max weber - sparknotes - the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
DESCRIPTION
Max Weber - Sparknotes - The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of CapitalismTRANSCRIPT
Max Weber: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism – Spark Notes Site Copy
Summary
Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a study of the relationship between
the ethics of ascetic Protestantism and the emergence of the spirit of modern capitalism. Weber
argues that the religious ideas of groups such as the Calvinists played a role in creating the
capitalistic spirit. Weber first observes a correlation between being Protestant and being involved in
business, and declares his intent to explore religion as a potential cause of the modern economic
conditions. He argues that the modern spirit of capitalism sees profit as an end in itself, and pursuing
profit as virtuous. Weber's goal is to understand the source of this spirit. He turns to Protestantism
for a potential explanation. Protestantism offers a concept of the worldly "calling," and gives worldly
activity a religious character. While important, this alone cannot explain the need to pursue profit.
One branch of Protestantism, Calvinism, does provide this explanation. Calvinists believe in
predestination--that God has already determined who is saved and damned. As Calvinism
developed, a deep psychological need for clues about whether one was actually saved arose, and
Calvinists looked to their success in worldly activity for those clues. Thus, they came to value profit
and material success as signs of God's favor. Other religious groups, such as the Pietists,
Methodists, and the Baptist sects had similar attitudes to a lesser degree. Weber argues that this
new attitude broke down the traditional economic system, paving the way for modern capitalism.
However, once capitalism emerged, the Protestant values were no longer necessary, and their ethic
took on a life of its own. We are now locked into the spirit of capitalism because it is so useful for
modern economic activity.
Throughout his book, Weber emphasizes that his account is incomplete. He is not arguing that
Protestantism caused the capitalistic spirit, but rather that it was one contributing factor. He also
acknowledges that capitalism itself had an impact on the development of the religious ideas. The full
story is much more complex than Weber's partial account, and Weber himself constantly reminds his
readers about his own limitations. The book itself has an introduction and five chapters. The first
three chapters make up what Weber calls "The Problem." The first chapter addresses "Religious
Affiliation and Social Stratification," the second "The Spirit of Capitalism," and the third "Luther's
Conception of the Calling and the Task of the Investigation." The fourth and fifth chapters make up
"The Practical Ethics of the Ascetic Branches of Protestantism." The fourth chapter is about "The
Religious Foundations of Worldly Asceticism," and the fifth chapter is about "Asceticism and the
Spirit of Capitalism."
Context
German sociologist and economist Max Weber (1864-1920) published his most famous work, The
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in 1904-1905. Weber's writings and theories helped
establish the foundations of modern sociology. Some of his other famous works include "Objectivity"
In Social Science,Science as a Vocation, Politics as a Vocation, and The Theory of Social and
Economic Cooperation. His account of bureaucracy as an essential feature of modern society has
been highly influential. Weber was influenced by Karl Marx'swritings, although he was not a Marxist,
and actually criticizes aspects of Marxist theory in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism argues that the "spirit" that defines capitalist
institutions has its roots in the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation was a sixteenth-century
religious movement that led to the creation of Protestantism, beginning with the protests of Martin
Luther against the Catholic Church in 1517. Luther argued that people could be saved through faith
alone, and this doctrine is one of the basic tenets of Lutheranism. Another Protestant religion that
figures prominently in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is Calvinism. Rooted in the
ideas of John Calvin, Calvinism was based on the doctrine of predestination--that individual salvation
was preordained by God. Calvinism is an ancestor of modern-day Presbyterianism.
Terms
Ascetic - Self-denying and austerely self-disciplining.
Rational - For Weber, this term implied systematization, consistency, logic, calculation and
efficiency, applied both to religion and to social institutions.
Calvinism - The religious doctrines of John Calvin. Calvinism emphasized predestination, the
supremacy of Scriptures in the revelation of truth, God's omnipotence and man's sinfulness.
Introduction
Summary
Weber begins his study with a question: What about Western civilization has made it
the only civilization to develop certain cultural phenomena to which we like to
attribute universal value and significance? Only in the West does science that we consider valid
exist. While empirical knowledge and observation exist elsewhere in science, history, art and
architecture, they lack the "rational, systematic and specialized" methodology of the West. In
particular, the development of bureaucracy and the trained official are unique to the West, as is the
modern rational state.
The same is true of capitalism. It is important to understand that capitalism is not the same thing as
the pursuit of gain and the greatest possible amount of money. Rather, capitalism implies the pursuit
of forever-renewable profit. Everything is done in terms of balances, the amount of money gained in
a business period over the amount of money spent. The point is that economic action is based on
the amount of profit made. Now, in this sense, capitalism has occurred in every civilization. However,
the West has currently developed capitalism to a degree and in forms that have never existed
elsewhere. This new form is "the rational capitalistic organization of (formally) free labor." This form
reflects rational industrial organization, the separation of business from the household and rational
bookkeeping. However, ultimately these things are only significant in their association with the
capitalistic organization of labor. "Exact calculation--the basis of everything else--is only possible on
the basis of free labor."
Therefore, the problem for us is not the development of capitalistic activity, but is rather the roots of
"this sober bourgeois capitalism with its rational organization of free labor." In terms of cultural
history, it is to understand the development of the Western bourgeois class and its "peculiarities."
Weber says that we must try to understand what it was about the West that encouraged the
technical utilization of scientific knowledge through things like bookkeeping. Similarly, we must ask
where the rational law and administration of the West came from. Why didn't the political, artistic,
scientific or economic development of other countries follow the same path of rationalization?
Our first concern, then, is to work out and explain the peculiarity of Western rationalism. The
correlation between this rationalism and Western economic conditions must not be ignored
in either direction. This work begins by looking at the influence of certain religious ideas on the
development of an economic spirit (in this case, the connection between the spirit of modern
capitalism and the rational ethics of ascetic Protestantism). In looking at economic ethics and the
world religions, Weber hopes to find points of comparison with the West. He observes that such
investigations are necessarily limited by his lack of specialization in these areas. This cannot be
avoided in doing comparative work. While some people think that specialization is unnecessary,
Weber argues that dilettantism could be the end of science. He also says that he will avoid talking
about the relative value of the cultures he studies. He also admits that while there is much to be said
for the argument that many of the differences of culture have to do with heredity, he does not see a
way as yet of measuring its influence. Thus, he believes that sociology and history have the job of
analyzing all of the causal relationships due to reactions to environment.
Commentary
This introduction gives a sense of the breadth of Weber's overall interests and studies. His book is a
study of the ways in which the values of ascetic Protestantism contributed to the development of the
spirit of capitalism. However, he argues that there are also causal links between the Protestant ethic
and the spirit of capitalism that run the other way. Furthermore, he links the development of modern
capitalism with a larger rationalization of the Western world, which is itself a matter of great interest.
He also declares his interest in comparing the role of Protestantism in developing culture with the
role of other world religions. Weber also pursues many of these ideas, among others, in other
writings; it is worth noting, then, that Weber saw The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalismas
only the tip of the iceberg in the study of the complex interrelations among religion, rationalization,
and social and economic institutions. Precisely because of his understanding of this complexity, his
conclusions are typically cautious and limited in scope. He encourages a flexible method of analysis,
which uses different perspectives in order to gain a fuller picture of social reality.
This introduction also suggests a bit about Weber's approach to sociology. He is analyzing unique
formulations of social institutions, looking at the ways in which certain contingent ideas affected the
development of capitalism. Thus, he assumes that all societies are on different paths. He does not
believe in one universal path of progress that all civilizations are currently on, but rather argues for
the particularity of culture. This is quite different from many of the popular theories of his time. For
example, according to Marxism, history is on an inevitable path, and the development of capitalism
was not culturally contingent. Weber rejects such universalism, and sees the Western experience as
due to specific cultural developments.
Chapter 1 - Religious Affiliation and Social Stratification
Summary
Weber observes that according to the occupational statistics of countries of mixed religious
composition, business leaders and owners, as well as the higher skilled laborers and personnel, are
overwhelmingly Protestant. This fact crosses lines of nationality. Weber observes that this could be
partly explained by historical circumstances, such as the fact that richer districts tended to convert to
Protestantism. This, however, leads to the question of why, during the Protestant Reformation, the
districts that were most economically developed were also most favorable to a revolution. It is true
that freedom from economic traditions might make one more likely to also doubt religious traditions.
However, the Reformation did not eliminate the influence of the Church, but rather substituted one
influence for another that was more penetrating in practice. Weber also says that though it might be
thought that the greater participation of Protestants in capitalism is due to their greater inherited
wealth, this does not explain all the phenomena. For example, Catholic and Protestant parents tend
to give their children different kinds of education, and Catholics have more of a tendency than
Protestants to stay in handicrafts rather than to go into industry. This suggests that their environment
has determined the choice of occupation. This seems all the more likely because one would
normally expect Catholics to get involved in economic activity in places like Germany, because they
are excluded from political influence. However, in reality Protestants have shown a much stronger
tendency to develop economic rationalism than Catholics have. Our task is to investigate the
religions and see what might have caused this behavior.
One explanation that has been given is that the Catholics are more "otherworldly" and ascetic than
the Protestants, and are therefore indifferent to material gain. However, this does not fit the facts of
today or of the past, and such generalities are not useful. Furthermore, Weber argues that there
might actually be an "intimate relationship" between capitalist acquisition and otherworldliness, piety,
and asceticism. For example, it is striking that many of the most ardent Christians come from
commercial circles, and there is often a connection between otherworldly religious faith and
commercial success. However, not all Protestant circles have had an equally strong influence, with
Calvinism having a stronger force than Lutheranism. Thus, if there is any relationship between the
ascetic Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, it will have to be found in purely religious
characteristics. In order to understand the many potential relationships here, it is necessary to try to
understand the characteristics of and differences among the religious thoughts of Christianity. It is
first necessary, though, to speak about the phenomenon we wish to understand and the degree to
which an explanation is even possible.
Commentary
Throughout his essay, Weber will be making both empirical and theoretical arguments. It is therefore
important to understand the differences and connections between the two kinds of arguments. An
empirical argument is based on observation or experiment; it describes facts that can be proven. For
example, Weber's claim that Protestants are more involved than Catholics in capitalistic activities is
an empirical argument, based on his observations in Germany and elsewhere. Other studies might
question the validity of such a claim, and in fact Weber has been criticized for many of the empirical
arguments that underlie his study. Theoretical arguments are more speculative; their purpose is to
give meaning to empirical observations. For example, Weber notices a correlation between ascetic
Protestantism and the spirit of capitalism. What could explain such a connection? It is not possible to
simply run an experiment or do a statistical study; this might show correlations, but it will not tell a
causal story. Thus, Weber explores more about the "spirit" of capitalism, and about ascetic
Protestantism, hopefully getting an accurate description of each (this is empirical work). He then
attempts to tell a coherent story about what happened, given the information available (this is
theoretical). He looks at his information through the lens of his theory, and ideally his theory would
account for all of the relevant facts available. In reality, the world is far too complex for any theory to
possible capture all of its intricacies, and Weber himself is very cautious about the limited ability of
any theory to explain the world. However, theory is still useful, since it is the only way to give
empirical facts any broader meaning.
Weber's study has important implications for how we look at religion. Weber does not simply take
religion on its own terms, seeing what it means to its founders and followers. For Weber, religion
also has another function. It can create broader social values and be instrumental in the creation of
social institutions completely unrelated to its own goals and ends. Religion has a generative power,
and the influence of its ideas should be studied in areas seemingly unrelated to its theological
principles, such as the creation of economic institutions.
Chapter 2 - The Spirit of Capitalism
Summary
What does the term "the spirit of capitalism" mean? This term can only be applied to something that
is "a complex of elements associated in historical reality which we unite into a conceptual whole from
the standpoint of their cultural significance." The final concept can only come out at the end of an
investigation into its nature. There are many ways to conceptualize the spirit of capitalism. We must
work out the best formulation based on what about that spirit interests us; this, however, is not the
only possible point of view.
To come up with a formulation, Weber presents a long excerpt from the writings of Benjamin
Franklin. He says that Franklin's attitudes illustrate capitalism's ethos.Franklin writes that time is
money, that credit is money, and that money can beget money. He encourages people to pay all of
their debts on time, because it encourages the confidence of others. He also encourages people to
present themselves as industrious and trustworthy at all times. Weber says that this "philosophy of
avarice" sees increasing capital as an end in itself. It is an ethic, and the individual is seen as having
a duty to prosper. This is the spirit of modern capitalism. While capitalism existed in places like
China and India, and in the Middle Ages, it did not have this spirit.
All of Franklin's moral beliefs relate to their usefulness in promoting profit. They are virtues for this
reason, and Franklin does not object to substitutes for these virtues that accomplish the same ends.
However, this is not simply egocentrism. The capitalist ethic does not embrace a hedonistic life-style.
Earning more and more money is seen completely as an end in itself, and is not simply the means
for purchasing other goods. This seemingly irrational attitude towards money is a leading principle of
capitalism, and it expresses a type of feeling closely associated with certain religious ideas. Earning
money reflects virtue and proficiency in a calling. This idea of one's duty in a calling is the basis of
the capitalist ethic. It's an obligation that the individual should and does feel toward his professional
activity. Now, this does not mean that this idea has only appeared under capitalistic conditions, or
that this ethic must continue in order for capitalism to continue. Capitalism is a vast system that
forces the individual to play by its rules, in a kind of economic survival of the fittest.
However, Weber argues that in order for a manner of life so conducive to capitalism to become
dominant, it had to originate somewhere, as a way of life common to a large number of people. It is
this origin that must be explained. He rejects the idea that this ethic originated as a reflection or
superstructure of economic situations. In Massachusetts, the spirit of capitalism was present before
the capitalistic order took shape, as complaints of profit-seeking emerged as early as 1632.
Furthermore, the capitalistic spirit took stronger hold in places like Massachusetts that were founded
with religious motives than in the American South, which was settled for business motives.
Furthermore, the spirit of capitalism actually had to fight its way to dominance against hostile forces.
In ancient times and during the Middle Ages, Franklin's attitude would have been denounced as
greed. It is not the case that greed was less pronounced then, or in other places that lack the
capitalist ethic.
The biggest opponent the capitalist ethic has had in gaining dominance has been traditionalism.
Weber says that he will try to make a provisional definition of "traditionalism" by looking at a few
cases. First, there is the laborer. One way in which the modern employer encourages work is
through piece-rates, for example paying an agricultural worker by the amount harvested. In order to
increase productivity, the employer raises the rate of pay. However, a frequent problem is that rather
than work harder, the workers actually work less when pay increases. They do this because they
can reduce their workload and still make the same amount of money. "He did not ask: how much can
I earn in a day if I do as much work as possible? but: how much must I work in order to earn the
wage, 2 1/2 marks, which I earned before and which takes care of my traditional needs?" This
reflects traditionalism, and shows that "by nature" man simply wants to live as he is used to living,
and earn as much as is necessary to do this. This is the leading trait of pre-capitalistic labor, and we
still encounter this among more backward peoples. Weber then addresses the opposite policy, of
reducing wages to increase productivity. He says that this effectiveness of this has its limits, as
wages can become insufficient for life. To be effective for capitalism, labor must be performed as an
end in itself. This requires education, and is not simply natural.
Weber then considers the entrepreneur in terms of the meaning of traditionalism. He observes that
capitalistic enterprises can still have a traditionalistic character. The spirit of modern capitalism
implies an attitude of rational and systematic pursuit of profit. Such an attitude finds its most suitable
expression through capitalism, and has most effectively motivated capitalistic activities. However,
the spirit of capitalism and capitalistic activities can occur separately. For example, consider the
"putting-out system." This represented a rational capitalistic organization, but it was still traditional in
spirit. It reflected a traditional way of life, a traditional relationship with labor, and traditional
interactions with customers. At some point, this traditionalism was shattered, but not by changes in
organization. Rather, some young man went into the country, carefully chose weavers whom he
closely supervised, and made them into laborers. He also changed his relationship with his
customers by making it more personal and eliminating the middleman, and he introduced the idea of
low prices and large turnover. Those who could not compete went out of business. A leisurely
attitude towards life was replaced by frugality. Most importantly, it was usually not new money that
brought about this change, but a new spirit.
Those people who succeeded were typically temperate and reliable, and completely devoted to their
business. Today, there is little connection between religious beliefs and such conduct, and if it exists
it is usually negative. For these people, business is an end in itself. This is their motivation, despite
the fact that this is irrational from the perspective of personal happiness. In our modern individualistic
world, this spirit of capitalism might be understandable simply as adaptation, because it is so well
suited to capitalism. It no longer needs the force of religious conviction because it is so necessary.
However, this is the case because modern capitalism has become so powerful. It may have needed
religion in order to overthrow the old economic system; this is what we need to investigate. It is
hardly necessary to prove that the idea of moneymaking as a calling was not believed for whole
epochs, and that capitalism was at best tolerated. It is nonsense to say that the ethic of capitalism
simply reflected material conditions. Rather, it is necessary to understand the background of ideas
that made people feel they had a calling to make money.
Commentary
Many commentators on capitalism tend to assume or argue that its existence is inevitable, that it is
fundamental to human nature, or reflects an important step in a universal series of stages. Weber's
account brings such claims into question. According to Weber, the "spirit" necessary for successful
capitalistic activities is not natural. Striving for profit is not the only way to approach economic
activities; one could, for example, simply strive for subsistence or a traditional way of life. According
to Weber, when capitalism does prosper, it does so because people have embraced and internalized
certain values. These values, and not just human nature, make capitalism possible. Capitalism
cannot then simply be a necessary step in the world's development, because in order for it to
emerge, particular values must be present. Weber thus leaves space for the importance of ideas and
culture in the history of human development.
He is also specifically replying to one approach to sociology and history, promulgated by many
Marxists and often called "materialism." This approach sees all ideas and developments, including
the spirit of capitalism, as a reflection or superstructure of economic situations. Economic
interactions are the basis for all social institutions. Religion itself is a product of such interactions; it
cannot be a driving force of history. Weber's point is that for Western civilization to ever emerge out
of feudal traditionalism, it needed to embrace a new set of values. These values couldn't simply have
emerged out of the economic situation; we needed these values in order to rid ourselves of that
situation. The formation of the values was influenced by economic situations, but not completely
caused by them. According to Weber then, the materialist view is overly simplistic and not supported
by the facts. Any complete understanding of historical progress would include a multiplicity of
causes, and appreciate that the causal relationship between economic situations and religious
outlooks goes both ways.
It is also important to notice the ways in which Weber attempts to define concepts like traditionalism
and the "spirit" of capitalism. Weber relies heavily on anecdotes and case studies in order to give a
sense for what these terms might mean; his discussion of the spirit of capitalism relies extremely
heavily on the writings of Benjamin Franklin. This approach has both positive and negative
attributes. His examples are carefully chosen and give a good grounding to his definition. However,
because they are simply examples, they can potentially be attacked as not representative of a
larger ethos. Weber's characterizations have indeed been attacked by some, and he has been
criticized for not relying on more quantitative surveys.
Chapter 3 - Luther's Conception of the Calling. Task of the Investigation.
Summary
Weber begins this chapter by looking at the word "calling." Both the German word "Beruf" and the
English word "calling" have a religious connotation of a task set by God. This type of word has
existed for all Protestant peoples, but not for Catholics or in antiquity. Like the word itself, the idea of
a calling is new; it is a product of the Reformation. Its newness comes in giving worldly activity a
religious significance. People have a duty to fulfill the obligations imposed upon them by their
position in the world. Martin Luther developed this idea; each legitimate calling has the same worth
to God. This "moral justification of worldly activity" was one of the most important contributions of the
Reformation, and particularly of Luther's role in it.
However, it cannot be said that Luther actually had the spirit of capitalism. The way in which the idea
of worldly labor in a calling would evolve depended on the evolution of different Protestant churches.
The Bible itself suggested a traditionalistic interpretation, and Luther himself was a traditionalist. He
came to believe in absolute obedience to God's will, and acceptance of the way things are. Thus,
Weber concludes that the simple idea of the calling in Lutheranism is at best of limited importance to
his study. This does not mean that Lutheranism had no practical significance for the development of
the capitalistic spirit. Rather, it means that this development cannot be directly derived from Luther's
attitude toward worldly activity. We should then look to a branch of Protestantism that has a clearer
connection--Calvinism.
Thus, Weber makes his starting point the investigation of the relationship between the spirit of
capitalism and the ascetic ethic of the Calvinists and other Puritans. The capitalistic spirit was not
the goal of these religious reformers; their cultural impact was unforeseen and maybe undesired.
The following study will hopefully contribute to the understanding of how ideas become effective
forces in history.
Weber then adds a few remarks to avoid any confusion about his study. He is not trying to evaluate
the ideas of the Reformation in either social or religious worth. He is only trying to understand how
certain characteristics of modern culture can be traced to the Reformation. We shouldn't try to see
the Reformation as a historically necessary result of economic factors. Many historical and political
circumstances, fully independent of economic law, had to occur in order for the Churches to even be
able to survive. However, we should also not be so foolish as to argue that the spirit of capitalism
could only have occurred as the result of particular effects of the Reformation, and that capitalism is
therefore a result of the Reformation. Weber's goals are more modest. He wants to understand
whether and to what degree religious forces have helped form and expand the spirit of capitalism,
and what aspects of our culture can be traced to them. He will examine when and where there are
correlations between religious beliefs and practical ethics, and clarify how religious movements have
influenced material culture's development. Only when this has been determined can we try to
estimate the degree to which the historical development of modern culture can be attributed to those
religious forces, and to what extent to other forces.
Commentary
This chapter is the final stage of Weber's presentation of the "problem" of the potential connection
between the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. It is illustrative of Weber's method that
presenting the problem takes him three chapters of writing. Once again, in this chapter Weber
spends significant time telling us what he will not be studying, and how limited his examination really
is. Consider the significance of this approach, both as a methodological and rhetorical tool. Does
such caution add to or detract from his writing?
Weber also introduces the idea of a "calling" to worldly activity. This will be an important concept
when Weber develops his theory in later chapters. Notice first that Weber does not think that belief in
a calling is sufficient to explain the spirit of capitalism. A calling can be consistent with traditionalism,
since it can imply that a person should accept his role in life and not strive for more. However, it
could also potentially support a more capitalistic ethic. According to Weber, before the Reformation,
people did not see their "worldly" activities (such as their occupations and businesses) as being in
service to God. Rather, worldly activities were perceived more like necessary evils. The monastic
lifestyle, where people removed themselves from the world in order to contemplate God, was
glorified. The Reformation rejected this attitude. It was seen as wrong to remove yourself from the
world; serving God meant participating in worldly activities, because this was part of God's purpose
for each individual. Thus, labor and business became part of one's duty to God. According to Weber,
with the right theological developments, this worldliness could be transformed into a belief in the duty
to prosper. This connection will be made in the next two chapters. Once again, some have
questioned Weber's empirical claims. It has been argued that the concept of the calling was not as
new as Weber contends, and that it was already a presence in Catholic scriptural interpretation.
Consider, as you read the next two chapters, the degree to which this argument could affect Weber's
conclusions.
Chapter 4 - The Religious Foundations of Worldly Asceticism (Part 1, Calvinism)
Summary
Historically, the four major forms of ascetic Protestantism have been, Calvinism, Pietism,
Methodism, and the Baptist sects. None of these churches are completely independent of each
other, or even from non-ascetic churches. Even their strongest dogmatic differences were combined
in various ways, and similar moral conduct can be found in all four. We see, then, that similar ethical
requirements can correspond with very different dogmatic foundations. In examining these religions,
Weber explains that he is interested in "the influence of those psychological sanctions which,
originating in religious belief and the practice of religion, gave a direction to practical conduct and
held the individual to it." People were concerned with abstract dogmas to a degree that can only be
understood when we see how connected these dogmas were with practical religious interests.
The first religion Weber describes is Calvinism. Calvinism's most distinctive dogma is the doctrine of
predestination. Calvinists believe that God preordains which people are saved and which are
damned. Calvinists came to this idea from logical necessity. Men exist for the sake of God, and to
apply earthly standards of justice to God is meaningless and insulting. To question one's fate is
similar to an animal complaining it wasn't born a man. Humans do not have the power to change
God's decrees, and we only know that part of humanity is saved, and part damned. In the Calvinist
outlook, God becomes "a transcendental being, beyond the reach of human understanding, who with
His quite incomprehensible decrees has decided the fate of every individual and regulated the tiniest
details of the cosmos from eternity."
Weber argues that Calvinism must have had a profound psychological impact, "a feeling of
unprecedented inner loneliness of the single individual." In what was the most important thing in his
life, eternal salvation, each person had to follow his path alone, to meet a destiny already
determined for him. No one could help him, and there was no salvation through the Church and the
sacraments. This was the logical conclusion of the gradual elimination of magic from the world.
There were no means at all to attain God's grace if God had decided to deny it.
On the one hand, this account shows why the Calvinists rejected all sensual and emotional elements
of culture and religion. Such elements were not a means to salvation and they promoted
superstition. On the other hand, we see the origins of today's disillusioned and pessimistic
individualism. The Calvinist's interaction with God was carried out in spiritual isolation, even though
he did belong to a church. There was social organization because laboring for impersonal social
usefulness was believed to be required by God.
This account of Calvinism brings up an important question, however. How could the doctrine of
predestination have developed in an age when one's afterlife was the most important and most
certain part of existence? Each believer must have wondered if he or she was one of the elect; it
must have dominated their thoughts. Calvin was sure of his own salvation, and his answer to such
concerns was simply to be content with the knowledge that God has chosen, and trust in Christ.
Calvin rejected in principle the assumption that people could learn from other's conduct whether they
were saved or damned--this would be trying to force God's secrets. However, this approach was
impossible for Calvin's followers. It was psychologically necessary that they have some means of
recognizing people in a state of grace, and two such means emerged. First, it was considered an
absolute duty to consider oneself to be one of the saved, and to see doubts as temptations of evil.
Secondly, worldly activity was encouraged as the best means of gaining that self-confidence.
Why could worldly activity take on this level of importance? Calvinism rejected the mystical elements
of Lutheranism, where humans were a vessel to be filled by God. Rather, Calvinists believed that
God worked through them. Being in a state of grace meant that they were tools of divine will. Faith
had to be shown in objective results. What results did Calvinists look for? They looked for any
activity that increased the glory of God. Such conduct could be based directly in the Bible, or
indirectly through the purposeful order of God's world. Good works were not a means to salvation,
but they were a sign of having been chosen.
Weber observes that Calvinism expected systematic self-control, and provided no opportunity for
forgiveness of weakness. "The God of Calvinism demanded of his believers not single good works,
but a life of good works combined into a unified system." This was a rational and systematic
approach to life. Since people had to prove their faith through worldly activity, Calvinism demanded a
kind of worldly asceticism. It led to an attitude toward one's neighbor's sins that was not sympathetic,
but rather full of hate, since he was God's enemy, bearing the signs of eternal damnation. This
implied a "Christianization" of life that had dramatic practical implications for the way people lived
their lives.
Furthermore, religions with a similar doctrine of proof had a similar influence on practical life.
Predestination in its "magnificent consistency" was the foundation for the Puritans' methodical and
rationalized ethics. The different branches of ascetic Protestantism had elements of Calvinist
thought, even if they did not embrace Calvinism as a whole. Weber again emphasizes how
fundamental the idea of proof is for his study. His theory can be understood in its purest form
through the Calvinist doctrine of predestination. Calvinism did have a unique consistency and an
extraordinarily powerful psychological effect. However, there is also a recurring framework for the
connection between faith and conduct in the other three religions to be presented.
Commentary
This chapter is somewhat disjointed from the rest of Weber's study, but does attempt to show some
of the main aspects of Puritan life. Calvinism is Weber's primary focus here, but in the next section
he will more briefly present three other ascetic Protestant religions. In this section, Weber presents
some of the most fundamental doctrines of Calvinism, as well as discussing how dogma affected
practical living. There are a few key ideas to notice in Weber's discussion here. First, Calvinism was
important because it stressed grace by results; there was a need for proof of one's preordained fate.
This was not part of the original doctrine, but came out of psychological necessity. Second, notice
the connection to the previous chapter's discussion of the Protestant calling. The sorts of "results"
that Calvinists were looking for were part of worldly activity. Calvinists did not lead an isolated
monastic lifestyle. They participated in the life of their communities, because this was part of God's
expectations of them.
It is also important to notice how Weber presents Calvinism as the height of rationalism. It has a
"magnificent consistency" and encourages systematic living and the absence of magic. What does
Weber mean when he says that Calvinism is "rational"? The word has important meaning to Weber,
and he uses it throughout this and other works. In the context of religion, "rationalization" implies
systematization and consistency, elaboration, and extension of doctrine. In terms of social
institutions, rationalization implies ever-increasing knowledge in areas like calculation and efficiency.
How is Calvinism rational? According to Weber, it is completely logically consistent. If you accept the
Calvinists' presuppositions (such as the existence of God), then their doctrines contain no inner
contradictions. Furthermore, Calvinism rejects all use of "magic," such as sacraments that will save
those who partake in them. In contrast, the only hints of salvation are based on a systematic and
methodical life of virtue. Calvinism was uniquely rational in these regards. Look for Weber's use of
the idea of rationalization throughout this work.
Chapter 4 - The Religious Foundations of Worldly Asceticism (Part 2, Pietism, Methodism, The Baptist Sects
Summary
After presenting the doctrines of Calvinism, Weber turns to three other ascetic Protestant religions,
the first being Pietism. Historically, the doctrine of predestination was also the starting point of
Pietism, and Pietism is closely linked to Calvinism. Pietists had a deep distrust of the Church of the
theologians, and they tried to live "a life freed from all the temptations of the world and in all its
details dictated by God's will." They looked for signs of rebirth in their daily activity. Pietism had a
greater emphasis on the emotional side of religion than orthodox Calvinism accepted, and Lutheran
strains of Pietism existed. However, insofar as the rational and ascetic elements of Pietism were
dominant, the concepts necessary for Weber's study remained. First, Pietists believed that the
methodical development of one's state of grace in terms of the law was a sign of grace. Secondly,
they believed that God gives signs to those in states of perfection if they wait patiently. They too had
an aristocracy of the elect, although there was some room for human activity to gain grace. We see
that Pietism had an uncertain basis for its asceticism that made it less consistent than Calvinism.
This is partly due to Lutheran influences, and partly due to emotionalism. This study thus explains
some of the differences in the character of people under the influence of Pietism instead of
Calvinism.
Methodism represented a combination of emotional yet ascetic religion with an increasing
indifference to Calvinism's doctrinal basis. Its strongest characteristic was its "methodical, systematic
nature of conduct." Method was primarily used to bring about the emotional act of conversion, and
the religion had a strong emotional character. Good works were only the means of knowing one's
state of grace. The feeling of grace was necessary for salvation. From our viewpoint, the Methodist
ethic had an uncertain foundation similar to Pietism's. Like Calvinism, they looked at conduct to
assess true conversion. However, as a late product, Methodism can generally be ignored, since it
doesn't add anything new to the idea of a calling.
The Baptist sects (Baptists, Mennonites, and Quakers) form an independent source of ascetic
Protestantism other than Calvinism; their ethics rest on a different basis. These sects are unified by
the idea of a believers' church, a community of only the true believers. This worked through
individual revelation, and one had to wait for the Spirit and avoid sinful attachments to the world.
Despite having a different foundation than Calvinism, they too rejected all idolatry of the flesh as a
detraction from the respect due God. They believed in the continued relevance of revelation. Like the
Calvinists, they devalued the sacraments as a means to salvation, which was an important form of
rationalization. This led to the practice of worldly asceticism. An interest in economic occupations
was increased by their rejection of politics; they embraced the ethic of "honesty is the best policy."
Now that we have seen the religious foundations of the Puritan idea of a calling, we can now look to
the implications of this idea for the business world. The most important commonality among these
sects is "the conception of the state of religious grace...as a status which marks off its possessor
from the degradation of the flesh, from the world." This could not be attained by magical sacraments
or good works, but could only be proved through particular kinds of conduct. The individual had an
incentive to methodically supervise his own state of grace in his conduct, and thus to practice
asceticism. This meant planning one's whole life systematically in accordance with God's will.
Commentary
These forms of ascetic Protestantism are less central to Weber's study than Calvinism, and it is
therefore less important to get a complete understanding of the doctrine and lifestyle of their
followers. These religions are less rational than Calvinism, because they have a strong emotional
element that introduces some of the "magic" that Calvinism rejected. These religions do encourage
systematic and methodical living, however, which is an important trait of rationalization. The most
important tie among these different religions is their worldliness and their belief in signs of religious
grace. This leaves these religions with a concept of the calling that is centered in the practical world.
Look in the next chapter for how Weber connects these ideas back to the spirit of capitalism.
It is important to be aware of the fact that Weber is not trying to present these beliefs in their full
complexity. Each religion is being presented as what Weber called an "ideal-type." An ideal-type is a
simplified version of a concept or institution, which captures its most relevant characteristics for the
study at hand. In this case, Weber is ignoring much of the diversity of religious belief among these
different sects, as well as many important aspects of their theology. These issues are not relevant to
his study, and simplifications are necessary because of the infinite number of perspectives that could
be taken on each belief, and the infinite complexity of those beliefs. All of Weber's characterizations,
including the spirit of capitalism and the ethic of ascetic Protestantism, are ideal-types.
Chapter 5 - Asceticism and the Spirit of Capitalism
Summary
Weber now turns to the conclusion of his study, and attempts to understand the relationship between
ascetic Protestantism and the spirit of capitalism. To understand how religious ideas translate into
maxims for everyday conduct, one must look closely at the writings of ministers. This was the
primary force in the formation of national character. For the purposes of this chapter, we can treat
ascetic Protestantism as a single whole. The writings of Richard Baxter are a good model of its
ethics. In his work, it is striking to see his suspicion of wealth as a dangerous temptation. His real
moral objection though, is to relaxation, idleness, and distraction from the pursuit of a righteous life.
Possessions are only objectionable because of this risk of relaxation; only activity promotes God's
glory. Thus, wasting time is the worst of sins, because it means that time is lost in promoting God's
will in a calling. Baxter preaches hard and continual mental or bodily work. This is because labor is
an acceptable ascetic technique in the Western tradition, and because labor came to be seen as an
end in itself, ordained as such by God. This does not change, even for those people who are
wealthy, because everyone has a calling in which they should labor, and taking the opportunities for
profit that God provides is part of that calling. To wish to be poor is similar to wishing to be sick, and
both are morally unacceptable.
Weber then attempts to clarify the ways in which the Puritan idea of the calling and asceticism
influenced the development of the capitalistic way of life. First, asceticism opposed the spontaneous
enjoyment of life and its opportunities. Such enjoyment leads people away from work in a calling and
religion. Weber argues, "That powerful tendency toward uniformity of life, which today so immensely
aids the capitalistic interest in the standardization of production, had its ideal foundations in the
repudiation of all idolatry of the flesh." Furthermore, the Puritans rejected any spending of money on
entertainment that didn't "serve God's glory." They felt a duty to hold and increase their possessions.
It was ascetic Protestantism that gave this attitude its ethical foundation. It had the psychological
effect of freeing the acquisition if goods from traditionalist ethics' inhibitions. Asceticism also
condemned dishonesty and impulsive greed. The pursuit of wealth in itself was bad, but attaining it
as the result of one's labor was a sign of God's blessing.
Thus, the Puritan outlook favored the development of rational bourgeois economic life, and "stood at
the cradle of the modern economic man." It is true that once attained, wealth had a secularizing
effect. In fact, we see that the full economic effects of these religious movements actually came after
the peak of religious enthusiasm. "The religious roots died out slowly, giving way to utilitarian
worldliness." However, these religious roots left its more secular successor an "amazingly good"
conscience about acquiring money, as long as it was done legally. The religious asceticism also
gave the businessmen industrious workers, and assured him that inequality was part of God's
design. Thus, one of the major elements of the spirit of modern capitalism, rational conduct based on
the idea of a calling, was "born" from the spirit of Christian asceticism. The same values exist in
both, with the spirit of capitalism simply lacking the religious basis.
Weber observes, "The Puritan wanted to work in a calling; we are forced to do so." Asceticism
helped build the "tremendous cosmos of the modern economic order." People born today have their
lives determined by this mechanism. Their care for external goods has become "an iron cage."
Material goods have gained an unparalleled control over the individual. The spirit of religious
asceticism "has escaped from the cage," but capitalism no longer needs its support. The "idea of
duty in one's calling prowls about in our lives like the ghost of dead religious beliefs." People even
stop trying to justify it at all.
In conclusion, Weber mentions some of the areas that a more complete study would have to
explore. First, one would have to explore the impact of ascetic rationalism on other areas of life, and
its historical development would have to be more rigorously traced. Furthermore, it would be
necessary to investigate how Protestant asceticism was itself influenced by social conditions,
including economic conditions. He says, "it is, of course, not my aim to substitute for a one-sided
materialistic an equally one- sided spiritualistic causal interpretation of culture and of history."
Commentary
In this chapter, Weber attempts to connect asceticism with the modern capitalistic spirit. His first
describes how the Puritan ethic encouraged hard work and the pursuit of profit. These claims are
closely linked to Weber's observations until now. These ascetic Protestants were looking for signs of
their own salvation, and their concept of the calling made them look for those signs in worldly
achievements. Spending their money on luxuries was disrespectful to God, and they were expected
to pour any profits back into their callings. These values are all closely linked to the capitalistic ethic,
and Weber does a good job of drawing out the sources of these values. However, the next
connection Weber makes is more troubling. Weber says that from this ethic, a system of capitalism
emerged that no longer required ascetic values to sustain itself. These values became the capitalist
spirit, and now we are all forced to follow them. However, Weber does not tell the story of how the
capitalist system emerged, and by what mechanism ascetic Puritan values were replaced by
something else. This suggests a gap in Weber's theoretical model. Do you consider this to be a
serious gap, or is its content suggested in other parts of his work (such as Chapter 2, on the spirit of
capitalism)?
This section also suggests that Weber's attitude toward the modern capitalistic system is ambivalent
at best. Notice his use of the imagery of an "iron cage" to describe the situation of individuals in the
modern world. They are trapped in a larger system of institutions and values that define their
opportunities in life. While capitalism needed ascetic Protestantism in order to become powerful,
once it gained that power it took on a life of its own. We see, then, Weber's belief that capitalism's
development was contingent on historical circumstances such as the Reformation. We also see
Weber's belief that culture and institutions play an important role in defining people's values and
opportunities.