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SuebiFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Suebi or Suevi were a large group of Germanic peoples who were first mentioned by JuliusCaesar in connection with Ariovistus' campaign in Gaul, c. 58 BC.[1] While Caesar treated them asone Germanic tribe, though the largest and most warlike, later authors such as Tacitus, Pliny andStrabo specified that the Suevi "do not, like the Chatti or Tencteri, constitute a single nation. Theyactually occupy more than half of Germany, and are divided into a number of distinct tribes underdistinct names, though all generally are called Suebi".[2] "At one time, classical ethnography hadapplied the name "Suebi" to so many Germanic tribes that it appeared as though in the firstcenturies A.D. this native name would replace the foreign name "Germans"."[3]

Classical authors noted that the Suebic tribes, compared to other Germanic tribes, were verymobile, and not reliant upon agriculture.[4] Various Suebic groups moved from the direction of theBaltic sea and river Elbe, becoming a periodic threat to the Roman empire on their Rhine andDanube frontiers. Toward the end of the empire, the Alamanni, also referred to as Suebi, firstsettled in the Agri Decumates and then crossed the Rhine and occupied Alsace. A pocketremained in the region now still called Swabia, an area in southwest Germany whose modern namederives from the Suebi. Others moved as far as Gallaecia (modern Galicia, in Spain, and NorthernPortugal) and established a Suebic Kingdom of Galicia there which lasted for 170 years until itsintegration into the Visigothic Kingdom.

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Some of the tribes in Germaniaduring the Roman empire. Suebianand Hermionic tribes are in magenta.

Contents [hide]

1 Etymology

2 Classification2.1 More than one tribe

2.2 Tribes names in classical sources2.2.1 Northern bank of the Danube

2.2.2 Approaching the Rhine

2.2.3 The Elbe

2.2.4 East of the Elbe

2.2.5 Baltic Sea

3 Cultural characteristics

4 Historical events4.1 Ariovistus and the Suebi in 58 BC

4.2 Caesar and the Suebi in 55 BC

4.3 Rhine crossing of 29 BC

4.4 The victory of Drusus in 9 BC

4.5 Roman defeat in 9 AD

4.6 Aftermath of 9 AD

4.7 Marcomannic wars

5 Migration period5.1 Kingdom of Gallaecia

5.1.1 Migration

5.1.2 Settlement

5.1.3 Establishment

5.1.4 Last years of the kingdom

5.1.5 Defeat by the Visigoths

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Languages

AlemannischالعربیةAragonésAsturianuБеларускаяБългарскиBrezhonegCatalàЧӑвашлаČeštinaDanskDeutschEestiEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskGalegoHrvatski

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6 Religion6.1 Conversion to Arianism

6.2 Conversion to Catholicism

7 Norse mythology

8 Language

9 See also9.1 Notes

9.2 Bibliography

10 External links

Etymology [edit]

Etymologists trace the name from Proto-Germanic, *swēbaz, either based on the Proto-Germanicroot *swē- meaning "one's own" people, or on the third-person reflexive pronoun;[5] or from anearlier Indo-European root *swe-.[6] The etymological sources list the following ethnic names asalso from the same root: Suiones, Semnones, Samnites, Sabelli, Sabini, indicating the possibility ofa prior Indo-European ethnic name, "our own people". Alternatively, it may be borrowed from aCeltic word for "vagabond".[7]

Classification [edit]

HrvatskiItalianoქართულიLatinaLietuviųMagyarМакедонскиMirandésNederlands日本語

Norsk bokmålPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусскийScotsSicilianuSlovenčinaSlovenščinaСрпски / srpskiSrpskohrvatski /српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTürkçe

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Roman bronze statuetterepresenting a Germanic mankneeling, his arms outstretched andhis hair in a "Suebian knot" (50–150AD)

More than one tribe [edit]

Caesar placed the Suebi east of the Ubii apparently nearmodern Hesse, in the position where later writers mentionthe Chatti, and he distinguished them from their allies theMarcomanni. Some commentators believe that Caesar'sSuebi were the later Chatti or possibly the Hermunduri, oreven the Semnones.[8] Later authors use the term Suebimore broadly, "to cover a large number of tribes in centralGermany".[9] Although no classical authors explicitly callthe Chatti Suevic, Pliny the Elder (23 AD – 79 AD),reported in his Natural History that the Hermiones were alarge grouping of related Germanic gentes or "tribes"including not only the Suebi, but also the Hermunduri,Chatti and Cherusci.[10] Whether or not the Chatti wereever considered Suevi, both Tacitus and Strabo distinguishthe two partly because the Chatti were more settled in one

territory, whereas Suevi remained less settled.[11]

The definitions of the greater ethnic groupings within Germania were apparently not alwaysconsistent and clear, especially in the case of mobile groups such as the Suevi. Whereas Tacitusreported three main kinds of German peoples, Hermiones, Istvaeones, and Ingvaeones, Plinyspecifically adds two more genera or "kinds", the Bastarnae and the Vandili (Vandals). The Vandiliwere tribes east of the Elbe, including the well-known Silingi, Goths, and Burgundians, an areawhich Tacitus treated as Suebic. That the Vandals might be a separate type of Germanic people isa possibility Tacitus noted also, but for example the Varini are named as Vandilic by Pliny, andspecifically Suebic by Tacitus.

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Also the modern term "Elbe Germanic" covers a large grouping of Germanic peoples that at leastoverlaps with the classical terms "Suevi" and "Hermiones". However this term was developedmainly as an attempt to define the ancient peoples who must have spoken the Germanic dialectsthat lead to modern Upper German dialects spoken in Austria, Bavaria, Thuringia, Alsace, Baden-Württemberg and German speaking Switzerland. This was proposed by Friedrich Maurer as one offive major Kulturkreise or "culture-groups" whose dialects developed in the southern German areafrom the first century BC through to the fourth century AD.[12] Apart from his own linguistic workwith modern dialects, he also referred to the archaeological and literary analysis of Germanictribes done earlier by Gustaf Kossinna[13] In terms of these proposed ancient dialects, theVandals, Goths and Burgundians are generally referred to as members of an Eastern germanicgroup, distinct from the Elbe Germanic.

Tribes names in classical sources [edit]

Northern bank of the Danube [edit]

In the time of Caesar, southern Germany was Celtic, but coming under pressure from Germanicgroups led by the Suebi. As described later by Tacitus, what is today southern Germany betweenthe Danube, the Main river, and the Rhine had been deserted by the departure of two large Celticnations, the Helvetii in modern Schwaben and the Boii further east near the Hercynian forest.[14] Inaddition, also near the Hercynian forest Caesar believed that the Celtic Tectosages had oncelived. All of these peoples had for the most part moved by the time of Tacitus.

Strabo (64/63 BC – c. 24 AD), in Book IV (6.9) of his Geography also associates the Suebi with theHercynian Forest and the south of Germania north of the Danube. He describes a chain ofmountains north of the Danube that is like a lower extension of the Alps, possibly the SwabianAlps, and further east the Gabreta forest, possibly the modern Bohemian forest. In Book VII (1.3)Strabo specifically mentions as Suevic peoples the Marcomanni, who under King Marobodus had

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Strabo specifically mentions as Suevic peoples the Marcomanni, who under King Marobodus hadmoved into the same Hercynian forest as the Coldui (possibly the Quadi), taking over an areacalled "Boihaemum". This king "took the rulership and acquired, in addition to the peoplesaforementioned, the Lugii (a large tribe), the Zumi, the Butones, the Mugilones, the Sibini, and alsothe Semnones, a large tribe of the Suevi themselves". Some of these tribes were "inside the forest"and some "outside of it".[15] Tacitus confirms the name "Boiemum", saying it was a survival markingthe old traditional population of the place, the Celtic Boii, though the population had changed.[14]

Tacitus describes a series of very powerful Suebian states in his own time, running along the northof the Danube which was the frontier with Rome, and stretching into the lands where the Elbeoriginates in the modern day Czech Republic. Going from west to east the first were theHermunduri, living near the sources of the Elbe and stretching across the Danube into RomanRhaetia.[16] Next came the Naristi, the Marcomanni, and then the Quadi. The Quadi are on theedge of greater Suebia, having the Sarmatians to the southeast.[17]

Claudius Ptolemy the geographer did not always state which tribes were Suebi, but along thenorthern bank of the Danube, from west to east and starting at the "desert" formerly occupied bythe Helvetii, he names the Parmaecampi, then the Adrabaecampi, and then a "large people" knownas the Baemoi (whose name appears to recall the Boii again), and then the Racatriae. North of theBaemoi, is the Luna forest which has iron mines, and which is south of the Quadi. North of theAdrabaecampi, are the Sudini and then the Marcomanni living in the Gambreta forest. North ofthem, but south of the Sudetes mountains (which are not likely to be the same as the modern onesof that name) are the Varisti, who are probably the same as Tacitus' "Naristi" mentioned above.

Jordanes writes that in the early 4th century the Vandals had moved to the north of the Danube,but with the Marcomanni still to their west, and the Hermunduri still to their north. A possible sign ofconfusion in this comment is that he equates the area in question to later Gepidia, which wasfurther south, in Pannonia, modern Hungary, and east of the Danube.[18] In general, as discussed

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below, the Danubian Suebi, along with the neighbours such as the Vandals, apparently movedsouthwards into Roman territories, both south and east of the Danube, during this period.

Approaching the Rhine [edit]

Caesar describes the Suebi as pressing the German tribes of the Rhine, such as the Tencteri,Usipetes and Ubii, from the east, forcing them from their homes. While emphasizing their warlikenature he writes as if they had a settled homeland somewhere between the Cherusci and the Ubii,and separated from the Cherusci by a deep forest called the Silva Bacenis. He also describes theMarcomanni as a tribe distinct from the Suebi, and also active within the same alliance. But hedoes not describe where they were living.

Strabo wrote that the Suebi "excel all the others in power and numbers."[19] He describes Suebicpeoples (Greek ethnē) as having come to dominate Germany between the Rhine and Elbe, withthe exception of the Rhine valley, on the frontier with the Roman empire, and the "coastal" regionsnorth of the Rhine.

The geographer, Ptolemy (c. AD 90 – c. AD 168), in a fairly extensive account of GreaterGermany,[20] makes several unusual mentions of Suebi between the Rhine and the Elbe. Hedescribes their position as stretching out in a band from the Elbe, all the way to the northernRhine, near the Sugambri. The "Suevi Langobardi" are the Suevi located closest to the Rhine, farto the east of where most sources report them. To the east of the Langobardi, are the "SueviAngili", extending as far north as the middle Elbe, also to the east of the position reported in othersources. It has been speculated that Ptolemy may have been confused by his sources, or else thatthis position of the Langobardi represented a particular moment in history.[21]

As discussed below, in the third century a large group of Suebi, also referred to as the Allemannimoved up to the Rhine bank in modern Schwaben, which had previously been controlled by theRomans. (They competed in this region with Burgundians who had arrived from further east.)

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The Elbe [edit]

Strabo does not say much about the Suebi east of the Elbe, saying that this region was stillunknown to Romans,[22] but mentions that a part of the Suebi live there, naming only specificallythe Hermunduri and the Langobardi. But he mentions these are there because of recent defeats atRoman hands which had forced them over the river. (Tacitus, mentions that the Hermunduri werelater welcomed on to the Roman border at the Danube.) In any case he says that the area nearthe Elbe itself is held by the Suebi.[23]

From Tacitus and Ptolemy we can derive more details:

The Semnones, are described by Tacitus as "the oldest and noblest of the Suebi", and like theSuebi described by Caesar they have 100 cantons. Tacitus says that "the vastness of theircommunity makes them regard themselves as the head of the Suevic race".[24] According toPtolemy the "Suevi Semnones" live upon the Elbe and stretch as far east as a river apparentlynamed after them, the Suevus, probably the Oder. South of them he places the Silingi, andthen, again upon the Elbe, the Calucones. To the southeast further up the upper Elbe heplaces not the Hermunduri mentioned by other authors (who had possibly moved westwardsand become Ptolemy's "Teuriochaemai", and the later Thuringii), but the Baenochaemae(whose name appears to be somehow related to the modern name Bohemia, and somehowderived from the older placename mentioned by Strabo and Tacitus as the capital of KingMarobodus after he settled his Marcomanni in the Hercynian forest).

The Langobardi live a bit further from Rome's borders, in "scanty numbers" but "surrounded bya host of most powerful tribes" and kept safe "by daring the perils of war" according toTacitus.[25]

Tacitus names seven tribes who live "next" after the Langobardi, "fenced in by rivers or forests"stretching "into the remoter regions of Germany". These all worshiped Nertha, or Mother Earth,

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whose sacred grove was on an island in the Ocean (presumably the Baltic Sea): Reudigni,Aviones, Anglii, Varini, Eudoses, Suarini and Nuitones.[25]

At the mouth of the Elbe (and in the Danish peninsula), the classical authors do not place anySuevi, but rather the Chauci to the west of the Elbe, and the Saxons to the east, and in the"neck" of peninsula.

Note that while various errors and confusions are possible, Ptolemy places the Angles andLangobardi west of the Elbe, where they may indeed have been present at some points in time,given that the Suebi were often mobile.

East of the Elbe [edit]

It is already mentioned above that stretching between the Elbe and the Oder, the classical authorsplace the Suebic Semnones. Ptolemy places the Silingi to their south in the stretch between theserivers. These Silingi appear in later history as a branch of the Vandali, and were therefore likely tobe speakers of East Germanic dialects. Their name is associated with medieval Silesia. Furthersouth on the Elbe are the Baenochaemae and between them and the Askibourgian mountainsPtolemy names a tribe called the Batini (Βατεινοὶ), apparently north and/or east of the Elbe.

According to Tacitus, around the north of the Danubian Marcomanni and Quadi, "dwelling inforests and on mountain-tops", live the Marsigni, and Buri, who "in their language and manner oflife, resemble the Suevi".[26] (Living partly subject to the Quadi are the Gotini and Osi, who Tacitussays speak respectively Gaulish and Pannonian, and are therefore not Germans.) Ptolemy alsoplaces the "Lugi Buri" in mountains, along with a tribe called the Corconti. These mountains,stretching from near the upper Elbe to the headwaters of the Vistula, he calls the Askibourgianmountains. Between these mountains and the Quadi he adds several tribes, from north to souththese are the Sidones, Cotini (possibly Tacitus' Gotini) and the Visburgi. There is then theOrcynian (Hercyian) forest, which Ptolemy defines with relatively restricted boundaries, and then

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the Quadi.

Beyond this mountain range (probably the modern Sudetes) where the Marsigni and Buri lived, inthe area of modern southwest Poland, Tacitus reported a multitude of tribes, the most widespreadname of which was the Lugii. These included the Harii, Helveconae, Manimi, Helisii andNaharvali.[26] (Tacitus does not mention the language of the Lugii.) As mentioned above, Ptolemycategorizes the Buri amongst the Lugii, and concerning the Lugii north of the mountains, henamed two large groups, the Lougoi Omanoi and the Lougoi Didounoi, who live between the"Suevus" river (probably the Oder river) and the Vistula, south of the Burgundi.

These Burgundians who according to Ptolemy lived between the Baltic sea Germans and the Lugii,stretching between the Suevus and Vistula rivers, were described by Pliny the Elder (as opposedto Tacitus) as being not Suevic but Vandili, amongst whom he also included the Goths, and theVarini, both being people living north of them near the Baltic coast. Pliny's "Vandili" are generallythought to be speakers of what modern linguists refer to as Eastern Germanic. Between thecoastal Saxons and inland Suebi, Ptolemy names the Teutonari and the "Viruni" (presumably theVarini of Tacitus), and further east, between the coastal Farodini and the Suebi are the Teutonesand then the Avarni. Further east again, between the Burgundians and the coastal Rugiclei werethe "Aelvaeones" (presumably the Helveconae of Tacitus).

Baltic Sea [edit]

Tacitus called the Baltic sea the Suebian sea. (Pomponius Mela wrote in his Description of theWorld (III.3.31) beyond the Danish isles are "the farthest people of Germania, the Hermiones".)

North of the Lugii, near the Baltic Sea Tacitus places the Gothones (Goths), Rugii, and Lemovii.These three Germanic tribes share a tradition of having kings, and also similar arms - roundshields and short swords.[26] Ptolemy says that east of the Saxons, from the "Chalusus" river to the"Suevian" river are the Farodini, then the Sidini up to the "Viadua" river, and after these the

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"Rugiclei" up to the Vistula river (probably the "Rugii" of Tacitus). He does not specify if these areSuevi.

In the sea, the states of the Suiones, "powerful in ships" are according to Tacitus Germans with theSuevic (Baltic) sea on one side and an "almost motionless" sea on the other more remote side.Modern commentators believe this refers to Scandinavia.[27] Closely bordering on the Suiones andclosely resembling them, are the tribes of the Sitones.[28] Ptolemy describes Scandinavia as beinginhabited by Chaedini in the west, Favonae and Firaesi in the east, Finni in the north, Gautae andDauciones in the south, and Levoni in the middle. He does not describe them as Suebi.

Tacitus describes the non-Germanic Aestii on the eastern shore of the "Suevic Sea" (Baltic),"whose rites and fashions and style of dress are those of the Suevi, while their language is morelike the British"[28] After giving this account, Tacitus says: "Here Suebia ends."[29] Therefore forTacitus geographic "Suebia" comprises the entire periphery of the Baltic Sea, including within ittribes not identified as Suebi or even Germanic. On the other hand Tacitus does clearly considerthere to be not only a Suebian region, but also Suebian languages, and Suebian customs, whichall contribute to making a specific tribe more or less "Suebian".[30]

Cultural characteristics [edit]

Caesar noted that rather than grain crops, they spent time on husbandry and hunting. They woreanimal skins, bathed in rivers, consumed milk and meat products, and prohibited wine, allowingtrade only to dispose of their booty and otherwise they had no goods to export. They had noprivate ownership of land and were not permitted to stay resident in one place for more than oneyear. They were divided into 100 cantons each of which had to provide and support 1000 armedmen for the constant pursuit of war.

Strabo describes the Suebi and people from their part of the world as highly mobile and nomadic,

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unlike more settled and agricultural tribes such as the Chatti and Cherusci:

...they do not till the soil or even store up food, but live in small huts that are merelytemporary structures; and they live for the most part off their flocks, as the Nomadsdo, so that, in imitation of the Nomads, they load their household belongings on theirwagons and with their beasts turn whithersoever they think best.

Notable in classical sources, the Suebi can be identified by their hair style called the "Suebianknot", which "distinguishes the freeman from the slave";[31] or in other words served as a badge ofsocial rank. The same passage points out that chiefs "use an even more elaborate style".

Tacitus mentions the sacrifice of humans practiced by the Semnones in a sacred grove[24] and themurder of slaves used in the rites of Nerthus practiced by the tribes of Schleswig-Holstein.[25] Thechief priest of the Naharvali dresses as a woman and that tribe also worships in groves. The Hariifight at night dyed black. The Suiones own fleets of rowing vessels with prows at both ends.

Historical events [edit]

Ariovistus and the Suebi in 58 BC [edit]

Julius Caesar lived 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC. The Suebihe describes in his firsthand account, De Bello Gallico[32]

were the "largest and the most warlike nation of all theGermans".

Caesar confronted a large army lead by a Suevic Kingnamed Ariovistus in 58 BC who had been settled for sometime in Gaul already, at the invitation of the Gaulish Arverni

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Marble bust of Julius Caesar, firstcentury C.E.; recent discovery on theIsland of Pantelleri.

Wikisource has original textrelated to this article:

Commentaries on theGallic War/Book 4

and Sequani as part of their war against the Aedui. He hadalready been recognized as a king by the Roman senate.Ariovistus forbade the Romans from entering into Gaul.Caesar on the other hand saw himself and Rome as an allyand defender of the Aedui.

The forces Caesar faced in battle were composed of"Harudes, Marcomanni, Tribocci, Vangiones, Nemetes,Sedusii, and Suevi". While Caesar was preparing forconflict, a new force of Suebi was led to the Rhine by twobrothers, Nasuas and Cimberius, forcing Caesar to rush inorder to try to avoid the joining of forces.

Caesar defeated Ariovistus in battle, forcing him to escapeacross the Rhine. When news of this spread, the freshSuebian forces turned back in some panic, which led tolocal tribes living near the Rhine to take advantage of thesituation, attacking them.

Caesar and the Suebi in 55 BC [edit]

Also reported within Caesar's accounts of the Gallic wars, the Suebi posed another threat in 55BC.[33] The Germanic Ubii, who had worked out an alliance with Caesar, were complaining of beingharassed by the Suebi, and the Tencteri and Usipetes, already forced from their homes, tried tocross the Rhine and enter Gaul by force. Caesar bridged the Rhine, the first known to do so, witha pile bridge, which though considered a marvel, was dismantled after only eighteen days. TheSuebi abandoned their towns closest to the Romans, retreated to the forest and assembled anarmy. Caesar moved back across the bridge and broke it down, stating that he had achieved his

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objective of warning the Suebi. They in turn stopped harassing the Ubii.

Rhine crossing of 29 BC [edit]

Cassius Dio, wrote the history of Rome for a Greek audience, and lived approximately AD 150 –235. He reported that shortly before 29 BC the Suebi crossed the Rhine, only to be defeated byGaius Carrinas who along with the young Octavian Caesar celebrated a triumph in 29 BC.[34]

Shortly after they turn up fighting a group of Dacians in a gladiatorial display at Rome celebratingthe consecration of the Julian hero-shrine.

The victory of Drusus in 9 BC [edit]

Suetonius (c. 69 AD – after 122 AD), gives the Suebi brief mention in connection with their defeatagainst Nero Claudius Drusus in 9 BC. He says that the Suebi and Sugambri "submitted to him andwere taken into Gaul and settled in lands near the Rhine" while the other Germani were pushed "tothe farther side of the river Albis."[35] He must have meant the temporary military success ofDrusus, as it is unlikely the Rhine was cleared of Germans. Elsewhere he identifies the settlers as40,000 prisoners of war, only a fraction of the yearly draft of militia.[36]

Florus (c. 74 AD – c. 130 AD), gives a more detailed view of the operations of 9 BC. He reportsthat the Cherusci, Suebi and Sicambri formed an alliance by crucifying twenty Roman centurions,but that Drusus defeated them, confiscated their plunder and sold them into slavery.[37]

Presumably only the war party was sold, as the Suebi continue to appear in the ancient sources.

Florus's report of the peace brought to Germany by Drusus is glowing but premature. He built"more than five hundred forts" and two bridges guarded by fleets. "He opened a way through theHercynian Forest", which implies but still does not overtly state that he had subdued the Suebi. "Ina word, there was such peace in Germany that the inhabitants seemed changed ... and the veryclimate milder and softer than it used to be."

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In the Annales of Tacitus, it is mentioned that after the defeat of 9 BC Augustus divided theGermans by making a separate peace with the Sugambri and Suebi under their king Maroboduus.This is the first mention of any permanent king of the Suebi.[38] However, Maroboduus' people wasin most sources referred to as the Marcomanni, a name that had already existed since Caesar'stime, and which Caesar had treated as a separate people. At some point in this period came to besettled in the forested regions once inhabited by the Boii, in and around Bohemia.

Augustus planned in 6 AD to destroy the kingdom of Maroboduus, which he considered to be toodangerous for the Romans. The later Emperor Tiberius commanded twelve legions to attack theMarcomanni. But the outbreak of a revolt in Illyria, and the need for troops there, forced Tiberius toconclude a treaty with Maroboduus and to recognize him as king.[39]

Roman defeat in 9 AD [edit]

Main article: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

After the death of Drusus the Cherusci annihilated three legions at the Battle of Teutoburg Forestand thereafter "... the empire ... was checked on the banks of the Rhine." While elements of theSuevi may have been involved this was an alliance mainly made up of non-Suebic tribes fromnorthwestern Germany, the Cherusci, Marsi, Chatti, Bructeri, Chauci, and Sicambri. The kingdomof Marcomanni, and their allies stayed out of the conflict and when Maroboduus was sent the headof the defeated Roman leader Varus, he sent it on to Rome for burial. Within his alliance wereother Suebic peoples, Hermunduri, Quadi, Semnones, Lugii, Zumi, Butones, Mugilones, Sibini andLangobards.

Aftermath of 9 AD [edit]

Subsequently Augustus placed Germanicus, the son of Drusus, in charge of the forces of theRhine and he after dealing with a mutiny of the troops proceeded against the Cherusci and their

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allies, breaking their power finally at the battle of Idistavisus, a plain on the Weser. All eight legionsand supporting units of Gauls were required to do that.[40] Germanicus' zeal led finally to his beingreplaced (17 AD) by his cousin Drusus, Tiberius' son, as Tiberius thought it best to follow hispredecessor's policy of limiting the empire. Germanicus certainly would have involved the Suebi,with unpredictable results.[38]

Arminius, leader of the Cherusci and allies, now had a free hand. He accused Maroboduus ofhiding in the Hercynian Forest while the other Germans fought for freedom, and accusedMaroboduus of being the only king among the Germans. The two groups "turned their armsagainst each other." The Suebic Semnones and Langobardi rebelled against their king and wentover to the Cherusci. Left with only the Marcomanni and Herminius' uncle, who had defected,Maroboduus appealed to Drusus, now governor of Illyricum, and was given only a pretext of aid.[41]

The resulting battle was indecisive but Maroboduus withdrew to Bohemia and sent for assistanceto Tiberius. He was refused on the grounds that he had not moved to help Varus. Drususencouraged the Germans to finish him off. A force of Goths under Catualda, a Marcomannianexile, bought off the nobles and seized the palace. Maroboduus escaped to Noricum and theRomans offered him refuge in Ravenna where he remained the rest of his life.[42] He died in 37 AD.After his expulsion the leadership of the Marcomanni was contested by their Suebic neighboursand allies, the Hermunduri and Quadi.

Marcomannic wars [edit]

Main article: Marcomannic Wars

In the 2nd century AD, the Marcomanni entered into a confederation with other peoples includingthe Quadi, Vandals, and Sarmatians, against the Roman Empire. The war began in 166, when theMarcomanni overwhelmed the defences between Vindobona and Carnuntum, penetrated along theborder between the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum, laid waste to Flavia Solva, and could be

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Alemanni expansion and Roman-Alemannic battle sites, 3rd to 5thcentury

stopped only shortly before reaching Aquileia on the Adriatic sea. The war lasted until MarcusAurelius' death in 180.

In the third century Jordanes claims that the Marcomanni paid tribute to the Goths, and that theprinces of the Quadi were enslaved. The Vandals, who had moved south towards Pannonia, wereapparently still sometimes able to defend themselves.[43]

Migration period [edit]

In 259/60, a group of Suebi appear to have been the mainelement in the formation of a new tribal alliance known asthe Alamanni who came to occupy the Roman frontierregion known as the Agri Decumates, east of the Rhineand south of the Main. The Alamanni were sometimessimply referred to as Suebi by contemporaries, and theregion came to be known as Swabia - a name whichsurvives to this day. People in this region of Germany arestill called Schwaben, a name derived from the Suebi.

These Suebi for the most part stayed on the right bank ofthe Rhine until December 31 406, when much of the tribejoined the Vandals and Alans in breaching the Romanfrontier by crossing the Rhine, perhaps at Mainz, thuslaunching an invasion of northern Gaul.

Other Suebi apparently remained in or near to the original homeland areas near the Elbe and themodern Czech Republic, occasionally still being referred to by this term. They expanded eventuallyinto Roman areas such as Switzerland, Austria, and Bavaria, possibly pushed by groups arriving

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from the east.

Another group of Suebi, the so-called "northern Suebi" were mentioned in 569 under Frankish kingSigebert I in areas of today's Saxony-Anhalt which were known as Schwabengau or Svebengau atleast until the 12th century. In connection to the Svebi, Saxons and Lombards, returning from theItalian Peninsula in 573, are also mentioned.

Further south, a group of Suebi settled in parts of Pannonia, after the Huns were defeated in 454in the Battle of Nedao. Later, the Suebian king Hunimund fought against the Ostrogoths in thebattle of Bolia in 469. The Suebian coalition lost the battle, and parts of the Suebi thereforemigrated to southern Germany.[44]

Kingdom of Gallaecia [edit]

Main article: Kingdom of the Suebi

Migration [edit]

Suebi under their king Hermeric, probably coming from the Alamanni, or maybe from the Quadi (orboth), worked their way into the south of France, eventually crossing the Pyrenees and enteringthe Iberian Peninsula which was out of Imperial rule since the rebellion of Gerontius and Maximusin 409.

Passing through the Basque country, they settled in the Roman province of Gallaecia, in north-western Hispania (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), swore fealty to the Emperor Honoriusand were accepted as foederati and permitted to settle, under their own autonomous governance.Contemporaneously with the self-governing province of Britannia, the kingdom of the Suebi inGallaecia became the first of the sub-Roman kingdoms to be formed in the disintegrating territoryof the Western Roman Empire. Suebic Gallaecia was the first kingdom separated from the RomanEmpire to mint coins.

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Road sign at the village of Suevos,Ames (Galicia).

The Suebic kingdom in Gallaecia and northern Lusitania was established at 410 and lasted until584. Smaller than the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy or the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania, it reacheda relative stability and prosperity—and even expanded military southwards—despite theoccasional quarrels with the neighbouring Visigothic kingdom.

Settlement [edit]

The Germanic invaders and immigrants settled mainly inrural areas, as Idacius clearly stated: "The Hispanic, spredover cities and oppida..." and the "Barbarians, govern overthe provinces". According to Dan Stanislawski, thePortuguese way of living in Northern regions is mostlyinherited from the Suebi, in which small farms prevail,distinct from the large properties of Southern Portugal.Bracara Augusta, the modern city of Braga and formercapital of Roman Gallaecia, became the capital of theSuebi. Orosius, at that time resident in Hispania, shows arather pacific initial settlement, the newcomers workingtheir lands[45] or serving as bodyguards of the locals.[46] Another Germanic group thataccompanied the Suebi and settled in Gallaecia were the Buri. They settled in the region betweenthe rivers Cávado and Homem, in the area known as Terras de Bouro (Lands of the Buri).[47]

As the Suebi quickly adopted the local language, few traces were left of their Germanic tongue, butfor some words and for their personal and land names, adopted by most of the Galicians.[48] InGalicia four parishes and six villages are named Suevos or Suegos, i.e. Sueves, after old Suebicsettlements.

Establishment [edit]

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The Visigoths were sent in 416 by the Emperor to fight the Germanic invaders in Hispania, but theysoon re-established themselves as foederati in Aquitania after completely defeating the Alans andthe Silingi Vandals. The absence of competition permitted, first the Asdingi Vandals and later theSuebi, to expand South and East. At its heyday Suebic Gallaecia extended as far south as Méridaand Seville, capitals of the Roman provinces of Lusitania and Betica, while their expeditionsreached Zaragoza and Lleida.

In 438 Hermeric ratified the peace with the Gallaeci, the local and just partially romanized ruralpopulation, and sick and weary of fighting abdicated in favour of his son Rechila, who proved to bea notable general, defeating first Andevotus, Romanae militiae dux,[49] and later Vitus magisterutriusque militiae. In 448, Rechila died, leaving the crown to his son Rechiar who had converted toRoman Catholicism circa 447. Soon, he married a daughter of the Gothic king Theodoric I, andbegan a wave of attacks on the Tarraconense, still a Roman province. By 456 the campaigns ofRechiar clashed with the interests of the Visigoths, and a large army of Roman federates(Visigoths under the command of Theodoric II, Burgundians directed by kings Gundioc andChilperic) crossed the Pyrenees into Hispania, and defeated the Suebi near modern day Astorga.Rechiar was executed after being captured by his brother-in-law, the Visigothic king Theodoric II. In459, Roman Emperor Majorian defeated the Suebi, briefly restoring Roman rule in northernHispania. Nevertheless, the Suebi became free of Roman control forever after Majorian wasassassinated two years later. The Suebic kingdom then became cornered in the northwest, inGallaecia and northern Lusitania, where political division and civil war arose among severalpretenders to the royal throne. After years of turmoil, Remismund was recognized as the sole kingof the Suebi, bringing forth a politic of friendship with the Visigoths, and favoring the conversion ofhis people to Arianism.

Last years of the kingdom [edit]

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The Suebic kingdom of Gallaecia(green), c. 550, (with borders of theformer Roman provinces of Hispania)

In 561 king Ariamir called the catholic First Council ofBraga, which dealt with the old problem of the Priscillianismheresy. Eight years after, in 569, king Theodemir calledthe First Council of Lugo,[50] in order to increase thenumber of dioceses within his kingdom. Its acts have beenpreserved through a medieval resume known asParrochiale Suevorum or Divisio Theodemiri.

Defeat by the Visigoths [edit]

In 570 the Arian king of the Visigoths, Leovigild, made hisfirst attack on the Suebi. Between 572 and 574, Leovigildinvaded the valley of the Douro, pushing the Suebi westand northwards. In 575 the Suebic king, Miro, made a peace treaty with Leovigild in what seemedto be the beginning of a new period of stability. Yet, in 583 Miro supported the rebellion of theCatholic Gothic prince Hermenegild, engaging in military action against king Leovigild, althoughMiro was defeated in Seville when trying to break on through the blockade on the Catholic prince.As a result he was forced to recognize Leovigild as friend and protector, for him and for hissuccessors, dying back home just some months later. His son, king Eboric, confirmed thefriendship with Leovigild, but he was deposed just a year later by his brother-in-law Audeca, givingLeovigild an excuse to attack the kingdom. In 585 AD, first Audeca and later Malaric, weredefeated and the Suebic kingdom was incorporated into the Visigothic one as its sixth province.The Suebi were respected in their properties and freedom, and they continue to dwell in Gallaecia,finally merging with the rest of the local population during the early Middle Ages.

Religion [edit]

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Christian Chi-Rho on a 5th-centurymarble table, Quiroga, Galicia.

Conversion to Arianism [edit]

The Suebi remained mostly pagan and their subjects Priscillianist until an Arian missionary namedAjax, sent by the Visigothic king Theodoric II at the request of the Suebic unifier Remismund, in466 converted them and established a lasting Arian church which dominated the people until theconversion to Catholicism in the 560s.

Conversion to Catholicism [edit]

Mutually incompatible accounts of the conversion of theSuebi to Catholicism are presented in the primary records:

The minutes of the First Council of Braga — which meton 1 May 561 — state explicitly that the synod was heldat the orders of a king named Ariamir. Of the eightassistant bishops, just one bears a Suebic name:Hildemir. While the Catholicism of Ariamir is not indoubt, that he was the first Catholic monarch of theSuebes since Rechiar has been contested on thegrounds that his Catholicism is not explicitlystated.[clarification needed][51] He was, however, the firstSuebic monarch to hold a Catholic synod, and whenthe Second Council of Braga was held at the request ofking Miro, a Catholic himself,[52] in 572, of the twelve assistant bishops five bears Suebicnames: Remisol of Viseu, Adoric of Idanha, Wittimer of Ourense, Nitigis of Lugo and Anila ofTui.

The Historia Suevorum of Isidore of Seville states that a king named Theodemar brought aboutthe conversion of his people from Arianism with the help of the missionary Martin of Dumio.[53]

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According to the Frankish historian Gregory of Tours on the other hand, an otherwise unknownsovereign named Chararic, having heard of Martin of Tours, promised to accept the beliefs ofthe saint if only his son would be cured of leprosy. Through the relics and intercession of SaintMartin the son was healed; Chararic and the entire royal household converted to the Nicenefaith.[54]

By 589, when the Third Council of Toledo was held, and the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledoconverses officially from Arianism to Catholicism, king Reccared I stated in its minutes that also"an infinite number of Suebi have converted", together with the Goths, which implies that theearlier conversion were either superficial or partial. In the same council 4 bishops fromGallaecia abjured of their Arianism. And so, the Suebic conversion is ascribed, not to a Suebe,but to a Visigoth by John of Biclarum, who puts their conversion alongside that of the Goths,occurring under Reccared I in 587–589.

Most scholars have attempted to meld these stories. It has been alleged that Chararic andTheodemir must have been successors of Ariamir, since Ariamir was the first Suebic monarch to liftthe ban on Catholic synods; Isidore therefore gets the chronology wrong.[55][56] Reinhartsuggested that Chararic was converted first through the relics of Saint Martin and that Theodemirwas converted later through the preaching of Martin of Dumio.[51] Dahn equated Chararic withTheodemir, even saying that the latter was the name he took upon baptism.[51] It has also beensuggested that Theodemir and Ariamir were the same person and the son of Chararic.[51] In theopinion of some historians, Chararic is nothing more than an error on the part of Gregory of Toursand never existed.[57] If, as Gregory relates, Martin of Dumio died about the year 580 and hadbeen bishop for about thirty years, then the conversion of Chararic must have occurred around550 at the latest.[54] Finally, Ferreiro believes the conversion of the Suebi was progressive andstepwise and that Chararic's public conversion was only followed by the lifting of a ban on Catholicsynods in the reign of his successor, which would have been Ariamir; Thoedemir was responsible

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The distribution of the primaryGermanic dialect groups in Europe inaround AD 1:

North Germanic

, or Ingvaeonic

for beginning a persecution of the Arians in his kingdom to root out their heresy.[58]

Norse mythology [edit]

The name of the Suebi also appears in Norse mythology and in early Scandinavian sources. Theearliest attestation is the Proto-Norse name Swabaharjaz ("Suebian warrior") on the Rö runestoneand in the place name Svogerslev.[5] Sváfa, whose name means "Suebian",[59] was a Valkyrie whoappears in the eddic poem Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar. The kingdom Sváfaland also appears inthis poem and in the Þiðrekssaga.

Language [edit]

While there is debate possible about whether all tribesidentified by Romans as Germanic spoke a Germaniclanguage, the Suebi are generally agreed to have spokenone, and classical sources refer to a Suebian language. Inparticular, the Suebi are associated with the concept of an"Elbe Germanic" group of early dialects, entering Germanyfrom the East, and originating on the Baltic. In late classicaltimes, these dialects, by now situated to the south of theElbe, and stretching across the Danube into the Romanempire, experienced the High German consonant shift thatdefines modern High German, and in its most extremeform, Upper Germanic dialects.[60]

Modern Swabian German, and Alemannic German morebroadly, are therefore "assumed to have evolved at least

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North Sea Germanic, or Ingvaeonic

Weser-Rhine Germanic, or

Istvaeonic Elbe Germanic, or Irminonic

East Germanic

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Suebi.

Ancient Germanic culture portal

in part" from Suebian.[61] However, Bavarian, Thuringian,the Langobardic language spoken by the Lombards ofItaly, and standard "High German" itself, are also at leastpartly derived from the dialects spoken by the Suebi. (Theonly non-Suebian name among the major groups of UpperGermanic dialects is High Franconian, but this is on thetransitional frontier with "Central" high German dialects, as is neighboring Thuringian.)[60]

See also [edit]

Swabia

Dukes of Swabia family tree

Germanic personal names in Galicia

Laeti

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Menzel, Wolfgang; Mrs. George Horrocks (Translator); Edgar Saltus (Supplementary Chapter)(MDCCCXCIX). Germany from the Earliest Period: Volume I. New York: Peter Fenelon Collier. p. 89.Check date values in: |date= (help)

2. ^ Tacitus Germania Section 8, translation by H. Mattingly.

3. ^ "Germanic Tribes". Late Antiquity . Harvard University Press. 1999. p. 467. ISBN 9780674511736

4. ^ "Caes. Gal. 4.1" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

5. ̂a b Peterson, Lena. "Swābaharjaz" (PDF). Lexikon över urnordiska personnamn. Institutet förspråk och folkminnen, Sweden. p. page 16. Retrieved 2007-10-11. (Text in Swedish); for analternative meaning, as "free, independent" see Room, Adrian (2006). "Placenames of the World:Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features andHistoric Sites: Second Edition". Jefferson, North Carolina, and London: McFarland & Company, Inc.,

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Publishers. pp. 363, 364. ISBN 0786422483. |chapter= ignored (help); compare Suiones

6. ^ Pokorny, Julius. "Root/Lemma se-" . Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED), Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics,Leiden University. pp. pages 882–884. (German language text); locate by searching the pagenumber.Köbler, Gerhard (2000). "*se-" (PDF). Indogermanisches Wörterbuch: 3. Auflage. p. page188. (German language text); the etymology in English is in Watkins, Calvert (2000). "s(w)e-" .Appendix I: Indo-European Roots. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language:Fourth Edition. Some related English words are sibling, sister, swain, self.

7. ^ Schrijver, Peter (2003). "The etymology of Welsh chwith and the semantics and morphology of PIE*k(w)sweibh-". In Russell, Paul. Yr Hen Iaith: Studies in Early Welsh. Aberystwyth: Celtic StudiesPublications. ISBN 978-1-891271-10-6.

8. ^ Peck. "Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities year=1898"

9. ^ Chambers, R. W. (1912). Widseth: a Study in Old English Heroic Legend. Cambridge: UniversityPress. pp. 194, note on line 22 of Widsith. Republished in 2006 by Kissinger Publishing as ISBN 1-4254-9551-6.

10. ^ "Book IV section XIV" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

11. ^ "Strab. 7.1" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

12. ^ Maurer, Friedrich (1942, 1952). Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur germanischen undfrühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes - und Volkskunde. Bern, München: A. Franke Verlag,Leo Lehnen Verlag. Check date values in: |date= (help)

13. ^ Kossinna, Gustaf (1911). Die Herkunft der Germanen. Leipzig: Kabitsch.

14. ̂a b "Tac. Ger. 28" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

15. ^ "Strab. 7.1" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

16. ^ "Section 41" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

17. ^ "Section 42" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

18. ^ "Chapt 22" . Romansonline.com. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

19. ^ Strabo (approximately 20 AD). Geographica. Book IV Chapter 3 Section 4. Check date values in:

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|date= (help)

20. ^ " ''Geography'', Book II, chapter X" . Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

21. ^ Schütte, Ptolemy's Maps of Northern Europe22. ^ " ''Geography'' 7.2" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

23. ^ " ''Geography'' 7.3" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

24. ̂a b Germania Section 39.

25. ̂a b c Germania Section 40.

26. ̂a b c "Section 43" . Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

27. ^ Section 44.

28. ̂a b Germania Section 45

29. ^ Section 46.

30. ^ Tacitus' modern editor Arthur J. Pomeroy concludes "it is clear that there is no monolithic 'Suebic'group, but a series of tribes who may share some customs (for instance, warrior burials) but alsovary considerably." Pomeroy, Arthur J. (1994). "Tacitus' Germania". The Classical Review: NewSeries 44 (1): 58–59. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00290446 . A review in English of Neumann, Gunter;Henning Seemann. Beitrage zum Verstandnis der Germania des Tacitus, Teil II: Bericht uber dieKolloquien der Kommission fur die Altertumskunde Nord- und Mitteleuropas im Jahre 1986 und1987. A German-language text.

31. ^ Section 38.

32. ^ Book IV, sections 1-3, and 19; Book VI, section 10.

33. ^ Book IV sections 4-19.

34. ^ Dio, Lucius Claudius Cassius; Herbert Baldwin Foster (Translator). "Dio's Rome" (ascii text).Project Gutenberg. pp. Book 51 sections 21, 22.

35. ^ Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius. "The Life of Augustus" . The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. BillThayer in LacusCurtius. pp. section 21.

36. ^ Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius. "The Life of Tiberius" . The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. BillThayer in LacusCurtius. pp. section 9.

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37. ^ Florus, Lucius Annaeus. Epitome of Roman History. Book II section 30.

38. ̂a b Book II section 26.

39. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History 2, 109, 5; Cassius Dio, Roman History 55,28, 6-7

40. ^ Book II section 16.

41. ^ Book II sections 44-46.

42. ^ Book II sections 62-63.

43. ^ "chapt 16" . Romansonline.com. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

44. ^ Geschichte der Goten. Entwurf einer historischen Ethnographie, C.H. Beck, 1. Aufl. (München1979), 2. Aufl. (1980), unter dem Titel: Die Goten. Von den Anfängen bis zur Mitte des sechstenJahrhunderts. 4. Aufl. (2001)

45. ^ "the barbarians, detesting their swords, turn them into ploughs", Historiarum Adversum Paganos,VII, 41, 6.

46. ^ "anyone wanting to leave or to depart, uses these barbarians as mercenaries, servers ordefenders", Historiarum Adversum Paganos, VII, 41, 4.

47. ^ Domingos Maria da Silva, Os Búrios, Terras de Bouro, Câmara Municipal de Terras de Bouro,2006. (in Portuguese)

48. ^ Medieval Galician records show more than 1500 different Germanic names in use for over 70% ofthe local population. Also, in Galicia and northern Portugal, there are more than 5.000 toponyms(villages and towns) based on personal Germanic names (Mondariz < *villa *Mundarici; Baltar < *villa*Baldarii; Gomesende < *villa *Gumesenþi; Gondomar < *villa *Gunþumari...); and several toponymsnot based on personal names, mainly in Galicia (Malburgo, Samos < Samanos "Congregated", neara hundred Saa/Sá < *Sala "house, palace"...); and some lexical influence on the Galician languageand Portuguese language, such as:laverca "lark" < protogermanic *laiwarikō "lark"brasa "torch; ember" < protogermanic *blasōn "torch"britar "to break" < protogermanic *breutan "to break"lobio "vine gallery" < protogermanic *laubjōn "leaves"

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ouva "elf" < protogermanic *albaz "elf"trigar "to urge" < protogermanic *þreunhan "to urge"maga "guts (of fish)" < protogermanic *magōn "stomach"

49. ^ Isidorus Hispalensis, Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum, 85

50. ^ Ferreiro, 199 n11.

51. ̂a b c d Thompson, 86.

52. ^ St. Martin on Braga wrote in his Formula Vitae Honestae Gloriosissimo ac tranquillissimo etinsigni catholicae fidei praedito pietate Mironi regi

53. ^ Ferreiro, 198 n8.

54. ̂a b Thompson, 83.

55. ^ Thompson, 87.

56. ^ Ferreiro, 199.

57. ^ Thompson, 88.

58. ^ Ferreiro, 207.

59. ^ Peterson, Lena. (2002). Nordiskt runnamnslexikon, at Institutet för språk och folkminnen,Sweden. [dead link]

60. ̂a b Robinson, Orrin (1992), Old English and its Closest Relatives pages 194-5.

61. ^ Waldman & Mason, 2006, Encyclopedia of European Peoples, p. 784.

Bibliography [edit]

Ferreiro, Alberto. "Braga and Tours: Some Observations on Gregory's De virtutibus sanctiMartini." Journal of Early Christian Studies. 3 (1995), p. 195–210.

Thompson, E. A.. "The Conversion of the Spanish Suevi to Catholicism." Visigothic Spain: NewApproaches. ed. Edward James. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-19-822543-1.

External links [edit]

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[hide]V · T · E ·

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Suebi.

The Chronicle of Hydatius is the main source for thehistory of the Suebi in Galicia and Portugal up to 468.

Identity and Interaction: the Suevi and the Hispano-Romans, University of Virginia, 2007

Medieval Galician anthroponomy

Minutes of the Councils of Braga and Toledo , in the Collectio Hispana GallicaAugustodunensisOrosius' Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII

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