Emperor (1852-1870)

Napoleon “the small”

• Elected in 1848 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

• - a strong, authoritarian national leader

• National assembly rejected his wish to revise the constitution and be allowed to stand for reelection

• Used troops to seize control of the government Dec.1, 1851

• Dec. 2 dismissed the assembly

• After restoring universal male suffrage

• Napoleon asked the people the elect him president for 10 years (92%)

• 7.5 million yes votes

• 640, 000 no votes

• November 21, 1852 asked for the restoration of the empire 97% voted in favor of it

• Controlled the armed forces, police, and civil service

• Only he could introduce legislation and declare war.

• Legislative Corps- gave the appearance of representative government1st 5 years were a success

Economic prosperity

Industrial growth

Construction of railroads,

harbors, roads, and canals

Hospitals

Free medicine for workers

Better housing for the

working class

• Broad boulevards, spacious buildings, circular plazas, public squares,

and underground sewage systems.

• Legalized trade Unions (Right to Strike)

• Legislative Corps permitted more say in affairs of State

• Ottoman Empire was in decline

• Independent- Serbia 1817, Greece 1830

• Russia had gained a protectorate over Moldavia and Walachia in 1829

• Austria and Russia wanted Ottoman lands

• Russia demanded the right to protect

Christian Shrines in Palestine

• Ottomans refused Russia invaded and the

Ottomans declared war on Russia Oct 4,

1853

• March 28, 1854 Great Britain and France

declared war on Russia

• Both feared the balance of Power would be

upset

• Napoleon III felt that Russia insulted France

first at the Congress of Vienna and by

replacing the French as the Protectors of

Christians living in the Ottoman Empire

• Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg

• Britain and France decided to attack Russia’s Crimean peninsula

in the Black sea

• Sevastopol fell in September 1855 Six months after the death of

(Czar Nicholas I)

• Alexander II sued for peace Treaty of Paris March 1856

• 280,000 Soldiers died 60% from disease (mainly Cholera)

Insistence on strict sanitary conditions

helped make the nursing profession

Austria and Russia were now enemies because of Austria’s unwillingness to support Russia in the war

Russia was defeated, humiliated and weakened

• The Unification of Italy

• Unification efforts focused on the northern Italian of Piedmont

• The Royal house of Savoy ruled Piedmont Savoy and Sardinia

• King Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Count Camillo di Cavour

• Cavour allied Piedmont with France in driving the Austrians out of Italy

• France would receive nice and Savoy

• Cavour provoked the Austrians into invading piedmont in April 1859

• French defeated Austrians early in the war (2 battles)

• France made peace with Austria on July 11, 1859 without informing their Italian ally

• Why- the Austrian army was not defeated

Prussia was mobilizing in support of Austria

• Piedmont received Lombardy- other Italian

stated agreed to join Piedmont

•

• Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia

• Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

• Support Mazzini and young Italy raised an army of volunteers known as Red shirts.

• Conquered Sicily (two Sicilies) from the Bourbon King- July 1860 Naples and mainland Sicily fell in September.

• Garibaldi favored democratic Republicanism

• Plebiscites in the Papal States and the kingdom of the two Sicilies, resulted I Union with Piedmont

• March 17 1861 Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under control of King Victor Emmanuel II (1861-1878) Cavour died 3 Months later

• Venetia still held by Austria and Rome under Papal control and allied with France.

new Italian state allied with Prussia,

Prussia’s victory gave Italy Venetia 1870

Withdraw of French troops from Rome

city was annexed September 20, 1870

• Zollverein- formed by Prussia in 1834 a German customs Union that eliminated tolls on rivers and roads

• Zollverein had stimulated trade and added to the prosperity of German states

• 1861 King Fredrick

William IV died-

succeeded by his brother

King William I

• doubled the size of the

military

• 3 years compulsory

military service for all

young men

• Appointed Prime Minister 1862

• Born into the Junker class “aristocrat”

• Realpolitik- Ultimate realist

• 1862- Germany does not look to Prussia’s liberalism

but to her power… “Not by speeches and majorities

will the great questions of the day be decided- that

was the mistake of 1848-1849- but by iron and

blood.”

• Bismarck governed Prussia by ignoring parliament

• Bismarck victories were as much diplomatic and

political as they were military

• The Danish War (1864)

• Over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein

• The Danes were quickly defeated

• Prussia took Schleswig

• Austria administered Holstein

• Bismarck realized Austria would have to be excluded

from German affairs for Prussia to expand its power

and dominate Germany

• Bismarck made an alliance with the new Italian state

and promised it Venetia-

goaded Austria into war June 14, 1866

• Austria was quickly defeated

• Austria lost only Venetia to Italy but was excluded

from affairs

• North German Confederation controlled by Prussia

• Prussia annexed Schleswig and Holstein, Hanover and

Hesse-Cassel

The Ems dispatch of 1870, was a communication between King

William of Prussia (later German Emperor William I) and his

premier, Otto von Bismarck. In June, 1870, the throne of Spain

was offered to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a

relative of King William. Leopold at first accepted the

candidacy, but withdrew it in July after the French government

had protested. During these transactions William and Bismarck

were taking the waters at Ems, Germany. There the French

ambassador Comte Benedetti, in an interview with the king,

requested William's guarantee that the candidacy of Leopold

to the Spanish throne would never be renewed. William rejected

the request. Bismarck, intent on provoking war with France,

made the king's report of the conversation public (July 13) in his

celebrated Ems dispatch, which he edited in a manner certain to

provoke the French. France declared war on July 19, and the

Franco-Prussian War began

• Queen Isabella II of Spain was deposed in a revolution the

Spanish throne was offered to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern a

relative of King William I

• The French ambassador asked for a formal apology to France

and promise never to allow Leopold to be a candidate again

• Bismarck edited the telegram from the King to make it appear

more insulting to the French -Ems Dispatch

• The French declared war on Prussia July 15, 1870

• The southern German states honored their alliance with Prussia

• The Prussian army advanced into France

• September 2, 1870 an entire French army and Napoleon III

were captured

This battle, the most decisive of the war, was fought September 1,

1870. The French, under Marshal Macmahon, who was wounded

early in the action, were driven from all their positions by the

Germans, under the King of Prussia, and compelled to retire into

Sedan, where they laid down their arms.

The Emperor Napoleon III was among the prisoners, and one of

the results of the surrender was his dethronement and the

proclamation of a republic in Paris.

• Prussian troops marching through Paris

• Paris surrendered January 28, 1871

• Peace Treaty- France had to pay $5 Billion francs and give up

the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine

• January 18, 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles William I

proclaimed Kaiser of the 2nd German Empire

Prussian Leadership of

German Unification

triumph of authoritarian,

militaristic values over

liberal constitution values

• 1850’s poor agrarian society

• 90% of the population lived on the land

• Open field system

• Serfdom- serfs and serf families were often sold

• “It is better to abolish serfdom from

above than to wait until it is

abolished from below”

• March 3, 1861 emancipation edict

1864 Zemstvos- local assemblies

Institution for local government

Railroads- enabled Russia to export grain

People’s will assassinated Alexander II in 1881

Alexander III (1881-1894) –reactionary

Sergei Witte-

minister of finance

1892-1903

• 1903 Russia established a sphere of influence in Manchuria

• Russia and Japan were both vying for Korea.

• February 1904 Japanese launched a sneak attacked against Russia-Port Arthur (Vladivostok)

• 1905 Russia accepted a humiliating defeat (Treaty of Portsmouth).

Middle class, liberals, Nationalists and peasant among the discontent

imposing Russian culture on ethnic groups in the empire

• Petition of grievances to the Czar- Jan 9 1905 (winter palace)

• Troops open fire killing hundreds and became known as

“Bloody Sunday”

• Incited strikes and formation of Unions general strike in October 1905

•October Manifesto- granted civil liberties and created a legislative assembly

• Known as the Duma

• (Czar had absolute veto power)

• This satisfied middle-class moderates

• Czar dismissed Duma

• More radical Duma elected in 1907

• Dismissed after 3 months by the Czar

• New law guaranteed half the seats in the Dumato landowners

• Nation-States 1871-1914

• Universal male suffrage

Woman’s suffrage movement

• Modern-anti-Semitism

• Unusual peace and prosperity

• No European Wars among the

great powers

• Progress toward democracy

great powers were more

democratic in 1914 than 1870

• 4 Kingdoms: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg

• Federal Union-Prussia and 24 smaller states

• Chancellor-Otto Von Bismarck popularly elected lower house Reichstag

• “Authoritarian, conservative, military-bureaucratic state” most powerful country on the continent

• Kulturkampf “struggle for civilization”

• Attack on the Catholic Church (1870’s)

• Bismarck wanted loyalty to the German State ahead of

the Catholic Church

• 1876-the only Catholic Bishops left in Prussia were in

prison

• Protective tariff 1879-

against cheap grain

• Protectionism-higher tariffs

• Late 1870’s Bismarck

ended Kulturkampf and

shifted his attention to

Socialism

• Social measures- pensions

benefits

• First ever social security

system

• Health Insurance- 1883

1890 dismissed Bismarck forced him to resign

• The Enlightenment and French Revolution led to

legal equality in many European countries

• French Revolution- full citizenship for Jews.

• Jewish assimilation in the 19th century was most

successful in Germany

• New professionals law, medicine and Journalism

• Germany-first with public education

• High rate of intermarriage

• 1/3 of married Jews are to non-Jews

• 1900 -Jewish leaders fear assimilation

• Third Republic surrendered to Germany

• January 1871

• Loss of Alsace and Lorraine and 5 billion francs

• Government selected by universal male suffrage

• monarchists won 400 out of 630 seats in the

new National Assembly

Thiers’ government was seen as:

• Too conservative.

• Too royalist.

• Too ready to accept a humiliating peace with Prussia.Pruss

The French government established itself at Versailles, NOT in Paris.

• Parisians were angered by this.

• They opposed the policies of this new government.

• It attempted to restore order in Paris.

Radical Republicans formed their own government in Paris known

as the Commune (1871) First commune (1791)

• The Paris Commune [Communards] was

elected on March 28 and established itself

at the Hôtel de Ville.

• National Assembly decided to crush the commune during the last week in May

• government troops massacred thousands of the commune’s defenders

• Estimated 20,000 shot

• Another 10,000 sent to the French Penal colony of New Caledonia in the South Pacific.

Marx viewed the Commune as “a class struggle of workers attacking

bourgeois interests, which were embodied in the centralized state”

Manet, The Barricade

In this detail from his painting

The Barricade, Edouard Manet

(1832-1883) captures a scene

from the Paris Commune of

1871. The communards are

trying to protect themselves

with barricades from the

onslaught of government

troops. Although fewer than

one thousand government

soldiers died, over 25,000

communards were killed.

(Hungarian National Museum)

• A street in Paris in May 1871, by Maximilien Luce

• Monarchist were unable to agree on who should be king

• 1875 constitution established a republican form of government.

• The Third Republic lasted 65 years

• Jewish captain in the French Army accused of selling military secrets to Germany.

• Found guilty in court based on false evidence and sentenced to life in prison (on Devils Island) off the coast of South America.

• A few years later new evidence showed that Dreyfus was framed by army officers.

• Public opinion was divided

1898 Emile Zola published an open letter (I Accuse) Zola denounced the army for covering up the scandal

Zola was given a year in prison, eventually the French government declared Dreyfus innocent

• Queen Victoria (1837-1901) 2nd longest in English history

• Victorian age- sense of duty and moral respectability

• Henry John Temple- Lord Palmerston

• Whigs- after 1865 were called Liberals

• ( Whigs changed their name to Liberal party)

• Tory/Conservative leader Benjamin Disraeli

• (son of a Jewish stockbroker)

• A Member of Parliament to Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli:

“Sir, you will either die on the gallows or of some unspeakable disease.”

• Disraeli: “That depends, sir, on whether I embrace your policies or your mistress.”

• Reform Act 1867

lowered monetary

requirements for

voting

• Voters increased

from 1 to 2 million

• Liberal Victory 1868

• William Gladstone

(4 terms as Prime Minister)

• 1st administration 1868-

1874 1880-1885 , 1886,

1892-1894

Civil service exams and secret ballot (1872)

all men who paid regular rents or taxes

(enfranchised agricultural workers)

1906-1914 liberal party increased taxes on the rich, passed extensive social welfare measures and eliminated the House of Lords as a real power in British Politics

New political party organized around 1900.

Keir Hardie becomes 1st Labour MP

Intellectuals concerned with social welfare- named after Roman

dictator Fabius, who was noted for delaying tactics. They were

successful propagandists- able to keep issues of social reform in

the public eye. Supported the new Labour party.

Included George Bernard Shaw and novelist H.G. Wells. Fabian

socialists argued that class conflict was not necessary, and that

reasonable gradual measures would result in socialism.

• This 1910 poster protested

the force-feeding of

suffragettes on hunger strike

in Britain. It invited voters to

reject the Liberal

government, guilty of what

suffragettes viewed as state

torture.

Gladstone introduced bills for Irish self-government in

1886-1893. They failed.

Irish-Catholic in southern countries wanted home rule

Irish Protestants in the North-Ulster opposed home rule

1801 Britain and Ireland were formally joined

Gave Ireland representation in British Parliament

Daniel O’Connell- persuaded parliament to pass Catholic

Emancipation Act in 1829

1845-1848- Fungus ruined Irelands potato crop

1914 home rule bill

1916 Easter rebellion/leaders executed

1769 claimed New Zealand

1780 Australia

• Franz Joseph tried to Germanize

the language and culture of the

different nationalities

• After the defeat by Prussia in

1866, established a monarchy,

shared monarchy- finance,

defense, and foreign affairs

Austria-Hungary was weakened by Nationalism

• Language Ordinances, 1897

• The Language Ordinances of 1897, which were intended to satisfy the Czechs by establishing equality between the local language and German in non-German districts of Austria, produced a powerful backlash among Germans. This wood engraving shows troops dispersing German protesters of the new law before the parliament building. (Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek

• This 1879 lithograph by Georgi

Dancov, Free Bulgaria, depicts

Bulgaria in the form of a maiden-

protected by the Russian eagle,

breaking her chains, and winning

liberty from the Ottoman Empire.

Semi-autonomy in 1879 was

followed by unification under

Alexander of Battenberg.

• (St. Cyril and Methodius National

Library, Sofia)

Expulsion of Jews-

England 1290, France 1300’s, Spain 1492

1871 German Empire- emancipation of Jews

abolished all restrictions on Jewish marriages,

occupations, residence, and property ownership

• Anti-Semitism- Conservatives and extreme nationalists

• 1890’s, Karl Lueger “Christian Socialist” Vienna Austria,

• Pogroms- Russia

• socialism appealed to working men and working women, growth

of socialist parties after 1871

• 1864 Marx helped form the 1st international of socialists

• 1870-1914 in most countries workers gained the right to vote,

workers won benefits, standards of living rose

1914- Germany most industrialized,

socialized and unionized continental country

effort by various socialists to update Marxist doctrine to reflect the realities of the time

Eduard Bernstein

• Syllabus of Errors- (1864) condemned modern ideas

• First Vatican Council (1870- 1871) declared the doctrine

of papal infallibility

• Pius’s papacy was the longest in the history of the Catholic

Church

• Allocution- a formal speech giving advice or a warning

Pope Leo XIII (r.1878-1903) formulated a social doctrine

that combined a belief in private property with a concern

for poverty and inequality. In the encyclical Rerum Novarum

(“of modern things”), Leo suggested that much of socialism

reflected Christian teachings, but he firmly rejected Marxist

ideology as materialist and anti-religious.

• Italian strikers, 1890s

• This detail from Pelizza

da Volpedo Giuseppe's

(1868-1907) study for

The Fourth Estate depicts

Italian strikers of the

1890s. (Arborio Mella)