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Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon

discourses, mostly ascribed to the Buddha,

but some to disciples

3. Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as

philosophy, psychology, metaphysics, etc.

The Vinaya Pitaka and the Sutta Pitaka are remarkably similar to the works of other early Buddhist

schools. The Abhidhamma Pitaka however is a strictly Theravada collection, and has little in common with

the Abhidhamma works recognized by other Buddhist schools.

[8]

Contents [hide]

1 The Canon in the tradition

2 Origins

2.1 Attribution according to scholars

2.1.1 Views concerning attribution to the Buddha himself

2.1.2 Views concerning attribution to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism

2.1.3 Views concerning agnosticism2.2 The earliest books of the Pali Canon

3 Texts and trans lations

4 Contents of the Canon

4.1 Vinaya Pitaka

4.2 Sutta Pitaka

4.3 Abhidham ma Pitaka

5 Comparison with other Buddhist canons

6 Notes7 See also

8 External links

8.1 English translations

8.2 Pali Canon online

8.3 Pali Dictionary

9 Further reading

Espaol

Galego

Italiano

Lietuvi

Nederlands

Norsk (bokml)

Slovenina / Srpski

Trke
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Doctrine

Sasra Nibbna

Middle Way

Noble Eightfold Path

Four Noble Truths

Enlightenment Stages

Precepts Three Jew elsOutline of Buddhism

view talk edit

The relation of the scriptures to Buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary

monks and lay people is, as with other major religious traditions,

problematical: the evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon ever

enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes very

much more widely used; the details varied from place to place. [15] Dr. Rupert

Gethin suggests that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a

working out of the implications of the early scriptures.[16]

Origins

According to a late part of the Pali Canon, the Buddha taught the three

pitakas. [17] It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon originated from the Buddha

and his immediate disciples. According to the scriptures, a council was held shortly after the Buddha's

passing to collect and preserve his teachings. It was recited orally from the 5th century BCE to the first

century BCE, when it was written down. The tradition holds that only a few later additions were made.

Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically Theravdin, but is instead the collection of teachings

that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey, it

contains material which is at odds with later Theravdin orthodoxy. He states that "the Theravdins, then,

may have addedtexts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they

already had from an earlier period."[18] A variety of factors suggest that the early Sri Lankan Buddhists

regarded canonical literature as such and transmitted it conservatively.[19]

Attribution according to scholars

The views of scholars concerning the attribution of the Pali Canon can be grouped into three categories:

1. Attribution to the Buddha himself.

2. Attribution to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism.

3. Agnosticism.

Scholars have both supported and opposed the various existing views.
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Views concerning attribution to the Buddha himself

Various scholars have voiced that some of the contents of the Pali Canon (and its main teachings) can be

attributed to Gautama Buddha. Richard Gombrich argues that the main preachings of the Buddha (as in the

Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka) probably go back to the Buddha individually. [20] Some scholars argue that the

teachings are coherent and cogent, and must be the work of a single genius: the Buddha himself, not a

committee of followers after his death.[21][22]

J.W. de Jong has stated that parts of the Pali Canon could very well have been proclaimed by the Buddha,and subsequently transmitted and developed by his disc iples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas.[23] A.

Wynne has said that the Pali Canon includes texts which go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, which

perhaps include the substance of the Buddhas teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words.[24]

A.K. Warder has stated that there is no evidence to suggest that the shared teaching of the early schools

was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers.[25]

Some scholars say that little or nothing goes back to the Buddha. [26] Prof. Ronald Davidson has little

confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historical Buddha[27]Some of these scholars argue that[28] some passages contradict the main teachings, and that the Buddha

must have been consistent. Some believe[who?] only one of the variant teachings can have been the

teaching of the Buddha, and that if the Buddha had taught the main teachings, contradictory teachings

would never have got in[citation needed]. Some believe[who?] that because of this, the Buddha must have

taught the divergent teachings, and that the main teachings were elaborated by his followers after his

death[citation needed].

Views concerning attribution to the period of pre-sectarian BuddhismMost scholars do agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature that a relatively early community

maintained and transmitted[29] Much of the Pali Canon is found also in the scriptures of other early schools

of Buddhism, parts of whose versions are preserved, mainly in Chinese. Many scholars have argued that

this shared material can be attributed to the period of Pre-sectarian Buddhism. This is the period before the

early schools separated in about the fourth or third century BCE.

Views concerning agnosticism
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Some scholars see the Pali Canon as expanding and changing from an unknown nucleus. [30] Arguments

given for an agnostic attitude include that the evidence for the Buddha's teachings dates from (long) after his

death.

Some scholars have said that the application of text-critical methods derived from Biblical c riticism is

invalidated by the fact that the Bible was a written text while the Pali Canon was oral. [31]

Some scholars have stated that it would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the

doctrine of earliest Buddhism.[32]

Dr Gregory Schopen, Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at

Austin, argues[33] that it is not until the 5th to 6th centuries CE that we can know anything definite about

the contents of the Canon. This position did not attract much support, and was criticized by A. Wynne.[34]

The earliest books of the Pali Canon

Different positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. The majority of Western

scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works, [35] the Vinaya (excluding theParivara[36]) and the first four nikyas of the Sutta Pitaka,[37] and perhaps also some short verse works [38]

such as the Suttanipata.[36] However, some scholars, particularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipata is

the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udana.[39] However, some of the

developments in teachings may only reflect changes in teaching that the Buddha himself adopted, during

the 45 years that the Buddha was teaching. [40]

Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions. [41] On

the other hand, some scholars have claimed

[42]

that central aspects of late works are or may be muchearlier.

According to the Sri Lankan Mahavamsa, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagmini

(Vaagmii) (1st century BCE) in Sri Lanka, at the Fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if

anything was added to the Canon after this, [43] though Schopen questions this.

Texts and translations
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The climate of Theravda countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief

quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the

oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century,[44] and there is not very much from before

the eighteenth.[45]

The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes. [46] The

following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West:

Pali Text Society edition, 18771927 (a few volumes subsequently replaced by new editions), 57volumes including indexes, individual volumes also (for sale ) separately.

The Pali scriptures and some Pali commentaries were digitized as an MS-DOS/extended ASCII

compatible database through cooperation between the Dhammakaya Foundation and the Pali Text

Society in 1996 as PALITEXT version 1.0: CD-ROM Database of the Entire Buddhist Pali Canon

ISBN 978-9748235875.[47] The Dhammakya Foundation are currently negotiating with the Pali Text

Society to make available an updated database which adds the English translations and

Windows/Unicode compatibility.

Thai edition, 192528, 45 volumes; more accurate than the PTS edition, but with fewer variant

readings;[48]

BUDSIR on Internet , free with login; and electronic transcript by BUDSIR: Buddhist scriptures

information retrieval , CD-ROM and online, both requiring payment.

Sixth Council edition, Rangoon, 195456, 40 volumes; more accurate than the Thai edition, but with

fewer variant readings;[49]

electronic transcript by Vipssana Research Institute available online in searchable database free

of charge, or on CD-ROM (p&p only) from the InstituteAnother transcript of this edition, produced under the patronage of the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand,

World Tipitaka Edition, 2005, 40 volumes, published by the Dhamma Society Fund , claims to

include the full extent of changes made at the Sixth Council, and therefore reflect the results of the

council more accurately than some exist ing Sixth Council editions. Available for viewing online

(registration required) at e-Tipiaka Quotation WebService .

Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti) edition, 1957?1993, 58 volumes including parallel Sinhalese translations,
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Pali Canon

Vinaya Pitaka

Suttavibhanga Khandhaka Parivara

Sutta Pitaka

Digha Nikaya Majjhima Nikaya

Samyutta Nikaya Anguttara Nikaya

Khuddaka Nikaya

Abhidhamma Pitaka

Dhammasangani Vibhanga Dhatukatha and

Puggalapannatti Kathavatthu Yamaka

Patthana

V T E

searchable, free of charge (not yet fully proofread.) Available at Journal of Buddhist Ethics

Transcript in BudhgayaNews Pali Canon . In this version it is easy to search for individual words

across all 16,000+ pages at once and view the contexts in which they appear.

No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions.[50]

Translation: Pali Canon in English Translation, 1895-, in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society,

Bristol; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles. In 1994, the

then President of the Pali Text Society stated that most of these translations were unsatisfactory.[51]Another former President said in 2003 that most of the translations were done very badly. [52] The style of

many translations from the Canon has been criticized[53] as "Buddhist Hybrid English", a term invented by

Paul Griffiths for translations from Sanskrit. He describes it as "deplorable", "comprehensible only to the

initiate, written by and for Buddhologists". [54]

Selections: see List of Pali Canon anthologies.

Contents of the Canon

As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.

Vinaya Pitaka (vinayapiaka)

Sutta Pitaka or Suttanta Pitaka

Abhidhamma Pitaka

Details are given below. For more complete information, see

standard references on Pali literature.[55]

Vinaya Pitaka

The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with

the rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The rules are

preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them

down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to

the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the
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Dhatukatha (dhtukath) Deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books

Puggalapannatti (-paatti) Explanations of types of person, arranged numerically in lists from ones to

tens

Kathavatthu (kath-) Over 200 debates on points of doctrine

Yamaka Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (e.g. Is X Y? Is Y X?)

Patthana (pahna) Analysis of 24 types of condition[59]

The traditional position is that abhidhamma refers to the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted tothe hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the

suttas: Harvey,[60] Gethin.[61] Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes

the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions. [62] By Anney tesloyn

Comparison with other Buddhist canons

See also:gama (Buddhism)

The other two main Buddhist canons in use in the present day are the Chinese Buddhist Canon and theTibetan Kangyur.

The standard modern edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon is the Taish Revised Tripiaka, with a hundred

major divisions, totaling over 80,000 pages. This includes Vinayas for the Dharmaguptaka, Sarvstivda,

Mahsaka, and Mahsaghika schools. It also includes the four major gamas, which are analogous to

the Nikayas of the Pali Canon. Namely, they are the Sayukta gama, Madhyama gama, Drgha gama,

and Ekottara gama. Also included are the Dhammapada, the Itivuttaka, and Milindapanha. There are also

additional texts, including early histories, that are preserved from the early Buddhist schools but not found

in Pali. The canon contains voluminous works of Abhidharma, especially from the Sarvstivda school. The

Indian works preserved in the Chinese Canon were translated from Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, Classical

Sanskrit, or from regional Prakrits. The Chinese generally referred to these simply as "Sanskrit" (Ch. ,

Fny).

The Tibetan Kangyur comprises about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the

Dhammapada (under the title Udanavarga) and parts of some other books. Due to the later compilation, it

contains comparatively fewer early Buddhist texts than the Pali and Chinese canons.
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The Chinese and Tibetan canons are not translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but

contain some recognizably similar early works. However, the Abhidharma books are fundamentally different

works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Chinese and Tibetan canons also consist of Mahyna stras

and Vajraynatantras, which, apart from a few tantras, have no equivalent in the Pali Canon. [63]

Notes

1. ^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, page 32. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press , 1990, page 3.

3. ^ If the language of the Pli canon is north Indian in origin, and without subs tantial Sinhalese additions, it is

likely that the canon was composed som ewhere in north India before its introduction to Sri Lanka. (How old

is the Sutta Pitaka?, Alexander Wynne, St. Johns' College, 2003)

4. ^Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, sv Councils , Buddhist

5. ^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edn, page 307. American Asiatic Ass ociation, Asia Society,Asia:

Journal o f the American Asiatic Association, p724.

6. ^ Bechert & Gombrich, The World of Buddhism, Thames & Hudson, 1984, page 2047. ^ Gombrich, page 4

8. ^ "Buddhism." Encyclopdia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopdia Britannica,

2008.

9. ^ Gombrich, page 20

10. ^ Gombrich, pages 153-4

11. ^ Morgan, Path of the Buddha, Ronald Press, New York, 1956, pages v, 71

12. ^Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, volume 28 (part 2), page 302

13. ^ Mendelson, Sangha and State in Burma, Cornell University Press , Ithaca, New York, 1975, page 266

14. ^Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edn, volume 9, Elsevier, Amsterdam/Oxford, 2006

15. ^Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XV, pages 103f

16. ^ Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press , 1998, page 43

17. ^Book of the Discipline, volume VI, page 123

18. ^ Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press , 1995, page 9.

19. ^ Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, page 4.

20. ^ "I am saying that there was a person called the Buddha, that the preachings probably go back to him
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individually... that we can learn more about what he meant, and that he was saying some very precise

things." source: http://www.ordinarymind.net/Interviews/interview_jan2003.htm

21. ^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, pages 20f

22. ^ "While parts of the Pali Canon clearly originated after the time of the Buddha, much must derive from his

teaching." An introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey, 1990, p.3

23. ^ "the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him

[the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas." J.W. De

Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism, in The Eas tern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25

24. ^ "If some of the material is s o old, it might be possib le to establish what texts go back to the very beginning

of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddhas teaching, and in some cases,

maybe even his words", How old i s the Suttapitaka ('basket of sayings ')? Alexander Wynne, St Johns

College, 2003. [www.ocbs.org/research/Wynne.pdf]

25. ^ there is no evidence to sugges t that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his imm ediate

followers. AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, inside flap.

26. ^ Skorupski, Buddhist Forum, volume I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London,1990, page 5

27. ^ Prof. Ronald Davidson s tates, "we have little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist s cripture

is actually the word of the historical Buddha'" Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism. pg 147.Columbia University Press, 2003. ISBN 0231126182.

28. ^ seeJournal o f the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol 21, part 1, page 11 for some of this

29. ^ Prof. Ronald Davidson states, "mos t scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature

(disputed) that a relatively early community (disputed) maintained and transmitted." Davidson, Ronald M.

Indian Esoteric Buddhism. pg 147. Columbia University Press , 2003. ISBN 0231126182.

30. ^ an article in the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004), page 10

31. ^Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalawa Saddhatissa ed Dhammapla, Gombrich & Norman,

University of Jayawardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka, 1984, pages 56, 67

32. ^ "It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be s aid about the doctrine of earlies t Buddhism ... the

basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the

Buddha], transm itted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas." J.W. De Jong,

1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism, in The Eas tern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25

33. ^Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press , 1997, page 24 (reprinted from Studien

zur Indologie und Iranistik, volume 10 (1985))

34. ^How old is the Suttapiaka? The relative value of textual and epigraphical sources for the study of early

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Indian Buddhism - Alexander Wynne, St John's College, 2003. [1] (pdf)

35. ^ A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali, 1963, Pali Text Society, page viii

36. ^ ab L. S. Cousins in Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa, ed Dhammapla, Gombrich

and Norm an, University of Jayewardenepura, 1984, page 56

37. ^The World of Buddhism, ed Bechert and Gombrich, Thames and Hudson, London, 1984, page 78; Gethin,

pages 42f

38. ^ Gethin, The Buddha's Path to Awakening, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1992

39. ^ Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, Japan, 1980, reissued by Motill Banrsidass, Delhi, 1987, 1989, page 2740. ^ "as the Buddha taught for 45 years, some signs of development in teachings may only reflect changes

during this period." - An introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey, 1990, p.3

41. ^ Bechert and Gombrich; Warder, Introduction to Path of Discrimination, 1982, Pali Text Society, page xxix

42. ^ Cousins, "Pali oral li terature", in Buddhist Studies, ed Denwood and Piatigorski, Curzon Press , London,

1982/3; Harvey, page 83; Gethin, page 48; The Guide, Pali Text Society, page xxvii

43. ^ Harvey, page 3; Warder, Path of Discrimination, Pali Text Society, pages xxxixf; Gethin, Path, page 8

44. ^ Hinber, Handbook of Pali Literature, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 5.

45. ^Pali Text Society Home Page

46. ^ Gnter Grnbold, Der buddhistische Kanon: eine Bibliographie, Otto Harrass owitz, Wiesbaden, 1984,

page 12; as noted there and elsewhere, the 1893 Siamese edition was incomplete

47. ^ Mark Allon (1997) An Asses sm ent of the Dham makaya CD-ROM: Palitext Version 1.0. Buddhis t Studies

(Bukky Kenky) 26: 10929.

48. ^ Warder, Introduction to Pali, 1963, PTS, page 382

49. ^ Hamm in German Scholars on India, volume I, ed Cultural Department of the German Embass y in India,

pub Chowkhamba Sans krit Series Office, Varanasi, 1973, translated fromZeitschrift der Deutschen

Morgenlndischen Gesellschaft, 1962

50. ^ Cone, Dictionary of Pali, volum e I, PTS, 200151. ^Memoirs of the Chuo Academic Research Institute, No. 23, Dec. 1994, page 12, reprinted in Norman,

Collected Papers, volum e VI, 1996, Pali Text Society, Bristol, page 80

52. ^Interview wi th professor Richard Gombrich for Ordinary Mind - An Australian Buddhist Review is sue No

21

53. ^Journal of the Pali Text Society, Volume XXIX, page 102

54. ^Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 4.2 (1981)

55. ^ Norman, Pali Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983; Hinber, pages 24-26

56 ^ H I t d ti t B ddhi di
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History of literature

Bronze Age literature

Sumerian

Egyptian

Akkadian

Sanskrit

Classical literatures

Chinese

Greek

Hebrew

Latin

PahlaviPali

Prakrit

Syriac

Tamil

Early Medieval literature

Matter of Rome

Matter of France

56. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, appendix

57. ^ abJournal of the Pali Text Society, volum e XV

58. ^ Harvey, appendix

59. ^ Harvey, page 83

60. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cam bridge University Press , 1990, p 83

61. ^Foundations, page 44

62. ^ "Pali oral li terature", page 7

63. ^ Most notably, a version of the Atanatiya Sutta (from the Digha Nikaya) is included in the tantra (Mikkyo,rgyud) divisions of the Taisho and of the Cone, Derge, Lhasa, Lithang, Narthang and Peking (Qianlong)

editions of the Kangyur: Skilling, Mahasutras, volum e I, Parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, Bris tol, pages

84n, 553ff, 617ff.

See also

Buddhist texts

Chinese Buddhist canon

Pali Literature

Palm-leaf manuscript

Tripitaka Koreana

Tripitaka

External links

Free Tipitaka Texts

Guide to Tipitaka by Professor U Ko LaySayadaw U Vicit tasara Mingun Sayadaw: A Fabulous

Memory

Beginnings: The Pali Suttas by Samanera Bodhesako

English translations

Access to Insight has many suttas translated into

English
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ByzantineCatalan

Dutch

French

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Old Irish

Italian

Japanese

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V T E

English

Tipitaka Online of Nibbana.com. Burma (Myanmar)

Search in English translations of the Tipitaka

Pali Canon online

Thai Tripitaka (Thai version)

World Tipitaka (Burmese version)

Vipassana Research Institute (Based on 6th Council -Burmese version)

This site also offers a down loadable program which installs the

entire Pali Tipitaka on your desktop for offline viewing.

Tipitaka (Sri Lankan version)

Pali Dictionary

Online Pali-English Dictionary

Further reading

In addition to Ko Lay's book above, two other books are

devoted to detailed accounts of the Canon:

History of Pali Literature, B. C. Law, volume I

Analysis of the Pali Canon , Russell Webb, Buddhist

Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka

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