poor facilities, including the low number andquality of teachers and equipment

• Nature of science and technology occupa-tions, which are not easily combined withchild-rearing and childcare

• Lack of role models and career counseling.

Computer science and IT education

These barriers, disjunctions, and social attitudesare often intensified in relation to computer sciencecourses and technical training. Many studies showthat girls are “turned off” early on by the intensely“masculine” nature of technology. They rejectcomputer games as violent, redundant, and te-dious; they also reject the nonsocial, technicalobsession they see in their fellow male students(AAUW, 2000). As a result, girls are less comfort-able with computers.

A study (Ulomata, 1996) of the use of computergames by children in Nigeria found that manychildren believed that the games are designed forboys who supposedly like violence and action.When asked who played the games most, withalmost no exception they believed that boysplayed them most. Reasons given are listed in or-der of response:• Boys are more interested.• Boys have a lot of time to spare because they

have no work to do.• Girls are always busy in the kitchen or with

housework.• Computer games are designed for boys.• Boys like action games.• Boys like violence.• Boys are more adventurous.• The games have mostly male characters; only

boys and men are heroes of the games.

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• Boys understand such things more easily.• Mostly boys are found in computer clubs; girls

are scared of such places.

The fact that masculine language and imagesdominate scientific literature and culture is espe-cially true for IT and computer science. The no-tion that only computer “geeks”2 can be successfulat computer science not only deters youngwomen from entering the field, but skews the per-ception of behaviors that characterize a success-ful computer scientist. “The rub for women incomputer science is that the dominant computerscience culture does not venerate balanced ormultiple interests. Instead, the singular and ob-sessive interest in computing that is commonamong men is assumed to be the road to successin computing. This model shapes the assumptionsof who will succeed and who ‘belong’ in the dis-cipline” (Margolis and Fisher, 2001, 70). As a re-sult, a male computer science high-school teachercan state that he does not see in girls the same“love” of computers as in boys, simply becausethey do not express it through the same kind ofobsessive behavior.

Margolis and Fisher (2001) also found that thetechnology-focused approach of many computerprograms at university level discouraged women.While young men often enrolled in such pro-grams simply because they enjoyed them or hada passion for computers and technology, womenchose the discipline for a variety of reasons:• Enjoyment• Versatility of computing in relation to other

interests• As a career path for safe and secure employ-

ment• Because of the exciting and changing nature

of the field• Encouragement from parents and teachers.

While the narrow technology focus of computerscience courses seems to discourage women, theytend to enroll in larger numbers when coursesare introduced that place technology in a larger

context of society, occupation, history, or use(Margolis and Fisher, 2001; Bissell et al, 2002).

In Nigeria both women and men were asked why,in their opinion, there is such a low participationrate for women in IT careers. Some reasons givenby the men were that IT and IT-related careerswere unsuitable for the female personality; theywere too strenuous for women; and that they de-manded absolute dedication, perseverance, andconsistency, attributes they believed womenlacked. Women gave similar responses, with theadded element that IT “overexposes” youngwomen to the Western style of life, making themappear too “worldly wise”, and thereby limitingtheir chances of marriage (Ajayi, 1996).

Nevertheless, in some developing countries, com-puter science is seen as more appropriate forwomen. Kandaswamy (2002) noted that in Indiathere is a relatively strong participation of womenin the IT and software industry as well as othertechnology careers. The enrollment of women intechnical institutions has increased in the lasttwenty years from just 5 percent to 45 percent;90,000 women graduate in the ICT fields fromcolleges in the four southern states each year, andin fact it is seen as a more “feminine” field thanother engineering disciplines. This is in contrastto the U.S. and Canada, where enrollment ofwomen in computer science has been decreasingfor several years. The reasons for the increasedparticipation of women in the ICT sector in somedeveloping countries are not entirely clear. Somefactors could include sociocultural attitudeswhich allow or promote women’s participationin science and technology and IT; (in the case ofIndia) a national strategy to promote an ITworkforce as well as a national information soci-ety; and nature of the national education system.

Strategies to encourage women’sparticipation in scientific andtechnical education

In developing countries some general strategieshave proven to be effective in encouraging the

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continued participation of girls and women ineducation, such as scholarships based on merit,culturally appropriate facilities, women teachers,alternative schools with flexible schedules, andvocational training. There is a substantial bodyof research on strategies and approaches to in-creasing the participation and success rate ofwomen and girls in scientific and technical edu-cation. Some of these approaches are:• Changes in curricula to reflect a gender-neu-

tral, or gender-inclusive image of scientistsand the practice of science

• Science education that emphasizes hands-onactivities and application to everyday life,society, and the environment

• Female role models and mentors• Conscious effort by teachers to treat girls and

boys as equals in the classroom.

Further strategies would include bridging pro-grams that allow re-entry for women alreadyqualified in technical subjects, conversion pro-grams that provide older women and schooldropouts access to technical education, and com-munity-based programs built around issues ofdirect relevance to the lives of women.

The Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Scienceincreased the proportion of women in its com-puter science program from 7 percent in 1995 to42 percent in 2000. In the same period, the per-centage of female student graduates increased toalmost the same level as that of male students.During this time a series of interventions weremade in admissions and curricular requirementsthat contributed substantially to this change. Anintroductory course was instituted for those notexperienced in programming, using a discovery-based, real-world orientation. Based on researchdemonstrating that prior experience did not pre-dict future success, the admissions policy was al-tered to give equal preference to both highly- andless-experienced students. The quality of teach-ing was improved by putting better, more expe-rienced, and more senior teachers into the earliercourses. A unit on diversity with emphasis on

gender equality was integrated into the trainingof teaching assistants. Several courses were initi-ated which placed technology in the real-worldcontext. In addition, peer tutoring and promotionof networking among women staff and studentswere implemented (Margolis and Fisher, 2001).

The experience of the Open University in the U.K.in attracting women into its computer programis a useful illustration of a bridging and conver-sion program. It instituted an open access policyto its technology courses in the 1980s in order toattract women into nontraditional subject areas.However this practice was insufficient in itself toattract more women students, who also experi-enced barriers of cost, confidence in their abilityto “handle” the courses, and the burden of fam-ily commitments.3 A course for computer “begin-ners” helped to address one of these concerns. Asat Carnegie Mellon, changes in the curriculumthat placed technology in a larger context of real-world functionality proved to be more appealingto women. Pedagogical approaches whichstressed skills development, reflective practice,and the teaching of technology ideas and con-cepts, also proved successful in attracting morewomen students (Bissell et al, 2002).

Training women for the IT workplace

Although women have made some gains in em-ployment in the IT workforce, they are employedpredominantly in low-level data processing workin much of the world. Even in the industrializedworld, women’s participation in skilled IT em-ployment remains much lower than men’s.

Women generally lack access to technical andskills training that would allow them to move intomore technical and cognitive jobs. For example,42 percent of women in sub-Saharan Africa par-ticipate in the labor force, but few have access toskills development: young women make up only15 to 35 percent of formal training programs. Inview of the rapidly changing set of skills requiredto participate in IT jobs, this lack of training is aserious disadvantage (Hafkin and Taggart, 2001).

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Technical and vocational training can redress theinequalities women experience with respect toskills training and IT employment. Such trainingcan provide IT skills to women for IT-based em-ployment, as well as for use in the running ofsmall businesses and other income-generatingactivities such as food processing and cash-cropagriculture.

The India Technician Education project assistsindustrially and economically underdevelopedand geographically remote regions in India toimprove the quality and efficiency of technicaleducation to meet local needs. The project aimsto increase access to technical education and train-ing for some disadvantaged sections of society,including women, scheduled tribes, and ruralyouth. The eighteen project polytechnics developclose links with local communities to train ruralartisans, the educated unemployed, and schooldropouts, and help transfer appropriate technolo-gies to villages.

The project covers a total of twelve existing andsix new polytechnics in the eight project states,and has the following components: developingand expanding capacity to provide greater accessto technical education; improving the quality ofeducation to produce better trained technicians;increasing efficiency through better planning, ad-ministration, and use of the system; and makingeducation more responsive to emerging labormarket needs.

Key policy and institutional reforms supportedby the project include:• Creating opportunities for technical training

of women and tribal communities to increasetheir earning capacity

• Introducing structural and academic flexibil-ity in all programs offered by the polytech-nics to make them responsive to market de-mands

• Promoting self-employment by developingentrepreneurial and communication skills instudents through curricular interventions

• Developing human resources capacity for keyareas of economic growth including IT (WorldBank, 2000).

Cyberkiosks and telecenters can offer opportuni-ties for acquiring basic computer skills and train-ing for IT employment and income-generatingactivities. For example, in Kolkata, women re-searchers and activists have experimented withsetting up telecenters that are run by cooperativesof women entrepreneurs in partnership with pri-vate sector firms, so that the cooperatives wouldhave a ready clientele for work in medical tran-scription or data entry (Mitter, 2001).

While these and other types of IT training pro-grams in developing countries provide basicInternet and word processing training for women,the risk is that emphasis on this type of trainingwill reinforce a trend toward the feminization ofthis kind of labor. It is much more difficult andmore important to develop strategies to providewomen with higher-level technology skills.

The Cisco Systems Networking Academy is anexample of an IT training program that has thepotential to reach large numbers of women indeveloping countries. It consists of a training cur-riculum that teaches students to design, build,and maintain computer networks, preparingthem for industry-standard certification as net-working professionals. To increase female enroll-ment it uses female role models in advertisementsand promotional materials; the curriculum alsoincludes a training module on gender equality.Cisco has formed partnerships with internationalorganizations and NGOs to address the gendergap, and has recently completed a project withthe United Nations Economic Commission forAfrica (ECA). The project is one of several in Af-rica and Asia that focus on women. The ECAproject awarded full scholarships to youngwomen who traveled to Addis Ababa for train-ing in Internet networking technology. Thewomen also received training in management,entrepreneurship, and gender issues.

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The knowledge of the trainees increased as a re-sult of the course, as did their self-confidence andself-esteem. Of the twenty-seven women inter-viewed from the first graduating class, 71 percentsaid they intended to encourage other women toenter the IT field and to promote women in IT; 41percent said that they intended to become IT en-trepreneurs themselves; and 82 percent said theyintended to work in the IT field.

Cisco has found that women often make it to thetop percentages of graduating classes, regardlessof their previous training or education level. Inone recent examination, seventeen of twenty-seven women scored 90 percent or above. In thePhilippines, Cisco collaborated with a women’sNGO to provide network training to women mak-ing less than $600 a year. The students graduatedwith grades that were as good as in any other acad-emy in the network (Walsh, 2001; Hafkin, 2002).

The Ericsson European Equal Opportunities Awardis a competition among Ericsson branches in Eu-rope. It addresses several of the barriers to women’sfull participation in IT employment discussedabove. The award promotes workplaces that havetaken concrete initiatives to improve women’sconditions and made the best use of their womenworkers. The purpose is to encourage organiza-tions to support employees who combine workand home life, recruit and retain talented womenas well as men, and motivate young women tochoose technical education and technical jobs. “Ifwe show young women that technology is funand that the industry has beneficial employmentconditions (including the possibility to combinefamily life with a career) more women mightchoose a technical career.” The rationale for thisactivity is Ericsson’s experience that having morewomen in the company encourages a construc-tive corporate culture, and “that a good balancebetween men and women in management andthroughout the company facilitates constructivedebate.” In fact, Ericsson has found that “in manycases, our female employees have been more con-structive and less focused on prestige than men,

and they are more receptive to new ways ofthinking” (Ericsson, 2001).

Print remains the most common distance educa-tion medium in developing countries, both on itsown, and in combination with radio, television,video and audio. Telephone, fax, two-way radioand e-mail are used for tutor support. Face-to-face sessions at a public learning center may beused to complement and reinforce these media.According to the Commonwealth of Learning, theuse of new ICT for education, such as video andaudio conferencing and computer-mediated com-munication (web, e-mail, and online learning), re-mains low in the Commonwealth developingcountries (Commonwealth of Learning, 2002).Nevertheless, plans and programs are in place toexpand the use of ICT and introduce new ICT fordistance learning, based on lessons learned andtrends identified to date.

Perraton (2002) lists some criteria for assessingthe use of technology for basic education:• Any discussion of the use of ICT for educa-

tion needs to be set within a framework ofnational education policy (and often also thenational communication policy).

• Technologies must be user-driven. The ques-tion is not how to introduce ICT into educa-tion, but whether ICT will help achieve al-ready existing goals for basic education and,if so, how. In answering this question, onemust look at the whole range of ICT, fromradio to print to television and to differentuses of computers.

• ICT is not a universal or a simple answer.Application of technology for education mustbe appropriate to the curriculum, availablecommunications infrastructure, and trainingcapacity.

• The technology should follow, or maintain adistance from the leading edge of technology.Educational projects at the edge often run intodifficulties and are rarely sustainable in thelong term.

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Technologies for basic education

The application of technology to basic educationshould take into account the recipients of educa-tion, purposes, and location. Are the recipientschildren, adults, or teachers? Is the purpose towiden access to basic education, raise its quality,or even reform educational curriculum? And fi-nally, where will the learning take place — inschool, in an alternative structure, at home, or ata cybercafe or some other community technolo-gy access point? Table 1 outlines the possible ap-plications.

In-school programs involve delivery of state-developed or state-approved curricula to youngchildren, adolescents, and adults. They can in-clude quality enhancement programs such as In-teractive Radio Instruction (IRI), which brings directteaching and learning exercises to the classroom ona regular basis. The radio lessons, developed on

particular subjects of the national curriculum, aredesigned to improve the quality of classroomteaching and to support poorly trained classroomteachers in underresourced schools. Children in-teract with the radio lesson by answering ques-tions, or performing specific tasks during pausesin the radio script. Other approaches includelarge-scale mass-media projects involvingschools, radio, and educational television. In-school programs for adults deliver primary schoolcurricula, or various forms of vocational or com-munity enhancement programs. Models includeopen schools, study groups, or campaigns basedon the use of government or private facilities.

Out-of-school primary education programs haveexisted for many years. The early programs wereessentially correspondence programs, often runby state or federal ministries of education. Theycan be supplemented by radio and deliver the

Audience Locations

In school/college Alternative school Out of school

Children Computers in the TV based rural schools, Radiophonic schoolsclassroom e.g. TelesecundariaRadio including IRI

Open schools

Adults Some participation in Radiophonic schoolsopen schools

Nonformal, radio-basedprograms

Individual distanceeducation enrollments

Cybercafes for education

Teachers Computer support for Distance education Unstructured programsteacher education programs for initial to support teachers

teacher training andcontinuing professionaldevelopment

Source: Perraton, 2002

Table 1. Some applications of technology to basic education

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regular school curriculum to children living in iso-lated communities. Out-of-school programs foradults involve provision of basic educationthrough a range of approaches to distance andopen learning, including radio and television,study groups, and mass media campaigns.

A review of the Commonwealth of Learning’sdistance nonformal education programs in Africaargued that radio learning can be a powerful in-strument for change, that it reinforces and is re-inforced by print materials, and is a very effectivemedium for adult basic and nonformal education.Other conclusions were that to be successful, cur-ricula should be relevant to everyday life; thereshould be a sense of ownership of the technologyand the curricula; and it should promote a directapplication of knowledge and skills (Siaciwena,2000). Radio-based programs are well docu-mented, and the use of cybercafes is also beingintroduced in many areas.

Case Study 1: Radio Education for AfghanChildren, Afghanistan

Radio Education for Afghan Children (REACH)uses radio to broadcast educational programs tochildren who have few opportunities to attendschool. A major challenge was to develop pro-gramming which would stand alone, with noteaching, tutoring, or print support. While not asubstitute for formal education, it broadcasts in-formative, interesting and thought-provokingprograms to children and adults on basic subjectssuch as science, social studies, mathematics,grammar, and spelling. Programs for adults con-centrate on life skills, such as dangers oflandmines, adjustment after the civil war, and therole of women in Afghan society.

REACH was never conceived as a substitute forschool, but as a dynamic tool designed to respondto children’s wider educational needs. Programsare developed based on participatory rural assess-ment with focus groups made up of men, women,girls, and boys. Program ideas from these meet-ings are then further developed with experts in

the topics covered, and then sent to the focusgroups for feedback.

The role of women and programs focusing onwomen’s concerns are a major part of REACHprogramming, including sessions on family andchildren’s health, home economics, and women’srights in the family and society (Siddiqi, 2002).

Case Study 2: Prince Hussein InformationTechnology Community Center, Jordan

The Prince Hussein Information TechnologyCommunity Center in Safawi is part of Jordan’snational strategy of “transforming Jordanian so-ciety into the digital age and eliminating the digi-tal divide”. It was funded by UNDP and ismanaged by a local grassroots organization, theBadia Research and Development Program(BRDP). The Center is equipped with computers,an Internet line, and a printer. It provides an op-portunity for Bedouin women to use computersto enroll in distance learning at a university morethan 60 miles away. Many women in the commu-nity, who are unable to travel on their own, ac-tively use the center. Initially, they avoidedcrossing the busy street where the center is lo-cated. Subsequently, separate training sessionswere organized, and women were visited in theirown homes in order to determine their informa-tion interests. “Slowly the women of Safawai —many with their daughters — began to cross fromone side of the town to the other, sign up forclasses, check their e-mail and browse Arabic lan-guage web sites on health, news, religion, educa-tion, poetry and entertainment” (Juma, 2001).

Finally, technologies are used to support teach-ers, through in-school computer support, distanceeducation programs for initial teacher training,and continuing professional development (Yatesand Tilson, 2000; Perraton, 2002).

Out-of-school literacy training

The Commonwealth of Learning implementedprograms that used radio-based learning, re-inforcing and reinforced by print media and

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face-to-face training and discussion sessions. Itwas found that nonformal education could con-tribute to a stronger, more integrated and morecommunity-based approach to rural develop-ment, especially to meeting the basic needs of thepoor.

Initiatives aimed at women included a project inGhana which used radio to develop functionalliteracy as well as provide information in locallanguages on a wide range of topics, includingAIDS, teenage pregnancy, nutrition, communityempowerment, income-generating activities, foodpreservation, animal husbandry, child labor, andsaving energy. In addition, radio was used to pro-mote literacy outside the classroom.

Although there were some difficulties, such aspoor radio infrastructure and inadequate air timeto offer literacy programs in fifteen languages,there were real benefits too. Use of the radiostrengthened the coverage of the functional anddevelopment themes of the literacy program;changed people’s attitudes toward issues such asfamily planning; and contributed to the establish-ment of income-generating ventures (Siacewena,2000).

In India the Commonwealth of Learning and theBritish Department for International Develop-ment cofunded projects on literacy, (particularlyfor women), innovative curriculum design, in-structional materials, and appropriate teachingmethods. ICT was used as a basis for the deliveryof education, information, and training.

Parcipating groups included the M. S. Swami-nathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) and twostate resource centers in Jaipur and Indore. Eachcenter was supplied with two computers, oneprinter, one camera, one television, one VCR, andone audiocassette recorder.

The main project goals were to promote accessi-bility, interactivity, community ownership, andsustainability. To this end, the project focused on

dialogue and discussions with the community,ensuring that women were active participants,and using participatory rural appraisal tech-niques. The next step was to demystify the tech-nology, so that the learner could exercise controlover its use. It was expected that the communitywould take responsibility for the on-going use ofthe technology to serve their own developmentneeds. To this end, capacity-building inputs wereprovided in the form of computer and multime-dia training for the project staff, and audio andvideo training for both the project staff and vil-lage youth and women.

The MSSRF-facilitated center has been more suc-cessful than the other state-run centers, prima-rily because of the involvement of local self-helpgroups that mediated use and distribution of thetechnologies. MSSRF encouraged local buy-in bymaking the family responsible for ensuring thatone member became literate, and by focusing onthe control of the learners over both the technol-ogy and how and why it was to be used for lit-eracy. The Foundation also helped the villagersto use the technology to develop their own mate-rial, which reflected local history, language, andother aspects of village life and society. The state-run resource centers tended to be more inflexible,and thus had less response from the local popu-lation. The focus at the state-run centers was onthe development of literacy skills, which actuallydiscouraged adult participation.

Lessons learned to date about ingredients for suc-cess include the need to:• Select the right partners• Plan holistically and for sustainability• Secure community participation and control

over use of technology for literacy• Ensure accessibility and interactivity of tech-

nology• Provide capacity building and on-going re-

source support• Change the nature of literacy from traditional

literacy to computer literacy, information lit-eracy, and technological literacy

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• Acquire and develop a variety of educationalprograms and materials to cater to the diverseneeds of the community (Dighe, 2002).

Computer-mediated education

Computer-based learning is described as the“third generation” of distance learning, buildingon the first generation of paper-based correspon-dence courses and the second generation of mul-tiple media systems. A fourth generation is justemerging — “flexible learning” — which uses acombination of multimedia, expanded teaching-learning resources, and computer and Internetsupported interactivity (Harry and Khan, 2000).

Computers are used in a variety of ways inschools: as a tool for school administration andmanagement; to teach and learn computer skills;to improve the presentation of classroom work;to teach and learn repetitive tasks as well as in-tellectual, thinking, and problem solving skills;to stimulate creativity; and for research and com-munication (Derbyshire, 2003).

A strong argument for the use of computers ineducation is based on the emerging evidencethat computers and the Internet can contributeto increased quality of education and improvedexperience for both student and teacher. In cer-tain situations, computers in classrooms can in-crease and improve the value and quality oflearning.

Case Study 3: AIDSWEB, Africa

World Links’ AIDSWEB project in secondaryschools in Africa used ICT for AIDS education andprevention activities. These included an onlineAIDS international project, a social action web sitedesign competition, teacher exchange visits, andAIDS educational print-to-electronic material ad-aptation. Teachers who participated in the projectclaim that it has raised awareness of AIDS issuesamong their students, improved research skills,helped the integration of AIDS education intoschool curricula, and emphasized the role of theteacher as a facilitator (Bloome, 2002).

Case Study 4: Conexiones, Colombia

Conexiones is a project of EAFIT University andthe Pontificia Bolivariana University in Medellin,Colombia. Conexiones is an approach to devel-oping computer-supported learning environ-ments for improved quality of and equal accessto education. In addition to the regular educa-tional curricula, computers are used to supportcollaborative learning which helps students iden-tify problems in their community and work as ateam to design and propose solutions. The col-laboration works not only among students butalso among teachers of different subject areas,both within a school and among different schools.

The project is an example of how computers canenrich education, and at the same time build so-cial and cultural awareness and empowerment.Conexiones has helped to improve the institu-tional climate within schools; ushered changesin roles, attitudes, and valuations; encouraged theparticipation and recognition of the work of allstudents; and as a result increased the self-esteemof both students and teachers. “The children arevery sensitive to their cultural surroundings —in [Colombia’s] case, the conditions of poverty,intolerance, violence, insecurity, and corruptionaffect them very deeply. The conviction that col-laborative construction and sharing of knowledgeare means to face such problems turns ICT intoan important opportunity to integrate school,community, and life.”6

Computers in schools: ensuring that girlsbenefit

The use of computers in primary and secondaryschools is particularly important for girls in de-veloping countries: they are less likely to haveaccess to computers outside of school, and theyare less likely to move on to higher-level scienceand technology courses. Evidence that primaryschool students can acquire keyboard, word-processing and spreadsheet skills as quickly assecondary school students, supports the view thatit may be important for girls to have access to

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computer training early on. (Hafkin and Taggart,2001; Derbyshire, 2002; Cawthera, 2000).

Very little gender-differentiated research exists onthe effects and benefits of technologies for edu-cation. As Shafika Isaacs, Executive Director ofSchoolnet Africa states, “There is a dearth of re-search, information, and codified knowledge onwomen and the educational use of ICTs in edu-cation (2002).” Nevertheless, a few studies haveemerged recently, which indicate that genderimbalances in access and use of computers doexist, and which point to areas where further re-search and action would be most effective.

Case Study 5: Schoolnet, Africa

In the experience of Schoolnet Africa, gender in-tegration has been extremely limited in programsthat introduce computers in schools. Where girlshave access to and use ICT effectively, it is large-ly by chance rather than through programs thatmake technology attractive to girls and women.Examples where girls and women were targetedinclude Schoolnet Uganda, which worked withgirls-only schools; Schoolnet Africa, which set upan Educators’ Network targeting women whonow make up 51 percent of the network; andSchoolnet Mozambique, which along withSchoolnet Uganda set up collaborative learn-ing projects on issues affecting girls and women(Isaacs, 2002b).

A recent study by World Links on computers inschools in four countries of Africa (Ghana, Mau-ritania, Senegal, and Uganda) found that a highstudent-to-computer ratio and first-come-first-serve computer policies put girls at a disadvan-tage. In Uganda, where computers were set up in aseparate lab, girls used computers less than boysbecause it was considered unsuitable for them torun. The boys arrived first and were unwillingto limit their time at the computers to allow thegirls to use them. Other socio-cultural factors af-fecting girls’ access included their domesticchores and early curfews at boarding schools, aswell as lack of confidence in using computers.

On the other hand, the study also found thatwhen girls had access to computers, they woulduse them more for academic research and com-munication with friends and family, increasingtheir reasoning and communication skills. Theyalso used Internet access to obtain informationon issues such as reproduction and sexuality, in-formation not available from their families orcommunities. Boys tended to use the computersfor sports and music and received little academ-ic benefit. When girls did have equal access tocomputers, their self-confidence improved. Oneparticipant in Senegal said, “We are no longer de-pendent on boys. We feel capable of solving ourproblems with great autonomy” (Gadio, 2001).

Schoolnet Uganda also implemented a programto increase the number of women teachers in theproject, based on the rationale that the genderdivide among teachers is often transmitted to thestudents. The World Links–Schoolnet Ugandaprogram offered a five-day technical training pro-gram for twenty women teachers involved in thee-learning course. The objective was to increasethe confidence and competence of women teach-ers with computers, so that they could act as rolemodels for girl children in schools. The partici-pants took apart and reassembled computers tounderstand how they work, as well as how to usethem to support their teaching.

Case Study 6: Sarvodaya Ashram ResourceCenter, India

The Sarvodaya Ashram Resource Center (SARC)IT initiative is located at a residential school forgirls called Udaan (meaning “flight”) in Hardoi,India. It is an example of how the integration ofcomputer technology with girls’ education canimprove student learning, teacher training, andpedagogy skills, and strengthen institutional ca-pacities. The project is established in a remoterural setting, where villagers have had little ex-posure to technology.

One hundred girls were trained to use computersand experiment with basic computer programming.

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Teachers at the school also received computertraining, and were involved in the developmentof one of the software programs. Classroom in-struction was designed to integrate self-instruc-tion and group learning activities. Although mostof the girls were initially intimidated by the com-puters, the learning process enabled them to over-come their fears.

The specific objectives of the SARC project are to:• Utilize computer technology as a medium to

deliver to rural children (primarily girls) in-novative and complementary education thatintegrates self-instruction with more tradi-tional group-learning methods

• Improve CARE India’s ability to identify, cre-ate, manage, and share development knowl-edge effectively among various projects andsectors (including health, agriculture, andemergency relief)

• Document the lessons learned in order to con-tribute to the body of knowledge on com-puter-assisted education and to ensure thereplicability of the project in other areas.

Future plans include developing additional soft-ware programs for use in the classroom, andadapting existing technological resources to im-prove community programs in agriculture,health, and microenterprise. In addition, the in-teractive CDs that are developed will be sharedwith other schools in the region that lack high-quality learning materials in Hindi (CARE India,2001).

Distance learning, another use of ICT

Distance education through ICT provides a greatopportunity for women and girls. Studies indi-cate that distance education provides womenwith a means to overcome many obstacles. Theflexibility of access and study times and the po-tential to reach women in rural areas make this avery positive educational approach for women.

Interviews with women in Asia demonstratedthat women used distance education to find a

career that would enable them to support theirfamilies and send their children to the university;improve their performance in their current work;increase their self-confidence; and learn newskills. Most had to overcome strong oppositionfrom family members, which often dissipatedwhen the benefits to the family as a whole be-came evident (Kanwar and Taplin, 2001). A studyin Barbados reveals that the use of ICT for dis-tance learning is helping to encourage youngwomen to study science and technology (Com-monwealth of Learning, 1999).

Learning from the Internet: e-learning

E-learning generally refers to teaching and learn-ing that takes place through the Internet. It hasbeen defined as “the use of network technologyto design, deliver, select, administer, and extendlearning.” E-learning strategies are most pertinentat higher levels of education, and where depend-able and affordable Internet access is available.

Studies show that women enthusiastically andsuccessfully take advantage of e-learning oppor-tunities. Studies of distance education in NorthAmerica have found that women outnumber menin enrollments in distance courses, ranging from61 percent to 78 percent in selected universities,although enrollment of women in other parts ofthe world varies considerably. A 1992 study foundthat women outnumbered men in distance learn-ing courses in New Zealand and Israel, but thatthe opposite pattern existed in Britain, Germany,and Spain. According to a more recent study,enrollment for women in some of the larger dis-tance education institutions varied from 50 per-cent at the Open University in the U.K., to 27.4percent at FernUniversitat, Germany, 54.7 percentat UNED, Spain, and 38 percent at the Open Uni-versity, Netherlands. Developing country statis-tics appear to be available primarily from Southand Southeast Asia. Women make up 26 percentof students at the Indira Ghandi National OpenUniversity, India; and 40 percent of students insecondary education at the Bangladesh OpenUniversity. Interestingly, women also make up 60

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percent of students on the merit list (Trivedi, 1989;Evans, 1995; Kanwar and Taplin, 2001; Thomp-son, 1998; Commonwealth of Learning, 1999).

A study of ICT-based lectures at the FH-Joanneumin Austria found that female students prefer the pri-vacy of virtual education, with no pressure or fearof appearing stupid in front of male students. Asurvey of students at the Open University in theU.K. revealed that female students appreciate theuse of computer conferencing for contact with otherstudents, course directors, and tutors, suggestingthat women may experience more support in anon-line environment (Gferer and Pauschenwein,2002; Bissell et al, 2002).

Case Study 7: Ewha, South Korea

The Ewha experience that follows is closely basedon David Cohen’s account (Cohen, 2001).

Ewha is part of a national initiative in South Ko-rea to create fifteen virtual institutions, partner-ships between sixty-five universities and fivecompanies, each operating within an existinguniversity system. These institutions have devel-oped new educational programs using various ICT,such as satellite broadcasting, videoconferencing,video on demand, and the Internet. They have madeavailable to the nation’s students everything fromsingle Internet courses to retraining opportunities,and complex projects that make innovative useof new technologies. Ewha offers 152 full-creditvirtual courses to 8,799 female students acrossSouth Korea, including poor women from the hin-terlands, housewives, and mothers in Seoul.

A new “lifelong education” law, which came intoeffect this year, has inspired the creation of nineSouth Korean cyberuniversities that focus on con-tinuing education, including worker training.Ewha believes that women will reap the greatestbenefit from the push toward higher education.In 1996, South Korea officially became a memberof the Paris-based Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD), and be-gan aggressively pursuing strategies to broaden

IT education. Today, 35 percent of high-level ITpositions in corporate South Korea are held bywomen.

Challenges to e-learning for women

Challenges to e-learning include the high cost ofonline access in much of the world, combinedwith increased costs of higher education in gen-eral. In order to reach women and groups in othersocioeconomic levels, alternative access strategiesneed to be investigated. The Women into Tech-nology Project at the Open University, U.K. initi-ated a variety of actions to increase the rate ofwomen’s enrollment including:• Providing a course on updating skills and

technical expertise to help women engineersreenter the workforce

• Offering bursaries• Using publicity appealing directly to women• Building confidence and group identity

through small groups led by women who hadcompleted the course successfully

• Providing a supportive network of peers• Offering first-year courses which provide

“catch-up” instruction and holistic views oftechnology in social and historical contexts

• Providing computer-aided learning packagesand “key skills” for certain courses

• Using computer conferencing, the web, andtelevision (Evans, 1995; Bissell et al, 2002).

The experience of the African Virtual University(AVU) demonstrates that online teaching insti-tutions based in developing countries cannotdepend on the same telecommunications infra-structure available to the Open University in theU.K. and must carefully examine available infra-structure and technology cost to determine thefeasibility of this kind of initiative. The AVU hasshifted its focus to become a technology and con-tent resource broker and advisor for developingcountry institutions. It provides support for thedevelopment, delivery, and maintenance of on-line and distance learning programs, and digitallibrary services. In 2002, 40 percent of its 23,000students were women (Wolff, 2002).

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Other challenges include:• Complex and time-consuming implementa-

tion and a shortage of high-quality coursecontent

• Limited course offerings mostly targeting thelarger-sized corporate markets

• Widespread use of English as the language ofthe courses

• Lack of content for groups with lower levelsof literacy

• Unavailability of courses targeted to the train-ing needs of micro and small businesses

• Continually changing nature of the technol-ogy raising cost and maintenance concerns

• Need for major changes in student behaviorand in the approach of teachers to e-learning(Capper, 2001).

Teacher training

Research data are more widely available on dis-tance education for teacher training. In general,technologies can provide high quality teacherdevelopment strategies, with benefits beyondthose found in traditional face-to-face approaches.Online or distance education for teacher trainingprovides an important opportunity for women,since when properly implemented, it is a usefulapproach for women for reasons of flexibility oftime, lower cost, and method of learning. This isimportant, since in OECD countries and probablyin many other parts of the world, women makeup the majority of teachers at the pre-primary,primary, and lower-secondary levels of education(OECD, 2001).

Distance learning:• Gives teachers access to learning any time,

any place• Provides teachers with opportunities to view

numerous instances of teaching practice, andto engage in reflective and analytic learningactivities and discussions

• Allows teachers to access the instructionalproducts such as student work, and teachers’lesson plans and assessment instruments

• Provides access to a broad array of teaching

and learning resources across subject areas• Allows teachers to participate in learning

communities, to share ideas and resourceswith their peers and other experts anywherein the world

• Provides sustained, ongoing opportunities forteacher development

• Can involve a range of individuals and groupswith different types of expertise that can con-tribute to teacher development, such as uni-versity faculty, subject experts, researchers,curriculum specialists, and members of pro-fessional subject associations

• Provides uniform training quality with theflexibility of local customization

• Can be tailored to specific needs and curriculaof an education system (Capper, 2002).

Case Study 8: Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency, Guyana

In Guyana the Canadian International Develop-ment Agency (CIDA) has funded a project to trainteachers in remote areas through distance educa-tion. The teachers are young women aged be-tween sixteen and twenty-four, with only primaryeducation. The women travel often by foot for twoto three days to reach the training center, wherethey are taught using a combination of print ma-terials and teacher support.

Over three years, 1000 teachers have completedthe three-year course in a region where there isno other form of teacher training or support.

The women often travel with their young chil-dren. Travel at any time of the year is difficult,and during the rainy season particularly so. Toaddress this problem, the use of audio and videocassettes is planned to be introduced, to allow thewomen to learn at home (Sproule, 2002).

Costs and benefits of technologies fordistance learning

Despite the potential to improve access forwomen to education and encourage their partici-pation in the knowledge economy, the costs and

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efficiency of distance learning models must becarefully assessed, both in terms of the technol-ogy and the content.

A technology-dominated system of education canbe established more economically than conven-tional education only if:• A greater part of the curriculum can be deliv-

ered through ICT• An adequate communication infrastructure is

in place• Capacity and resources to train teachers al-

ready exist• The cost of learning per hour is below that of

conventional education (Perraton, 2002;Cawthera, 2002)

Perraton (2002) comments, “No matter which ra-tionale dominates, the use of computers in theclassroom presents significant demands to min-istries of education.” Costs are not restricted tohardware and software. In the case of Jordan, per-sonnel and training costs themselves constitutetwo-thirds of the total investment, involvingchanging the attitudes of teachers, training in theuse of computers to accelerate learning, and ba-sic training in computer and Internet use(Perraton, 2002; Berry, 2002). The total cost of edu-cation goes up when technology is used to sup-port or improve the work of teachers. Only inout-of-school programs can certain technologiesreduce costs, where they replace the teacher ormake it possible to employ less qualified staff.Radio and television have the potential to be cost-effective, but generally on economies of scale.Telesecundario in Mexico, a television-basedproject, and Telecurso in Brazil indicate that largecountries can implement such projects economi-cally. Radio and television projects in China, Bra-zil, and Mexico will be more cost-effective thansimilar projects in countries of 500,000 or a fewmillion (Perraton, 2002; Rumble, 2002).

Here are some factors to keep in mind whenimplementing distance education programs:• Sequential use of predecessor tools can be

very effective. Some of the most successful ex-amples of distance education exist in China,where it began with paper correspondenceand gradually moved up the technology scaleto radio and television, to CD-ROM, to theInternet, and finally to the web.

• Virtual education requires a long gestationperiod. Commitment, effort, investment, andimplementation must be sustained over a longperiod of time in order to adequately judgeresults and potential.

• Invest more in people than in technology.Learners not only require adequate infrastruc-ture, they also need to be comfortable and ac-quainted with the technologies in order toreap the greatest benefit from their use.

• Beware of hidden physical costs. These includerenovation and upgrading of buildings hous-ing computers, heating and cooling, electri-cal capacity, and security.

• Software can be very expensive. Alternativessuch as open source software may be appro-priate.

• Replacement costs for parts and the comput-ers themselves should also be considered.

Recommendations

It is evident that not enough research has beendone on the feasibility, efficiency, and reach ofvarious strategies for using ICT for education, par-ticularly with respect to gendered distribution ofbenefits. Therefore, sex-disaggregated data needsto be collected at every level of implemention.

Support and encouragement for increased par-ticipation of women and girls need to be presentat every level of scientific and technical educa-tion to motivate them to continue their educa-tion past primary levels and increase therecruitment and retention of girls at higher lev-els. More women teachers and role models, al-ternative schools with flexible schedules, andculturally approriate facilities are some of theingredients for success.

It is important to generate curricula which address

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the interests and perspectives of women and girls,and do not include gender stereotypes. In thisarea, the Bank could work with clients and oper-ational colleagues to expand the focus of its tech-nology curriculum to include science educationthat emphasizes hands-on activities and applica-tion to everyday life, society, and the environ-ment.

Programs to introduce computers in schoolsshould take into account differences in accessbetween girls and boys. To make sure that bothgirls and boys benefit equally, computer accessshould be structured and monitored; the issue ofgirls’ domestic obligations should be addressed;and training in the use of computers should bedesigned to ensure that girls feel comfortable us-ing them.

Distance learning programs using ICT shouldinvolve women in setting up and implementingprojects that target men and women equally.

To increase the successful participation of womenin the IT workforce, education must help todemystify technology, while carrying on the taskof training and retraining.

Costs of ICT in education should be carefully as-sessed. Although there is no substitute for schoolin basic education, the new technologies, whenproperly implemented in a larger national strat-egy, with resources for ongoing project support,can contribute substantially to the quality of learn-ing and teaching at all levels, and for men andwomen equally.

ICT in education and the World Bank

Supporting the education of girls and womenthrough ICT, and using ICT to support women’stechnical education are key aspects of severalWorld Bank sector strategies.

The Education Strategy (1999) stated: “Adult edu-cation, literacy, and lifelong learning must be com-bined with the fundamental recognition that

education of women and girls is central to devel-opment.” It also referred to the importance of en-suring the quality of learning and teaching.Unquestionably, ICT represents an opportunityto ensure equal access to quality education, butto succeed it is necessary to be aware of gender-differentiated needs. All components of the strat-egy therefore have gender implications. Thosewith particular relevance to education and ICTinclude:• Equal access to basic education. Girls will not

automatically have equal access to comput-ers and other technologies introduced into theclassroom. Specific actions must be taken toensure they can benefit equally with boys.

• Development of curricula in keeping withtechnological change. This will be an impor-tant element in increasing the participation ofwomen and girls in the knowledge economy.

• Effective teacher training and supervision ina flexible environment that women feel com-fortable with, such as distance learning.

• Facilitating the inclusion of women in an edu-cated and skilled population through targetededucation programs, skills training, on-the-job training for advancement, and Internetcommunity access for women.

A review of Technology in World Bank Educa-tion Projects from 1997 to 2000 (Georgiadis, 2001)found that funding tended to be focused on put-ting computers in primary rather than second-ary or tertiary classrooms. While in some respectsthis may be of particular benefit for girls who areless likely to go on to secondary and tertiary edu-cation, the question has been raised as to whetherit is more efficient to provide computers at higherschool levels, where there are generally better in-frastructure and support, larger budgets, andmore chances of the students, including girls,entering the workforce (Cawthera, 2000).

A short checklist to ensure that girls benefit fromthese projects would include the following:• Are there measures in place to ensure equal

access for girls, such as computer access

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schedules to accommodate girls when theyare free from domestic chores, and steps toincrease their comfort and confidence in us-ing computers?

• Do teachers and computer laboratory instruc-tors understand how the use of computers canaffect and improve learning? Are they in-volved in decisions on the use and develop-ment of curricula? Are there distance learn-ing programs they can take advantage of?

• Are there enough trained women teachers tomotivate and mentor girl students exposedto computers in the classroom?

• Will computers be made available to the com-munity after school hours, and are women’sgroups involved in setting up access pro-grams?

A review of Bank-funded technical and vocationaltraining in Africa found that women continuedto be an overlooked target group for skills devel-opment, despite their substantial participation inthe workforce (Johanson, 2002). ICT can provideinnovative ways for women to obtain and updateskills for equal participation in the knowledgeeconomy. The experience of the Cisco Network-ing Academies and other initiatives indicate thatwomen successfully take advantage of opportu-nities for high-level technical education. Suchexperiences are incentive for the Bank to supportinitiatives which target women for training andprovide flexibility and easy access to technicallyadvanced and cognitive work.

Notes

1. A community of practice is a “group/net-work of people engaged in a joint enterprise,interacting with each other and learning as they doso.” Members generate and build on a “sharedrepertoire of skills, discourses and artifacts (Kirkup,2002, 3).”

2. The popular conception of a “geek” or“computer bum” is the “compulsive programmer”,generally a young white male, whom MIT computer

scientist Joseph Weizenbaum famously described as“transfixed” at the computer, working twenty tothirty hours at a stretch, eating take-out food anddrinking Coca-Cola for the caffeine and sugar.Uncaring about his appearance, he is generallyunwashed and unshaven, with rumpled clothes anduncombed hair. (Weizenbaum cited in Margolis andFisher, 2002, 66).

3. The university also found gender differencesin how men and women valued certain elements ofICT-mediated teaching: 82 percent of womenappreciated computer conferencing, compared to 58percent of men; 91 percent of women used webresources, compared to 50 percent of men; and 32percent of women used television resources com-pared to 18 percent of men.

4. The CD-ROM for Women Entrepreneursdeveloped at the Nakaseke Telecenter in Uganda isan example of the use of ICT for training in smallenterprise development at the rural level. SeeMijumbi, 2002.

5. http://www.digitaldividend.org/knwldge_bank/knwldge_bank_02_conexiones.htm

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Commonwealth of Learning. 1998. Barriers toInformation and Communications TechnologiesEncountered by Women. Summary Report of aworkshop in New Delhi, India.

Commonwealth of Learning. 1999. IdentifyingBarriers Encountered by Women in the Use ofInformation and Communications Technologies(ICT) for Open and Distance Learning in theCaribbean. Summary Report of a workshop heldin Bridgetown, Barbados.

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Derbyshire, Helen. 2003. “Gender issues in the useof computers in education in Africa.” Paperprepared for the Department for InternationalDevelopment, U.K.

Dighe, Anita. 2002. Technology-Based ComputerLearning Centers for Literacy Education. Presenta-tion at Workshop, Delivery and EnhancingBasic Education Using Appropriate ICT —Exploring Current Practice and Sharing LessonsLearned, Canadian International DevelopmentAgency.

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Evans, Karen. 1995. Barriers to Participation of Womenin Technological Education and the Role of DistanceEducation. The Commonwealth of Learning.www.col.org/barriers.htm

Gadio, Coumba Mar. 2001. Exploring the GenderImpact of the World Links Program. World Links.Summary of the findings of an independentstudy conducted in four African countries.www.world-links.org/english/assets/gender_study_summary.pdf

Gajjala, Radhika. 2002. “Cyberfeminist technologi-cal practices: Exploring possibilities for awomen-centered design of technologicalenvironments.” Background Paper prepared forthe INSTRAW Virtual Seminars, June 1 –September 18. http://www.un-instraw.org

Gender Advisory Board. 2001. “Women’s Participa-tion in the Digital Economy”. Notes preparedfor the UNCSTD Preparatory Meeting. Novem-ber 13–14.

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Bank Education Prtojects: An OperationalReview—Fiscal Years 1997 to 2000. Washington,D.C.: Human Development Network, TheWorld Bank.

Gferer, Margaret and Jutta Pauschenwein. 2002. “Isthe change from Traditional Teaching Methodsto ICT-Based Methods Going to Attract MoreFemale Students to Study Engineering? AnAnalysis of ICT-Based Lectures at the FH-Joanneum.” Paper presented at Improving theGender Balance in Engineering EducationUsing ICT Methods and Contents, seminarhosted by Oulu Polytechnic, Institute of Tech-nology and University of Oulu, Faculty ofTechnology, Oulu, Finland.

Gupte, Snehelata C. 1996. “Indian Women ScientistsAssociations Programs for Creating ScientificLiteracy.” In Proceedings of the 8th InternationalConference on Gender and Science and Technology,January 5-10, 287-295. Ahmedabad, India:GASAT and SATWAC Foundation.

Hafkin, Nancy and Nancy Taggart.2001. Gender,Information Technology and Developing Countries:An Analytic Study. Academy for EducationalDevelopment for USAID. Washington D.C.http://www.usaid.gov/wid/pubs/it01.htm

Hafkin, Nancy J. 2002. “Is ICT gender-neutral? Agender analysis of six case studies of multi-donor ICT projects.” Background paper pre-pared for the INSTRAW Virtual Seminar Series,July 1–September 18. http://www.un-instraw.org/en/research/gender_and_ict/virtual_seminars.html

Harry, Keith and Abdul Khan. 2000. “The Use ofTechnologies in Basic Education.” In BasicEducation at a Distance, C. Yates and J. Bradleyed. London: Routledge.

Hassan, Farkhonda. 2000. “Islamic Women inScience.” Science 290: 55–56.

Huyer, Sophia. “Final Summary.” INSTRAWVirtual Seminars. ictnet@un-instraw.org

Huyer, Sophia and Gunnar Westholm ed. 2001.UNESCO/GAB Toolkit on Gender Indicators inEngineering, Science and Technology. Paris:UNESCO. http://GSTGateway.wigsat.org/ta/data/toolkit.html

Isaacs, Shafika. ICT in African Schools: The ExperienceSo Far. 2002a. Presentation at Workshop, Deliv-ery and Enhancing Basic Education UsingAppropriate ICT — Exploring Current Practiceand Sharing Lessons Learned, Canadian Inter-

national Development Agency.Isaacs, Shafika. 2002b. “IT’s Hot for Girls! ICT as an

Instrument in Advancing Girls’ and Women’sCapabilities in School Education in SouthAfrica.” Presented at the United NationsDivison for the Advancement of Women ExpertGroup Meeting “Information and communica-tion technologies and their impact on and use asan instrument for the advancement and em-powerment of women.” Seoul, Korea, 11–14November.

Johanson, Richard. 2002. “Vocational Skills Devel-opment in Sub Sahara Africa: Synthesis of aRegional Review.” Report for the World Bank.

Juma, Sereen. “Bedouin Women Discover DistanceLearning.” Choices (June 2001): 14–15.

Kandaswamy, Deepti. 2002. “Woman in Tech — 2Issues.” ictnet@un-instraw.org

Kanwar, Asha S. and Margaret Taplin, ed. 2001.Brave New Women of Asia: How Distance Educa-tion Changed Their Lives. Vanvouver: Common-wealth of Learning.

Kirkup, Gillian. 2002. “ICT as a Tool for EnhancingWomen’s Education Opportunities; and NewEducation and Professional Opportunities forWomen in New Technologies.” Presented at theUnited Nations Divison for the Advancement ofWomen Expert Group Meeting “Informationand communication technologies and theirimpact on and use as an instrument for theadvancement and empowerment of women.”Seoul, Korea, 11–14 November.

Kuwahara, Motoko. 2001. “Japanese Women inScience and Technology”, Minerva. 39: 203–216.

Laafia, Ibrahim and Anna Larsson. 2001. Women inpublic research and higher education in Europe.European Communities, Theme 9, Statistics inFocus.

Margolis, Jane and Alan Fisher. Unlocking theClubhouse: Women in Computing. Cambridge,MA: The MIT Press, 2002.

McGregor, Elizabeth and Sandra Harding. 1996.“Science by whom?” World science report 1996.Paris: UNESCO.

Mijumbi, R. 2002. The Use of Information andCommunications Technologies as a Tool toBridge the Gender Digital Gap. Backgroundpaper prepared for the INSTRAW VirtualSeminar Series on Gender and ICT. http://www.un-instraw.org/en/research/gender_and_ict/virtual_seminars.html

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Mitter, Swasti. 2001. Asian Women in the DigitalEconomy: Policies for Participation. KualaLumpur: UNDP.

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Oldham, G. 1995. Preface. Missing Links: GenderEquity in Science and Technology for Development.Ottawa: International Development ResearchCentre.

Osted, Denise. 2000. “Getting Women Online:Experience.” Womenspace. Winter.

Oxaal, Z. 1997. “Education and Poverty: A GenderAnalysis.” Report prepared for the GenderEquality Unit, Swedish International Develop-ment Cooperation Agency. Institute for Devel-opment Studies.

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6Gender Focus in

National ICT Policies

The purpose of this review is to assess the extentto which existing national ICT policies have takengender into account, and if so, to what extent thesepolicies have impacted employment, entrepre-neurial opportunities, and political participationof women. Engendered national ICT policies canprovide women with more employment in ICTand related industries; more opportunities to setup micro and cottage enterprises utilizing e-com-merce; more access to social services in health,education, and communication; and higher po-litical participation and economic empowerment.

In developing countries, given the low penetra-tion of telephones and the Internet and the rela-tively higher penetration of television, radio, andcable, it is these other technologies that have alarger potential to address gender concerns. Manypeople believe this potential is not being recog-nized and that there is an overemphasis on theInternet at the expense of these other technolo-gies in the ICT policy dialog.1 Many policymakersare concerned with the negative social fallout ofthe expanding reach of these other technologies.

There are efforts in many Asian and Middle East-ern countries to regulate the content of electronicmedia to reduce what is perceived as the nega-tive influence of western culture on the youngergenerations in these societies.2

Policies relating to this broader definition of ICTare difficult to review and evaluate for their gen-der focus because the policy pronouncements onthese varied technologies do not come in a com-prehensive document issued by a single depart-ment or ministry. Some countries are grapplingwith the issue of restructuring their departmentsand ministries to take a holistic view of thesemedia, even as the technologies move towardconvergence.3 The biggest lacuna in developingcountries exists between policy pronouncementand legislative and administrative actions. Oftenbecause of weak implementation, policy initia-tives remain confined to paper.4

This chapter reviews the national ICT policies andlabor policies of eleven countries in an effort toassess the awareness of gender in these policies

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and to identify the policy initiatives taken by na-tional governments to address gender concerns.It also reviews studies that illustrate effectivepolicy initiatives that have resulted in wideningthe horizon for women. Findings from these twosources would help suggest actionable policiesthat can be part of World Bank proposals to cli-ent countries. The final section presents conclu-sions on the current status of gender in ICTpolicies and makes some recommendations onpossible ways to introduce gender concerns in na-tional policymaking.

Review of national ICT policies andgender focus

While advocates for gender equality in ICT gainedtheir first international foothold at the fourthWorld Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995,the issue of gender in ICT policy has been on theinternational scene since 1998 (Hafkin, 2002). Ayear earlier, Goetz (1997) noted in the broadercontext of gender and development that despiteimprovements in the rhetoric, the outcomes ofmany programs have failed to “alter the asym-metrical distribution of resources and social val-ues which contribute to the social construction ofgender inequality and differences.” Analysis ofICT policies of eleven countries five years later(see Appendix 1) confirms Goetz’s conclusion.

Since there is very little information publishedon gender issues in ICT policies, any developingcountry for which a reasonable amount of in-formation was available was included. ICTpolicies can be put into three major categories:infrastructural, vertical, and horizontal policies.Infrastructural policies deal with the develop-ment of national infrastructure and are closelylinked with telecommunication. Horizontal infor-mation policies deal with impact on the broaderaspects of society such as freedom of informa-tion, and also tariffs and pricing, privacy, andsecurity. Vertical information policies addresssectoral needs such as education, health, tourism,and industry. The policies reviewed here dealwith all of these issues but they lack any mention

of gender. Table 1 summarizes the conclusionsfrom the profiles of eleven countries. In most ofthese countries the ICT policies deal with prob-lems of deregulation of telecommunication andISPs, and promoting growth of the software sec-tor.

In some countries such as India and South Af-rica, there is a focus on access and infrastructurefor both rural and urban poor. The South AfricanICT policy finds a place for gender issues but thereare conflicting reports on how effective such poli-cies are once they are implemented. The SouthAfrican Department of Communications was fea-tured as a role model for the development of gen-der policy. The department has establishedtelecenters that are owned and managed bywomen. However, Gillwald (2000) noted thatwhile the legislation for the telecommunicationssector is enabling and empowering for women,the implementation process and strategies havenot had any significant impact. In Israel ICT poli-cies seem to be gender neutral. As a result theparticipation of women in the ICT labor marketis high. In general, there seems to be a large gapbetween policy pronouncements and implemen-tation in most countries.

Other reports also indicate that by and large thefocus on gender issues is not pronounced in ICTpolicies and projects. An expert group meetingorganized by the Economic and Social Commis-sion for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) to reviewICT policies from a gender perspective in Decem-ber 2001 discussed the policies of Australia, In-dia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, and the Philippines.Most of these policies focus on the growth of theICT sector and the need for providing access tothe masses. The mention of gender issues is mar-ginal (Garcia and Villanueva, 2001). The only ex-ception was in Korea, where the blueprint for acampaign on the Cyber 21 Plan advocated thatall Koreans regardless of age, sex, region, and in-come should have the opportunity to use com-puters and the Internet. Korea is also consideringa legislation for affirmative action to ensure that

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Table 1. Countries: Gender focus in ICT Policies: Conclusions

Brazil ICT policy does not address gender concerns. Shrinking of the ICT-related labormarket has affected women more adversely than men. In spite of a constitutionalprovision of gender neutrality, the ground realities at the workplace, including theICT-related sector, are not women-friendly.

El Salvador Women NGOs are concerned about education, gender equality, and violence againstwomen. However, so far this concern has not led to specific policies to promoteincreasing presence of women at different job levels in the ICT sector.

Hungary No mention of gender issues in ICT policy documents. Women had a significant presenceamong university degree holders in 1996, though it was not so marked for ICT-relateddisciplines. Women’s Internet use has grown from 37 percent in 1998 to 47 percentin 2002 — a noteworthy increase.

India ICT policies have been oriented to the growth of the software sector and have onlyrecently begun to emphasize the role of IT applications. There is no mention ofgender issues in policy documents. Telecommunication sector was deregulated in1994. It appears that much more is said than done about ICT for the masses. Internetpenetration is still very low and confined to urban areas. Women’s employment inthe IT-enabled services is significant at 37 percent.

Israel ICT policy has emphasized growth of the ICT sector. The education policy has workedtoward extensive computerization in schools. High percentage of women can befound at university degree level (56.6 percent) and in ICT-related degree courses(47.6 percent). In 1997 women held 51 percent of jobs in the electronic componentsector.

Malaysia Adequate infrastructure in telecommunications, increasing capability in IT, and asatisfactory level of supply of tertiary-educated IT skills to make productive use ofICT in networking and promote teleworking. However, the existing level ofteleworking is relatively low.

Philippines Participation of women in the labor market is high in all sectors, including ICT.National gender policies encourage women’s participation but there is nospecific mention of gender in the ICT policies.

Romania There seems to be a women-friendly gender policy in place, although not explicitlyas a part of the ICT policy. Romanian women enjoy high literacy rates, constitute56 percent of all employees in professional and technical careers, but in realitywomen seem to experience discriminatory treatment in recruitment and wages.

Russia Traditionally women have enjoyed high literacy rates, and their participation in thelabor market has been considerable. However with inadequate telecommunicationinfrastructure and a lack of consistent government policies, the ICT sector works farbelow its potential. No data found on current participation of women in the ICT sector.

South Africa National ICT policies recognize the need to address gender issues. Many NGOs arealso working toward expanding training facilities for women in the ICT sector.However, the net impact on the participation of women in the labor market oreducation in ICT sector is not significant.

United Arab Emirates There is great emphasis on women’s education, and their participation in degreecourses including presumably the ICT-related disciplines is improving. Yet due tolocal socio-cultural forces, and little economic compulsion, their presence in the ICTsector is limited. No hard data are available.

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women occupy 10 percent of the jobs in scientificinstitutions. In Malaysia, although increasingnumbers of women are participating in the ICTworkforce of an export-oriented economy, this hasstill to advance the lot of the majority of womenworkers in the country (Sim, 1999). In a study offour countries that were considered leaders in ICTpolicymaking — Mozambique, Senegal, South Af-rica, and Uganda — it was found that ICT poli-cies either ignored social issues completely orfocused on rural needs ignoring the specific needsof women.5 The only exception was South Africa,which did focus on gender issues confirming theoverall assessment presented in this report.

Since telephony has been around for a muchlonger period, it was hoped that a review of tele-communications policies might indicate a greaterdegree of engendering. Up to 1998, there did notseem to be a large amount of research on genderissues in this sector. The ITU site on gender is-sues hosts several papers that are of a generalnature. Those connected with the telecommuni-cations sector identify the key issues but limitedresearch is reported to test specific hypothesesthat would aid policymakers. A notable excep-tion is the work by Sonia Jorge (Jorge, 2000), whichis extensively cited including in other sections ofthis chapter. A special session on gender issues atthe World Telecommunication Development Con-ference (WTDC-98) noted, “As far as the telecom-munications sector is concerned, we feel that thereis much to be done to further enhance the posi-tion of women as users, as well as providers oftelecommunication facilities and services. Theseservices are to be made accessible for all women,meaning at affordable prices.”6

A number of suggestions were made as to how theITU program might be engendered. These includeareas such as: rural telecommunication networks,universal access, broadcasting, telecommunicationas a social service, development of telecenters, tele-medicine, tele-education, telecommunication andtrade, telecommunication and the environment. Theconference recommended that data collection for

the telecommunications indicator series should pro-vide gender-disaggregated statistics. Anotherrecommendation concerned a program of actionto increase the number of women who are em-ployed in the telecommunications sector at vary-ing levels of responsibility. The special sessionheard evidence that in a majority of telecommu-nication organizations, women were underrep-resented at professional and technical levels.

ITU noted that telephones could enable workingwomen in developing countries to manage theirmultiple roles.7 It is well known that most menfrom rural areas go to the city for work, while thewomen stay behind in the villages to run andmanage small businesses, or work in the farms.Availability of a telephone would make it easierfor them to contact spouses and children in ma-jor towns.

A review of the Indian telecommunication policyindicates that it specially recognizes the impor-tance of providing telephone access to the ruralpopulation and the urban poor, but women havebeen completely ignored.

Hafkin and Taggart (2001) have also reviewed theextent to which ICT policies have been engen-dered. Their review indicates that to date devel-oping countries have implemented few concretepolicies to promote gender equality in the use ofIT. Most countries centered on competition and in-vestment policy, technology regulation, and ru-ral access. They argue that gender-neutral policiescan have negative gender impacts upon imple-mentation unless monitoring mechanisms are putin place. The review enunciates several genderconcerns in ICT policy. Some of these are includedin this chapter. Perhaps the most important ob-servation is that gender needs to be taken intoaccount not only in the content of ICT policy butalso in the process of policy elaboration, imple-mentation, and evaluation.

Review of Case Studies

Of the world’s 960 million illiterates, 66 percent

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are women. Literacy limits women’s access tocomputer applications. One way to increase ac-cess of women to technologies is to develop in-terfaces which are icon-based. For example, in anexperiment in India, an icon-based interface fa-cilitates auxiliary nurse midwives’ (ANM) use ofhand-held personal digital assistants.8 In anotherinteresting experiment, technology is being usedto improve literacy through the medium of tele-vision. A transcript is provided in the local lan-guage of the film songs being played on thetelevision. Since film songs are extremely popu-lar in India, newly literate men and womenwatching the programs tend to associate the spo-ken words with the written script, enhancing theirretention of what they learn (Kothari, 2000).Evaluation studies have measured the improve-ment in literacy, and the program is being scaledup from a pilot version.

Creating local access points that are easy for themto reach can reduce the cost of access to commu-nication technology for women. The actual costof service can be minimized through cross subsi-dies (as is done in the case of GrameenPhone),9

or by direct subsidies (as is being done in north-west India), or by opening telecenters with freeaccess. Monitoring of universal service obliga-tions, and nominating representatives of women’sadvocacy groups in the telecommunication advi-sory council can also help in improving access.

A combination of new and old technology canprove effective. In Kothmale, Sri Lanka, the out-come of an Internet search for content relevantfor rural population and triggered by a queryfrom one of the citizens is broadcast on the ra-dio.10 Volunteers help in the process of search andbroadcast. In another experiment by the M. S.Swaminathan Foundation, data on weather pat-terns is downloaded from the U.S. National Aero-nautics and Space Agency (NASA) web sites andbroadcast through loudspeakers so that local fish-ermen can be informed.11 Policies are required thatsupport community radio, encourage researchand development for linking technologies, and

promote the adoption of these technologiesthrough subsidies.

NGOs working together with women activistscan influence the content of the electronic medi-um, particularly when it comes to the negativeportrayal of women. To make the content morerelevant to the needs of women requires great-er participation of women in developing the con-tent and providing feedback. In differentexperiments in Andhra Pradesh, India, use ofcommunity radio, video, and audiotapes withsocially relevant content, has been quite success-ful.12 For ICT to be an effective tool for develop-ment, local government and advocacy groupsneed to ensure that women are included in theirprograms. For content to be relevant, policiesneed to be devised to mandate the participationof women in watchdog institutions such as me-dia advisory groups and consumer councils.

Addressing women’s issues in nationalICT policies

Most countries do not mention gender concernsin their national ICT policies. It is also true thatthe ICT policy is not always the most importanthindrance to the creation of an egalitarian infor-mation society. In fact the growth of an e-societyin itself may create opportunities for women’sempowerment.13 Whether engendering of policyis a necessary precondition to addressing the keygender issues should be seen in the specific con-text of a country and the degree of developmentof the ICT sector. The rest of this section exploressome avenues of engendering ICT policies to alignthem to specific gender concerns.

Ensure gender neutrality if ICT policieshave a development focus

It is now widely acknowledged that ICT has amajor role to play in development by• Improving economic efficiency and com-

petitiveness through information flows,wider access to wider markets and marketinformation, and human resource develop-ment

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Gender and ICT Policies

• Increasing efficiency and effectiveness in de-livery of services such as education and healththrough greater information disseminationand distance learning

• Improving public administration and gover-nance through creation of possibilities for ef-ficient management, improved decisionmak-ing based on accurate information, improvedcoordination between departments and agen-cies involved in development, and increasedaccountability to beneficiaries

• Increasing opportunities for poor communi-ties through improved access to services

• Empowering marginalized groups though in-creased voice and global support for people’smovements

• Creating opportunities to increase social capi-tal through better communication betweengroups, entertainment, and increased publicparticipation in political, administrative, andinstitutional activities.14

If any of these objectives were to be achieved, asis the intent of some ICT policies, women wouldalso stand to benefit, provided the implementa-tion ensures that there is no discrimination againstwomen in employment, training, or access to tech-nology.

Labor market participation

The argument to include gender analysis in ICTpolicy is built on the following premises:• There is no explicit attention paid to gender

in policymaking.• Gender issues are not considered in the imple-

mentation of ICT.

By and large, ICT policies are concerned with thegrowth of the ICT sector. There is hardly any men-tion of gender concerns in the policies reviewedin this chapter. Countries such as India and Bra-zil where large numbers are employed in the ICTsector demonstrate that the influence of ICT poli-cies on the rate of labor market participation ofwomen can at best be marginal. On the otherhand, there are examples of national industrial

policies and labor policies that have a muchgreater impact on the labor market across all sec-tors including the ICT sector. For example in thetextile industry in Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and Bang-ladesh, policymakers made deliberate efforts toattract multinational capital by offering the incen-tive of cheap female labor (Banerjee, 1999).Women’s participation in the work force in mod-ern industries in these countries, however exploit-ative, was a departure from traditional genderroles and was prompted by this industrial policyinitiative. Similarly, education policies can havea significant impact on preparedness of womento enter the ICT labor market.

This is why the causal link presumed betweenthe two premises needs to be investigated further.One way to do that would be to examine empiri-cally whether countries that include gender intheir ICT policies have done well. Any quantita-tive analysis is difficult as the number of coun-tries that include gender in their ICT policies isvery small, and the policies themselves appear tohave little impact on labor market participationin these countries. On the other hand there areexamples of countries such as India where womenin large numbers (37 percent — significant whencompared to similarly paid jobs in other sectors)are employed in IT-enabled services purely be-cause of market forces, and without any explicitengendering of ICT policies.

Although it will do not harm to include labor mar-ket participation goals in the ICT policies, otherinstruments may be more effective in increasingwomen’s participation in the ICT labor market.For example, employment opportunities arelargely determined by the hiring policies andpractices of the private sector. Unless gender dis-crimination is an issue (which is not the case incountries with a large ICT market in the low leveljobs, for example), the impact of governmentpolicy is marginal.

It is important to sensitize industry associationsto create awareness of gender-friendly work

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practices. For example in India NASSCOM, thesoftware industry association, has lobbied withthe labor ministry to relax the rules regardingfixed work hours for women to allow morewomen to participate in the IT-enabled servicessector. This also suggests an alternative approachto gender analysis. Instead of defining ideal goalsin all spheres of policy, analysis can look for spe-cific policy impediments that need to be removed.

Efforts to increase labor market participation ofwomen will be worthwhile in countries where theICT sector is a significant employer. In manycountries where the sector is small, engenderingwill only have an insignificant impact. Gendersensitization of policymakers in several domains(labor, investment, ICT) is important so that poli-cies can be modified to take advantage of oppor-tunities that may arise with the growth of the ICTindustry. Some constructive ideas for engender-ing such policies are listed in Table 2.

Increasing educational opportunities

Many countries adopt proactive policies to pro-mote participation of weaker sections of societyin a variety of political, economic, and socialspheres that often include affirmative action. Al-though ICT policies have few examples of pre-scribing affirmative action, there are educationpolices which have promoted the employment ofwomen in the ICT sector. For example, the AndhraPradesh government in India has mandated aquota of 33 percent seats for women in engineer-ing colleges (see Appendix 1). This figure is sig-nificantly higher than the actual enrollment inengineering colleges in the rest of the country.

Expanding access to ICT

ICT policies have the potential to significantlyincrease the access to ICT by poor and rural popu-lations, thereby increasing access to women. Asindicated earlier, increasing rural access has beenincorporated as a goal in the ICT policies of sev-eral countries. The short-term impact has beenmarginal because of the poor economic viabilityof rural telecommunication expansion. In the long

run (three to five years) policies can begin to in-fluence rural access as is happening in India.15

Enhancing services through electronicdelivery

Most of the e-government applications for servicedelivery have been developed through depart-mental initiatives. Although departments of edu-cation and health have a very significant interfacewith women and any effort to introduce electronicservice delivery can benefit women, current ap-plications concentrate in the regulatory sector andtax collection.16 Even so, there are areas such aschoice of location of access (for the Internet, tele-communication, e-government service center, ortraining class) where specific policy guidelinescan make a difference for women.

Goals for engendered policies in differentdomains

More research is needed to show where it wouldbe most effective to address gender concerns inICT policy. On the basis of the limited evidencepresented in this chapter, a variety of gender con-cerns have been identified that can be incorpo-rated into national ICT policies, labor andemployment policies, industrial policies, and edu-cation policies. These are pulled together in Table2. Hafkin (2002) presented a similar but moreelaborate table including twenty ICT policy issuesand literally hundreds of gender aspects relatedto these issues. An attempt has been made to in-clude those gender aspects that have already beenincluded in some way by a country in its ICT, la-bor, and education policies. The table draws fromthe work of Jorge (2001) in providing gender-aware guidelines for policymaking in the telecom-munications sector. As Marcelle (2000) has arguedin the context of Africa, integrating gender con-siderations in national ICT policy formulation andimplementation requires strong national politicalleadership and coordination mechanisms. Theneed for a coordinating agency is greater in coun-tries where policies related to ICT are formulatedin several departments and ministries.

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Table 2. Factoring gender aspects in ICT policy issues

ICT/Education/Labor policy Gender aspectcomponent

General •Sensitize policymakers to gender issues, and gender advocates to ICT issues.•Establish gender unit within a ministry, department, or regulatory agency. Revise regulations, circulars, procedures of all departments to remove gender bias.•Develop and establish systems to gather gender statistics.•Mandate participation of women in watchdog institutions.•Provide incentives to develop e-commerce platforms for women-owned enterprises.•Provide tax breaks, subsidies, and funding assistance for developing technologies for the illiterate and newly literate.

Infrastructure •Is the infrastructure to be deployed in areas where women predominate?•Are the locations chosen convenient for women?•Do women own and manage these facilities in equal proportions?•Is data gathered on women’s use?•Is feedback taken from women if their use is low?

Regulatory frameworks •Reduce licensing fees, spectrum prices, and interconnection charges, to provide affordable tariff in rural and urban areas.•Make universal service mandatory for telecommunication operators.•Develop and deploy technologies that promote penetration of telephone and the Internet in rural areas.•Provide incentives to develop and deploy technologies that would facilitate use byrural women.

Engendered labor policy •Equal hiring opportunities for women and men.•No wage disparity between men and women.•Campaigns to attract women professionals to technical and management positions.•Nondiscriminatory working conditions, employee privileges, flexible timing.•Tough measures on sexual harassment at the workplace.•Commissions empowered to swiftly redress complaints of discrimination.

Engendered education policy •Equal access to training opportunities.•Gender-awareness training for all.•Technical and management programs to train women professionals and internship programs with educational institutions.•Free education, subsidized fee, reserved quotas in technical education for girls.•Scholarships and grants for women in science and technology.•Training programs to establish ICT-related business, such as e-commerce, telecenters, public call office

Licensing •A gender-neutral licensing policy can allocate a certain number of telecommunication licences to women-owned businesses; waive license fees for communication businesses run by women entrepreneurs or those that provide services to underserved areas.•Licensing procedures should be transparent so that women applicants can have ready access to the information. Community radios run by women’s groups have proved effective in involving women in community affairs.

E-government •Women can benefit from many e-government services especially in delivering health and education. They profit from online availability of services that would otherwise require travel to the capital city.

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An important aspect of engendering policymakingis understanding the nature of the impact ofpolicy content and implementation. When item-ized bills were introduced in the U.K. by the regu-lators, some NGOs argued that itemizing a billshould not be made the default option becausebattered women needed to be protected from theirabusers at home, who could easily find out if thewomen were seeking help through a scrutiny ofitemized bills. On the other hand, the benefit forwomen of the service that provides caller iden-tity was quickly recognized.

Some gender experts, while working with gov-ernment policymakers and regulators, find thatusing statistics or case study data can demonstratethe gender effects of a policy and or regulatorydecisions. In this context, knowing which ques-tions to ask about a proposed action or policy canbe an important change agent. It often makes iteasier to integrate gender into implementationwithout necessarily changing the policymaker’sgender position.17

Therefore, as Hafkin has emphasized, incorporat-ing gender issues into ICT policy should proceedon at least two fronts: sensitizing policymakersto gender issues, and sensitizing gender advo-cates to IT issues (Hafkin, 2002). Very few policy-makers are trained to think from a genderperspective and unless they are educated on howto do so at all steps of the process, we simply willnot get gender integrated into policy.

Sensitizing women’s organizations and civil so-ciety in general to the gender impact of ICT policyissues may pay greater dividends, in terms ofawareness raising of a large segment of society tothe social implications of the national technologypolicy.

The goals enumerated in Table 2 can also be ap-plied to engendering projects funded by multilat-eral agencies. A single-minded application ofgender analysis of projects can lead to positive out-comes. For example, the Canadian International

Development Agency’s (CIDA) dogged insistenceon focus on gender issues prompted the Centrefor Telecom Policy Studies at the Indian Instituteof Management to conduct two special studieswhere gender profiles of telephone users werecollected and analyzed.18 Such studies would nothave been undertaken without an active followup by CIDA.

Notes

1. Discussions in the Workshop on ICT andDevelopment organized by UNDP to prepare itsfive-year ICT plan noted the lack of emphasis onthese technologies in development dialog, andspecifically identified the neglect of communityradio as a tool for empowering women. India doesnot permit the operation of a private radio except forentertainment purposes in urban areas. http://www.undp.org.in/MEDIA/MISC/4nov2002.htm

2. Censorship in explicit forms exists in manyMuslim countries and is exercised in milder forms incountries like India. See censorship on the smallscreen. http://www.thehindu.com/2002/08/16/stories/2002081600190800.htm

3. Erwin Lemuel G. Oliva, “Philippines lagsbehind neighbors in ICT”, 2002. INQ7.net http://www.inq7.net/inf/2002/nov/28/inf_5-1.htm

4. At a training session of intermediaries bridg-ing the digital divide (Regional DevelopmentDialog, Jan 2003, United Nations Centre for RegionalDevelopment, Tokyo) Devyani Mani noted thatthese policies may be well drafted, but the chal-lenges are translating them into practice throughidentification of programs and projects using ICT fordevelopment, and the incorporation of ICT inongoing programs and projects for local develop-ment. The causes of policy failure related to uses ofICT in development are generally, insufficientvision, low motivation to use new technologies thatmay upset entrenched interests, insufficient incen-tives, and inadequate skills at the local level.

5. Gillian Marcelle, “Gender Equality and ICTPolicy,” presentation at World Bank Digital DivideSeminar Series, 2002, Washington, D.C. http://www.worldbank.org/gender/digitaldivide/worldbankpresentation.ppt

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vision to implementation,” 2001.http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/

egov/lweek/Bhatnagar.pdf17. Anita Anand and Mahesh Uppal, “Engender-

ing management and regulation of ICT: narrowingthe digital divide for women.” UN/INSTRAWVirtual Seminar Series on gender and ICT. SeminarThree: Engineering Management and Regulation ofICT, 29 July – 9 August 2002. http://www.un-instraw.org/docs/Anand.doc.

18. Center for Telecom Policy Studies. http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/ctps/

6. Ali Habsou, “Women and TelecommunicationDevelopment,” Niger, World TelecommunicationDevelopment Conference (WTDC-98), 1998, Docu-ment 40.

7. K.S. Maluki, “Gender Issues in Telecommuni-cations,” World Telecommunication DevelopmentConference (WTDC-98), 1998, Documents 79 and142.

8. For more information on ANMs, please see:http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/documents/

sn37160/FrontMatter.pdfhttp://wbln0018.worldbank.org/ict/

projects.nsf/OurFunded?OpenViewhttp://www.infodev.org/library/QR/qr301.pdfhttp://www.who.int/bulletin/pdf/2001/

issue9/bu1338.pdfhttp://hdr.undp.org/docs/publications/

background_papers/chandrasekhar.dochttp://www.baramatiinitiatives.com/presenta-

tions/IHC_Tech%20.ppt9. For further information on GrameenPhone

please refer to Don Richardson, Ricardo Ramirez,and Moinul Haq, “Grameen Telecom’s Village PhoneProgramme in Rural Bangladesh: a Multi-MediaCase Study,” TeleCommons Development Group(TDG), Canada, March 2000.

http://www.telecommons.com/villagephone/10. http://www.kothmale.net11. http://www.weekender.co.jp/

LatestEdition/000421/coverstory.html http://www.mssrf.org.

A. D. Sood, Guide to ICT for Development, 2002,44–45.

12. See www.andhranews.net/districts/egodavari.htm

13. Louise Chamberlain, “Consideration ofgender advocacy vis-a-vis ICT policy and strategy.”http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/ict2002

reports/Paper%20by%20Chamberlain.PDF14. The Network Revolution and the Developing

World Final Report for World Bank and infoDev, 00-216, 3 August 2000. http://www.infodev.pro/projects/internet/400networkingrevolution/400.pdf

15. In 2003 there has been a drastic reduction incellular prices, and Reliance has announced anambitious scheme to increase the penetration ofcellular phones in rural areas through innovativefinancing schemes. http://www.indiabandwidth.com/

16. Subhash Bhatnagar, “Egovernment from

REFERENCES

Banerjee, Nirmala. 1999. “Can markets alter genderrelations?” Gender technology and development, 3(1),199. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 103–122.

Garcia, Chat Ramilo and Pi Villanueva. 2001.“Issues, policies and outcomes: are ICT policiesaddressing gender equality?” ESCAP expertgroup meeting to review ICT policies from agender perspective. Bangkok, 18–19 December.

Gillwald, Alison. 2000. “Telecommunication policyand regulation for women and development.”The South African Journal of Information andCommunication, 1-1.

Goetz, A.M. 1997. Getting Institutions Right forWomen in Development. London: Zed Press.

Hafkin, Nancy. 2002. “Gender issues in ICT policyin developing countries: an overview.” Paperpresented at United Nations Department for theAdvancement of Women Expert Group Meeting“Information and communication technologiesand their impact on and use as an instrumentfor the advancement and empowerment ofwomen.” Seoul, Korea, 11–14 November.

Hafkin, Nancy and Nancy Taggart. 2001. Gender,Information Technology and Developing Countries:An Analytic Study Washington, D.C.: Academyfor Educational Development for USAID. http://www.usaid.gov/wid/pubs/it01.htm

Jorge, Sonia. 2001. Gender-Aware Guidelines forPolicy-Making and Regulatory Agencies. Geneva:ITU Telecommunication Development BureauTask Force on Gender Issues.

Kothari, Brij. 2000. Information and CommunicationTechnology in Development Communication: Cases

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From India. S. C. Bhatnagar and Robert Schwareeds. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 17–31.

Marcelle, Gillian. 2000. “Getting Gender intoAfrican ICT Policy: A Strategic Review.” Genderand the information revolution in Africa. Eva M.Rathgeber and Edith Ofwona Adera, eds.Ottawa: International Development ResearchCentre.

Sim, Cecila Ng Choon. 1999. Making women’s voicesheard: technological change and women’s employ-ment in Malaysia: Gender, technology and develop-ment. London: Sage Publications.

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trend that is evident in a majority of Latin Ameri-can countries. In 1997, women accounted for 40percent of the workforce in Brazil. Most of themare employed in the service sector. As no data areavailable, it is hard to say how many of the 37percent administrative and management posi-tions held by women are in ICT-related jobs.Despite a national policy that guarantees a gen-der-equal environment in the workplace, womenface discrimination in Brazil. Reports on femaleparticipation in the labor market in Brazil haveconcluded that there is less scope for promotionfor women, and they risk losing their jobs duringpregnancy.

Labor market participation of women inthe ICT sector

In the entire Brazilian ICT sector women makeup just around 20 percent of software industryworkers, and fewer numbers are involved inthe hardware industry. According to ILO’sWorld Employment Report 2001, firms in-volved in manufacturing information and com-munication goods slashed their workforce sizein the 1990s. In previous years, Brazil’s IT indus-try had seen a jump from 43,000 jobs in 1984 to74,000 jobs in 1989. Over 35,700 jobs were cut be-tween 1989 and 1999, accounting for a 48.1 per-cent reduction in the total number of jobs withinthe sector. The country was left with just 38,400jobs in the sector in 1999, which is even lowerthan the number recorded in 1984. Women ac-counted for 27.9 percent of the wage labor jobsin 1989 and 27.7 percent in 1999 in the fifty larg-est manufacturers of IT goods in Brazil. But thereduction in jobs during the decade had a simi-lar effect on men and women workers. About25,700 male workers and 10,000 female workerslost their jobs, indicating a reduction of 48 per-cent in the male work force and 48.5 percent inthe female work force in the ICT sector.

Wage differentials

A 1994 Brazilian government report suggests thateven when they had the same qualifications astheir male colleagues, women got only 54 percent

APPENDIX 1Country Profiles

Brazil

Edation differentials

Available figures indicate that Brazil has attaineda high female literacy rate, and 52 percent of thetotal tertiary school enrollments are girls. Yet asin many other developing countries, the presenceof female students is reduced to 34 percent in thenatural sciences which include engineering andcomputer sciences, the disciplines for pursuing acareer in IT. Some Brazilian schools have begunoffering computer classes at primary and second-ary levels (UNESCO, 1999; Media Metrix, 2000).• 85.4 percent of adult women are literate.• 67 percent of students enrolled in secondary

schools are girls.• 52 percent of tertiary students are girls.• 34 percent of tertiary students in natural sci-

ences are girls.• 38 percent of the teaching staff at the tertiary

level are women.• 37 percent of administrative and managerial

positions are held by women.• 43.3 percent of Brazil’s total Internet users are

women.

Internet use

Although women constitute over 43 percent oftotal Internet users, Brazil lacks the resources andskills to provide similar opportunities for poorwomen especially in the rural areas. At the sametime, growing competition among the Internetservice providers have brought down accessibil-ity costs to $18 a month — the lowest in all LatinAmerica.

Labor market participation of women

In the last fifteen years the share of Brazilian womenin the labor market has significantly increased, a

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of what men received as wages. In a 2000 reporton gender in Brazil, the World Bank found thatBrazil has “one of the widest gender wage gapsin Latin America”. The interviews with CiscoNetworking Academy instructors in Brazil alsoindicated that this was quite standard.1 Maternityleave policies can also be considered to be one ofthe reasons behind employers’ reluctance to hirewomen on a payscale on par with men.

Government policy on gender

The Brazilian government has approved a policyframework that guarantees gender equality in theworkplace. For instance, the constitution of Bra-zil “prohibits differentiation in salary levels onthe basis of sex, establishes incentives for encour-aging the participation of women in the work-force, and provides paid maternity leave of 120days and paternity leave for five days.” Researchindicates that these policies are commonly notenforced and women are denied equal treatment(Hafkin and Taggart, 2001).

Sociocultural factors

Socially, women are not considered suitable forIT-related jobs. This, in turn, influences women’sinterests and goals, and they do not always seekjobs in the ICT sector.

ICT policy

In the past several decades, the Brazilian ICTpolicy has focused on the growth of the domesticICT sector. In 1999 the government launched an“information society program” to create a devel-opment impact through ICT. The program focuseson universal access, business competitiveness,and e-government.2 Through the universal accessplan, post offices in two large cities provide freeInternet access to the communities.3 Thousandsof community access centers are also beingopened. There is however no special emphasis ongender.

Conclusions

The ICT policy does not address gender concerns.The shrinking of the ICT-related labor market has

affected women more adversely than it has affectedmen. There is a marked wage differential betweenmen and women. Though the constitution pro-hibits such discrimination, as in most develop-ing countries, the ground realities at the workplace,including in the ICT related sector, are notwomen-friendly.

El Salvador

Education differentials

The female literacy rate is 74.2 percent, yet only36.7 percent of girls enroll in secondary school.The low enrollment and high drop-out rate arecommon problems among girls and boys. Fewerthan 30 percent of girl students enroll for naturalsciences classes at the tertiary level, compared to34 percent in Brazil (UNESCO, 1999; UNDP, 1999).• 74.2 percent of the women are literate.• 52 percent of total number of secondary school

students are girls.• 36.7 percent of girls enroll in secondary

schools.• 37 percent of boys enroll in secondary schools.• 51 percent of tertiary level students are girls.• 28.7 percent of female tertiary students study

natural sciences.• 29 percent of the staff at the tertiary level are

women.

Internet use

Women’s access to ICT is quite limited in El Sal-vador where just 1 percent of the country’s totalpopulation has access to the Internet and 1 per-cent to hand-held devices. Around 60 percent ofthe population live in rural areas, where there areinadequate infrastructure facilities. Most of themare women who are responsible for the childrenand the elderly, and therefore are unable to moveto the urban areas where men go for work.

Labor market participation of women

According to 1997 statistics women account for37 percent of the total work force in El Salvador.They are mostly employed in agriculture, indus-try, and service sectors. Maquiladoras, foreign-

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owned factories where low-paid workers assem-ble imported parts into products for export, haveremained the biggest growth area in the country’seconomy, and about 78 percent of its labor forceare women.

Women constitute 29 percent of El Salvador’sadministrative and managerial positions in thelabor force, which indicates a significant progres-sion from 13 percent in the 1980s. It also betterthan the Mexican figure of 20 percent.

Labor market participation of women inthe ICT sector

No data were available on women’s participationin the ICT sector.

Government policy on ICT

Several international telecommunication firms,such as Telefonica, Millicom, and France Telecomhave entered the domestic market, as El Salvador’stelecommunications industry is “regulation free”.El Salvador has one of the most competitive tele-communication structures in the world wherelong distance and local phone calls are quite eco-nomical.4 This should encourage ICT access bymarginalized groups including women, as access,cost, and infrastructure are the major barriers toICT in most developing countries.

Government policy on gender

CEDAW was validated with reservations in ElSalvador in 1981. The El Salvadorian governmentpassed a law to form a national body calledInstituto Salvadoreno para el Desarrollo de la Mujer(the Salvadorian Institute for Women’s Develop-ment — ISDM) after the Beijing conference in1995. ISDM provides the framework for publicpolicies for gender equality.

The National Secretariat for the Family, connectedto the President’s office, created the “women’ssystem” in 1989, to include gender awareness ingovernment institutions in the agriculture sectorand change discriminatory legislation. In 1993, theMinistry for Economic and Social Development,

Planning, and Coordination also began a projectto introduce gender awareness in developmentprojects within the ministry.

Sociocultural factors

Along with the recent natural calamities, thecountry is suffering from an economic crisis.About 52 percent of the total population live be-low the poverty line today, a majority of themwomen. Before the series of natural calamities inthe past three years, the country’s economicgrowth was satisfactory; but poverty, violenceagainst women, and poor education remain theprimary barriers for a majority of girls andwomen of El Salvador.

Conclusions

In the two previous decades a stable political andeconomic atmosphere and an active women’smovement had helped to change women’s socio-economic roles. In the 1980s, women’s NGOsstarted a national movement, which acceleratedafter the Peace Agreements in 1992. It influencedthe shaping of government policies on gender is-sues, and was concerned especially with equal op-portunities for women in education and jobs, andviolence against women. So far there are no spe-cific policies to promote increasing presence ofwomen at different job levels in the ICT sector(Hafkin and Taggart, 2001).

Hungary

Education differentials

Percentage of women among university degreeholders, 1996 (UNESCO, 1999):All fields 58.4Agriculture 43.4Commerce 61.7Education 84.1Engineering 22.0Humanities and arts 66.2Law 50.9Natural science 45.3Medicine 68.0Social and behavioral sciences 49.2

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Internet use

As of July 2002, 47 percent of Hungary’s totalInternet users are women. In 1998, the figure was37 percent. It is expected that the number ofInternet users will double in the next few years.4

Labor market participation of women

Women hold a total share of 44.8 percent in em-ployment among all occupations. Women accountfor 35.3 percent of managers (including legisla-tors and senior government officials), 57.2 per-cent of professionals, and 55.2 percent of serviceindustry workers in the country. Around 27 per-cent of skilled agricultural workers, 55 percent ofunskilled workers, and about 21 percent of craftand trade workers are women. Women also form7.5 percent of the Hungarian armed forces.Women are employed in 92.5 percent of the totalnumber of clerical jobs. Among technicians 63percent are women. Women are also employedas plant and machine operators, where they holda share of 23.7 percent. No direct information onthe country’s ICT sector was available.5

ICT policy

The Szechenyi Plan is a medium-term economicplan that includes a component on information so-ciety and information economy development. Theprogram emphasizes electronic government, infra-structure development, and social policy. Thereis a special mention of small, disadvantagedtowns and disadvantaged groups such as pris-oners and minorities who need special attention;but gender concerns find no mention in the doc-ument.6

Conclusions

Hungarian women had a significant presenceamong the university degree holders in 1996,though it was not so marked in ICT-related disci-plines. Women’s Internet use has grown furtherin the last few years. Data on women’s participa-tion in the ICT sector were not readily available,yet extrapolating from their participation in thelabor market, it can be surmised that women

would be present in larger numbers at the lower-level jobs, such as operators, and their presencewould be less at managerial levels. As noted ear-lier there is no mention of gender issues in theICT policy documents.

India

Education differentials

• 51.4 percent of adult women are literate.• 74.5 percent of adult men are literate.• 48 percent of girls are enrolled in secondary

schools.• 36 percent of students at the tertiary level are

female.• 30.4 percent of girl students at the tertiary

level study natural sciences.• 19 percent of teachers at the tertiary level are

women.• 23 percent of Internet users are women.

Government policy on ICT

India has incorporated measures to increase thenumber of trained professionals and encouragethe growth of the ICT sector in the country. A Na-tional Task Force was set up in 1998 by the gov-ernment to look after the growth prospects in ITand the software development industry. The In-formation Technology Bill 2000, based on the rec-ommendations of the Task Force, emphasized theimplementation of a legislative mechanism for ex-tended IT applications. It was expected to act asa catalyst in promoting IT throughout the coun-try. The Information Technology Act 2000 focusedon planning the whole ICT sector. For employ-ment opportunities in the sector, accessibility is amajor problem that needs to be addressed. To thatend a Working Group on IT for the Masses wascreated in May 2000. However, the recommen-dations of this group lacked specific emphasis onwomen. The suggestions were on access, educa-tion, and increasing awareness about advantagesand uses of IT, which will also be useful forwomen after implementation. Yet no specificagenda on access and skill development forwomen was discussed.

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Gender and ICT Policies

Some of the state governments such as AndhraPradesh have also started developing their ownIT infrastructure and pool of skilled profession-als. According to the Ministry of InformationTechnology, the central and state governmentshave initiated steps to promote computer use indisadvantaged areas, for instance setting up in-formation kiosks with computers run by localentrepreneurs in rural areas. Some other statessuch as Uttar Pradesh are also taking interest inthe sector.

Earlier in 1988, the central government estab-lished a World Market Policy focusing on soft-ware development for export, change (reform) inthe telecommunications policy, privatization inthe telecommunication and mobile phone sectorand a more comprehensive approach toward ICT.The government also introduced the SoftwareTechnology Parks (STP) of India scheme.

Government policy on gender

The Indian government has taken certain stepsto promote women’s status and overcome theproblems they face in society. The education min-istry has both formal and nonformal educationprograms for girls, the latter in collaboration withNGOs. The Department of Women and Child De-velopment formulates strategies, policies, andprograms, enacts or amends legislation, guidesand supports work done by other government ornongovernmental bodies for improving the sta-tus of women and children. The department hasinitiated training programs for employment,awareness building, and gender sensitization. Ithas also established hostels for working women.The impact of such initiatives, however, is notknown because of the lack of any documentation.

An important education policy from women’sperspective has been observed in the state ofAndhra Pradesh where one-third of all places ininstitutes for higher education are reserved forwomen. It is possible that such a policy may in-crease the number of women opting for IT andrelated fields at higher levels of education.

Conclusions

ICT policies have focused on the growth of thesoftware sector and have only recently begun toemphasize the role of IT applications in makingthe industry more competitive and governmentmore efficient in its service delivery. The telecom-munications sector was deregulated in 1994. In-creasing competition from several privateoperators is pushing the penetration in urban ar-eas and lowering the prices. Rural areas are yetto benefit from this change. It appears that muchmore is said than done about ICT for themasses. Internet penetration is still very lowand confined to urban areas. There is no men-tion of gender concern in policy documents.Women’s employment in the IT-enabled servicesis significant at 37 percent.

Israel

Education differentials

Women comprise 56.6 percent of recipients ofuniversity degrees.

Percentage of women among university degreeholders, 1997 (UNESCO, 1999):

All fields 56.6Agriculture 48.8Commerce 40.9Education 88.1Engineering 19.0Humanities and arts 73.4Law 47.9Natural science 47.6Medicine 68.0Social and behavioral sciences 60.1

Labor market participation of women

The unemployment rate in the country was 7.7percent between 1994 and 1997. The labor forceparticipation rate was 37.4 percent in 1997 (ILO,2001). Women’s participation in the work forceincreased from 33.7 percent in 1980 to 44.2 per-cent in 1998.

In 1998, 44.2 percent of the total workforce in

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Israel were women. Of clerical staff, 73.5 percentare women, while 59.3 percent of technicians arealso women. Women constitute 53.6 percent ofworkers in the service industry, 45.5 percent ofprofessionals, and hold about 22.4 percent of man-agerial positions (including legislators and seniorgovernment officials). Women also hold 44.1 per-cent of unskilled occupations. Their share amongskilled agricultural workers is 13.2 percent and11 percent among craft and trade workers.

Labor market participation of women inthe ICT sector

According to 1997 figures from 194 firms, morethan 51 percent of a total of over 14,300 employ-ees in Israel’s electronic component sector werewomen.

ICT policy

Israel’s ICT policy has focused on telecommuni-cation regulation, e-government and innovativeincubation schemes for start-ups.7 In 2001, Israel’ssoftware exports reached $2.6 billion.8 The edu-cation department had an ambitious program ofschool computerization. In the documents re-viewed, there was no specific mention of genderconcerns although the labor market participationof women in the electronics industry is high.

Conclusions

The ICT policy has emphasized growth of the ICTsector. The education policy has worked towardextensive computerization in schools. The labormarket participation of women is increasing inIsrael. The high percentage of women at the uni-versity degree level (56.6 percent) seems to be acontributing factor. Their presence in ICT-relateddegree courses (47.6 percent) is noticeable. As aresult, in 1997 women had 51 percent participa-tion in the Israeli electronic component sector. Nodata were readily available on women’s partici-pation in other ICT-related fields.

Malaysia

Education differentials

Adult literacy rate (%) (www.adb.org/statistics)

1980 1990 1999Female Male Female Male Female Male 60 80 74 87 83 91

Gross secondary school enrollment ratio (%)

1980 1990 1997Female Male Female Male Female Male 46 50 58 55 69 59

Labor market participation of women

An integrated report by the UNU Institute forNew Technologies (UNU-INTECH), UNDP, andMalaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems,indicated that in 1997, the country’s labor forceparticipation rate was 65.6 percent. For womenthe rate was 46 percent, while for men it was 84.3percent.

Percentage of the labor force by educational level

1997 1990Male Female Male Female

No education 4.7 9.8 6.2 15.7Primary 26.6 22.1 36.3 29.3Secondary 57.0 52.6 52.2 49.0Tertiary 11.7 15.5 5.3 6.0

According to the report, the total Malaysianworkforce consisted of 8.7 million people in 1997and 34.1 percent were women. The report had thefollowing findings:• The labor force participation rate for women

did not go above the mid-40 percent mark.• Almost 60 percent of unemployed women

had at least upper secondary education, andin rural areas above 50 percent women fell inthe same category.

• Many women preferred to retire after 45years of age (life expectancy for women inMalaysia is 70+), including those with ter-tiary education. There is an “in-out” pattern in

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women’s labor market participation in Ma-laysia, a high number at the beginning is re-placed by severe decline, which is followedby an insignificant increase that retardssteadily from 45+ onwards. As the reportshows, in 1997, below 40 percent of womenworkers between the ages of 50 and 54 con-tinued to work, in contrast with 94 percent ofmen workers. Housework was the majorcause behind the low labor force participationrate among women.

• Women’s share in the labor market was lowerthan that of men; still it was proportional toother industrialized countries and a little overthe global average.

Recent figures from the ILO World EmploymentReport (2001) suggest that almost 70 percent ofthe 3.3 million outside the labor force in Malay-sia are women; and around 50 percent of themhave completed secondary and tertiary education,indicating that almost 1 million women in Ma-laysia have the potential to be employed.

Labor market participation of women inthe ICT sector

Malaysia’s Country Paper on Human Resource De-velopment in Malaysia in Response to Advancementof ICT shows that there were 108,000 workers inthe Malaysian ICT sector. At an annual averagegrowth rate of 11 percent, this number is expectedto reach more than 300,000 by 2010. The Malay-sian ICT workforce includes offshore data work-ers, software programmers, system analysts, andteleworkers. About 30 percent of IT profession-als in the Malaysian software industry arewomen.9

The UNDP Human Development Report (1997) in-dicates that there were 45 percent females amongthe total technical and professional workers in1990. Gothoskar (1995) has mentioned that 70 per-cent of Malaysian telecommunications employ-ees were female in the mid-1990s. However, thereare little data available from 2000 on.

Between January 1998 and May 1999, there was a26 percent cut in the workforce in the Malaysianelectronics sector, of which women accounted for65 percent. Companies with foreign investmenteliminated about 75 percent of the total numberof workers.10

Government policy on ICT

The Malaysian government launched “Vision2020” in 1996 for a fully developed knowledge-based society by the year 2020. The telecommu-nications sector was privatized in 1987, and afterthe rolling out of the National Telecommunica-tions Policy (NTP) in 1994, the market is now com-pletely liberalized. The government is investingsubstantially for building an ICT-friendly envi-ronment.

The Demonstrator Application Grant Scheme(DAGS) aims at improving social and economicstatus through ICT use, and provides grants tocitizens for ICT related development. The gov-ernment has encouraged e-commerce activitiesand technology use among agricultural commu-nities as well (Appanna, 2002).

Government policy on gender

Gender equality appears to be a priority for theMalaysian government as is evidenced by aUNDP Gender Development Index rating of 0.78,among the highest in the region and in the globalhigh human development category. Local andglobal demands have resulted in an affirmationof the laws for improving and protecting women’sstatus and position. In 2001, the parliament madea modification in the constitution to ensure thelegal structure required for complete implemen-tation of laws related to gender equality (Hafkinand Taggart, 2001). The favorable policies haveresulted in women occupying high-skilled andmanagerial positions in Malaysia.

Sociocultural factors

Despite the government’s efforts, women work-ers in Malaysia work under difficult conditions.During the economic crisis women suffered more,

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because they were hired in large numbers in ex-port industries in unskilled or low-skilled jobs.Women also face problems within the household.As in several other countries, Malaysia has manyhouseholds run by women alone, where theyhave to not only look after the domestic work butalso act as the sole breadwinners of the family.However, the fieldwork done by UNU–INTECHin Malaysia found that women employed in theICT sector jobs seldom belong to disadvantagedfamilies.

Crimes related to women have also increasedduring the last decade. Thus physical safety is an-other serious challenge for the working womenin Malaysia. Telework is considered one of thebetter options for women as it not only providesthe convenience of working from home, but alsominimizes the risks associated with safety at theworkplace.

Malaysia is probably among the better examplesof globalized, export-led economies, involved infrequent and growing utilization of ICT. Thereare still potential women workers in the country,however, who can be employed in the IT industry.

Conclusions

Overall, Malaysia has an adequate infrastructurein telecommunications, an increasing capabilityin IT, a satisfactory supply of tertiary level ITskills, a less satisfactory supply of middle leveltechnical skills, and a well-educated labor force,with substantial numbers of well-educatedwomen outside the labor force. The narrow re-quirements for more sophisticated and produc-tive use of ICT in networking and teleworkingare present, but the existing level of teleworkingis relatively low.

The Philippines

Education differentials

• 94.3 percent of adult women are literate.• 99.9 percent of girls are enrolled in primary

schools.

• 78.5 percent of girls are enrolled in secondaryschools.

• 62 percent of the tertiary level students aregirls.

The education level of women is undoubtedly thebest in Asia and higher than most of the otherbudding market economies. However, the enroll-ment ratio varies within academic fields, for in-stance in science and technology female studentsaccount for about 35 percent, whereas they accountfor around 79 percent in the health sciences(UNESCO, 1999; UNDP, 1999).

Internet use

As of 2000, there were 2 million Internet users inthe Philippines, and 1 million of them werewomen (Hafkin and Taggart, 2001). At the sametime, in certain parts of the country there wereno telephone lines at all. According to CecileReyes, Assistant Secretary for IT, Department ofTransportation and Communications, the govern-ment has established telecenters for Internet edu-cation and access for rural people. The telecentersare equipped with phone, fax, and computers,along with CD-ROMs that provide basic infor-mation about using computers, and the Internet.

In the Philippines a majority of the 500,000 teach-ers are women. Often students are more proficientin IT than their teachers who need upgrading oftheir IT skills to participate effectively in theknowledge economy.

Labor market participation of women

Women constitute 39 percent of the total laborforce in the country. They are ahead of men insome occupations, such as professional and tech-nical (64 percent), clerical (57 percent), sales (67percent), and services (56 percent). About 47 per-cent of research and development personnel, 53percent of scientists and engineers, 23 percent oftechnicians, and 40 percent of auxiliary person-nel are women. Overall, they enjoy a consider-able share in areas such as medical sciences,biotechnology, and natural and social sciences,

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while men are in the majority in technology-re-lated areas. In administrative, executive, andmanagement jobs, women hold about 32 percentof the positions.

Labor market participation of women inthe ICT sector

Women account for 65 percent of the total pro-fessional and technical workers in Philippines.They play a significant role in the service indus-tries including information processing, banking,insurance, printing and publishing, where theskill requisites are often superior to those inmanufacturing. The new ICT sector offers em-ployment for women mainly in information pro-cessing, especially data entry. The largest numberof women are employed in remote data entry. Nofurther information on women’s participation inthe sector was available.

Wage differentials

The hourly rate for data entry in the Philippineswas $4 before 2002, while in Jamaica the rate wasas low as $1. No gender-disaggregated informa-tion was available on wage differentials in thePhilippines.

Government policy on ICT

Government policies are encouraging the growthof the telecommunications industry by improv-ing access and inviting more foreign investmentin the domestic market. Significant measures arealso being taken to support IT education and skilldevelopment. The government has collaboratedwith Cisco, Hewlett Packard, Microsoft and oth-ers in developing IT training centers. Today thePhilippines has one of the best training infrastruc-tures for IT in Asia.

The Schools of the Future program was establishedin 1997 under the same agenda of promoting ITfor better teaching, learning, and educationalmanagement in basic education. The Science andTechnology Intervention Program for the Poor,Vulnerable, and Disabled is an initiative to usetechnology to fulfill the basic needs of the poor,

by providing technology-based interventions topromote microenterprises for the underprivi-leged, establish a network of organizations tosupport technology for the poor, and create anexclusive technology program for the physicallychallenged.

In July 2000 a Government Information SystemPlan was put in place to promote e-government.The plan appears to be gender-blind and totallydevoid of any attempt to address gender gaps ineducation, government service, and political pro-cess. In fact during interviews, most governmentagencies questioned if gender had anything to dowith e-government projects (Taggart, 2002).

Government policy on gender

There are a number of policies that promote wom-en’s participation in economy and politics in Phil-ippines. For instance, there are laws givingwomen equal chances in military school educa-tion; laws against sexual harassment at places ofemployment, education, or training; and a Wom-en’s Studies Consortium for higher education.11

Sociocultural factors

Besides constituting a majority among Internetusers, Philippine women are ahead of other Asianwomen in their involvement in the ICT sector.They have a good share in professional and tech-nical jobs. The country’s GDI rank is 65 among174 countries, indicating that women are betteroff than in most other developing countries(Hafkin and Taggart, 2001). Yet, according to Ciscosources, networking remains one area where menare still considered more suitable employees. Theconventionally set roles for men and women arelargely responsible in deciding their careers, thusmen tend to join the IT workforce, and womenare more likely to work in the education sector.

Romania

Education differentials

• 96 percent of adult women are literate.• 74 percent of girls enroll for secondary school.

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• 49 percent of all the secondary school studentsare girls.

• 50 percent of tertiary students are girls.• 33.6 percent of tertiary students in natural

sciences are girls.• 35 percent of teaching staff at the tertiary level

are women.(UNDP,1999; UNESCO,1999)

The level of female adult literacy and secondaryschool enrollment demonstrates the high stan-dard of education among Romanian women. Thegender balance is maintained at the tertiary level,but women’s participation in IT-related fieldssuch as computer science and engineering islower — 33.6 percent (Hafkin and Taggart, 2001).

Percentage of women among university degreeholders, 1997 (UNESCO, 1999):

All fields 54.4Agriculture 42.9Commerce 59.9Education 60.6Engineering 28.4Humanities and arts 66.1Law 55.2Natural science 58.4Medicine 67.4Social and behavioral sciences 70.1

Internet use

Currently 18.3 million people in Romania areabove 15 years of age, and of them 12 percent, or2.1 million, have access to the Internet. The usersaccount for 16 percent of the total number of menand just about 8 percent of the total number ofwomen (Hafkin and Taggart, 2001).

Labor market participation of women

Currently, 45.2 percent of the total workforce and56 percent of all employees in the professional andtechnical careers are women; of these, 26 percentare in managerial positions.

Labor market participation of women inthe ICT sector

The Romanian ICT sector employed just about0.2 percent of the total workforce in the countryin 1996. Among those working in the ICT sector,13 percent were employed in software companies.Information on employment of women in the ICTsector was not available.

Wage differentials

The labor code of the country recommends equalpay for equal work. But gender discriminationexists, especially in the case of less-educatedwomen. Women facing economic discriminationalso suffer from lack of infrastructure. Accordingto the U.S. State Department Human Rights Re-port on Romania, 1999, despite laws promotingequality, more women than men are unemployedin the country. Women hold few influential posi-tions in the private sector and on average earnlower wages .

Romania’s IT workers, more men than women,are now migrating from a cash-strapped economyto other European countries and the U.S. in thehope of better opportunities.

Government policy on ICT

In the past, the Communist government activelysupported the ICT sector, not just in terms of fi-nancial inputs but also in capacity building. It hademphasized software development and after itsfall in 1989 there was no dearth of skilled soft-ware professionals. Romania is often comparedto India and Ireland because of its potential inthe software industry. Today more official sup-port is required in training and education. Thisseems quite a task as the country is facing con-tinuous economic challenges after the change ingovernment. The new government formed a Na-tional Commission for Informatics (NCI) to lookafter the IT policy from 1990 onwards. The initia-tives taken by NCI along with the Ministries ofResearch and Technology and Telecommunica-tions and Education supported specific activitiessuch as IT research and development.

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In 1992, the government initiated a National Strat-egy for the Information Society that was incorpo-rated into a law in 1997. This law emphasizes vitalpublic and private sector alliances, development ofIT standards, development of infrastructure, andinvestment for research and development in IT. Thetelecommunications sector remains in the hands ofthe state-owned Romtelecom, but the service is of-ten undependable outside Bucharest. There is somehope for the ICT sector, as at the beginning of 2001,Romtelecom was inmplementing changes such asslashing the daytime dial-up Internet access ratesby 50 percent. This was done to encourage Internetuse during the day.

Government policy on gender

The constitution and CEDAW guarantee the pro-tection of women’s equal rights in the country,but women’s issues often do not get sufficientattention or support from the authorities.

In 1996 the government created a section underthe Ministry of Labor and Social Protection withthe purpose of promoting women’s interests andfamily policies. The department coordinates pro-grams for women, suggests new laws, monitorsthe legislation for sexual prejudices, and supportswomen’s training for skill-building, especially invillages. However, the department does not seemto have made much impact on women’s presencein the labor market.

Sociocultural factors

The high level of education and significant par-ticipation in the country’s labor force providecause for optimism for Romanian women in theICT sector. Unfortunately, no data were availablefor this sector.

Conclusions

Although Romanian women enjoy high literacyrates, constitute 56 percent of all employees inprofessional and technical careers, and have asupportive, women-friendly gender policy inplace, in reality they continue to experience dis-criminatory treatment in recruitment and wages.

No information was available on women’s par-ticipation specifically in the ICT labor market.

Russia

Education differentials

Percentage of women among university degreeholders, 1995 (UNESCO, 1999):All fields 52.8Agriculture 49.1Commerce 70.7Education 84.2Engineering 26.9Humanities and arts 77.6Law 47.6Natural science 54.8Medicine 68.7Social and behavioral sciences 67.5

Some more figures given below show that Rus-sian women are well educated and have a healthyshare among students in academic programs forscience and technology careers as in other newlyindependent states. In all, 34.3 percent of femaletertiary students are in natural sciences.12

• 98.8 percent of adult females are literate.• 90.7 percent of girls enroll for secondary

school.• 57 percent of all secondary school students

are female.• 53 percent of all tertiary students are female.• 34.3 percent of tertiary students in natural

sciences are female.(UNESCO, 1999; UNDP, 1999)

Internet use

The U.S.-based Soros Foundation’s Open SocietyInstitute has been instrumental in providingInternet connectivity by establishing InternetCenters at secondary schools and universities inRussia. The Russian Internet Market Review of June2000 indicated that 38 percent of Russia’s Internetusers were women.

The number of women employed in the ICT sec-tor is limited by available access to ICT, which is

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low because of the poor telecommunicationsstructure. Internet penetration among thecountry’s adult population ranges from 2.4 per-cent to 5 percent, compared with 35 percent inWestern Europe. A majority of users access theInternet from work or a general access terminal,as few people have computers at home.

Labor market participation of women

Women have a significant presence in the labormarket and hold almost two-thirds of profes-sional jobs. According to 1998 figures, womenoccupy about 47.3 percent of all jobs in Russia.Among the managers (including legislators andsenior government officials) 38 percent arewomen. They also account for 60.7 percent of thecountry’s total professionals.

In contrast to other countries studied so far, Rus-sia has 70.5 percent women technicians. Just 12percent of plant and machine operators arewomen. About 89 percent of clerical staff, 65.5percent of service sector workers, 45.5 percent ofskilled agricultural workers, and 23 percent ofcraft and trade workers are women. Women alsomake up 51 percent of unskilled workers.

Women are employed in large numbers in publichealth services (85 percent), education (81 per-cent), credit and finance (78 percent), and infor-mation and accounting services (75 percent).

Labor market participation of women inthe ICT sector

Data on women’s share in employment in the ICTsector were not available.

Government policy on ICT

The Russian Internet Market Review (June 2000) sug-gests that telecommunication infrastructure is poorin Russia. The government policies aoppear to beunpredictable and the political system unstable af-ter the fall of the Soviet Union. This prevented Rus-sia from emerging as an ICT giant, despite its hugepool of cheap labor in the high technology field.

The laws under consideration in the Duma(Russia’s lower parliamentary house) had a defi-nite bias toward a state-owned communicationstructure. The picture is changing gradually, asrecent government policies appear to encouragedomestic and foreign investment in the telecom-munications sector.

Government policy on gender

Russian policies support economic and socialequality for women, just as the majority of East-ern European countries that were united in theSoviet era. The current Russian constitution wascreated post 1991. Article 19 states: “Men andwomen have equal rights and freedoms and equalopportunities to realize them.” The successfulimplementation of such a policy is evident in botheducation and employment.

Sociocultural factors

On the one hand, Russian women have the ad-vantage of a sound educational background alongwith a history of official encouragement to workin nontraditional fields such as science and tech-nology. On the other, Russia is considered bymany to be unstable politically and economically,and assailed by corruption and crime, all of whichpose a major threat to the country’s great poten-tial in the ICT sector.

One of the results of political transformation inRussia is the lack of childcare services that hascontributed to the problems of working women.At the same time employers do not like hiringwomen, as they fear that their household du-ties will divert their attention from the job athand. Many employers are reluctant to hirechildless young women; they would ratheravoid having to give a female employee thethree-year paid maternity leave endorsed by theconstitution of the country.

Conclusions

Russia is a country where traditionally women haveenjoyed high literacy rates, and their participa-tion in the labor market has been considerable.

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However because of inadequate telecommunica-tion infrastructure and a lack of consistent gov-ernment policies, the ICT sector has worked farbelow its potential. No data on the current par-ticipation of women in the ICT sector were avail-able. It is hoped that as the ICT sector expands,women too willfind avenues for employment.

South Africa

Education differentials

The Southern African Research and Documenta-tion Centre (SARDC) and the University of West-ern Cape (UWC) have stated that almost everywhite adult in South Africa is literate, while about25 percent of black adults are illiterate. This is anoutcome of earlier lack of education opportuni-ties for blacks. In fact, 20 percent of women and14 percent of men among the blacks were de-prived of formal education at school. Only about6 percent of African women and men above theage of twenty have completed their tertiary edu-cation.

Today schooling is mandatory for every childfrom the age of seven to fifteen. Yet, out of 9 mil-lion children eligible for schooling, over 1.6 mil-lion black children do not have access toeducation, while for white children education iseasily available.• 77 percent of black women are literate.• 51 percent of girls enroll in secondary educa-

tion.• 12 percent of girls go through matriculation.• 9 percent of engineering graduates are

women.• 32 percent of permanent staff in Technikons

and universities are women.• 51 percent of Internet users are women.

The share of secondary school enrollment and anadult literacy rate of 77 percent among blackwomen place South African women well aheadof their contemporaries in most other develop-ing countries. At the secondary level girls out-number boys, but the number of girls dropsdramatically at the tertiary level. Girls are not

even one-tenth of the total number of students inengineering, and the low participation of womenin the ICT sector comes as no surprise.

Internet use

Just around 3 percent of South Africans use theInternet, with a majority of the users being white.By 2000 figures, around 51 percent of the total num-ber of Internet users in South Africa are women —a higher percentage than in any other African coun-try and most of the developing nations.

The role of women in the ICT sector is largely de-fined by the extent of their access to ICT. In 1996,just about 10 percent of secondary schools hadcomputers and only 2000 schools, accounting for7.5 percent of the total schools in South Africa,had overall infrastructure, including telephonelines, electricity, and computers to promote theuse of ICT and its applications. Girls have a highershare among secondary school students, yet be-cause of insufficient infrastructure, the otherwisebetter indicators of female education in SouthAfrica seem irrelevant here. Usually the schoolsthat have adequate infrastructure and access arethe ones white children attend. Even though thereare initiatives to improve ICT facilities in schools,creating more opportunities specifically for girlsseems unlikely at this point.

Labor market participation of women

There has been a uniform growth in female par-ticipation in the South African economy dur-ing the last four decades. The available figuressuggest that in 1960 women constituted 23 per-cent of the total labor force; this share increasedto 36 percent in 1985 and 38 percent in 1999.However, the unemployment rate amongwomen was higher in 1999 — 27.8 percent asagainst 19.8 percent for men. The 1999 data alsoindicated that around 10.2 percent of the totalworkforce accounting for 2.7 million peopleworked in the informal sector, and women ac-counted for 48 percent of these workers. Thesame year, 22 percent of all managers werefound to be women, with half of them black.

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Interestingly, only 2 percent of the total em-ployed women workers in South Africa weremanagers in 1999 (ILO, 1999).

Wage differentials

The developments in the last three to four decadeshave not improved the situation of women work-ers to a great extent. Even today, compared towomen, men have better salaries and better jobs.At the same time, a white woman generally getsa better salary than a black man. The followingtable provides a picture of wage differentials inthe South African labor market.

Income by race, sex, and education as percent ofincome of white men with similar education, 1991:

Education Black WhiteMen Women Men Women

5-6 years 10 25 75 1007-8 years 10 10 40 1009-10 years 5 20 40 100Diploma 35 45 55 100Degree - 65 45 100

Labor market participation of women inthe ICT sector

While there is hardly any information availableon women’s participation in the South AfricanICT sector, it is evident that women do not havean equal share in the sector and their access toICT is less than men’s. White men and womenform the majority of workers in the sector.13 Fifty-five percent of workers in the ICT sector are men(Household Survey, 1997) 14

Women are mostly employed in IT education,training, and development where they accountfor 39.2 percent of the total. In IT sales and mar-keting they have a 36.1 percent share, and inend-user computing they constitute 36.4 percentof all workers. In data communication and net-working women have a low share of 18.7 percent,followed by an 18.4 percent share in informationsystems and IT management. Women’s partici-pation in hardware and computer architecture is

even lower, at just 13.6 percent. However, in spiteof less than 10 percent women opting for engi-neering at the tertiary level, a fair number ofwomen are employed in the ICT sector. Evidently,not all of these employees come from an engineer-ing background.

Wage differentials in the ICT sector

Data on wage differentials in the ICT sector werenot available. Some gender-disaggregated data onincome in the ICT sector were gathered duringthe SAITIS Household Survey. There is a clear in-dication of discrimination in the average annualsalary: for male IT employees the average annualincome was $17,261, while for female employeesthe figure was $13,711.

Government policy on ICT

The South African government officially pro-motes equality and is committed to improvingthe status of women and other disadvantagedminorities. The initial step toward developing thecountry’s telecommunications human resourcebase was taken by the Department of Communi-cations through the 1995 Green Paper on Telecom-munications Policy and the 1996 White Paper onTelecommunications Policy, ultimately followed bythe 1996 Telecommunications Act, which wasbased on these two papers.

Chapter 8 of the White Paper, “Human Resourcesfor the Sector”, focuses on the requirement of skill-building for attaining gender equality: “The Minis-try supports affirmative action as a consciousstrategy to correct the social and gender imbal-ances in our society. The Ministry believes thehuman resources strategy should be based on theprinciples of democracy, non-racism, non-sexism,and equity. Therefore the upliftment of peoplein the sector should be achieved by purposelyredressing imbalances in the work force at all lev-els. This would require pro-active recruitment andtraining of people from previously disadvantagedgroups, particularly in areas where the networkis being ‘rolled out.’”

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Although the Telecommunications Act continuedto give priority to skills-development and train-ing in the ICT sector, it did not carry with it aclear “gender” perspective. Even so, the Depart-ment of Communications has continued to focuson underprivileged groups, including women.

Info.com 2025 provides education and encouragesskills development with the help of telecommu-nication technologies. The program also supportsthe establishment of community information cen-ters, public information terminals, and Internetfacilities in schools along with teachers’ traininginitiatives.

Technology Enhanced Learning Initiative (TELI)promotes the use of technology for education. Theprojects under this initiative focus on develop-ment of course content and technology-relatedinputs beginning at the eighth grade, providingvocational education, and developing a curricu-lum for IT literacy in schools, community centers,and industrial training locations.

SchoolNet South Africa is involved in propagat-ing Internet use among South African schools.

SchoolNet SA is one among the 25 SchoolNetsacross the African continent. It is funded by theDepartment of Education and by private firms,such as Microsoft, Cisco, Nortel, Sun, 3Com, andInternet Solution. Internet connectivity, humanresources development, management and devel-opment of content and curricula, and advocacyand marketing are some of its primary functions.

Government policy on gender

Steps taken by the government to bridge the gen-der gap include the formation of the Commissionon Gender Equality, the National Gender Forumat the Department of Justice, and the Office on theStatus of Women at the Office of the Presidency.

A “gendered” approach to telecommunication isvisible in the basic goal of the Department of Com-munications’ Gender, Youth, and Disability Desk:“to integrate gender, youth and disability sensi-tive perspective in all departmental programs andpolicies.… The Department will also ensure thatempowerment strategies, policies and legislationdesigned to ensure more meaningful participa-tion of historically disadvantaged citizens are sen-sitive to biases which exclude equal participation

Table 1. IT skills domains by race and gender (%) 15

IT Domain African Asian Colored White Female Male Total

Computer Operations 17.3 9.9 10.3 62.4 24.7 75.3 100

Data Commmunication andNetworking 17.5 5.7 11.1 65.6 18.6 81.3 100

End User Computing 15.4 9.5 8.5 66.7 36.4 63.6 100

Hardware and ComputerArchitecture 16.2 7.3 8.5 67.9 13.7 86.3 100

IS and IT Management 11.5 7.4 6.2 74.9 18.4 81.6 100

IT Education, Training andDevelopment 7.7 4.0 2.5 85.8 39.2 60.8 100

IT Sales and Marketing 9.4 13.6 7.4 69.6 36.1 63.9 100

Other 17.5 8.9 11.3 62.3 47.1 52.9 100

System Development 10.2 8.2 7.0 74.5 26.5 73.5 100

Total 13.4 8.3 8.1 70.2 27.2 72.8 100

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in the communications sector of the economy.”

In 1993, South Africa signed CEDAW. CEDAWtook effect in 1995, and a maiden CEDAW reportbased on reports by various departments was pre-sented in 1997. The government has signed vari-ous other global conventions ensuring genderequality, such as the Convention on the PoliticalRights of Women (1953); the Convention on theNationality of Married Women (1957); the Con-vention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Agefor Marriage, and Registration of Marriages(1962).

The new labor legislation has contributed to im-proving the workers’ security and provided bet-ter scope for the black community and women.The Labor Relations Act prohibits any discrimi-nation based on race, gender, and other such fac-tors at the workplace. The Employment EquityAct keeps a check on firms with more than fiftyworkers or a turnover exceeding the given limitby mandating an equal opportunities plan andthe submission of a periodic report to the gov-ernment categorized by race, gender, and disabil-ity. The constitution has allowed the existence oftrade unions, but in October 1995 just 35 percentof men and 29 percent of women workers be-longed to a trade union.

The Basic Conditions for Employment Act assuresjob security for pregnant, lactating, and disabledwomen, and includes provisions such as a 12-weekmaternity leave with 45 percent of current pay.

Sociocultural factors

In South Africa, poor black Africans are de-prived of facilities that may be easily availableto people from other ethnic backgrounds. Un-hygienic surroundings, crowded households,scarcity of drinking water, poor sanitation, andfaulty electric supply are still the lot of the dis-advantaged. Although a great deal of effort isbeing put into dvelopment work, in many partsof the country women still walk long distancesto fetch drinking water. The United Nations’

social indicators for 2000 maintain that 90 per-cent urban and 80 percent rural population haveaccess to safe drinking water.

With increasing number of initiatives from thegovernment, things are now changing. In 1994,people of both genders and from every ethnicbackground in South Africa became eligible tovote. Women held a share of over 29 percent inthe South African Parliament in 1999.

Contemporary South African society is full ofcommunity-based organizations and NGOs,which offer training and education to girls. Thereare also institutions such as SA–WISE (South Af-rican Women in Science and Engineering) that notonly promote women scientists and engineers,but also attempt to find out the difficulties facedby them. The conventional mindset, however, stillseems to guide females toward “soft” careers andmales toward technical jobs. This mental barrierneeds to come down before women in South Af-rica can take full advantage of the opportunitiesoffered by ICT.

United Arab Emirates

Education differentials

It was only in 1955 that girls were first allowed toattend primary and secondary schools. Theseschools were established for girl students only,and had women teachers. The government tookup education as a prime concern and encouragedinitiatives for educating women after the unionof the Emirates in 1971. As a result, the illiteracyrate among women dropped from 77.6 percentin 1980 to 11.3 percent in 1995.• 76.8 percent of women are literate.• 79.9 percent of girls enroll in secondary

schools.• 72 percent of tertiary students are girls (1997).• 42.3 percent of tertiary students in natural

sciences are girls.• 14 percent of teachers at the tertiary level are

women (1992).(UNESCO, 1999)

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In 1977, the first university in UAE was set upwith separate campuses for boys and girls. Thisinitiative enabled women to acquire higher de-grees. Earlier, women had no access to highereducation in the country, and it was not easy forthem to go abroad for higher studies. Today girlstudents constitute 72 percent of the total tertiarylevel students in colleges and universities.

Though a number of women opt for engineeringand science, medicine and education are the con-ventional disciplines for women in UAE.

Internet use

UAE was the first country in the region to permitcybercafes meant for men as well as women.There are 400,000 Internet users among a popu-lation of 2.7 million according to March 2000 data(ILO, 2001). The UAE has 15 percent penetrationof the Internet, which is higher than other Arabcountries (5.7 percent in Lebanon and 6.1 percentin Qatar).

Women access the Internet mostly from colleges,universities, or home. According to the UNESCOStatistical Yearbook (1999) only 6 percent ofInternet users in Arab states were women. Con-sidering the excellent educational opportunitiesfor women in UAE, the share of women amongInternet users may be higher than the other coun-tries in the region. No data on female Internetusers in the country were available.

Labor market participation of women

In UAE, females were just about 19.4 percent ofthe total workforce in 1995. Large numbers ofwomen opt for higher studies, yet a majority ofthem do not join the workforce after getting theirdegree. Teaching and medicine remain the mostlikely career options for women. Female teachersaccount for about 100 percent in nursery schools,55 percent in primary schools, and 65 percent inintermediate and secondary schools according togovernment statistics. Around one-third of thetotal number of doctors and 81 percent of thenursing staff are women. Almost 40 percent of

government workers are women. Both womenand men like to be employed by the governmentbecause of the benefits and flexible work sched-ules. The UAE Federal Government inviteswomen to be a part of the workforce, promisingemployment in government for every applicant.

Labor market participation of women inthe ICT sector

Citizens in UAE account for only 25 percent ofthe total population, and they prefer to work inthe government or run family businesses. Immi-grants belonging to various countries usuallywork in private firms. Immigrants, especiallythose from India and Pakistan, constitute a majorpart of the IT labor force. According to Ciscosources, presently men outnumber women in theIT workforce. But this trend is likely to change asyoung educated women are showing interest incomputers and networking. Even in the ICT sec-tor women prefer to work for the government.

Wage differentials

No data were available on wage differentials inthe country’s ICT sector.

Government policy on ICT

The country has led the region in promoting cen-sorship on the Internet. The Emirates Telecom-munications Corporation (Etisalat), which was setup by the government, is the sole Internet serviceprovider in the country. In UAE, dial-up userscannot access the Internet directly; instead theydial a proxy server that is maintained by Etisalat.Access is denied to a website if the requested URLis listed as a banned site. The UAE governmenthas adopted such censorship to prevent access topornographic web sites.

The Shaikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al MaktoumSecondary School Information TechnologyProject was initiated in 2000 by the Ministry ofEducation and Youth to provide Internet accessand skills training. As part of this project, ITclassrooms with computers and network con-nections to enhance a computer curriculum are

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being developed at the secondary schools inDubai. The program will be extended to all sec-ondary schools in the country.

Government policy on gender

The government encourages positive policies andlaws for women, but the country’s constitutionplaces women and their rights and roles withinthe context of the family, which is considered tobe the foundation of the society. Thus, govern-ment policies tend to preserve women’s rightsand provide them with appropriate income andemployment opportunities in accordance withtheir traditional roles. The Social Affairs sectionof the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs andthe UAE Women’s Federation are the two maingovernment bodies dealing with women’s issues.The UAE Women’s Federation addresses issueson women’s working conditions and education,and also advocates changes in personal law.

Human rights reports by external agencies statethat at work women remain deprived of equalbenefits such as housing and promotion. To over-come these hurdles, in 1995 the UAE Cabinet tem-porarily extended the paid maternity leave forUAE women citizens working in the private sec-tor to three months with full pay, from forty-fivedays up to one year with half pay, and a secondyear’s leave with quarter pay. In 1996, an associ-ated declaration approved the ILO General Con-ference Equal Remuneration Convention of 1951.A conference was held in 1996 to promotewomen’s rights in the workforce. The participantsdemanded certain special rights, such as remov-ing the requirement of the husband’s permissionbefore employing a woman.

The UAE government allows women’s organi-zations to provide social welfare services, but sofar none of these groups are found to be involvedin activities such as technology-related training.

Sociocultural factors

UAE is among the world’s wealthiest and tech-nologically advanced countries. It is also the

“most wired state in the Arab world”. The lowshare of women in the labor market is a result ofa number of cultural constraints, such as objec-tion by husband or family, or the inconvenienceof pursuing a career while having to run a house-hold. A married woman needs a permit from herhusband before taking a job. There is no economiccompulsion for women to work, as there is nodearth of resources or wealth in the country.

Conclusions

There is great emphasis on women’s educationand their participation in degree courses includ-ing presumably the ICT-related disciplines. Yetbecause of local sociocultural forces, women arenot encouraged to participate in the labor mar-ket, and there are no economic compulsions forwomen to do so. Their presence in the ICT sectoris therefore likely to be limited.

Notes

1. Interviews conducted by Cisco Learning.http://cisco.netacad.net/public/academy/

2. Creating a Development Dynamic — finalreport of the Digital Opportunity Initiative http://www.opt-init.org/framework/pages/2.3.1.html

3. http://www.opt-init.org/framework/pages/appendix3Case1.html

4. Nua Internet Surveys. http://www.nua.ie/surveys/

5. 1998 statistics, UN/ECE database based onnational sources; Yearbook of Labor Statistics 1999,ILO

6. Excerpts from the document “Science andTechnology Policy in Hungary,” http://www.oecd.org/pdf/M00033000/M00033728.pdf

7. Honig Benson, “Israel and the ICT: The case ofan industrial transformation,” Graduate School ofBusiness, Haifa. http://www.spea.indiana.edu/Audretsch/v669s01/israel.pdf>

8. http://www.cid.harvard.edu/cr/profiles/Israel.pdf

9. http://learnlink.aed.org/Publications/Gender_Book/executive_summary/4gender_impact.htm

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10. Cecilia Ng, “Globalization and Women,”Documentation for Action Groups in Asia.

11. Chat Ramilo Garcia, “National ICT policiesand gender equality regional perspectives: Asia.”http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/ict2002/reports/Paper-C Ramilo.PDF

12. http://www.euromedia.net13. “Women in ICT Workshop,” presented by

MTA and AMI consulting in South Africa. A Surveyof the IT Industry and Related Jobs and Skills inSouth Africa (SAITIS), Johannesburg, 2000.

14. The 1997 Household Survey was conductedamong 994 respondents. The IT web survey in 1998(www.itweb.co.za) had a bigger sample of 1,199 butit was not based on a structured sample and thusmay be less accurate. SAITIS, 2000b (June 10th).Working Draft 4.6.

15. SAITIS, Jobs and Skills Scan, 1999.

REFERENCES

Gothoskar, Sujata. 1995. Women Encounter Technol-ogy. United Nations Press.

Hafkin, Nancy and Nancy Taggart. 2001. Gender,Information Technology, and Developing Countries:An Analytic Study. Washington, D.C.: Academyfor Educational Development for USAID. http://www.usaid.gov/wid/pubs/it01.htm

ILO. 1999. Yearbook of Labor Statistics.ILO. 2001. World Employment Report.Appanna, Shadrach. 2002. “How have other devel-

oping regions bridged/are bridging the digitaldivide and the relevance to Africa.” (ConferencePaper, 4th African Telecom Summit, AccraInternational Conference Centre, Accra, Ghana,12-14 March 2002).

SAITIS. 2000b. Working Draft 4.6 for ILO’s WorldEmployment Report 2001.

Taggart, Nancy. 2002. E-commerce in developingcountries: opportunities for women. Academy forEducational Development.

UNDP. 1999. Human Development Report.UNESCO. 1999. Statistical Yearbook.UNIFEM/UNU. 1998. Gender and Telecommunica-

tions: an agenda for policy. http://www.unifem.undp.org/pap_itu.htm

http://www.itu.int/ITU-D-UniversalAccess/wtdc98/gender.htm

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This chapter examines a broad sample of WorldBank projects from the ICT sector as well as thosewith ICT components from other sectors to de-termine the extent to which they included gen-der issues. The rationale for undertaking thisexercise lies in an examination of the relationshipof gender to development efforts.

Methodology

The study was based on publicly available docu-mentation of active World Bank lending projectswith ICT components.1 A sample frame of 176projects was constructed. The sample purposelyincludes a large number of education projects be-cause of the World Bank’s growing support ofusing technology, especially computers, to im-prove educational outcomes.

The ICT major sector projects included projectsin communications sector reform and privatization,development of national ICT policy, expansion ofInternet access, using IT to empower rural com-munities, establishment of public ICT access cen-ters, national ICT diffusion, and promotion of ICT

7From a Gender Perspective:

Review ofWorld Bank ICT Sectoral Projects

sector growth. ICT components in projects ofother major sectors included IT training in schoolsand for employment, IT training for the develop-ment of the knowledge economy, distance edu-cation, IT-assisted education, computerization ofmany kinds of institutions and enterprises, usingICT to promote microenterprise development,information systems development in virtually alldevelopment sectors, Geographic InformationSystems, information and communication ser-vices, and database development.

To analyze incorporation of gender issues in Bankongoing and pipeline projects a form was con-structed based on the GenderNet Criteria forIdentifying Good Practice for incorporating gen-der issues in lending operations.2 The project docu-mentation was assessed according to whethergender issues were incorporated with regard to:• Analysis and rationale of the project• Operational actions• Implementation mechanisms• Monitoring• Anticipated outcomes.

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Gender analysis

Five separate judgments regarding gender weremade based on this documentation. Each of theseareas was rated as “yes” or “no”.

Analysis and rationale of the project

The first question considered whether projectdesign included an analysis of gender roles in theconcerned population and/or a stated realizationthat there were gender differentials in barriers,constraints, opportunities, access to resources,and decisionmaking. There was a tremendousrange in the extent to which these areas were cov-ered in project analysis. Sometimes the genderanalysis consisted of only a simple statement suchas “Country X has a considerable gender gap ineducation.” In other cases, the gender differen-tials in various project areas were examined indetail. If the issue of gender appeared in any wayin the project analysis and rationale, however, theproject was rated “yes” on this variable.

Operational actions

For the question on operational actions, evidencewas sought as to whether the project advocatedpolicy measures to equalize opportunities andaccess, undertook actions that targeted women,established and strengthened institutions thatimproved delivery of services to women, or builtpartnerships which increased outreach and access.

Implementation mechanisms

In consideration of implementation mechanisms,evidence was sought as to whether the projectpromoted gender-equal access to information,services, resources, and decisionmaking; whetherboth men and women were included in consul-tation with key stakeholders; and whether therewas collaboration with both men and women inplanning, executing, and monitoring project ac-tivities and components.

Monitoring

To answer the question whether gender wasconsidered in monitoring, evidence was especially

sought of use of sex-disaggregated data as wellas the possibility of readjustment of the project incourse to correct any gender-based omissions thatwere discovered in implementation.

Anticipated outcomes

The question on outcomes asked whether inproject documentation there was anticipation ofgender-positive outcomes.

Tabulation by keywords

The World Bank projects’ database indexing bykeywords was not yet standard enough to be uti-lized for classifying IT areas with major sectorsor regions. There was a wide variation in the key-words used to describe comparable projects. Forexample, different combinations of the followingkeywords were used to identify similar projectsin education using IT: computerization, comput-ers in education, computer-assisted education, IT,educational technology, education for the knowl-edge economy, and technical education.

Geographic distribution

The projects were distributed across all the WorldBank regions, with the largest number examinedcoming from Africa (31.3 percent), followed byLatin America and the Caribbean (22.2 percent),and East and Central Asia (17.0 percent). Thesethree are regions of major concern for the diffu-sion of ICT as a tool to accelerate economic andsocial development.

Countries and regions

Projects from 81 countries and one region (OECS)were examined. Those countries with more thantwo projects were Algeria, Bangladesh, Brazil,Burkina Faso, China, Cote d’Ivoire, DominicanRepublic, Ghana, India, Mauritania, Morocco,Mexico, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Nigeria,Senegal, Tunisia, Turkey, and Vietnam.

Major sectors

The cases studied covered World Bank projectsfrom sixteen major sectors. As detailed above, the

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largest representation was in Education, with 54,or 30.7 percent of those examined. After Educa-tion, the most heavily represented sectors wereAgriculture (23 projects or 13.1 percent); Privatesector development (17 projects or 9.7 percent);Information and communications (16 or 9.1 per-cent); Health, nutrition, and population (15projects or 8.5 percent); and Law and justice andpublic administration (11 projects or 6.3 percent).

Analysis of results

The analysis of the inclusion of gender issues inthe project cycle for the 176 projects reviewedshowed the following.

Analysis and rationale of the project: Nearly halfof the projects (92 projects or 47.7 percent) con-sidered gender as an element in the rationale forthe project. This was the highest gender-positivepercentage result from the five questions posedto determine the inclusion of gender elements inproject documentation. However, it is also theeasiest to incorporate. A simple mention of gen-der, or description of the varying social roles ofmen and women, would rate a positive score onthis item. Thus, many positive scores on the itemderived from mere lip service to the inclusion ofgender aspects in the overall project.

Operational actions: In contrast to the first ques-tion where nearly half of the projects said that theyconsidered gender, only one third (59 projects or33.5 percent) of the projects included any actionthat targeted women or strengthened institutionsthat were likely to target women.

Implementation mechanisms: With regard towhether the project would undertake actions thatpromoted gender-equal access to resources, thenumber was almost the same as that found onthe previous question: 58 projects or 33 percent.

Monitoring: About the same number again (56or 31.8 percent) said that they intended to pro-vide sex-disaggregated project monitoring data.

Anticipated outcomes: A larger number ofprojects (65 or 36.9 percent) anticipated outcomesthat would increase gender equality than thenumber of projects that undertook project actionsrelated to gender. The fact that more projects saidthat they expected gender-positive outcomeswithout having undertaken any interventions toresult in such outcomes, seems to indicate eithera firm belief in the gender-neutrality of informa-tion technology (that it will naturally impact menand women equally), or that project leaders wantto claim gender-positive results (“women willbenefit”) without making any gender-relatedproject investments.

Gender issue scores — ignoring gender wasthe mode

An unweighted composite “gender issue score”was compiled by adding up the responses to thefive questions on the data collection form. Five“yes’s” resulted in a score of one; one “yes” wasrated at 0.2, five “nos” were rated as “0”, and soon. The results were as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Analysis of gender issue scores of projects

“Yes” Score Frequency Percent Validresponses percentNone 0.0 89 50.6 50.6One 0.2 21 11.9 11.9Two 0.4 7 4.0 4.0Three 0.6 6 3.4 3.4Four 0.8 1 0.6 0.6Five 1.0 52 29.5 29.5

Total 176 100.0 100.0

Despite the fact that the project sample was moreheavily weighted to social projects than the Bank’sinvestment projects as a whole, slightly more thanhalf of the 176 projects (89 or 50.6 percent) paidno attention to gender issues whatsoever. On theother hand, nearly one-third of all projects ranthe full gamut of gender analysis, incorporatingall five identified aspects (considering gender is-sues in analysis, operations, implementation,monitoring, and outcomes). The fact that 80 per-cent of the projects fall at either end of the scale

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(either none at all or all of the above), as illus-trated by the Figure 1, seems to indicate that gen-der analysis is either given full consideration inprojects or is ignored. Given that the modal gen-der issue scores was 0.0, ignoring gender was themost common behavior. The mean gender issuescore was 0.36 (out of a possible 1.0).

Low gender scores

The following are examples of projects that wereeither devoid of gender issues or that made atmost a brief reference to the situation of womenin the target community. Some of the areas of theprojects that could benefit from a gender-awareapproach are noted in Figure 2.

Projects with limited gender awareness: Someprojects showed an initial awareness of genderissues in the rationale for the project, but did notincorporate any actions that would realize im-proved outcomes for women. Some examples ofthis category and suggestions of areas where

Figure 1: Distribution of Gender Issue Scores

Figure 2: Projects without gender issues

Rural Poverty Alleviation Project, Bahia

(Brazil). Pilot use of IT by communityassociations and municipal councils fordirect access to domestic and internationalmarkets. Project makes no gender refer-ences or sex disaggregation. Refers only toan apparently homogenous “community” orthe “rural poor”. Ignores gender differen-tials in need for and ability to accessdomestic and international markets.

Croatia, Trade and Transport Facilitation in

South-East Europe. Aims to improve accessto knowledge on trade, transport, andlogistics through web site and electronicforum for business community. Makes noreference to gender breakdown of gendercommunity. Will it attract women users? Willit deal with issues of interest to women inbusiness, or women who want to be inbusiness?

Judicial Reform Project, Georgia. Computerizationof courts, judicial information systems, training,public information and education, informationdissemination. Key stakeholders are not defined.Web site of judicial information aims to inform the“aggregate” public of their rights. Gender issuesthat could have been considered: Will the informa-tion system address women’s legal issues, such asdomestic violence, access to land, child custody,and so on? Will women have equal access to thesystem?

GENSCORE

1.0

.8

.6

.4

.2

.0

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gender-sensitive implementation activity wouldhave been relevant are given in Table 2.

Sectors with high gender issue score

High gender issues scores were defined as 0.6 orabove — three or more “yes’s” to the five ques-tions regarding the incorporation of gender issuesin the project. The sectors that received the highest

gender issue scores — with nearly half or moreof the projects in this category — were Socialprotection, Energy and mining (perhaps surpris-ingly), Agriculture, Environment, Urban devel-opment, and Education (Table 3). In terms ofshowing awareness of gender issues in ICT todate, the performance of projects with Informa-tion and communications as the major sector, at

Table 2. Potential gender issues in projects

Project Basic elements Areas where gender issuescould have been included

Argentina-Sustainable Information and communications systems Women are involved in the fishingFisheries Management will be developed, supported by improved industry, as workers, and as marketers.Project hardware/software infrastructure. Need to ensure that the information needs

Project will focus on fisheries processing of women working in fishing (includingcooperative workers, which include a marketing) are assessed and providedhigh percentage of women heads of for and that women’s access to thehousehold. information system is assured.

Indonesia Bengkulu Project recognizes that women play a Cannot assume that women will haveRegional Development significant role in rural economy adequate access to the informationProject but no special efforts are made to they need for their businesses unless

reach women at Agricultural the project tries to reach them directly.Information Centers, to include their Farmers will learn informationindigenous knowledge, or to encourage management techniques—will womenthem in content development. farmers be targeted? Included?

Will women’s indigenous knowledgebe captured and credited appropriately?

Senegal Agricultural Central referral data information service Will referral data information serviceExport Promotion for Producers/Exporters Associations, be accessible to women producers/Project including market prices. Gender analysis exporters?

was: “Women and children suffer frominadequate access to education andother social services.” Said socialanalysis “not applicable.”

Tunisia Education Involves use of ICT to enhance Project actions are needed toQuality Improvement learning outcomes. Project will bring ensure representation of girls in mathProgram IT into the classrooms as a subject, and technical subjects as well as IT.

a work tool and a learning aid. The projectnotes that girls are underrepresented inmath and technical subjects, but nocorrective measures were introduced.

Venezuela Millennium No special efforts are made to attract Special actions are needed in theScience Initiative larger numbers of girl students to study project to increase the number of girlsProject science. Says that girls have higher rates studying science. Starting point would

of education than boys through secondary be study of the reasons for lowerschool. But this is not the case in science enrollment of girls in this subject area.and technology.

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0.0 percent of projects with high gender issuesscores, was not impressive. This seems to indi-cate that there is need for greater gender aware-ness in ICT sector projects at the Bank, particularlyfor any project to be looked at through the lens ofgender analysis.

Surprisingly, sectors where one would expect gen-der to be addressed performed poorly: Health,Law, Private sector, Transport, Industry, and Wa-ter and sanitation. Some examples of projects withhigh gender issues scores in the sectors that werefrequently represented included:

Agriculture• Cote d’Ivoire. National Agricultural ServicesSupport Program Project. The focus on womenfarmers will increase their productivity and in-come. Project includes training for agriculturalstaff in gender issues, with emphasis on reach-ing women through agricultural extension ser-vices. However, there is no mention of outreachto women with the use of ICT in the project (forexample, rural radio, dissemination of market

prices). The project received a gender issue scoreof 1.0, but none of the gender issues appeared inthe ICT components of the project.

Energy• Uganda. Energy for Rural Transformation. Along-term program to develop Uganda’s ruralenergy and ICT sectors for rural transformation.The first phase objective is to put in place an en-abling environment and capacity for private sec-tor service delivery of rural energy and ICT,including high awareness of gender issues in pov-erty, health, and energy. Positive outcomes forwomen are expected. However, gender awarenessdoes not carry over to ICT, even though the ICTareas — accelerated rural access to basic telephoneservices, spread of Internet to district capitals,and telecenters in deep rural areas — havehighly relevant gender concerns. Gender issuesscore: 0.6.

Environment• Slovenia. Real Estate Registration Moderniza-tion Project. Project set up computerized local

Table 3. High gender issue scores by major sectors

Sector No. of projects Total no. of projects % projects with highscoring over 0.6 gender issues scores

Social protection 3 4 75.0Energy and mining 2 3 66.7Agriculture 14 23 60.9Environment 2 4 50.0Urban development 1 2 50.0Education 26 54 48.1Health, nutrition and population 4 15 26.7Law and justice and public administration 2 11 18.2Private sector development 3 17 17.6Transport 1 6 16.7Economic policy 1 9 11.1Finance 0 5 0.0Industry 0 1 0.0Information and communications 0 16 0.0Multi-sector 0 2 0.0Water, sanitation and flood protection 0 4 0.0

Total 59 176

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land book offices with an IT management system.Women are interested stakeholders as both landand apartment owners. However, a full socialassessment was not done during the project al-though a social impact assessment will be part ofproject monitoring. Gender issues score: 0.6.

Education• Guinea. Education for All. Aims to ensure thatgirls and boys both have equal access to a high-qual-ity education system. Involves the training of teach-ers in computer technologies, Internet in secondaryschools, computers in math teaching, computernetworks, computers in library, computers forbetter administration, and a computerized infor-mation system for library. The project featuresmainstreaming of girls’ education, but there is nomention of gender issues in ICT, computers, com-puter education. Gender issues score: 1.0.

Social protection• Senegal Social Development Fund Project. Theproject aims at better access of the poor to socialservices, including telecommunications and newtechnology. It includes an Information, Educationand Communication (IEC) program, especiallyfor women, in view of their high rates of illiteracy,on reproductive health. There is also a campaignto encourage girls’ education, and women are tar-geted as clients for microfinance. The project isgenerally very gender aware, but there is no men-tion of gender issues in relation to IT. Gender is-sues score: 1.0.

Urban development• Nicaragua. Natural Disaster VulnerabilityReduction Project. The project demonstratesawareness of gender differentials in the impactof and reaction to natural disasters and the needto develop a communication strategy that reachesboth men and women. One of five componentsof the project is an information system. There isalso a web page for the secretariat and trainingfor use and management of computerized infor-mation systems. Despite the high level of genderawareness, there are no references to gender issues

in relation to the ICT components of the project.Gender issues score: 1.0.

Gender issue scores by region

The Africa region (AFR) had the largest percent-age of projects with high gender issues scores,with more than a third of all projects falling intothis category (35.6 percent). Second was the LatinAmerica and Caribbean region (LCR) with 22percent receiving gender issue scores of .60 orhigher. These two regions were the only areas thateither approximated or fell above the mean gen-der issue score of 0.36 (Table 4).

Table 4. Projects with high gender issue scores byregion

Region No. projects % projects withwith scores high gender

>=0.6 issues

AFR 21 35.6LCR 13 22.0SAR 11 18.6MNA 6 10.2ECA 6 10.2EAP 2 03.4

Total 59 100.0

Examples of these projects with high gender is-sues scores from the most frequently representedregions were:

Africa (AFR)Ghana Road SectorGhana Road Sector Development Program Project.Included awareness of improving transport forwomen, gender equality in development of trans-port network and services, socioeconomic im-pact of road maintenance. The project aims tomaximize gender participation in decisionmak-ing and shows training needs of men and womenin road agencies. Data are to be disaggregated bysex. However, gender was not mentioned in ICTaspects of computerization and information sys-tems.

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Latin America and the Caribbean (LCR)Honduras Health SectorHealth System Reform Project. The overall aimof the project is poverty alleviation and improvedhealth status of the population, especially women.There is a high degree of attention to gender andsocial issues, including domestic violence towardwomen, maternal mortality, high female mortal-ity from AIDS, and low age of marriage forwomen. That women and children will benefitfrom the targeted interventions is the expectedproject outcome. IT aspects are computerizationof Ministry of Health, development of health in-formation systems, and training in their use.There was no attention to gender issues in the ITcomponent of the project.

Gender and ICT

As seen above, many projects incorporated gen-der issues, often in all five of the above catego-ries. However, the gender analysis rarely carriedover to the ICT component of the project (Figure3). More than a third of the projects showed anawareness of gender roles in the concerned popu-lation, actions that targeted women, consultationwith both men and women, sex-disaggregateddata, and anticipation of gender-positive out-comes. Yet when it came to the ICT components,there was usually no mention of any of these con-cerns. The tendency was to treat the ICT compo-nent as a technical part of the project that had nosocial impact or that was impervious to genderimpact differentials that appear in virtually ev-ery aspect of human endeavor.

In view of this frequent absence of concern withgender in ICT components, all project documen-tation was revisited to pose an additional ques-tion on the incorporation of gender issues: didthe project consider any gender issues in regard tothe use of ICT? The results of this analysis showedthat only sixteen projects (9.1 percent) of 176 consid-ered gender issues in the information technologycomponent of the project. Not surprisingly, 94 per-cent (fifteen projects) of the projects that consid-ered gender issues in ICT were projects that had

the highest (1.0) gender issue score in the non-ICT components. There was only one case withgender awareness in the ICT component that didnot carry over to gender analysis in the project asa whole. Thus, while roughly one-third of all theprojects, all of which had ICT components, incor-porated gender issues in a significant manner,fewer than ten percent of them looked at genderissues with regard to ICT. Only one-quarter (fif-teen of 59 or 25.4 percent) of gender-sensitiveprojects carried over gender sensitivity to the ICTcomponents of the project.

Projects most likely to have gender in ICT

Although the number of projects that had gen-der awareness regarding ICT issues was verysmall, it is possible to make certain observationsabout them.

How do these findings compare?

We can compare the findings of this study to otherBank studies that have tried to measure the ex-tent to which gender issues are considered inWorld Bank projects. As of 2000, some 40 percentof Bank investment projects considered genderissues, while between 1988 and 1999, only 38percent of such projects had any meaningful ref-erence to gender issues (Long, 2003, iv). In theICT components of the projects under study, only

IN ICT?

yes

no

Figure 3: Gender issues in ICT projects/components

158

ENGENDERING ICT

9.1 percent had any consideration of gender is-sues whatsoever. That falls way below the normof World Bank projects.

By region: best showing — LCR

In examining those sixteen projects that did incor-porate gender issues in ICT (Table 5), the largest

numbers were found in Latin America and theCaribbean, followed by the Africa Region, withLCR having a significantly higher percentagethan would be expected from the region’s repre-sentation in projects in the study population (37.5percent of all projects with gender in ICT, butonly 22.2 percent of all projects). Of the fiveprojects from Africa, two were from the samecountry — Mozambique. A major factor in this isthe importance of gender to the Government ofMozambique and consequently to the donors aswell. Two regions had no projects at all with gen-der sensitivity in the ICT component: East Asiaand the Pacific and the Middle East and NorthAfrica (MNA).

Most likely to have gender in ICT by majorsector

As seen in Table 6, the sectors that had the largestnumber of ICT and gender-aware projects wereEducation (five) and Agriculture (four). Both ofthese sectors had a higher percentage of theprojects with gender issues in their ICT com-ponents than in the study as a whole. The show-ing of Agriculture was particularly strong, as

Table 5. Projects with gender issues in ICT byregion

Region No. with No. of Region’s Region’sgender projects projects projects asin ICT in all as % of all % of all

projects withgender in

ICT

LCR 6 39 22.2 37.5AFR 5 55 31.3 31.2ECA 4 30 17.0 25.0SAR 1 19 10.8 6.3MNA 0 19 10.8 0.0EAP 0 14 8.0 0.0

Totals 16 176 100.0 100.0

Table 6. Major sector of projects with gender in ICT

Major sector No. of projects No. of projects % of all % of all projectswith gender in ICT overall projects with gender in ICT

Education 5 54 30.7 31.2Agriculture 4 23 13.1 23.5Private sector development 2 17 9.7 11.8Social Protection 2 4 2.3 11.8Energy and mining 1 3 1.7Environment 1 4 2.3Information and communications 1 16 9.1Economic policy 0 9 5.1 0.0Finance 0 5 2.8 0.0Health, nutrition and population 0 15 8.5 0.0Industry 0 1 0.6 0.0Law and justice and public administration 0 11 6.3 0.0Multisector 0 2 1.1 0.0Transport 0 6 3.4 0.0Urban Development 0 2 1.1 0.0Water, sanitation & flood protection 0 4 2.3 0.0

Total 16 176 100.0 100.0

159

World Bank ICT Projects: A ReviewTa

ble

7.

Gender

issu

es

in p

roje

cts

wit

h h

igh g

ender

issu

es

score

s and g

ender

in IC

T3

Regi

on

Countr

yPro

ject

Tit

leG

ender

issu

es/

gender

aw

are

ness

featu

res

LC

RArg

enti

na

Buenos

Air

es

Train

ing i

n i

nfo

rmati

on t

ech

nolo

gy,

com

pute

rs i

nte

gra

ted i

nto

curr

iculu

m f

or

200 B

uenos

Air

es

Seco

ndary

Educa

tion

hig

h s

chools

, w

ith e

mphasi

s on e

quit

y and e

quality

for

childre

n f

rom

poor

fam

ilie

s.

EC

AAze

rbaij

an

Agri

cult

ura

lIn

volv

es

est

ablish

ment

of

rura

l in

form

ati

on a

nd a

dvi

sory

serv

ices,

MIS

for

credit

coopera

tive

s.D

eve

lopm

ent

and

The p

roje

ct r

eco

gniz

es

the i

mport

ance

of

focu

sing o

n s

peci

ficp

roble

ms

of

wom

en i

n r

ura

lC

redit

Pro

ject

are

as.

One c

once

rn is

the info

rmati

on n

eeds

of

rura

l w

om

en a

bout

land t

itle

s.

EC

ABulg

ari

aRegis

trati

on a

nd

GIS

info

rmati

on s

yste

m t

o b

e e

stablish

ed i

n 2

8 c

adast

re o

ffic

es

to s

tore

larg

e a

mount

of

Cadast

regeogra

phic

info

rmati

on o

n p

ropert

y ta

x in a

regio

nal

info

rmati

on s

yste

m.

The p

roje

ct r

eco

gniz

es

the g

ender

issu

e o

f w

om

en’s

acc

ess

to r

egis

trati

on,

land r

egis

trati

on a

nd G

IS info

rmati

on.

AFR

Cam

ero

on

Public/

Pri

vate

Aim

s to

im

pro

ve b

usi

ness

envi

ronm

ent

and c

om

peti

tive

ness

to i

ncr

ease

pri

vate

inve

stm

ent

and

Part

ners

hip

Gro

wth

stre

ngth

en t

he p

ove

rty

all

evi

ati

on f

ocu

s in

gove

rnm

ent’

s eco

nom

ic m

anagem

ent.

Hig

haw

are

ness

and P

ove

rty

Reduct

ion

of

gender

asp

ect

s of

pove

rty.

IT c

om

ponent

is c

om

pute

riza

tion a

nd d

eve

lopm

ent

of

pove

rty

Pro

ject

info

rmati

on s

yste

m u

sing g

ender

indic

ato

rs a

nd w

eb s

ite,

wit

h a

ware

ness

of

gender

issu

es

and

acc

ess

of

both

men a

nd w

om

en t

o info

rmati

on.

Em

phasi

zes

part

icip

ato

ry a

ppro

ach

to incl

ude

wom

en a

nd g

ender

sensi

tivi

ty in a

ll p

roje

ct indic

ato

rs.

LC

AC

hile

Lif

elo

ng L

earn

ing a

nd

Com

pute

rs f

or

nati

onal

and r

egio

nal

train

ing a

nd e

mplo

yment

serv

ices.

Com

munic

ati

on a

nd

Train

ing P

roje

ctdis

sem

inati

on s

trate

gy

for

pro

ject

has

gender

dis

aggre

gate

dta

rgets

. Eff

ort

s to

ensu

re t

hat

wom

en

work

ing in S

MEs

benefi

t fr

om

tra

inin

g,

incl

udin

g t

rain

ing i

n f

our

pro

act

ive l

earn

ing a

nd t

rain

ing

managem

ent

info

rmati

on s

yste

ms.

AFR

Ghana

Agri

cult

ura

l Se

rvic

es

Aim

of

pro

ject

is

IT d

iffu

sion,

stre

ngth

enin

g i

nfo

rmati

on s

yste

ms.

Invo

lves

incr

easi

ng n

um

ber

of

exte

nsi

on a

gents

, gender

train

ing o

f exte

nsi

on a

gents

, dif

fusi

on o

f in

form

ati

on t

o w

om

en f

arm

ers

.Pro

ject

will

est

ablish

a s

ex-d

isaggre

gate

d d

ata

base

of

food a

nd a

gri

cult

ura

l st

ati

stic

s to

support

gender

resp

onsi

ve t

rain

ing.

SAR

India

Thir

d T

ech

nic

ian

Pro

ject

is

to t

rain

pers

onnel

for

key

are

as

of

eco

nom

ic g

row

th,

wit

h f

ocu

s on IT.

Wom

en a

re t

he

Educa

tion P

roje

ctm

ajo

rity

of

students

in t

ech

nic

al

schools

and a

re r

epre

sente

d i

n t

ech

nic

al

work

forc

e i

n h

igher

num

bers

. Te

chnic

ian e

duca

tion p

roje

ct g

ives

them

an o

pport

unit

y to

stu

dy

in t

heir

ow

n s

tate

.Pro

vides

host

els

and s

chola

rship

s fo

r w

om

en.

EC

AM

ace

donia

Childre

n a

nd Y

outh

IT t

rain

ing f

or

youth

s at

risk

fro

m d

iffe

rent

soci

o-c

ult

ura

l back

gro

unds.

Aim

s to

im

pro

ve s

ituati

on

Deve

lopm

ent

Pro

ject

of

gir

ls f

rom

min

ori

ty e

thnic

gro

ups

who a

re u

nderr

epre

sente

d in e

duca

tion.

(LIL

)

LC

RM

exic

oG

ender

Equit

yPro

ject

has

an info

rmati

on s

yste

m w

ith a

gender

focu

s. A

majo

r aim

is

the s

ex

dis

aggre

gati

on o

fst

ati

stic

s.

160

ENGENDERING ICTR

egi

on

Countr

yPro

ject

Tit

leG

ender

issu

es/

gender

aw

are

ness

featu

res

LC

RM

exic

oSo

uth

east

Regio

nal

Pro

ject

featu

res

delive

ry o

f IC

T s

erv

ices

to m

icro

-busi

ness

es

to incr

ease

their

acc

ess

and a

ccess

Deve

lopm

ent

Learn

ing

new

mark

ets

to i

ncr

ease

inco

me.

Funds

all

oca

ted f

or

train

ing o

f w

om

en t

o e

nsu

re t

heir

and Innova

tion P

roje

ctw

idesp

read p

art

icip

ati

on i

n p

roje

ct a

ctiv

itie

s.Addit

ional

serv

ices

to b

e d

esi

gned t

o d

eal

wit

hgender.

AFR

Moza

mbiq

ue

Hig

her

Educa

tion

A m

ajo

r aim

of

pro

ject

is

to i

mpro

ve g

ender

equit

able

acc

ess

to h

igher

educa

tion.

Incl

udes

use

of

Pro

ject

info

rmati

on a

nd c

om

munic

ati

ons

tech

nolo

gy

in d

elive

ry a

nd t

each

ing o

f hig

her

educa

tion.

Inte

rnet

acc

ess

for

hig

her

educa

tion inst

ituti

ons

in M

oza

mbiq

ue.

Aim

to d

eve

lop IC

T c

apaci

ties.

Hig

h a

ware

ness

of

gender

inequit

y in

Moza

mbiq

ue h

igher

educa

tion a

nd n

eed t

o d

eve

lop g

ender

acc

ess

to e

duca

tion t

hro

ugh u

se o

f te

chnolo

gy.

AFR

Moza

mbiq

ue

Min

era

l Reso

urc

es

Pro

ject

desi

gned t

o p

rovi

de info

rmati

on s

yste

ms

for

geolo

gy,

incl

udin

g G

IS,

to h

ave

bett

er

Managem

ent

geosc

ienti

fic

and n

atu

ral

reso

urc

es

info

rmati

on f

or

inve

stors

. Aw

are

ness

of

the h

eavy

Capaci

ty B

uildin

gin

volv

em

ent

of

wom

en a

nd c

hildre

n in m

inin

g,

the p

roje

ct a

ddre

sses

gender

issu

es

in a

rtis

anal

Pro

ject

min

ing.

The M

inis

try

of

Min

es

is s

ett

ing u

p a

soci

al

and e

conom

ic s

tudie

s se

ctio

n a

t th

e M

inis

try

of

min

es

toundert

ake g

ender

studie

s. C

onsu

ltati

ve a

ppro

ach

incl

uded g

ender

analy

sis.

Wom

en m

iners

are

part

icip

ati

ng i

n i

mple

menta

tion o

f th

e p

roje

ct,

incl

udin

gid

enti

fica

tion o

f in

form

ati

on t

o g

oin

to t

he info

rmati

on s

yste

ms.

LC

RPeru

Agri

cult

ura

l Rese

arc

hIn

volv

es

tech

nolo

gy

deve

lopm

ent

and t

ransf

er,

acc

ess

of

farm

ers

to t

ech

nolo

gy,

im

pro

ved m

ark

et

and e

xte

nsi

on P

roje

ctin

form

ati

on s

yste

ms.

Pro

ject

deve

lopin

g m

anual

to e

nsu

re p

art

icip

ati

on o

f w

om

en in a

llact

ivit

ies.

Conce

rned w

ith d

eve

lopin

g m

eth

ods

to r

each

rura

l w

om

en.

Wom

en t

o b

e a

dequate

lyre

pre

sente

d a

s exte

nsi

on a

gents

(usi

ng info

rmati

on t

ech

nolo

gy)

and b

enefi

ciari

es.

IT s

erv

ice

pro

viders

will

be s

ele

cted i

n p

art

on b

asi

s of

their

capabilit

y to

work

wit

h w

om

en.

AFR

Tanza

nia

Nati

onal

Agri

cult

ura

lPro

vidin

g c

om

munic

ati

on s

upport

for

dece

ntr

alize

d i

nfo

rmati

on m

anagem

ent,

the p

roje

ctExte

nsi

on P

rogra

mest

ablish

ed Z

onal

Com

munic

ati

on C

ente

rs a

nd u

nit

s acc

ess

ible

and w

ith o

utr

each

to r

ura

l(N

AEP)

(02)

wom

en.

Wom

en’s

iss

ues

were

incl

uded i

n t

rain

ing a

t Zonal

Com

munic

ati

on C

ente

rs,

and 3

0perc

ent

of

pla

ces

were

rese

rved f

or

wom

en.

EC

ATu

rkey

Basi

c Educa

tion

ICT e

duca

tion f

or

teach

ers

to im

pro

ve b

asi

c sk

ills

and a

ssis

t in

usi

ng IC

T t

o im

pro

ve inst

ruct

ion.

Pro

ject

(02)

Hig

h a

ware

ness

of

gender

gap i

n e

duca

tion,

ensu

ring b

asi

c educa

tion f

or

gir

ls.

Com

pute

r lite

racy

to b

e p

art

of

basi

c educa

tion c

urr

iculu

m.

Incr

ease

d n

um

bers

of

gir

ls i

n IC

T-ass

iste

d b

asi

ceduca

tion;

fem

ale

teach

ers

to b

e t

rain

ed.

161

World Bank ICT Projects: A Review

its ratio of projects with gender in ICT was nearlydouble that of its representation in the study. In-formation and communication had only one suchproject. However, Social protection showed thehighest percentage of gender in ICT projects inrelation to the number of projects from this sec-tor in the study. The two projects in Social protec-tion that considered gender issues represent apercentage five times that sector’s share in theproject population as a whole.

Nine major sectors had no projects that recog-nized gender issues in ICT: these were Economicpolicy; Finance; Health, nutrition, and population;Industry; Law and justice and public adminis-tration; Multisector; Transport; Urban develop-ment; and Water, sanitation, and flood protection(Table 6). These are areas that should be givenpriority in the identification of gender issues inICT and the sensitization of project officers tothem, to the importance of including them inproject design and implementation, and to themethods of doing so.

Projects that incorporated gender issuesthroughout, including in their ICTcomponents

The projects that incorporated gender issuesthroughout the project, including in the ICT com-ponents, are enumerated in Table 7.

More recent more likely

Is gender awareness in ICT a recent phenomenon?Most of the projects that incorporated gender is-sues in ICT components were approved by theBank’s Board in 2000 and later — 70 percent ascompared to 55 percent of the projects in the studyoverall that were approved during this period.Thus, it does seem that there is a recent tendencytoward greater awareness of gender issues in ICT.Nevertheless, the number of such projects has notincreased each year, but rather peaked in 2000(Table 8). None of the fourteen year 2002 pipelineprojects showed evidence of gender awarenesswith respect to ICT. However, as documentationon pipeline projects tends to be scanty, it is difficult

to make definitive judgments about the genderand ICT content of these projects. The awarenessmay be there, but may not be detailed in the docu-mentation. In all, though, the number of projectswith gender components in ICT is too small to makeany meaningful statements about time trends.

Determinants of the inclusion of genderin ICT components

Open-ended e-mail questionnaires were sent toBank team leaders of the sixteen projects that in-corporated gender issues in the ICT componentsof projects in order to elicit their views on howthis had come about. Six responses were received.Among the factors they cited were the importanceof gender issues to the host government, the teamleader’s awareness of gender issues in the geo-graphic area of the project, gender awareness onthe part of the national project preparation team,guidance of World Bank regional gender units,and gender awareness of the Bank team onsectoral issues that then carried over to ICT. Theyalso stressed the importance of gender awarenesson supervision missions.

Absence of social analysis

The World Bank project preparation format takesinto account the importance of social analysis inproject development. One of the required partsof the PAD format is the summary of projectanalysis, which includes seven areas, one of whichis social analysis. Analysis of popular participation

Table 8: Projects incorporating gender issues inICT by year of approval

Approval Projects All projects % of allyear with that year with gender

gender in in ICTICT

1996 1 1 5.91998 1 23 5.91999 2 24 8.32000 5 41 29.42001 4 33 23.52002 3 22 17.6

Total 16 176 100.0

162

ENGENDERING ICT

is also solicited. Unfortunately, a number of projectswith ICT components did not respond to this so-licitation and identified both social analysis andpopulation participation as “not applicable.”

While a significant number of IT projects or projectswith ICT components undertook social impactanalysis or otherwise exhibited awareness of thesocial context of the project, many did not. Anexamination of selected projects, organized bysector and subject, illustrates the possible socialand gender issues that could have been incorpo-rated, with a resultant better chance of achievingthe goals of the project. This is in line with the1997 World Bank study that showed that projectswith gender-related actions were more likely tohave satisfactory outcomes and to reach their ob-jectives than projects without such actions(Murphy, 1997). The following review looks atsocial and gender issues in ICT projects in dis-tance education, in education in general, small-scaleenterprises, information systems, and telecommu-nications reform and regulatory projects.

Gender and other social issues in ICTprojects

Distance learning projects

A number of Distance learning projects examined

were surprisingly devoid of social awareness orgender analysis. Distance learning projects testcomparative learning outcomes, cost and cost-ef-fectiveness, and the sustainability of several dif-ferent distance learning approaches in variousdeveloping countries.

The PADs of several Distance learning projectsstated that they did not see social analysis as anecessary aspect of the project. These includedprojects in the Dominican Republic, Senegal, Coted’Ivoire, and Ethiopia. Others showed consider-able awareness of the social context in which thenetwork would operate, but almost none dis-cussed gender issues.

The basic gender issue in distance learning isequal access. This is particularly important towomen because distance learning is designed tobring education to the underserved, amongwhom women form the majority in developingcountries. Distance learning is particularly attrac-tive to women who, due to multiple roles andresponsibilities, are often unable to enroll in stan-dard educational programs. The possibility offlexibility in scheduling and location is particu-larly attractive to women. Table 9 shows somepossible gender concerns in distance learningprojects.

Is data on students/users disaggregated by sex (to show possible gender differentials in users)?

Are the information needs of both men and women considered in designing programs?

Is the content of programs relevant to both men and women?

Are there constraints to women participating in the courses (for example, courses for civil servants and governmentofficials — are they delivered at times that are convenient to women workers)?

Does the distance learning incorporate flexibility in scheduling and location to accommodate both men and women?

Are there any social or cultural problems with mixed-sex instruction at the distance learning sites?

Are there differences in subject and technical skill levels by gender requiring remediation or accommodation?

Are there differences in foreign language abilities by sex among the targeted recipients (for example, if courses arein English, are women less likely than men to have a mastery of English)?

Does the course content recognize gender issues in the substantive material for the course (for example, in publicadministration)?

Table 9. Gender issues in distance learning projects

163

World Bank ICT Projects: A Review

Education projects

Training in IT is essential for women and girls toparticipate equally in the information age. In-creased education is probably the single most im-portant factor in increasing the access of women indeveloping countries to ICT. Thus, the absence ofgender awareness in IT education projects is a par-ticularly striking omission. Some of these areasof omission in active World Bank ICT and educa-tion projects are highlighted in Table 10.

ICT for small-scale enterprise development

Women entrepreneurs are most commonly found

in small-scale enterprises in developing countries,and comprise the majority in informal economyenterprises. Thus, both social and gender analysiswould be expected to be part of projects in thisarea. In at least three cases, illustrated in Table 11,they were not.

However, not all microenterprise developmentprojects were devoid of gender analysis. TheMexico South East Regional Development Learn-ing and Innovation Project, dealing with small-scale enterprise, had a high gender issue rating.It showed gender sensitivity in designing services

Country Project Title Some project aspects Gender omissions

Gaza and West Bank Emergency Training teachers in computer Gender issues — access ofServices Support use, providing computer labs. female teachers to computerProject No social assessment done. training, access of female

students to labs.

Lebanon General Introduction of new Issues of possible genderEducation Project technologies for teaching and differential in access is

learning, computer literacy. not raised.

Lithuania Education Approved in 2002. No awareness of genderImprovement “Communities will be involved differentials withinProject in the consultation process.” communities. No women’s

organizations among the majorstakeholders consulted.

Russia Education Reform Courses for new professions, No gender analysis at all in anProject vocational education — IT. New area where the need to

teaching methodologies using IT encourage girls and women isinto schools. well documented.

Thailand Rural Information The project aims to bridge No mention of gender divide,Empowerment rural–urban digital divide or of any gender issues in ICT.Project in Thailand, with emphasis

on local IT skills acquisitionand Thai language contentdevelopment.

Vietnam Higher Education Emphasis on IT development Are women among thoseProject (tertiary at universities. Statement: trained? Project ignoreseducation) “The project has no direct recognized need to provide

impact on poverty alleviation incentives to encourageor improving gender equality.” women to enter scientific and

technological fields.

Table 10. Gender issues in education projects

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to increase access to ICT-based business devel-opment, particularly for microbusinesses.

Information systems projects (computers,automation, MIS, GIS)

A number of World Bank ICT projects deal withcomputerization, notably of government institu-tions; with automation; and with the develop-ment of various kinds of information systems inhealth, finance, and land records, among otherareas. Even these highly technical projects neednot be gender-blind. Nearly every one of theseprojects has gender issues whose considerationcan lead to better project results.

A general question that applies to all informationsystems is whether the information systems arecapturing sex-disaggregated data and knowledgethat may be gender-based. When indigenousknowledge is included, does it include the rel-evant knowledge that women have? Some ex-amples of potential gender issues in information

systems projects are given in Table 12.

Telecommunications and regulatoryprojects

The ICT sector projects found most frequently inthe study were telecommunications projects thatinvolved liberalization of the sector, includingprivatization and introduction of competition,award of licenses — particularly for cell phones,and promoting dissemination of ICT-based services(including telecenters and cybercafes). Some alsoincluded training in computer skills in conjunctionwith information systems. Many, but not all ofthese projects, had a high degree of awareness ofthe importance of the project for promoting so-cial inclusion.

Of the ICT sector projects examined in the study,almost none mentioned gender issues. Table 13presents a sampling of projects and outlines gen-der issues that might have been considered, butwere not.

Country Project Title Some project aspects Gender omissions

Armenia Enterprise Incubator No social analysis in IT for Knowing the gender breakdown of(LIL)-Industry/small- enterprise development area. the target population would havescale enterprise been significant in planning the

project.

Comoros Small Enterprise To strengthen legal information No references to gender, women,Development Project center, provide market girls. A gender equity approach

information, establish would call for ensuring that theinformation systems on work information systems and legalopportunities for job seekers. information center attractedBusiness development, both men and women users.telecoms and informatics. Efforts could be made to attract

women entrepreneurs totelecoms and informatics businessdevelopment.

Nicaragua Competitiveness IT-based business development No mention of women amongLearning and services for small-scale small-scale entrepreneurs,Innovation Loan enterprises. despite their prevalence in thisProject area in Nicaragua. Proactive

delivery of business developmentservices to women entrepreneurswould evidence gender awareness.

Table 11. Gender issues in small-scale enterprise projects

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There are many potential gender issues in tele-communications reform and regulatory projects.In Table 14 the left column identifies issues thatare frequently found in World Bank informationand communication major sector projects deal-ing with telecommunications modernization,liberalization, and regulatory reform. The rightcolumn attempts to identify the gender aspect ofthe issue.

Among the major gender issues in this area are

Project Title Project Aspects Potential gender issues

Water Sector Installation of water Access of women to training, jobs relating toModernization Projects sector management newly arrived, installed computers.

information systems

Health Sector Loan Including health Indicators of health care system’s performanceProjects information systems (sex-disaggregated). Objective for services to

become more accessible to patients (men andwomen).

Computerized Court Improved performance Access of women to judicial and commercialManagement Information of legal system through information, access of women judicial employeesSystems development of to computer skills training.

information systems,improved use of ITin courts

Financial Sector National Bank payment Equal access for men and women to computerManagement Project system reform, public skills training and use of the new systems.

procurement

Public sector Public information Inclusion of public information important tomanagement technical systems and women. Equitable access of women to publicassistance e-government information. Sex disaggregation of statistics.

Performance monitoring of public informationsystems for social development outcomes.

Geographic Information Development of GIS GIS information content including soilSystems (GIS) management and agriculture, land ownership,

fishing, weather and climate, environmentalmanagement or desertification are issues ofinterest to women in their productive roles. Haveattempts been made to make the informationaccessible to women? Have their informationneeds been ascertained in designing the system?Have attempts been made to incorporate theirindigenous knowledge?

increased access to service for women, who (wherestatistics are available) are most numerous amongthe underserved. In many developing countries,women are the majority in the rural areas that tendto have much less availability of service than ur-ban areas. Affordable service pricing is also amajor concern, as women’s incomes, particularlythose of female-headed households, are generallyfar below those of men. Technology choice is an-other major issue with gender implications. If thetechnology chosen is difficult to use and with

Table 12. Information systems projects that ignored gender

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Country Project title Comment Possible areas of gender action, gender issues

Algeria Telecom and Promotes open access to Women-owned communication firms should bePostal Sector communication services aware of competition for licenses. WomenReform Project through competition, with entrepreneurs should be targeted for increased

GSM licenses to be awarded. awareness about IT services.Objective is to encouragebusinesses to use moreIT services.

Gabon Privatization Assists country with Although they should have parity among users,and Regulatory privatization of post and women or women’s groups are not identified amongCapacity telecoms. Communication stakeholders of the project or its ommunicationBuilding Project campaign will be mounted to campaign. They need to be targeted. Analysis is

publicize benefits of needed to ensure that benefits of privatizationprivatization. will reach the majority of women.

India Telecom Sector Project will encourage IT Women-owned businesses could be identified forReform Technical competition, entrepreneur- participation. Cost and delivery aspects of radio-basedAssistance Project ship and innovation. No social telephone for Internet access in rural areas need to

issues identified in the be analyzed for affordability and access by womenimplementation of this who are the majority of the population in ruralproject. areas.

Madagascar Private Sector Includes telecom reform In order to increase telephone and Internet usageDevelopment (liberalization). Users among women, constraints to their access andProject discussed but are not utilization need to be analyzed and targeted.

disaggregated by gender.

Mozambique Communications Assists country with No mention of women as stakeholders in this nationalSector Reform development of regulatory effort. Only gender breakdown given is for primaryProject framework, telecoms policy school enrolments. The concerns of women users

and promoting ICT should be central to efforts to increase telephonedevelopment through enabling density in rural areas, in identifying communitylegislation. Also included rural access points. Telecoms policy should includecommunications strategy. affordability.

Nepal Telecommunica- Project targeted “all Sex disaggregation is needed to identify and reachtions Sector Nepalese.” Rural targets were low income, rural disadvantaged women sinceReform Project low income, disadvantaged government recognizes the importance of telecoms

people, but gender was not as a key factor in social inclusion.mentioned.

Nicaragua Telecom Sector States that “the project will Many studies have shown that women do notReform benefit all telecom users in benefit unless their particular needs are

Nicaragua by increasing the identified and targeted. The needs of “allavailability of telephone lines users” are not uniform.and increasing service.”

Rwanda Competitiveness Aims to reduce costs and Need for analysis to determine gender impactand Enterprise increase efficiency of of services to be offered in terms of cost,Development telecoms, with a diversity accessibility, and relevance.

of services to be offered toconsumers, including Internet.

Uruguay Public Services Aim is to promote greater Women do not automatically benefit from effortsModernization access to public services, aimed at the poor unless their particular needs areTechnical telecom for individuals, identified and accommodated.Assistance Project particularly the poor. Positive

social impacts are expected.

Table 13. Gender-blind information and communication sector projects

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Gender aspect

Does the proposed modernization provide infrastructure that is affordable to most women?

Equipment and service providers can offer cost-effective and appropriate solutions for themajority of women.

Choices of network infrastructure can be made that cater for the majority, focusing onuniversal access to ICT and not on expensive high-capacity specialized access.Affordable and forward-looking technology such as wireless alternatives that ensure lowcost and affordable access can be used.When new technologies are implemented, ensure that women are included in training.The location of infrastructure should facilitate access for women.

Is the infrastructure to be deployed throughout the country in the areas where women arein the majority? Are there provisions for high technology applications in areas where manywomen live outside of the capital and major cities?Women may be restricted from accessing ICT even when they are available in their com-munities as a result of social, economic, cultural or technological constraints. Genderawareness is thus essential in planning and implementing infrastructure.

The affordability of service is a key issue to women. Limiting technology choice can mili-tate against new players and new technology in the market that might bring down costs —many developing countries ban Wi-Fi Internet4 and VOIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)telephony.While limitation on the choice of mobile standards (such as GSM or CDMA) can preventfragmentation of markets in initial stages, continued insistence on standards can blockthe entry of mobile technologies that are cheap and effective for underserved areas.Assessments should be undertaken to determine appropriate technology choice — who willuse it and for what purpose.User-friendly technology, particularly in the context of low literacy levels, should be sup-ported and promoted.

While monopoly system operators dispute this, opening the ICT sector to competition canbring in needed investment and force down end-user prices to make access more afford-able, notably to women.

This covers both import duties and taxes on computer equipment and pricing schemes forcommunications services. High customs duties on mobile telephones and computer equip-ment as well as high prices for telephone service are deterrents to women users.In preparation for competition in the telecommunications sector, many countries are re-balancing international and domestic tariffs to eliminate existing subsidies, most frequentlyon local service. This rebalancing has meant higher rates for local calls in many places,which hit the poor, the majority of whom are women, the hardest. Although it is expectedthat competition will lower prices in the long run, in the interim many users cannot affordlocal service. Among the ways to compensate for rebalancing costs are basing tariffs onforward-looking costs and establishing regional (such as rural versus urban) tariffs.

Regulation is a vital area for advocates of gender equality in ICT. Regulators do not setpolicy but rather help in its implementation. Regulation produces a set of rules for marketbehavior — who can provide what service and under what conditions — and sets the frame-work for achieving desirable outcomes established by national policy, particularly in thetwo areas of greatest interest for ICT and the empowerment of women: universal accessand affordable services. It is an area that gender proponents should focus on.

An independent regulator can compel profit-driven private sector players to deliver on

Table 14. Potential gender issues in information and communication projects

ICT issues

Network modernization

Network architecture

Network deployment

Infrastructure

Technology choice

Sector liberalization

Tariff policy

Regulation

Independent regulators

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social and gender policy objectives such as universal access (see below).In return for granting licenses, regulators can compel service providers to provide serviceto underserved areas where women are a majority.As regulators have the authority to set service priorities, gender-equality advocates needto lobby to ensure that service to poor women in rural areas is a priority.Regulators can provide funds for research, development, and testing of technology thatwill serve women.Those that secure licenses, particularly for cellular phones, are often required to fulfillcommunity service obligations. Elements to ensure gender equality could be written intothese obligations.

Regulatory frameworks can permit the resale of mobile phone services, which are oftenprofitable businesses for women to establish.Regulatory frameworks can reduce licensing fees, spectrum prices, and interconnectioncharges that can make ICT more accessible to women.

If fees for telecommunications, ISP and mobile service licenses are high, they will bepassed on to users, limiting the affordability to the women and the poor. High fees in-crease the cost of telephony and ICT services, discouraging the establishment of women-owned communications businesses including telecenters, phone-fax-Internet shops andmobile telephony.A certain number of telecommunications licenses should be allocated to women-ownedbusinesses or businesses with women in management positions.A gender-conscious licensing policy could waive license fees for communications businessesrun by women entrepreneurs or those that provide services to underserved areas, particu-larly where women are concentrated.Fees could be reduced for operators with gender-equal and pro-handicapped employmentpolicies.Licenses can obligate providers to provide discounted service to certain customers such aspoor women in rural areas.Licensing procedures should be transparent so that women applicants can have ready ac-cess to the information.License awards can contain certain conditions that promote gender analysis andmainstreaming for the particular company.

Universal access concerns the establishment of telecommunications development fundsand other programs, funded by carrier fees and other revenues collected by regulators, tofacilitate the expansion of access to the underserved. It is the avenue for gender par

excellence that has real possibilities of positively affecting the lives of the mass of women.As telecommunications development funds reflect extremely important policy and set therules for implementation of ICT projects in underserved areas, they deserve great atten-tion from gender advocates.Gender-aware universal access policies can be developed that stress public access pointsas an alternative to more capital-intensive choices (one line/home) and ensure that loca-tions of public access points are gender-sensitive (for example not in bars or auto shops).

Universal service is a specific obligation that regulators require of operators in return forlicenses to contribute to universal service goals. Under universal service obligations, regu-lators can mandate the provision of telecenters in underserved areas. Telecenter plansneed to take into account the different needs of men and women in the concerned com-munities.Gender advocates could lobby for incorporating gender-based issues in universal servicerules. In most places this has not happened yet because women’s groups have not pushedfor it.Demands could include that service to underserved areas be delivered reflecting male-female distribution in the population, that priority be given to disadvantaged women such

Regulatory frameworks

Licensing5

Universal access

Universal serviceobligations

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as single mothers, widows, and handicapped women. Service providers could be man-dated to offer telephone subsidies or price packages targeted at rural women, the handi-capped, and the aged.

This issue also involves fees and licenses. Lower fees will encourage applicants to provideservices to new markets, including new women subscribers. Licenses should be equitablyand transparently distributed, so that women-owned business and businesses that servewomen have a chance to secure licenses. In several African countries where governmentmaintains a monopoly on radio frequencies, public/private access to radio frequency isstill an issue. In a number of places women-run community radio stations have obtainedlicenses.

Are there incentives directed at encouraging women in ICT research and innovation?Is research being done on capturing women’s indigenous knowledge?Are tools and software being developed using local languages? Is there research and devel-opment on developing technologies for the illiterate and newly literate?Research efforts and programs that promote women innovators can be subsidized.Scholarships and grant programs for women in science and technology can be created.Technology programs should promote and accept women’s participation. Create and sup-port technical programs at universities by providing grants or scholarships for women stu-dents and researchers.

Do women have equal access to technical training?Programs to train women in ICT technical and management programs, followed by intern-ships, could be supported.

Do women have a say in what applications are being promoted? Are they ones that areusable or accessible to many women? Does the policy support open-source software andLinux operating systems that can make software available to communities with limitedbudgets?

Are opportunities extended to women as well as men? Are there mechanisms for women toenter these fields and training programs, or to develop role models for young girls, or stemthe brain drain?Are training opportunities available not only for technology professionals but for nonpro-fessionals to use ICT?

Encouragement and incentives must be given to motivate women to enter all segments ofthe ICT labor force, not just the menial electronic assembly jobs they have dominated inthe past. Enabling policy can encourage the establishment of teleworking that has pro-vided jobs for many women.

Enabling legislation for e-commerce should encourage women entrepreneurs. SME ICT andcommunications businesses, with possibilities for ownership by women and women’s groups,should be encouraged.Telecenters can provide economic opportunities for women; they should be promoted forbusiness development, with consideration for women owners.A number of telecommunications licenses should be allocated to women-owned businesses.Carriers could be obligated to do a certain percentage of business with women-ownedbusinesses.Training programs could be promoted to establish ICT-related business opportunities (suchas e-commerce, telecenters, and wireless company ownership).

Women could benefit from many e-government services especially land and voter registra-tion and license applications. They would especially profit from online availability of ser-vices that would otherwise require travel to the capital city.

Radio frequency spectrum

Research and developmentand innovation

Systems for learning andtraining

Software and applications

Building technologicalcapacity

ICT industry developmentand labor policies

ICT business developmentand e-commerce

E-government

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features of interest only to the well educated andwell-to-do, the number of women users is likelyto be low. Similarly, subsidized public telephonesor kiosks in places where women will be unwill-ing to use them would be noninclusive of genderin project design. Training is also an issue; givengaps in skills, more women users than men needtraining to be able to use telecommunicationstechnology effectively. Telecommunicationspolicy can promote choices in all these areas thatwill lead to equal access to the technology by menand women, but only if gender aspects are in-cluded up front in project design.

Conclusions: ICT as the genderperspective frontier

The review of World Bank ICT projects andprojects with ICT components indicates that in-creased consciousness of gender and ICT issuesis required in World Bank project design. Morethan half of the projects examined, regardless ofmajor sector, paid no attention to gender issueswhatsoever. Even more noteworthy is the neartotal absence of gender issues in ICT sectorprojects. These two findings together bear out theobservation that ICT is the last frontier of devel-opment activity to open itself to a gender perspec-tive. ICT projects and components in projects arestill treated as technical areas largely devoid ofsocial concerns that may be considered in otherproject components.

This research is not an isolated undertaking butrather part of the overall effort to integrate gen-der issues into the work of the World Bank in acoherent and consistent manner. The Bank hasdevoted considerable efforts to this objective sincethe mid-1990s. The results of this study indicatethat the near total absence of gender issues in itsICT projects and components are a cause for con-cern for the success of the projects, for the goalsof alleviation of poverty�, and the achievement ofgender equality.

World Bank ICT projects and projects with ICTcomponents all take root in a societal context that

must be taken account of in project design andimplementation. The view that no technology isgender-neutral has been well accepted by socialscience for decades. However, the idea that thereare differentials in the way that technologies im-pact men and women has not yet permeated ICTdevelopment activity. If gender issues are not con-sidered in ICT projects, the projects are less likelyto reach their development objectives. Most pro-grams and projects that do not consider genderas an important component in program andproject design consequently fail to include bothmen and women equally. In order to achieve de-velopment objectives there is a need to sensitizeWorld Bank project team leaders, both in the ICTsector and from other sectors with ICT compo-nents in their projects, to the potential gender is-sues in these projects.

Some of the most conspicuous findings of thisstudy were:• While a large number of projects paid some

attention to gender, in most cases this was notdone in a meaningful way, but rather as a formof lip service. Assurances of gender consider-ation or mentions of gender were not matchedby project actions.

• Overall, ignoring gender was the norm in allthe projects considered.

• Only a miniscule number (fewer than 10 per-cent) of ICT projects or ICT components ofprojects considered gender issues.

• No stand-alone ICT sector project had goodoverall results on the integration of genderissues.

• Despite a mandate to include social analysisin all project preparation documents, therewere many cases where social analysis wasrelevant but not applied.

How to ensure women’s opportunity tobenefit equally from the newtechnologies: the basics

Gender equality concerns need to be part of vir-tually every ICT development effort. Bank re-search has shown that better project results are

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obtained when gender issues are integrated(World Bank, 2002, 29). The process needs to startwith project rationale and design, continuethrough participatory consultations with projectstakeholders, to project implementation and moni-toring, and evaluation of outcomes with statis-tics and indicators that differentiate impact by sex.

Unless special interventions are undertaken, it ishighly unlikely that the majority of women willhave access to them. In addition, outreach effortsare essential to ensure that women are aware ofproject services and opportunities. These effortsmust consider the appropriate channels in com-municating with women (which, for example,may not be Internet-based or e-mail-based, butrather a poster in schools or women’s supportorganizations), and must try to provide womenwith the necessary conditions to participate inproject activities (such as daycare assistance orschedules that consider women’s multiple workresponsibilities). Content needs to reflectwomen’s needs and interests.

Information technology, as with all other tech-nologies, impacts men and women differentially.Technologies are not gender-neutral.

ICT projects wanting to involve women as well asmen should see that:• Both men and women are involved in the

design and implementation of projects• Projects target men and women equally (estab-

lishing separate access and training strategiesif necessary)

• Content is locally appropriate and of value towomen as well as men

• Account is taken of the social division of la-bor, by which most domestic responsibilitiesfall upon women.

How to ensure that World Bank ICT projectsincorporate gender concerns

The Bank has been working hard since 1994 topromote gender equality, but procedures were notin place for operationalizing this effort. The

Bank’s 1994 gender policy (Operational Policy4.20) did not detail procedures that the staff wereexpected to follow; consequently, the policy wasnot applied systematically. The Operational Policyon Gender and Development, issued in March2003 (OP 4.20), focuses primarily on the CountryGender Assessments (CGA) as the key compo-nent of the Bank’s gender mainstreaming strat-egy. As there are generally only a handful of ICTprojects per country, it is unlikely that CGAs willdeal with this sector. The mandate of the Bank’sGender and Development Board is to set an over-all approach to promoting gender concerns. TheBoard’s work, however, usually does not reachdown to the level of project design, although in-dividual Board Members may be working onprojects that involve ICT components.

Presently there are no incentives to encourageBank staff to formulate projects that mainstreamgender. Staff already feel burdened with havingto incorporate mandatory concerns. While it ismandatory to take into account the environmen-tal, indigenous people, and involuntary resettle-ment safeguards, the same is not true for genderconcerns. Moreover, although social analysis ismandatory in project development, it is oftenoverlooked without any sanction. Consequently,it will be harder to ensure that they incorporategender, especially because there has been nowidespread training in gender issues.

The crux of the problem of integrating genderconcerns into ICT projects is how to bring gen-der awareness to the project level. This is in linewith the Bank’s Operations Evaluation Depart-ment recommendation that gender be integratedinto the design of Bank-supported projects as away to increase the gender dimension of Bankassistance (World Bank, 2002, 30). The OED re-port, however, made no recommendations onhow this should be done.

The OED evaluation also identified the lack ofgender training as one of the main reasons thatgender issues have not been mainstreamed

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(World Bank 2002). Earlier versions of the Bank’sgender policy also advocated significant trainingfor Bank staff throughout the organization, andthe gender mainstreaming strategy notes thatproviding support to Bank staff and clients in theform of training and operational tools is central.According to Long, progress to date has been theresult of the efforts of individual staff memberswho are committed and aware. She observed that“the promotion of gender equality in Bank projectand policy initiatives has been largely dependenton individual initiative by gender specialists,”and thus “successful mainstreaming will dependin large measure on the ability of gender advo-cates within the Bank to persuade their colleaguesto embrace this plan ...” (Long, 2003,8,12).

Based on the findings of this study and given thelimitation of World Bank mandates and resourceson gender, the following are recommendations forincorporating gender issues into ICT projects andICT components of projects:

1.Task Team leaders should use tools and goodpractice examples, such as those examples illus-trated in this study and the accompanying toolkit,to ensure that gender and ICT are taken into ac-count in the initial stages of project preparation.

2. Both stand-alone ICT sector projects andprojects with ICT components should be re-viewed for consideration of gender issues in ICTprior to any appraisal package being approved.While the results of the review would only beadvisory, they should help to bring an awarenessof gender issues in ICT to Task Team leaders whomight otherwise be unaware of them.

3. Resources should be assigned to provide train-ing on gender issues for all World Bank staff in-volved in ICT project design and formulation andICT components in other projects.

It is hoped that these suggestions will lead toprogress in incorporating gender issues into a sig-nificant number of World Bank investment projects.

Notes

1. After the PID and PAD which were generallyavailable for nearly all projects, most commonlyfound documentation was the Staff Assessment andEnvironmental Assessment. Resettlement Plans werefound infrequently. All the documentation on theweb site was reviewed for each project.

2. http://www.worldbank.org/gender/projects_programs/guidenan.htm

3. One additional project incorporated genderissues in the ICT component of the project but not inthe other aspects of the project.

4. Wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) is a network standardrapidly gaining in popularity in developed countriesthat creates wireless local areas networks in homes,offices and, increasingly, restaurants, hotels, andairports at speeds faster than advanced mobile-phone networks. Wi-Fi LANs can be accessed with arelatively inexpensive network card.

5. This section owes a heavy debt to Sonia Jorge,Gender Perspectives in Telecommunications Policy: Acurriculum proposal, ITU, Geneva, 2000.

REFERENCES

Jorge, Sonia and Nancy Hafkin. 2002. “Get in andGet in Early: Ensuring Women’s Access to andParticipation in ICT Projects.” Women in Action,2-2002, [ISIS International, Manila]. Special issueon “Women and Communications.”

Long, Carolyn M. 2003. “The Advocate’s Guide toPromoting Gender Equality at the World Bank.”http://www.womensedge.org/newWomenandtheWorldBank.htm

Moser, Caroline. 1993. Gender Planning and Develop-ment: Theory, Practice and Training. London:Routledge.

Murphy, Josette. 1997. Mainstreaming Gender inWorld Bank Lending. Operations EvalationDepartment. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

World Bank. 2002. The Gender Dimension of BankAssistance: an evaluation of results. Report no.23119. Washington, D.C.

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NANCY J. HAFKIN has a long history of work on both gender and information technologyfor development. In 1976, with Edna G. Bay, she edited Women in Africa: Studies inSocial and Economic Change for Stanford University Press. She lived in Ethiopia from1975 to 2000 where from 1975 to 1987 she worked as Chief of Research and Publicationsat the African Training and Research Centre for Women of the United Nations EconomicCommission for Africa (ECA) in Addis Ababa. In 1987 she joined the Pan AfricanDevelopment Information System at ECA, which she headed. She pioneered the ECAprogram on promoting information technology for development and was coordinatorof the African Information Society Initiative from its inception to 2000. At ECA, shewas project leader on a number of pioneering projects in electronic communication,including Capacity Building for Electronic Communication in Africa (CABECA). Shealso organized a number of major Africa-wide meetings on ICT and development,including the Symposium on Access to Telematics in Africa (1995), Global Connectivityfor Africa (1998), and African Development Forum ’99: the Challenge to Africa ofGlobalization and the Information Age. In 2000 the Association for ProgressiveCommunications established an annual Nancy J. Hafkin Information Society Prize toencourage and recognize African initiatives in information and communicationtechnologies. Now retired from the United Nations, Hafkin works as a consultant ongender and information technology in developing countries, an area she has writtenabout in her numerous publications. She holds an M.A. and Ph.D. from BostonUniversity in History, with certificates in African Studies, and a B.A. from BrandeisUniversity in History.

DEEPTI BHATNAGAR is Professor of Organizational Behavior at the Indian Institute ofManagement, Ahmedabad (IIMA). A Fellow of the IIMA, she has been on the facultysince 1984. She was Visiting Professor of Management at University of Maryland atCollege Park and the Fairleigh Dickinson University in the U.S. Her teaching andresearch interests are in the areas of managing innovation and change, power andpolitics, business ethics, and women in management. She has been a consultant to theMinistry of External Affairs, New Delhi, the Commonwealth Secretariat, London, WorldHealth Organization, Geneva, Interman, Geneva, and various institutions in the Indiancorporate sector. She has designed, coordinated, and taught in numerous managementdevelopment programs for private and public sector and nonprofit organizations. Muchof her research has been on successful Indian women-oriented organizations such asthe Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), Ahmedabad, and the Shri MahilaGriha Udyog Lijjat Papad, Bombay. She has published papers on gender-based researchin scholarly journals. A paper coauthored by her was nominated for the Rosabeth KanterAward for Excellence in Work-Family Research in 2001. She is currently engaged inresearch on work-life balance issues and the empowerment of women.

SUBHASH BHATNAGAR has taught at the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad(IIMA) since 1975. Between 2000 and 2002 he was with the World Bank in WashingtonD.C. as part of the effort to mainstream e-government applications in the activities ofthe Bank. He is the author of several case studies on e-government that are carried onthe Bank web site, and has advised many developing countries on e-government strat-egies. At IIMA he has held the CMC Chair Professorship in Information Technology;

Authors

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been a member of the board of governors; and also served as its Dean. His research hasfocused on ICT for development, e-government, and e-commerce. He has publishednearly 100 papers and seven books. He founded a new Working Group in the Interna-tional Federation of Information Processing called Social Implications of Computers inDeveloping Countries, which he chaired from 1989 to 1995. He is the chief editor of theInternational Journal on IT and Development and the WG 9.4 newsletter on IT in De-veloping Countries. He is also a recipient of IFIP Silver Core, and the Fellowship of theComputer Society of India.

SOPHIA HUYER is the founding Executive Director of Women in Global Science andTechnology (WIGSAT), and works with the Gender Advisory Board of the UnitedNations Commission on Science and Technology for Development (UNCSTD). Shehas many years of experience in international development and gender, science andtechnology policy, and research, with a special focus on ICT. She has worked in policyresearch, project development and evaluation, and program development andadministration. She has made presentations at conferences around the world, and hasworked with research institutes and nongovernmental organizations in Africa,Southeast Asia, and India. She participates in lobbying and networking at internationalpolicy arenas including the World Conference on Science (1999) and the World Summiton the Information Society (WSIS). She is a consultant in policy research, evaluation,gender mainstreaming, and policy advice to donor and UN agencies, including theCanadian International Development Agency, infoDev, UNIFEM, Bellanet, the WorldBank, and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC). She has publishedwidely, including articles in Gender, Technology and Development and Development inPractice, as well as reports for INSTRAW, infoDev, IDRC, and the Gender AdvisoryBoard (UNCSTD).

NIDHI TANDON is the founder and principal of Networked Intelligence for Development.She has extensive experience with field-level partners in developing countries whereshe has worked to identify their operational, strategic, and resource issues, and assistedthem to successfully harness the benefits of ICT. She focuses on extending theopportunities of the Internet and other ICT to women, to community organizations,and to governments and businesses in developing economies, through capacitybuilding, training, and raising resources. She has managed international technicalassistance programs and conducted economic research for the Overseas DevelopmentInstitute in London, and administered a wide range of policy development projectsfor women through the Commonwealth Secretariat. Tandon has an MSc in AgriculturalEconomics from the University of Sussex, U.K.