BN DigitalEmma_THMB.jpg

emma

Jane Austen

technical director

Maxwell Krohn

editorial director

Justin Kestler

managing editor

Ben Florman

series editors

Boomie Aglietti, Justin Kestler

production

Christian Lorentzen

writers

Debra Grossman, Deborah Forbes

editors

Sarah Friedberg, Dennis Quinio

Copyright

2002

by SparkNotes

llc

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the written permission of the Publisher.

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is a registered trademark of SparkNotes

llc.

This edition published by Spark Publishing

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isbn 1401405703

i i i

Introduction:stopping to buy sparknotes on a snowy evening

Whose words these are you

think

you know.Your papers due tomorrow, though;Were glad to see you stopping hereTo get some help before you go.

Lost your course? Youll find it here.Face tests and essays without fear.Between the words, good grades at stake:Get great results throughout the year.

Once school bells caused your heart to quakeAs teachers circled each mistake.Use SparkNotes and no longer weep,Ace every single test you take.

Yes, books are lovely, dark, and deep,But only what you grasp you keep,With hours to go before you sleep,With hours to go before you sleep.

iv

Contents

context 1

plot overview 3

character list 5

analysis of major characters 11emma woodhouse 11mr. knightley 12frank churchill 13jane fairfax 13

themes, motifs & symbols 15marriage and social status 15the confined nature of womens existence 16the blinding power of imagination 16the obstacles to open expression 17visits 17parties 18conversational subtexts 18the riddle 19the word game 19tokens of affection 19

summary & analysis 21chapters 13 21chapters 46 24chapters 79 27chapters 1012 29chapters 1315 32chapters 1618 34chapters 1921 37chapters 2224 40chapters 2527 42chapters 2830 45chapters 3133 48

v

chapters 3436 50chapters 3739 53chapters 4042 55chapters 4345 58chapters 4648 61chapters 4951 64chapters 5255 67

important quotations explained 71

key facts 77

study questions & essay topics 81

review & resources 85quiz 85suggestions for further reading 90

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Context

ane austen, whom some critics

consider Englands bestnovelist, was born in

1775

in Steventon, England. The sev-enth of eight children, Austen lived with her parents for herentire life, first in Steventon and later in Bath, Southamp-ton, and Chawton. Her father was the parish rector in

Steventon, and, though not wealthy, her family was well connectedand well educated. Austen briefly attended boarding school inReading but received the majority of her education at home.According to rumor, she had a brief love affair when she wastwenty-five, but it did not lead to a marriage proposal. Two yearslater she accepted and then quickly rejected a proposal. Sheremained unmarried for the rest of her life. Austen died in

1817

, atage forty-one, of Addisons disease.

Austen began writing stories at a very young age and completedher first novel in her early twenties. However, she did not publishuntil

1811

, when

Sense and Sensibility

appeared anonymously,followed by

Pride and Prejudice

(

1813

) and

Mansfield Park

(

1814

).

Emma,

which appeared in

1816

, was the last novel publishedduring Austens lifetime. (

Northanger Abbey

and

Persuasion

appeared posthumously.)Austens novels received little critical or popular recognition dur-

ing her lifetime, and her identity as a novelist was not revealed untilafter her death. As admired as Austens novels later became, criticshave had a difficult time placing them within literary history. She isknown for her gently satirical portraits of village life and of the rit-uals of courtship and marriage, but she wrote during the Romanticperiod, when most major writers were concerned with a very differ-ent set of interests and values. Romantic poets confronted the hopesand failures of the French Revolution and formulated new literaryvalues centered on individual freedom, passion, and intensity. Incomparison, Austens detailed examination of the rules of decorumthat govern social relationships, and her insistence that reason andmoderation are necessary checks on feeling, make her seem out ofstep with the literary times. One way to understand Austens placein literary history is to think of her as part of the earlier eighteenthcentury, the Age of Reason, when literature was associated with wit,poise, and propriety. Her novels certainly belong to an eighteenth-

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century genre, the comedy of manners, which examines the behav-ior of men and women of a single social class.

Rather than dismiss Austen as a writer who shuns the artistic andpolitical movements of her time, it is perhaps more useful to think ofher as an early feminist. Critics have pointed out that the Romantics,who were almost exclusively male, offered a poor model of literaryfulfillment for the ambitious woman of the time. While male writerssuch as Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron possessed the freedomto promote their own individuality through wide travel and sexualand military adventurism, women were largely denied these free-doms. For women, the penalty for sexual freedom was social ostra-cism, poverty, and worse. In

Sense and Sensibility,

Austen describesexplicitly the danger that cultivating emotion posed for women ofher time.

In this social context, Austens commitment to reason and mod-eration can be seen as feminist and progressive rather than conser-vative. The intelligence and resourcefulness of her heroines stand inconstant contrast to the limits of the constricted world of courtshipand marriage defining their sphere of action. While reading

Emma

itis interesting to consider to what extent Austen accepts or questionsthe idea that marriage represents a womans maturity and fulfillment.

Some consider

Emma

Austens best and most representativenovel. It is also her longest novel, and by many accounts, her mostdifficult. Long praised for its rich domestic realism,

Emma

also pre-sents puzzling questions: how can a character as intelligent as Emmabe wrong so often? When does Austen expect us to sympathize withEmma, and when does she expect us to criticize her? Is the ending asgenuinely happy as it is presented to be, or does Austen subtly injecta note of subversive irony into it? That these questions are on somelevel unanswerable ensures that

Emma

will be read again and again.

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Plot Overview

lthough convinced

that she herself will nevermarry, Emma Woodhouse, a precocious twenty-year-oldresident of the village of Highbury, imagines herself tobe naturally gifted in conjuring love matches. Afterself-declared success at matchmaking between her

governess and Mr. Weston, a village widower, Emma takes it uponherself to find an eligible match for her new friend, Harriet Smith.Though Harriets parentage is unknown, Emma is convinced thatHarriet deserves to be a gentlemans wife and sets her friends sightson Mr. Elton, the village vicar. Meanwhile, Emma persuades Harrietto reject the proposal of Robert Martin, a well-to-do farmer forwhom Harriet clearly has feelings.

Harriet becomes infatuated with Mr. Elton under Emmasencouragement, but Emmas plans go awry when Elton makes itclear that his affection is for Emma, not Harriet. Emma realizes thather obsession with making a match for Harriet has blinded her tothe true nature of the situation. Mr. Knightley, Emmas brother-in-law and treasured friend, watches Emmas matchmaking effortswith a critical eye. He believes that Mr. Martin is a worthy youngman whom Harriet would be lucky to marry. He and Emma quarrelover Emmas meddling, and, as usual, Mr. Knightley proves to bethe wiser of the pair. Elton, spurned by Emma and offended by herinsinuation that Harriet is his equal, leaves for the town of Bath andmarries a girl there almost immediately.

Emma is left to comfort Harriet and to wonder about the charac-ter of a new visitor expected in HighburyMr. Westons son, FrankChurchill. Frank is set to visit his father in Highbury after havingbeen raised by his aunt and uncle in London, who have taken him astheir heir. Emma knows nothing about Frank, who has long beendeterred from visiting his father by his aunts illnesses and com-plaints. Mr. Knightley is immediately suspicious of the young man,especially after Frank rushes back to London merely to have his haircut. Emma, however, finds Frank delightful and notices that hischarms are directed mainly toward her. Though she plans to dis-courage these charms, she finds herself flattered and engaged in aflirtation with the young man. Emma greets Jane Fairfax, another

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addition to the Highbury set, with less enthusiasm. Jane is beautifuland accomplished, but Emma dislikes her because of her reserveand, the narrator insinuates, because she is jealous of Jane.

Suspicion, intrigue, and misunderstandings ensue. Mr. Knightleydefends Jane, saying that she deserves compassion because, unlikeEmma, she has no independent fortune and must soon leave hometo work as a governess. Mrs. Weston suspects that the warmth ofMr. Knightleys defense comes from romantic feelings, an implica-tion Emma resists. Everyone assumes that Frank and Emma areforming an attachment, though Emma soon dismisses Frank as apotential suitor and imagines him as a match for Harriet. At a vil-lage ball, Knightley earns Emmas approval by offering to dancewith Harriet, who has just been humiliated by Mr. Elton and hisnew wife. The next day, Frank saves Harriet from Gypsy beggars.When Harriet tells Emma that she has fallen in love with a manabove her social station, Emma believes that she means Frank.Knightley begins to suspect that Frank and Jane have a secret under-standing, and he attempts to warn Emma. Emma laughs at Knight-leys suggestion and loses Knightleys approval when she flirts withFrank and insults Miss Bates, a kindhearted spinster and Janesaunt, at a picnic. When Knightley reprimands Emma, she weeps.

News comes that Franks aunt has died, and this event paves theway for an unexpected revelation that slowly solves the mysteries.Frank and Jane have been secretly engaged; his attentions to Emmahave been a screen to hide his true preference. With his aunts deathand his uncles approval, Frank can now marry Jane, the woman heloves. Emma worries that Harriet will be crushed, but she soon dis-covers that it is Knightley, not Frank, who is the object of Harrietsaffection. Harriet believes that Knightley shares her feelings. Emmafinds herself upset by Harriets revelation, and her distress forces herto realize that she is in love with Knightley. Emma expects Knightleyto tell her he loves Harriet, but, to her delight, Knightley declares hislove for Emma. Harriet is soon comforted by a second proposalfrom Robert Martin, which she accepts. The novel ends with themarriage of Harriet and Mr. Martin and that of Emma and Mr.Knightley, resolving the question of who loves whom after all.

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Character List

Emma Woodhouse

The protagonist of the novel. In the well-known first sentence of the novel, the narrator describes Emma as handsome, clever, and rich, with a comfortable home and happy disposition. In some ways, the twenty-year-old Emma is mature for her age. Because her mother is dead and her older sister married, she is already the head of her fathers household. She cares for her father and oversees the social goings-on in the village of Highbury. Emmas misplaced confidence in her abilities as a matchmaker and her prudish fear of love constitute the central focus of the novel, which traces Emmas mistakes and growing self-understanding.

Mr. George Knightley

Emmas brother-in-law and the Woodhouses trusted friend and advisor. Knightley is a respected landowner in his late thirties. He lives at Donwell Abbey and leases property to the Martins, a family of wealthy farmers whom he likes and counsels. Knightley is the only character who is openly critical of Emma, pointing out her flaws and foibles with frankness, out of genuine concern and care for her. In this respect, he acts as a stand-in for Austens and the readers judgments of Emma.

Mr. Woodhouse

Emmas father and the patriarch of Hartfield, the Woodhouse estate. Though Mr. Woodhouse is nervous, frail, and prone to hypochondria, he is also known for his friendliness and his attachment to his daughter. He is very resistant to change, to the point that he is unhappy to see his daughters or Emmas governess marry. In this sense, he impedes Emmas growth and acceptance of her adult destiny. He is often foolish and clearly not Emmas intellectual equal, but she comforts and entertains him with insight and affection.

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Harriet Smith

A pretty but unremarkable seventeen-year-old woman of uncertain parentage, who lives at the local boarding school. Harriet becomes Emmas protg and the object of her matchmaking schemes.

Frank Churchill

Mr. Westons son and Mrs. Westons stepson. Frank Churchill lives at Enscombe with his aunt and uncle, Mr. and Mrs. Churchill. He is considered a potential suitor for Emma, but she learns that though Frank is attractive, charming, and clever, he is also irresponsible, deceitful, rash, and ultimately unsuited to her.

Jane Fairfax

Miss Batess niece, whose arrival in Highbury irritates Emma. Jane rivals Emma in accomplishment and beauty; she possesses a kind heart and a reserved temperament. Because Jane lacks Emmas fortune, she must consider employment as a governess, but her marriage to Frank Churchill saves her from that fate.

Mrs. Weston

Formerly Miss Taylor, Emmas beloved governess and companion. Known for her kind temperament and her devotion to Emma, Mrs. Weston lives at Randalls with her husband, Frank Churchills father.

Mr. Weston

The widower and proprietor of Randalls, who has just married Miss Taylor when the novel begins. Mr. Weston has a son, Frank, from his first marriage to Miss Churchill (Frank was raised by Miss Churchills sister and brother-in-law). Mr. Weston is warm, sociable, and perpetually optimistic.

Mr. Elton

The village vicar, a handsome and agreeable man considered a welcome addition to any social gathering. When he reveals his indifference to Harriet and his desire to marry Emma, only to take a bride at Bath shortly thereafter, he comes to seem proud, conceited, and superficial.

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Mr. Robert Martin

A twenty-four-year-old farmer. Mr. Martin is industrious and good-hearted, though he lacks the refinements of a gentleman. He lives at Abbey-Mill Farm, a property owned by Knightley, with his mother and sisters.

Miss Bates

Friend of Mr. Woodhouse and aunt of Jane Fairfax, Miss Bates is a middle-aged spinster without beauty or cleverness but with universal goodwill and a gentle temperament. Emmas impatient treatment of her reveals the less attractive parts of Emmas character.

Isabella Knightley

Emmas older sister, who lives in London with her husband, Mr. John Knightley, and their five children. Isabella is pretty, amiable, and completely devoted to her family, but slow and diffident compared to Emma. Her domesticity provides a contrast to the independent celibacy Emma imagines for herself.

Mr. John Knightley

Emmas brother-in-law, and Mr. George Knightleys brother. As a lawyer, John Knightley is clear-minded but somewhat sharp in temper, and Emma and her father are sometimes displeased with his severity.

Mrs. Elton

Formerly Augusta Hawkins, Mrs. Elton hails from Bristol and meets Mr. Elton in Bath. She is somewhat attractive and accomplished; she has some fortune and a well-married sister, but her vanity, superficiality, and vulgar overfamiliarity offset her admirable qualities.

Mrs. Churchill

Mr. Westons ailing former sister-in-law and Frank Churchills aunt and guardian. She is known to be capricious, ill-tempered, and extremely possessive of Frank. Frank is able to marry Jane Fairfax, as he desires, only after Mrs. Churchills death.

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Colonel Campbell

A friend of Jane Fairfaxs father who lives in London and who takes charge of orphaned Jane when she is eight years old. Colonel Campbell feels great affection for Jane but is unable to provide her with an inheritance.

Mrs. Dixon

The Campbells daughter and Janes friend. Mrs. Dixon lacks beauty and lives with her husband in Ireland.

Mr. Dixon

Husband to the Campbells daughter. Emma suspects that Mr. Dixon had a romance with Jane Fairfax before his marriage.

Mrs. Goddard

Mistress of the local boarding school. Mrs. Goddard introduces Harriet Smith to the Woodhouses.

Mrs. Bates

Mother to Miss Bates and friend of Mr. Woodhouse. An elderly woman, Mrs. Bates is quiet, amiable, and somewhat deaf.

Mr. Perry

An apothecary and associate of Emmas father. Mr. Perry is highly esteemed by Mr. Woodhouse for his medical advice even though he is not a proper physician, and Mr. Woodhouse argues with his daughter Isabella over Perrys recommendations.

Elizabeth Martin

Mr. Martins kind sister, with whom Harriet was good friends before meeting Emma and turning down Mr. Martins marriage proposal. Harriets feelings of guilt and her desire to rekindle her relationship with Elizabeth pose a dilemma for Emma, who finds the Martins pleasant, worthy people, but worries that Harriet may be tempted to accept Mr. Martins offer if she again grows close with the family.

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Mr. and Mrs. Cole

Tradespeople and longtime residents of Highbury whose good fortune of the past several years has led them to adopt a luxurious lifestyle that is only a notch below that of the Woodhouses. Offended by their attempt to transcend their only moderately genteel social status, Emma has long been preparing to turn down any dinner invitation from the Coles in order to teach them their folly in thinking they can interact socially with the likes of her family. Like the Martins, the Coles are the means through which Emma demonstrates her class-consciousness.

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Analysis of Major Characters

EMMA WOODHOUSE

The narrator introduces Emma to us by emphasizing her good for-tune: handsome, clever, and rich, with a comfortable home andhappy disposition, Emma had lived nearly twenty-one years inthe world with very little to distress or vex her. But, the narratorwarns us, Emma possesses the power of having rather too muchher own way, and a disposition to think a little too well of herself.Emmas stubbornness and vanity produce many of the novels con-flicts, as Emma struggles to develop emotionally.

Emma makes three major mistakes. First, she attempts to makeHarriet into the wife of a gentleman, when Harriets social positiondictates that she would be better suited to the farmer who loves her.Then, she flirts with Frank Churchill even though she does not carefor him, making unfair comments about Jane Fairfax along the way.Most important, she does not realize that, rather than being com-mitted to staying single (as she always claims), she is in love with andwants to marry Mr. Knightley. Though these mistakes seriouslythreaten Harriets happiness, cause Emma embarrassment, and cre-ate obstacles to Emmas own achievement of true love, none of themhas lasting consequences. Throughout the novel, Knightley correctsand guides Emma; in marrying Knightley, Emma signals that herjudgment has aligned with his.

Austen predicted that Emma would be a character whom noone but me will much like. Though most of Austens readers haveproven her wrong, her narration creates many ambiguities. Thenovel is narrated using free indirect discourse, which means that,although the all-knowing narrator speaks in the third person, sheoften relates things from Emmas point of view and describes thingsin language we might imagine Emma using. This style of narrationcreates a complex mixture of sympathy with Emma and ironic judg-ment on her behavior. It is not always clear when we are to shareEmmas perceptions and when we are to see through them. Nor dowe know how harshly Austen expects us to judge Emmas behavior.

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Though this narrative strategy creates problems of interpretationfor the reader, it makes Emma a richly multidimensional character.

Emma does not have one specific foil, but the implicit distinctionsmade between her and the other women in the novel offer us a con-text within which to evaluate her character. Jane is similar to Emmain most ways, but she does not have Emmas financial independence,so her difficulties underscore Emmas privileged nature. Mrs. Elton,like Emma, is independent and imposes her will upon her friends, buther crudeness and vanity reinforce our sense of Emmas refinementand fundamentally good heart. Emmas sister, Isabella, is stereo-typically femininesoft-hearted, completely devoted to her family,dependent, and not terribly bright. The novel implicitly prefersEmmas independence and cleverness to her sisters more traditionaldeportment, although we are still faced with the paradox that thoughEmma is clever, she is almost always mistaken.

MR. KNIGHTLEY

Mr. Knightley serves as the novels model of good sense. From hisvery first conversation with Emma and her father in Chapter 1, hispurposeto correct the excesses and missteps of those aroundhimis clear. He is unfailingly honest but tempers his honesty withtact and kindheartedness. Almost always, we can depend upon himto provide the correct evaluation of the other characters behaviorand personal worth. He intuitively understands and kindly makesallowances for Mr. Woodhouses whims; he is sympathetic and pro-tective of the women in the community, including Jane, Harriet, andMiss Bates; and, most of all, even though he frequently disapprovesof her behavior, he dotes on Emma.

Knightleys love for Emmathe one emotion he cannot governfullyleads to his only lapses of judgment and self-control. Beforeeven meeting Frank, Knightley decides that he does not like him. Itgradually becomes clear that Knightley feels jealoushe does notwelcome a rival. When Knightley believes Emma has become tooattached to Frank, he acts with uncharacteristic impulsiveness inrunning away to London. His declaration of love on his returnbursts out uncontrollably, unlike most of his prudent, well-plannedactions. Yet Knightleys loss of control humanizes him rather thanmaking him seem like a failure.

Like Emma, Knightley stands out in comparison to his peers. Hisbrother, Mr. John Knightley, shares his clear-sightedness but lacks his

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unfailing kindness and tact. Both Frank and Knightley are percep-tive, warm-hearted, and dynamic; but whereas Frank uses his intel-ligence to conceal his real feelings and invent clever compliments toplease those around him, Knightley uses his intelligence to discernright moral conduct. Knightley has little use for cleverness for itsown sake; he rates propriety and concern for others more highly.

FRANK CHURCHILL

Frank epitomizes attractiveness in speech, manner, and appearance.He goes out of his way to please everyone, and, while the more per-ceptive characters question his seriousness, everyone except Knight-ley is charmed enough to be willing to indulge him. Frank is thecharacter who most resembles Emma, a connection she points out atthe novels close when she states that destiny connect[s] us withtwo characters so much superior to our own. Like Emma, Frankdevelops over the course of the novel by trading a somewhat vainand superficial perspective on the world for the seriousness broughton by the experience of genuine suffering and love. He is a complexcharacter because though we know we should judge him harshly inmoral terms, we cannot help but like him more than he deserves tobe liked.

JANE FAIRFAX

Janes beauty and accomplishment immediately make her stand out,but we are likely to follow Emmas lead at first and judge Jane unin-teresting on account of her reserve. As Jane gradually betrays morepersonality and emotion, she indicates that she harbors some secretsorrow. Eventually, she and Emma push the cloudy confusionbehind and become friends. The contrast between Janes delicatesense of propriety and morality and the passionate nature of herfeelings is much more dramatic than any of the conflicts that Emmaexperiences. Janes situation too is much more dire than Emmas: ifJane does not wed, she must become a governess, because she lacksany money of her own. The revelation of Janes secret engagementto Frank makes Jane seem more human, just as Knightleys human-ity is brought out by his love for Emma.

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Themes, Motifs & Symbols

THEMES

Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.

Marriage and Social Status Emma is structured around a number of marriages recently con-summated or anticipated, and, in each case, the match solidifies theparticipants social status. In Austens time, social status was deter-mined by a combination of family background, reputation, andwealthmarriage was one of the main ways in which one couldraise ones social status. This method of social advancement wasespecially crucial to women, who were denied the possibility ofimproving their status through hard work or personal achievement.

Yet, the novel suggests, marrying too far above oneself leads tostrife. Mr. Westons first marriage to Miss Churchill had ostensiblybeen a good move for him, because she came from a wealthy andwell-connected family (Mr. Weston is a tradesman), but the inequal-ity of the relationship caused hardship to both. He marries Mrs.Weston just prior to the novels opening, and this second marriage ishappier because their social statuses are more equalMrs. Westonis a governess, and thus very fortunate to be rescued from her needto work by her marriage. Emmas attempt to match Harriet withMr. Elton is also shunned by the other characters as inappropriate.Since Harriets parentage is unknown, Emma believes that Harrietmay have noble blood and encourages her to reject what turns out tobe a more appropriate match with Robert Martin. By the time it isrevealed that Harriet is the daughter of a tradesman, Emma admitsthat Mr. Martin is more suitable for her friend.

The relationship between marriage and social status createshardship for other characters. Frank Churchill must keep hisengagement to the orphan Jane Fairfax secret because his wealthyaunt would disapprove. Jane, in the absence of a good match, isforced to consider taking the position of a governess. The unmarried

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Miss Bates is threatened with increasing poverty without a husbandto take care of her and her mother. Finally, the match betweenEmma and Mr. Knightley is considered a good one not only becausethey are well matched in temperament but also because they are wellmatched in social class.

The Confined Nature of Womens Existence The novels limited, almost claustrophobic scope of action gives us astrong sense of the confined nature of a womans existence in early-nineteenth-century rural England. Emma possesses a great deal ofintelligence and energy, but the best use she can make of these is toattempt to guide the marital destinies of her friends, a project thatgets her into trouble. The alternative pastimes depicted in thebooksocial visits, charity visits, music, artistic endeavorsseemrelatively trivial, at times even monotonous. Isabella is the onlymother focused on in the story, and her portrayal suggests that amothers life offers a woman little use of her intellect. Yet, when Janecompares the governess profession to the slave trade, she makes itclear that the life of a working woman is in no way preferable to theidleness of a woman of fortune. The novel focuses on marriagebecause marriage offers women a chance to exert their power, ifonly for a brief time, and to affect their own destinies without adopt-ing the labors or efforts of the working class. Participating in the rit-uals of courtship and accepting or rejecting proposals is perhaps themost active role that women are permitted to play in Emmas world.

The Blinding Power of Imagination The novel offers sharply critical illustrations of the ways in whichpersonal biases or desires blind objective judgment. Emma cannotunderstand the motives that guide Mr. Eltons behavior because sheimagines that he is in love with Harriet. She later admits to herselfthat [s]he had taken up the idea, she supposed, and made every-thing bend to it. Meanwhile, Mr. Eltons feelings for Emma causehim to mistake her behavior for encouragement. The generallyinfallible Mr. Knightley cannot form an unbiased judgment of FrankChurchill because he is jealous of Franks claim on Emma, andEmma speaks cruelly of Jane because her vanity makes her jealousof Janes accomplishments. Emmas biases cause her to invent anattachment between Harriet and Frank and blind her to the fact thatHarriet actually has feelings for Knightley. At the same time, Franksdesire to use Emma as a screen for his real preference causes him to

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believe mistakenly that she is aware of the situation between himand Jane. The admirable, frequently ironic detachment of the narra-tor allows us to see many of these misunderstandings before thecharacters do, along with the humorous aspects of their behavior.And the plot is powered by a series of realizations that permit eachcharacter to make fuller, more objective judgments.

The Obstacles to Open Expression The misunderstandings that permeate the novel are created, in part,by the conventions of social propriety. To differing degrees, charac-ters are unable to express their feelings directly and openly, and theirfeelings are therefore mistaken. While the novel by no means sug-gests that the manners and rituals of social interaction should beeliminated, Austen implies that the overly clever, complex speech ofMr. Elton, Frank Churchill, and Emma deserves censure. She pre-sents Mr. Martins natural, warm, and direct manner of expressinghimself as preferable to Mr. Eltons ostentatious and insincere styleof complimenting people. Frank too possesses a talent for tellingpeople exactly what they want to hear, and Knightleys suspicions ofFranks integrity are proven valid when it turns out that Frank hasbeen misleading Highbury and hiding his true feelings for Jane. Thecleverness of Franks and Emmas banter gets them both into troubleby upsetting Jane, about whom Emma says indiscreet and unfairthings. Emma and Franks flirting at the Box Hill party hurts bothKnightley and Jane. Moreover, Emma forgets herself to the extentthat she cruelly insults Miss Bates. Austen seems to prefer Knightleyand Martins tactful tacitness to the sometimes overly gregariouscommentary of Emma, Mr. Elton, and Frank, and, as a result, theauthor gives the latter characters contrived speech a misleadinginfluence on the story as a whole.

MOTIFS

Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the texts major themes.

Visits The main events of the novel take place during visits that the char-acters pay to each other. The frequency and length of visits betweencharacters indicates the level of intimacy and attachment betweenthem. Franks frequent visits to Hartfield show his relationship with

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Emma to be close, though in hindsight we recognize that Frank alsocontinually finds excuses to visit Jane. Mr. Knightleys constantpresence at Hartfield indicates his affection and regard for Emma.Emma encourages Harriet to limit a visit with the Martin family tofifteen minutes, because such a short visit clearly indicates that anyformer interest has been lost. Emma is chastised for her failure tovisit Miss Bates and Jane more often; when she takes steps to rectifythis situation, she indicates a new concern for Miss Bates and a newregard for Jane.

Parties More formal than visits, parties are organized around social con-ventions more than around individual attachmentsEmmashosting a dinner party for Mrs. Elton, a woman she dislikes, exem-plifies this characteristic. There are six important parties in thenovel: the Christmas Eve party at Randalls, the dinner party at theColes, the dinner party given for Mrs. Elton, the dance at theCrown Inn, the morning party at Donwell Abbey, and the picnic atBox Hill. Each occasion provides the opportunity for social intrigueand misunderstandings, and for vanities to be satisfied and connec-tions formed. Parties also give characters the chance to observeother peoples interactions. Knightley observes Emmas behaviortoward Frank and Franks behavior toward Jane. Parties are micro-cosms of the social interactions that make up the novel as a whole.

Conversational Subtexts Much of the dialogue in Emma has double or even triple meanings,with different characters interpreting a single comment in differentways. Sometimes these double meanings are apparent to individualcharacters, and sometimes they are apparent only to the alert reader.For example, when Mr. Elton says of Emmas portrait of Harriet, Icannot keep my eyes from it, he means to compliment Emma, butshe thinks he is complimenting Harriet. When, during the scene inwhich Mr. Knightley proposes to Emma, Emma says, I seem tohave been doomed to blindness, Knightley believes she speaks ofher blindness to Franks love of Jane, but she actually refers to herblindness about her own feelings. One of our main tasks in readingthe novel is to decode all of the subtexts underlying seemingly casualinteractions, just as the main characters must. The novel concludesby unraveling the mystery behind who loves whom, which allows usto understand Austens subtext more fully.

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SYMBOLS

Symbols are objects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.

The Riddle Also known as charades, riddles in the novel take the form of elab-orate wordplay. They symbolize the pervasive subtexts that wait tobe decoded in characters larger social interactions. In Chapter 9,Mr. Elton presents a riddle to Emma and Harriet. Emma decodes itimmediately, as courtship, but she decodes it wrongly in the sensethat she believes it is meant for Harriet rather than herself. Thiswordplay also makes an appearance during the Box Hill party,when Mr. Weston makes an acrostic for Emma.

The Word Game Similar to the riddle, a word game is played in Chapter 41 betweenEmma, Frank, and Jane. It functions as a metaphor for the partialunderstandings and misunderstandings that exist among Emma,Frank, Jane, and Mr. Knightley. As Mr. Knightley looks on, Frankuses childs blocks to create words for the ladies to decode, thoughthese words mean different things to each of them. Frank makes theword blunder, which Jane understands as referring to a mistakehe has just made, but whose meaning is opaque to Emma andKnightley. He then makes the word Dixon, which Emma under-stands as a joke on Jane, and which baffles Knightley. In truth,everyone blunders in different ways that evening, because no onepossesses complete enough information to interpret correctly every-thing that is going on.

Tokens of Affection A number of objects in the novel take on symbolic significance astokens of affection. Mr. Elton frames Emmas portrait of Harriet asa symbol of affection for her, though Emma misunderstands it as asymbol of affection for Harriet. Harriet keeps court plaster and apencil stub as souvenirs of Mr. Elton. When the engagementbetween Jane and Frank is briefly called off, she returns his letters tosymbolize her relinquishment of his affection.

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Summary & Analysis

CHAPTERS 13

Summary: Chapter 1

The real evils, indeed, of Emmas situation were the power of having rather too much her own way, and a disposition to think a little too well of herself.

(See quotations, p. 71)

The narrator opens the novel by introducing us to Emma Wood-house, a girl endowed with some of the best blessings of exist-ence, including good looks, intelligence, riches, and anaffectionate father. Emmas only disadvantages are that she isslightly spoiled and that she thinks a little too well of herself.Emmas mother died before Emma could form many memories ofher, but her gentle governess, Miss Taylor, provided a motherlylove. After Emmas older sister, Isabella, was married and moved toLondon, Miss Taylor and Emma became best friends.

As the novel begins, Miss Taylor has just left Hartfield, the estateof Emma and Mr. Woodhouse, to marry a widower named Mr.Weston, and Emma is left without a companion. She attempts tocomfort her despondent father, who hates change, with the thoughtthat they will see the new Mrs. Weston often, but Emma only par-tially succeeds in comforting herself. At this moment, neighborhoodresident Mr. Knightley, the brother of Isabellas husband, pays avisit, having returned from visiting their mutual relations in Lon-don. He affirms the appropriateness of the match between Mr.Weston and Miss Taylor and gently chides Emma when she claimscredit. Emma declares that she will repeat her matchmaking successby finding a wife for Mr. Elton, the village rector.

Summary: Chapter 2 The narrator recounts Mr. Westons history. His first marriage wasto a woman named Miss Churchill, who came from a higher classthan his. They had a son, named Frank, but the marriage was over-shadowed by the disapproval of Mrs. Westons brother and sister-

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in-law, Mr. and Mrs. Churchill. When Mrs. Weston died after threeyears of marriage, Frank was essentially adopted by Mr. and Mrs.Churchill and made their heir. Mr. Weston, left impoverished by theexpectations of his first wife, spent the next twenty years of his liferebuilding his fortune. He eventually purchased Randalls, the smallestate where he lives with the second Mrs. Weston.

The village has always been curious to see Frank Churchill, whowrites a kind letter to Mrs. Weston indicating that he will pay a visitto his father and stepmother.

Summary: Chapter 3 The Woodhouses give a small dinner party, to which they inviteother members of their social circle: the widow Mrs. Bates; her sin-gle, middle-aged daughter, Miss Bates; and Mrs. Goddard, the mis-tress of the local boarding school. Mrs. Goddard brings one of herboarders, Harriet Smith, a girl whose parentage is unknown. Emmaadmires Harriet for her beauty and for her respect of Emma andHartfield. She resolves to pursue friendship with Harriet, and toimprove the nave girl by detaching her from the inferior acquain-tance of the farming Martin family. She plans to introduce Harrietto higher society.

Analysis: Chapters 13The narration of these opening chapters creates a complicated por-trait of Emma as a young, beautiful, clever, and confident characterwho exercises her influence in a constricted and complex environ-ment and has much to learn about friendship, love, and the ways ofthe world. Emmas affection for Miss Taylor and her kindness to herfoolish and somewhat tiresome father reveal Emmas capacity fortrue warmth and generosity. But, at the same time, the narratorquickly alerts us to the ways in which Emma is spoiled by her advan-tages and blinded by her own self-regard. Most explicitly, we aretold at the novels beginning:

The real evils, indeed, of Emmas situation werethe power of having rather too much her ownway, and a disposition to think a little too wellof herself: these were the disadvantages whichthreatened alloy to her many enjoyments. Thedanger, however, was at present so unperceived,

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that they did not by any means rank asmisfortunes with her.

The novels plot concerns Emmas education, as she gradually per-ceives the dangers that her own self-satisfaction presents.

The narrator also portrays Emmas weaknesses in more subtleways, such as through irony. For example, the narrator hints thatalthough Emmas friendship with Miss Taylor is clearly a pleasureto them both, a stricter and more authoritative governess mighthave been better for Emmas moral education. Emmas tendency tobe self-serving in her choice of friends is shown contemptibly inher attraction to Harriet Smith. Emma likes Harriet for a purelysuperficial reasonher good lookswhile recognizing that Har-riet is not particularly intelligent. Most of all, she likes Harriet forbeing impressed with her, which she takes as evidence of Harrietsgood sense.

The question of Austens loyalty to her protagonist is not easilyresolved. Emmas independent fortune and unquestioned statuswithin her village community are advantages that were unavailableto Austen herself, so it is easy to imagine Austen writing aboutEmmas self-important freedom with a certain amount of resent-ment. At the same time, however, the novel takes place mostly fromEmmas point of viewif we disliked Emma, the novel would beunreadable. The narrative structure of the novel complicates thingsfurtherthe narrator is omniscient, qualified to pass judgment onEmma with commentary that is often tinged with irony, but the nar-rator also frequently takes up Emmas point of view, sometimesalmost merging the two.

When the narrator explains Emmas commitment to Harrietsbetterment, commenting that the project would be an interesting,and certainly a very kind undertaking; highly becoming [Emmas]own situation in life, her leisure, and powers, she uses a narrativetechnique called free indirect discourse, for which Austen is wellknown. When using free indirect discourse, the narrator steps intoand out of characters thoughts, using language that sounds just likewhat the character would say, except that the narrator does notplace it in quotation marks. The narrators use of free indirect dis-course creates irony, as it becomes difficult to tell when the seem-ingly approving narrator is actually pointing to flaws in hercharacters. For instance, in the preceding quote, the narrator seemsto express approval of Emmas decision to take on Harriet as a

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project. Yet, because the words are expressed in Emmas language,not the narrators, it seems that we are meant to view the statementwith skepticism and to note that Emmas seeming selflessness stemsfrom the desire to make herself look good, to fill her spare time, andto exercise power.

The confined, limited nature of Emmas existence makes her asympathetic character. There are few other residents who would besuitable company for the Woodhouses, the dominant family in thevillage. With Miss Taylors departure, Emma is left with the pros-pect of spending most evenings without a companion other than herfather. When she puts a party together, it is small, limited to Knight-ley, Mr. Elton, the Westons, the Bateses (noted for their dullnessand predictability), and Mrs. Goddard. The excitement producedby the prospect of Frank Churchills visit and Emmas immediateattachment to Harriet show how desperate she is for new acquain-tances and experiences. The book focuses not only on Emma as anindividual character but as a more general phenomenon: a young,intelligent, and active woman seeking to exercise her talents andabilities within her narrow scope of opportunity.

CHAPTERS 46

Summary: Chapter 4 Emma and Harriet strike up an immediate intimacy as Harrietreplaces Mrs. Weston as Emmas companion on her habitual walks.Emma remains unimpressed with Harriets intelligence but appreci-ates her willingness to be guided. Emma encourages Harriet to telleverything about herself, and their conversation soon centers on theMartin family, which Harriet has visited frequently over the pasttwo months. Emma is alarmed to learn that the family includes aneligible bachelor, Mr. Robert Martin, and fears that her friend mayhave feelings for him. A match between Harriet and Mr. Martinwould be unacceptable to Emma because the Martins are farmers,and therefore, in her opinion, socially beneath her new friend. Shediscourages Harriet from thinking well of Mr. Martin by askingquestions about his education and predicting that any wife Mr.Martin takes will be too inferior to merit friendship with Harriet.After they run into Mr. Martin on one of their walks, Emma encour-ages Harriet to compare his manners with those of the gentlementhey know, praising Mr. Eltons manners as particularly genteel.

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The narrator reveals that Emma determined during the party atHartfield to encourage a match between Harriet and Mr. Elton.

Summary: Chapter 5 Mr. Knightley and Mrs. Weston converse about Emmas newfriendship with Harriet. Knightley believes that the friendship isdangerous for both parties. Harriets flattery, Knightley suspects,will reinforce Emmas self-regard, while Emmas influence willinjure Harriets happiness, because Harriet will grow just refinedenough to be uncomfortable with those among whom birth and cir-cumstance have placed her home. Mrs. Weston disagrees, believ-ing that Emma needs Harriets companionship and that Emmascompany will improve Harriet. She advises Knightley to keep hismouth shut, and the conversation ends with speculation about whatwill become of Emma. Noting Emmas declaration that she willnever marry and her lack of suitable prospects, Knightley commentsthat he should like to see Emma in love, and in some doubt of areturn; it would do her good.

Summary: Chapter 6 Emma continues to point out Mr. Eltons finer qualities to Harrietand is convinced that he is already in love with her friend. Mr.Elton praises the graces that Harriet has gained in Emmas com-pany, and he quickly seconds Emmas idea to paint a watercolorportrait of Harriet. As Emma paints, Mr. Elton is only too atten-tive to her progress, and though Mrs. Weston and Mr. Knightleypoint out that Emma has exaggerated Harriets beauty, Mr. Eltonemphatically praises the portraits likeness. He volunteers to takethe watercolor to London to be framed. All the while, Emma con-tinues to believe that Mr. Eltons enthusiasm is for Harriet, thoughMr. Elton makes comments on Emmas skill in rendering andimproving on the beautiful subject.

Analysis: Chapters 46Over the course of these three chapters, we learn that Emma isextremely class-conscious and also somewhat manipulative. Sheunattractively dismisses Robert Martin because of his social class,saying, The yeomanry [the class of farmers who hold land underlong- term leases] are precisely the order of people with whom I feelI can have nothing to do. A degree or two lower, and a creditable

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appearance might interest me; I might hope to be useful to their fam-ilies in some way or another. In other words, Emma is only inter-ested in people who are of her social class or so far beneath her thatshe might, from a comfortable position of superiority, flatter herselfby being useful to them. Such superior usefulness is what Emmaattempts with Harriet, and she even lies to her friend in order tomanipulate her. Although Emma observes to herself that Mr. Mar-tins appearance was very neat and he looked like a sensible youngman, she tells Harriet, He is very plain remarkably plain, butthat is nothing compared to his entire want of gentility.

Mr. Knightley and Mrs. Weston make Emma seem more likablethan she makes herself seem. Because Knightley shows himself tohave good sense, and also because he is the one character willing tofind fault with Emma, he is the novels most reliable mouthpiece forAustens views of Emma. His discussion of Emma shows that hegenuinely cares for her but views her as a child lacking sense andunderstanding rather than as an equal. He believes that Emma hasbeen spoiled by being the cleverest of her family but respects herstubbornness and independence. He also admits that though Emmais very pretty, she is not vain about her looks; her vanity liesanother way. Knightleys pointed criticisms are offset by Mrs.Westons dismissive remarks that Emma is a caring daughter, sister,and friend who will make no lasting blunder.

Like Austens narration, the dialogue between characters fre-quently contains a subtext available only to certain characters or tothe reader. For instance, when Emma says to Harriet, I wish youmay not get into a scrape, Harriet, when ever [Mr. Martin] doesmarryI mean as to being acquainted with his wife it does notfollow that he might marry anybody at all fit for you to notice, weadmire the cleverness of Emmas suggestion to Harriet that Mr.Martin is beneath her, even as we disapprove of Emmas action.Chapter 6 is particularly rich in dialogue with subtext, as Mr.Eltons admiration for Emma is perceptible to us but not to Emma.For instance, when Mr. Elton tells Emma, You have given MissSmith all that she required. She was a beautiful creature when shecame to you; but, in my opinion, the attractions you have added areinfinitely superior to what she received from nature, we hear Mr.Eltons emphasis on Emmas skills, but Emma can only hear hispraise of Harriet.

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CHAPTERS 79

Summary: Chapter 7 Harriet receives a letter from Mr. Martin proposing marriage andgoes directly to Emma to seek advice. Emma acts as if there is obvi-ously no doubt that Harriet should not accept, and she proceeds tooffer Harriet advice about the wording of her refusal. When itbecomes clear that Harriet is doubtful about her answer, Emmabecomes somewhat cold and disingenuously states, I shall not giveyou any advice, Harriet. . . . This is a point which you must settlewith your own feelings. When, under Emmas subtle guidance,Harriet states that she will probably reject Mr. Martin, Emmaimmediately congratulates her friend on having made the right deci-sion and points out that if Harriet had accepted him, then Emmawould no longer be able to be her friend. Harriet immediatelyaffirms that the loss of Emma is unthinkable, and the two of themdraft a letter refusing the proposal. It is clear that Harriet is painedby her decision and cares for Mr. Martin, but Emma cheers her upwith reminders of Mr. Elton.

Summary: Chapter 8 With Harriet at Mrs. Goddards preparing for an extended visit toHartfield, Mr. Knightley and Emma have the opportunity for alengthy conversation about Harriet and Mr. Martin. Knightleyreveals that Mr. Martin has consulted him about proposing to Har-riet, and Mr. Knightley makes it clear that he supports the match.Emma informs him that the proposal has already been made andrejected, and she insists that Mr. Martin is not Harriets equal.Knightley very nearly loses his temper, and he insists upon Mr. Mar-tins superiority to Harriet in sense and true gentility. Knightley isespecially displeased by what he immediately guesses was Emmasrole in the rejection, and he states flatly, You have been no friendto Harriet Smith. Emma counters that Harriets beauty and goodtemper, along with the possibility that she is the daughter of a gen-tleman, make her a desirable match. Knightley tells Emma that if shethinks Mr. Elton will marry Harriet, she is wrong, because Eltonwill only marry a woman with money. Vexed with one another,Emma and Knightley part ways. Emma is comforted by the return ofHarriet, who has heard a rumor that Elton is on an importanterrand regarding a lady.

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Summary: Chapter 9 Emma and Harriet have been collecting riddles (also called cha-rades) into a scrapbook, and when Mr. Elton returns from Londonwith the framed portrait of Harriet, he contributes one. Emmaimmediately decodes the riddle and sees that its answer is the wordcourtship. She translates the riddle for Harriet, who could notsolve it herself, but Harriet is nonetheless flattered by its meaning.Emma convinces Harriet that the riddle foretells a proposal, and shecopies the riddle into Harriets book. After some discussion amongthe family anticipating the upcoming Christmas visit of Isabella,Mr. John Knightley, and their children, Emma tells Mr. Elton thatshe has solved his charade and copied it into Harriets book. Elton isclearly moved, and Emma concludes that his emotion comes fromseeing his riddle in Harriets book.

Analysis: Chapters 79Chapters 7 and 8 adhere to a pattern already established by Chap-ters 4 and 5: first, we read a chapter that relates Emmas manipula-tion of Harriet; then we read a chapter offering Knightleys negativejudgment of her actions. Chapter 7 again reveals Emmas gift fordouble-edged speech. While Harriet believes Emmas protestationsof not wanting to influence Harriets behavior, it is perfectly clear tous that everything Emma says is calculated to make Harriet rejectMr. Martins proposal. However, Emma also has endearingmoments of uncalculated honestywhen she admits to Harriet thatMr. Martin has written a better letter than she had expected, forexample, even though this admission does not support Emmas planto match Harriet with Mr. Elton.

Emmas conversation with Mr. Knightley, in Chapter 8, aboutHarriet and Mr. Martin, Austen may offer an implied criticism ofwhat men look for in a wife. While Knightley suggests that goodsense is the quality that men most value, Emma points out that mostmen would be content to have a wife as beautiful and good tem-pered as Harriet. When Emma comments, I am very much mis-taken if your sex in general would not think such beauty, and suchtemper, the highest claims a woman could possess, we may hear aslight bitterness in her words. Though the novel rewards good senseas the most important human virtue, Austen is aware that the mar-riage market often rewards more superficial qualities.

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Sharing riddles was a common genteel pastime in the early nine-teenth century, and the riddle in Chapter 9 serves as an importantmetaphor for the social interactions that define the novel as a whole.Emma is able to decode Mr. Eltons riddle immediately, while Har-riet is comically helpless. Emmas manipulations of Harriet succeedbecause Harriet is unaware of the conscious, calculated nature ofEmmas influence, even though it is perfectly discernible to us. Ingeneral, the novel contains two groups of characters: those who canread between the lines and those who cannot. As readers of thenovel, we join the former group, and our ability to interpret hiddenmeaning guides our loyalties as we read. However, while the noveldelights in wordplay on a stylistic level, on the level of ideas it pre-fers plain and honest feeling to overwrought expression. Austenjuxtaposes Mr. Eltons ornate riddle and the plainness of Mr. Mar-tins letter, and while Emma and Harriet believe that Mr. Eltonsriddle is much superior, Emma from time to time finds Eltonsspeech absurd in its rhetorical flourishes, as the closing sentences ofChapter 9 indicate.

The novel also showcases the danger posed by ornate speechitis likely to be misunderstood. Though Emma is constantly searchingfor subtext because of her own calculating nature, she is not as goodas she believes at reading between the social lines. She continuallymisreads Mr. Eltons behavior, to such an extent that we aretempted to question all of the insistence on Emmas cleverness.Though Emma is often correct that there is more to situations thanmeets the eye, Harriets simplicity sometimes makes her see obvioustruths that the too-clever Emma misses. For instance, Harriet rightlyperceives that Emma is more Mr. Eltons type than is she is, com-menting, You and Mr. Elton are one as clever as the other.

CHAPTERS 1012

Summary: Chapter 10 Emma and Harriet make a charitable visit to a poor family near Mr.Eltons vicarage. On the way, Harriet expresses her surprise thatEmma has not married, and Emma explains her resolution toremain single. The poor family they assist engages their compassion,but soon the girls thoughts turn to Mr. Elton, who meets them onthe road. Emma attempts to leave Mr. Elton and Harriet together byfalling behind, speaking with a child, and pretending to lace her

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boots. Using the need for new ribbon to lace her boots as an excuse,Emma requests that they stop at Mr. Eltons house at the vicarage,but even though Emma contrives to leave the would-be lovers alonethere together, Elton fails to show interest in Harriet. Emma consid-ers him slow but is not dissuaded in her plans.

Summary: Chapter 11 Mr. and Mrs. John Knightley and their children arrive at Hartfieldand temporarily occupy all of Emmas attention. Mr. Woodhouseand Isabella commiserate over losing Mrs. Weston, and there isspeculation about whether Mr. Westons son, Frank Churchill, willmake his visit. Isabella is like her father in both tenderness and ner-vousness, and Emma believes that Isabellas sharp-minded husbandsometimes speaks too sternly to Isabella and to the family.

Summary: Chapter 12 Mr. Knightley comes to dinner at Hartfield, and though he andEmma still disagree about Harriet, they reconcile. Knightley tellsEmma that Mr. Martin has been terribly disappointed by Harrietsrejection. Isabella is filled in on all of the latest news from Highbury.She inquires after Jane Fairfax, Miss Batess niece, and suggests thatJane would make a good companion for Emma.

The conversation turns to Mr. and Mrs. John Knightleys deci-sion to go to Southend, a beach resort, instead of visiting the Wood-houses in the autumn. Mr. Woodhouse advocates the advice of afriend, Mr. Perry, who is an apothecary. All the while, Isabellamaintains that her doctor, Mr. Wingfield, is more trustworthy.Emma tries to change the subject, and eventually Mr. John Knight-ley snaps that Perry should mind his own business. Emma and Mr.Knightley smooth things over.

Analysis: Chapters 1012When Emma visits the poor in Chapter 10, we see her desire to beuseful, which she has emphasized throughout the novel, fulfilledin a new way. Her aspiration to be active and do good in the worldis noble, especially considering the fact that her riches and herbeauty might have left her content to fill her days in frivolous pur-suits. Yet, Emmas charitable actsfor example, the guidance sheoffers Harrietoften stem from her own vanity and are thereforeharmful as well as helpful. The narrator clearly contrasts Emmas

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romantic, misguided attitude toward Harriet with her attitudetoward the poor, writing,

She understood their ways, could allow for theirignorance and their temptations, had noromantic expectations of extraordinary virtuefrom those for whom education had done solittle, entered into their troubles with readysympathy, and always gave her assistance withas much intelligence as good-will.

Austen seems to signal that in this sphere, a woman with Emmasprivilege and advantages can actually do good. The fact that Emmadisplays the capacity for genuine empathy and for a usefulnessthat exercises her intelligence more than her vanity bodes well forher improvement.

As Emma and Harriet depart, Emma undermines her goodwillby describing the poor as picturesqueThese are sights, Harriet,to do one good. . . . I feel now as if I could think of nothing but thesepoor creatures all the rest of the day. However, Emma exhibits thatshe is aware of her fickleness and vanity when she adds, [A]nd yetwho can say how soon it may all vanish from my mind? Emmasmixture of self-delusion and self-knowledge is complex, and it isambiguous how much credit we are meant to give her for her assis-tance to the poor and how much condemnation she deserves for herrapid return to obliviousness.

In chapters 11 and 12, Austen provides context for Emmasrepudiation of marriage by focusing on the marriage with whichEmma is most familiarthat of her sister and Mr. John Knightley.Isabellas attentiveness to her children, husband, and father areadmirable, but the novels treatment of Isabella as a simpler, lessdynamic woman than her sister implies that it does not take verymuch intelligence or vigor to be a good wife and mother. Further-more, Isabella and Johns gender-typical behavior is somewhatboring, as the two seem to lack the sort of charisma and personalitywe see in Emma and Mr. Knightley. Isabella is caring, emotional,and somewhat silly and weak, while John is rational and purposefulbut too willing to damage the feelings of others.

As they conspire to keep the family peace, Emma and Mr.Knightley compare favorably to their siblings. Though Mr. Knight-ley is more reasonable and dignified than high-spirited, impulsive

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Emma, they share a similar intelligence and get along with eachother very well. Their relationship does not seem to be built upongender stereotypes, and their amiability suggests that Emma mightin fact be satisfied in a married life.

CHAPTERS 1315

Summary: Chapter 13 The Woodhouses and Knightleys are invited to the Westons forChristmas Eve dinner. Harriet and Mr. Elton are also included, butHarriet comes down with a sore throat and is forced to miss thegathering. Emma meets Mr. Elton while visiting Harriet and ispleased by his attentions to her friend, but she remains puzzled thathe refuses her suggestion to skip the party since Harriet will not bethere. Mr. John Knightley witnesses the exchange and suggests toEmma that Mr. Elton has feelings for her. Amused, Emma dismissesthe suggestion. When she and Mr. Elton travel to the gathering inthe same carriage, she is surprised that Mr. Eltons concern for Har-riet gives way to cheerful anticipation of the evening ahead.

Summary: Chapter 14 Entering the party, Emma attempts to put Mr. Eltons strange behav-ior out of her mind, but his constant hovering presence makes herworry that Mr. John Knightleys suggestion that Mr. Elton cares forher may be correct. Meanwhile, Mr. Weston announces that FrankChurchill is due to visit in early January. Emma feels some interest inthis news because she has half-seriously thought of Frank as a poten-tial suitor, though she does not anticipate giving up her vow toremain single. Mrs. Weston confides to Emma that she has some anx-iety about meeting her stepson, and she fears Mrs. Churchill will pre-vent him from coming. She and Emma speculate about the situationat Enscombe, the Churchill estate, and Emma wonders why a youngman should be so dependent upon the impulses of his guardian.

Summary: Chapter 15 Mr. Elton joins Emma in the drawing room and displeases her byacting more concerned with her health than with Harriets. JohnKnightleys report that it has begun snowing leads to a small crisis,and Mr. Woodhouse and Isabella are beside themselves withworry about traveling the three-quarters of a mile home. Mr.

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Knightley assesses the situation and reassures everyone that theywill make it back safely.

In the confusion created by the party breaking up, Emma findsherself alone in one of the carriages with Mr. Elton. He immediatelydeclares his love for her and proposes. Hoping that he is merelydrunk, Emma attempts to remind him that Harriet is the true objectof his affections. Astonished, Elton assures Emma that he has neverbeen interested in Harriet. Moreover, he is convinced that Emmahas known of and encouraged his sentiments. Emma sharplyrebukes him and refuses his proposal, and the two travel the remain-der of the journey in angry silence.

Analysis: Chapters 1315Emmas belief that she is different from others cannot merely beattributed to her sense of superiority; it also results from her ambi-tion to make her life more interesting and more useful than the lim-itations of village life seem to allow. Observing and imagining thedestinies of other lives exercises her intellect. We might think ofEmma as a kind of novelist creating plots for the characters thatpeople her world. In this sense, she may be closer to Austen than hermistakes would lead us to believe. In fact, Emma is somewhat prud-ish, afraid to consider marriage for herself, despite her belief that agood match is the key to happiness for her friends. Alert to whatshe believes are the subtleties of flirtation between Harriet and Mr.Elton, she is incapable or unwilling to see that she might be engagingin such social games herself.

Emmas confrontation with Mr. Elton is the novels first majorcrisis. The true turning point is not Eltons proposal, however, buthis accusation that Emma has known that she was the object of hisaffections all along. He says, I am sure you have seen and under-stood me, and for the first time in the novel Emma is at a loss forwords, fiercely angry. This is the first instance in which Emma isimplicated in the social interactions that she believed she wasmanipulating from a position of control and detachment. She hasunderstood her own calculating behavior as beyond reproach, in asense invisible, and suddenly she is seen and placed within the soci-ety from which she believed she has separated herself, forced to real-ize that she has been lying to both Harriet and herself.

Austen has sometimes been accused of a failure of nerve when itcomes to depicting emotional scenes because she generally switches

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from dialogue to indirect language when relating moments of pas-sion. Instead of reporting Eltons speech directly, Austen writes,Mr. Elton [had] actually [begun] making violent love to her: avail-ing himself of the precious opportunity, declaring sentiments whichmust be already well known, hoping-fearing-adoring-ready to die ifshe refused him. . . . From this statement and from what we knowof Mr. Elton, we can imagine his actual words, but their shock valueis softened by the indirect description. The information Austen givesus about Emmas feelings is similarly vague: It would be impossibleto say what Emma felt on hearing this; which of all her unpleasantsensations was uppermost. It is up to us to decide whether suchlanguage weakens the effect of these scenes or makes them morepowerful by preserving the characters privacy and challenging us tosupply the emotional details.

CHAPTERS 1618

Summary: Chapter 16

The first error . . . was foolish, it was wrong, to take so active a part in bringing any two people together.

(See quotations, p. 54)

Back at Hartfield after her ride with Mr. Elton, Emma plunges intoself-recrimination as she looks back over the past weeks. Her big-gest regret concerns Harriet, whose feelings for Elton, Emma real-izes, are due mostly to Emmas own encouragement. She decides sheneed not pity Elton, because the artificiality of his addresses suggeststhat he was more interested in her fortune than in herself. She real-izes that both of the Knightley brothers have been right about Eltonand that she has been wrong all along. Emma vows to give upmatchmaking, but she cannot stop herself from searching for a newsuitor for Harriet.

The next morning, Emma is comforted by the reflection that nei-ther Eltons nor Harriets feelings could have been very strong andby the fact that no one else needs to know what has happened. Sev-eral days of snow provide a respite, as everyone stays at home, butEmma dreads telling Harriet what has happened.

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Summary: Chapter 17 Mr. and Mrs. John Knightley return to London, and Mr. Eltonwrites Mr. Woodhouse to announce that he will spend the next fewweeks in the town of Bath. Relieved, Emma immediately visits Har-riet to explain what has happened. Emmas sense of her own fail-ures, and Harriets modesty and sweetness in taking the news, giveEmma the temporary impression that Harriet, rather than herself, isthe superior creature. She moves Harriet to Hartfield andattempts to comfort her and drive Elton out of Harriets mind.Emma tries to prepare Harriet for the inevitable moment when theywill see Elton in their social circle after he returns from Bath.

Summary: Chapter 18 Frank Churchill does not make his expected visit, to the disap-pointment of Mrs. Weston in particular. Emma, preoccupied withher other worries, does not mind, but she feels she must expressdisappointment so that she will appear her usual self. Her warmthin doing so gets her into an argument with Mr. Knightley about theyoung man. Knightley expresses the same thought Emma hasexpressed: how can a twenty-four-year-old man be prevented byhis aunt from doing his duty? In reply, Emma suggests that Knight-ley is a poor judge of the difficulties of dependence. Sheexpresses her sympathies for Franks situation and her convictionthat he would come if he could, but Knightley counters that no sen-sible, honorable man would be prevented from doing his duty.Emma predicts that Frank, when he does arrive in Highbury, willbe perfectly charming. Knightley believes that Frank will be super-ficial and insufferable, and Knightleys prejudice against thestranger surprises Emma.

Analysis: Chapters 1618Chapter 16 is remarkable because, unlike most of the novels otherchapters, it deals almost exclusively with Emmas thoughts and feel-ings, her inner life. On the whole, Emma seems to have gained ameasure of understanding, but the narrator has provided hints thatshe has more to learn. We see her grow in humility and selflessnessas, shaken by Eltons proposal, she thinks that she would havegladly undergone an even greater blow to her ego, if only shecould have avoided hurting Harriet. In addition to increased self-understanding, Emma shows an increased understanding of Eltons

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character as proud, assuming, conceited; very full of his ownclaims, and little concerned about the feelings of others.

However, Emma has not totally shed her former shortcomings.Emmas resolution to cease matchmaking is put in terms that sug-gest she has gained a good deal of insight: It was foolish, it waswrong, to take so active a part in bringing two people together. Itwas adventuring too far, assuming too much, making light of whatought to be seriousa trick of what ought to be simple. But soonshe is imagining new matches for Harriet, though she stops herselfwith the recognition of her own relapse. Emmas reflection thatthere had been no real affection either in [Eltons] language ormanners shows her continued sense of the superiority of her mindand manners to Eltons. She blames Elton probably more than hedeserves for her own mistakes, and her quick assumption that hisfeelings for her were insincere seems self-serving. Her revised under-standing of Elton is accurate, but her refusal to implicate herself asparty to his misunderstanding shows that Emmas self-understandingis not complete.

Although the argument Emma and Mr. Knightley have aboutFrank Churchill seems silly, since Emma argues feelingly for a posi-tion she does not really hold and because Knightley makes harshjudgments about a man he has never met, Knightleys commentsprovide real insight into his feelings. Because the usually calm andprudent Knightley is so unnecessarily vexed by a stranger, webegin to suspect that something more is bothering Knightley.Emma thinks Knightleys anger is unworthy of the real liberalityof mind that we expect from him. In hindsight, it is clear that hisvexation stems from subconscious jealousy and marks the begin-nings of his romantic feelings for Emma, but in the meantime weremain as mystified as she.

In describing Emmas quarrel with Knightley, the narrator indi-rectly comments on societys treatment of different genders by con-trasting Emmas and Knightleys views, which underscore thedifferent opportunities that society makes available to women andmen. The narrator contrasts Emmas insistence on the difficultiesof dependence and the subtle, complex, and powerful influencethat family obligations can have upon ones freedom, with Knight-leys insistence that men who think rightly should act resolutely andwill not encounter real opposition if they do so. Clearly, Emmasvision and understanding of family dependence is a product of herobservations and experiences as a woman, and it seems that she may

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be arguing more about herself than about Frank. Knightleys visionof and insistence upon resolute action, on the other hand, is a strictlymasculine view of correct and plausible behavior.

CHAPTERS 1921

Summary: Chapter 19 During a walk, Emma has little success turning Harriets thoughtsfrom Mr. Elton and therefore decides that they should call on Mrs.and Miss Bates, a duty that Emma usually shuns. During their visit,they are forced to hear about Mr. Elton and his travels, and thoughEmma has tried to time her visit so as to avoid hearing about MissBatess niece, Jane Fairfax, Miss Bates produces a letter from Jane,who lives with her guardians, Colonel and Mrs. Campbell. TheCampbells are about to visit their newly married daughter, Mrs.Dixon, in Ireland, which means that Jane will be coming for anextended visit in Highbury in a weeks time. Based on slight evi-dence, Emma suspects that there has been a romance between Janeand the Campbells daughters husband, Mr. Dixon, and that this isthe reason that Jane is missing the trip to Ireland.

Summary: Chapter 20 Janes history is given, starting from how, at age three, she becamean orphan after her father was killed in battle and her mother diedof consumption and grief. Jane lived with her aunt and grand-mother in Highbury until she was eight years old. Then, a friend ofher fathers, Colonel Campbell, took an interest in her well-beingand made her part of his household. He provided her with an edu-cation, but, since he would be unable to give her an inheritance, itwas understood that when Jane came of age she would become agoverness. Meanwhile, Jane became dear to the Campbell familyand enjoyed the pleasures of elegant society in London. Her stay inHighbury constitutes her last taste of freedom before becominga governess.

Jane arrives, and Emma greets the girls return after two yearsabsence with mixed feelings. She has never liked Jane, for reasonsshe cannot fully explain (Mr. Knightley suggests to her that she isjealous), but Janes beauty impresses her, and she feels compassionfor her impending fate. Soon the dullness of Janes companions,along with Janes reserve, confirms Emmas dislike. Emma discovers

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that Jane has known Frank Churchill in Weymouth, but Janedivulges little information about him.

Summary: Chapter 21 Just as Mr. Knightley is about to give Emma some news, the Batesesarrive with Jane to thank the Woodhouses for the hindquarter ofpork they have sent; they manage to precede Knightley in divulgingthat Mr. Elton is to marry a Miss Hawkins. Emma is caught offguard, and Mr. Knightleys looks suggest he knows something ofwhat has transpired between them. However, she soon regainsenough composure to make another failed attempt to engage Jane inconversation. The company departs, and Harriet bursts in withnews that she has run into Mr. Martin and his sister in town. Sherelates that after some awkwardness, the pair greeted her with kind-ness, leaving Harriet flustered. Emma is impressed by the Martinsbehavior and briefly second-guesses her judgment of them, but sheconcludes that their station in life is still too low for Harriet. She isonly able to distract Harriet from the episode by sharing the news ofMr. Eltons impending marriage.

Analysis: Chapters 1921Miss Batess repetitious speeches, and the mileage she can get froma single letter or piece of news from someone outside of Highbury,strongly reinforce our sense of the claustrophobia of village life.Though the character of Miss Bates is considered a comic master-piece, there is also a pathetic and even alarming quality to the nar-rowness of her experience. In contrast to more sophisticated andcalculating characters such as Emma and Mr. Knightley, who con-ceal or reveal what they are thinking depending upon the appropri-ateness of the situation and the effect they wish to produce, MissBates narrates everything that passes through her head, all of it moreor less harmless.

With a more developed sense of Miss Batess character, Austenprovides some distinctly different views of womens experience inHighbury. She makes an implicit statement about intelligence andits potential for creating hardship when she contrasts Emma andMiss Bates. For instance, Miss Bates speaks in absurdly long, digres-sive sentences, interrupting herself frequently and often forgettingher point. In one example, she says:

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I was reading [Janes letter] to Mrs. Cole, and,since she went away, I was reading it again tomy mother, for it is such a pleasure to heraletter from Janethat she can never hear itoften enough; so I knew it could not be far off,and here it is, only just under my housewifeand since you are so kind as to wish to hearwhat she saysbut, first of all, I really must, injustice to Jane, apologise for her writing so shorta letteronly two pages, you see hardly two,and in general she fills the whole paper andcrosses half.

Forced to read these complex and boring details, we share Emmasimpatience with Miss Bates but suspect, with Mr. Knightley, thatEmma should greet Miss Bates with greater charity and less irrita-tion. Margaret Drabble, in an introductory essay on the novel, sug-gests that Miss Bates might be read as a stand-in for Austen herself.Single, middle-aged, dependent, caring for an elderly mother, MissBatess situation in life is much closer to Austens at the time she waswriting the novel than is Emmas. Of course, Austen is much moreintelligent than the character she creates, so perhaps Miss Batesexemplifies Austens imagination of what her life would be likewithout her intellect. The picture is somewhat alarming, becauseMiss Batess ignorance means that she is perfectly contented withthe life she leads. Perhaps Austen means for us to understand thatintelligence, at least for a woman in the early nineteenth century, canbe as much a source of suffering as of solace.

Once she has sworn off her aggressive matchmaking, Emmacompensates by reconstructing what she thinks must be the interest-ing and provocative circumstances that brought Jane to Highbury.While Emma has learned, at least for the time being, not to orches-trate the love lives of those around her, the restlessness of her mindignites her imagination and endangers her ability to observe othersaccurately. She bases her suspicion that Jane and Mr. Dixon had anattachment before his marriage to Mrs. Campbell on the slightestcircumstantial evidence, and this mistaken impression of Jane willhave greater negative consequences. Though Austen must under-stand imagination to be a gift, in particular the gift that makes itpossible for her to write, here she suggests that a careless exercise ofthe imagination can be dangerous.

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CHAPTERS 2224

Summary: Chapter 22 In Highbury, there is great speculation about Miss Hawkins, Mr.Eltons fiance. Mr. Elton returns to the village long enough to con-firm the rumors that his bride-to-be is beautiful, accomplished, andof some fortune. Emma is relieved that his marriage will ease theawkwardness of his return to their social circle, but she has someuncharitable thoughts about Miss Hawkinss inferior connections.She has difficulty persuading Harriet to share her coolness, however.Only the topic of Mr. Martin puts Mr. Elton out of Harriets mind.

Harriet is flustered when Mr. Martins sister leaves her a note atMrs. Goddards. Emma decides that Harriet should return the visitbut stay only a brief time in order to reinforce the distance thatEmma, despite a twinge of conscience, believes Harriet must main-tain from the Martin family.

Summary: Chapter 23 Emma takes Harriet to visit the Martins. Ahead of time, they agreethat Emma is to return and retrieve Harriet after fifteen minutes.Harriet has a friendly and emotional visit with Mr. Martins motherand sister, but when the visit is cut short, it is clear the Martinsunderstand that they have been slighted. Though pained, Emma stillbelieves she is doing what is best for Harriet.

Emmas spirits are revived by a meeting with Mr. and Mrs.Weston, who bring the news that Frank Churchills arrival is immi-nent. The following day, Emma unexpectedly meets Frank at Hart-field, and she is pleased to find that he is very good-looking, bright,and charming. Frank has just the right compliment for everyone,especially Mrs. Weston, which pleases Emma. Emma can see thatMr. Weston hopes that she and Frank might form an attachment,and she wonders if the thought has occurred to Frank. When hisfather departs on an errand, Frank leaves to call on his acquaintancefrom Weymouth, Jane Fairfax.

Summary: Chapter 24 Frank Churchill and Mrs. Weston visit Hartfield the next day, andEmma is pleased by Franks warmth toward his stepmother. Heseems genuinely interested in everything about Highbury as thethree walk about the village, especially in the sites that are meaningful

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to his father. Encountering an unused ballroom, he suggests thatthey should organize a dance, and he dismisses Emmas protesta-tions about the villages lack of worthy families.

Emma inquires about Franks visit with the Bateses, and the twoshare impressions of Jane. Frank says that he finds her unattractiveand reserved. He thinks, however, that she is a talented musicianand affirms that they saw a good deal of each other in Weymouth.Emma shares her theory about Jane and Mr. Dixon, which Frankseems to resist, but then he gives in to Emmas greater knowledge ofJane. On the whole, Emma finds Frank even more to her liking thanshe expected, possessing his fathers warmth and sociability andlacking the proud airs one might acquire from the Churchills.

Analysis: Chapters 2224Though our position with respect to Emma is privilegedthe narra-tor often provides details that allow us to know more about Emmathan she knows about herselfthe subjectivity of other characters isbarely highlighted at all, making it difficult for us to understandtheir true dispositions and motives any more than Emma does. Withhindsight (the novel must be reread to fully appreciate Austens sub-tleties), all of Frank Churchills comments and actions becometransparent, but without it, we, like Emma, have to be taught howto reach the correct interpretations. From this point in the novelforward, we can no longer witness Emmas education with detach-ment; Austen structures her book so that we must share it.

As Emma had predicted in her argument with Mr. Knightley,Frank has a talent for guessing which line of conversation and com-pliment will please each person, and Frank tailors his behavioraccordingly. Remembering Mr. Knightleys initial distaste forFranks demeanor, we wonder if Franks talent at compliments isaltogether as admirable as it seems. Though Emma may be skepticalof Franks remarks, she gives him the benefit of the doubt because shebelieves he has a kind nature and is impressed by his speech. She rec-ognizes that Franks compliments to Mr. and Mrs. Weston are exag-gerated, but Emma believes they express genuine gratitude andaffection and forgives his exaggeration because it stems from hishonorable desire to please. When Frank claims that he has alwayslonged to come to Highbury, Emma wonders why he has not comesooner, but she dismisses her skepticism by concluding, [I]f it werea falsehood, it was a pleasant one, and pleasantly handled.

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Emma exhibits a healthy detachment during her first meetingwith Frank. Where another young woman might manifest admira-tion for Frank, knowing that others think he may be a proper suitorfor her, she expresses reserve: She must see more of him to under-stand his ways; at present she only felt they were agreeable.Whether Emma has affectionate interest for Frank at this point isirrelevantit would be inappropriate for a reputable woman of herposition to display too much interest in a man this early.

Franks inconsistent attitude toward Jane Fairfax is the most con-fusing part of his behavior. An alert reader will suspect that some-thing unusual has passed between Frank and Jane, but it is only ona second reading that we recognize Franks behavior as a compli-cated mixture of honesty and outright deception, vulnerability andmanipulation. At this point, he is a good enough liar to fool Emma.At first Frank seems in a rush to visit Jane, but then he is surprisinglywilling to postpone the visit. He is unexpectedly firm in refusing theassistance of Mr. Woodhouses servant in finding her house, and hisinsistence on Janes unattractiveness is uncharacteristically rude. Heattempts to avoid Emmas question about his relationship to Jane byducking into a store, but then he himself returns to the subject. Thefirst time we see Frank at a loss for words is when Emma shares hersuspicion that Jane has had a relationship with Mr. Dixon. However,Frank recovers his composure enough to assess how well Emmaactually knows Jane by asking her more questions.

CHAPTERS 2527

Summary: Chapter 25 Emmas good opinion of Frank Churchill is injured when he makesa day trip to London just to have his hair cut. Though Emma doesnot feel inclined to give up her vow to remain single, she decides thatFrank is pleasing enough that she does not mind being associatedwith him in other peoples minds. Mr. Knightley thinks Frank is asilly young man, just as he had suspected.

Meanwhile, an invitation from the Coles, successful tradespeo-ple who live in Highbury, creates a conundrum for Emma. She hadoriginally decided that she w