r"r r,*o still by *"",,i:;il","to"r*, explanation of IEphonetics, but this is not pursued in detail.)

At the same time, the opportunity is taken to draw a clear

line between the description of OHG in itself (which has been

the apparent aim of OHG grammars), and the comparison of

it with other languages and historical explanation of its pheno-mena (which has been mixed into most OHG grammars ininconsistent measure, e"g. the origins of sounds are given butnot the origins of forms, although the latter would exemplifythe former). Thus, while on the one hand the comparativematerial is kept distinct and complete in itself (though therehas not been space to take account of all theories, still less tojustify explicitly the choice between them), on the other handthe description of OHG is based, as far as possible within thelimits of this book, on OHG itseli

When all is said, the aim of a desctiptioz of OHG is to enablethe reading of texts, and in a text the student is faced, for ex-ample, not with a Germanic a-stem or Indo-European o-stemand a Germanic or Indo-European consonant-stem, but withtwo nouns whose forms show and do not show equally a, o,and consonant, but havc or have not the same endings as eachother. As Sweet said fifty-eight years ago (of OE), 'to call theOld-English nouns lris ai a- or o- (why not e- ?) stem, cynn ajo-, mmigo an i- or in- stem, on the ground that in some otherlanguage the corresponding words ended in -o, &c., is, froman Old-English point of view, sheer nonsense. . . . In fact, thereare no "stems" at all in Old-English'. It may be added, amethod that speaks (on the same level) of a- and d- (and noto- and a-) stems but os/es- (and not azliz-) stems cannot justify

itself.Since, however, the student will in any case go on to the

study of books which still use the comparative terms for de-scriptive purposes, the limits within which re-ordering of thedescriptive material has here been possible are narrow. There

PREFACE v i i

is, too, the difficulty that OHG (not to mention Old Saxon) isnot a unified language within itself but has territorial dialects,periods of development, and all kinds of textual aberrations.A full purely descriptive treatment of these would require therange of Braune's Grammar. In a book of the present size andwith the present general purpose, only a framework can begiven.

The student beginning OHG with this book would be welladvised first to read the East Franconian version of the text(6. r) together with the notes on it, carefully looking up all thereferences to the grammar, then to proceed to a study of thedescriptive grammar as a whole and the text in the other dia-lects. He will then be in a position to begin on a Reader suchas Barber's.

The author is indebted to Mr. M. O'C. Walshe, especiallyfor his initial encouragement and the model of his revision ofWright's MHG Primer, but in general for his generous andhelpful guidance and advice and his liberal teaching.

J. E.N O T T I N G H A M

September rg53

CONTENTSL I S T O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S

I . I N T R O D U C T I O N

r. Scope of OHG. z. Germanic. 3. Indo-European.

4. OHG literature.

I I . D E S C R I P T I V E P H O N E T I C S

r. Alphabet. z. Vowels. 3. Consonants. 4. Phoneticaltemations. 5. Stress,

r r r . PHoNoLoGY (co l r rene r r vn AND Hrs -T O R T C A L P H O N E T T C S )

r-r r. The Pr.Gc equivalents of the IE vowel-sounds.r. IE vowel-system. 2. a, o, ai, oi, au, ou. 3. e, ei, eu.4. i, S. u. 6. a, o. 7. e, Ai. f. i, fi. 9. -gx-. ro. Sonantliquids and nasals. rr. Pr.Gc vowel-system.

n-27. The OHG development of the general Gcvowel-system.

r2-q. The vowels of accented syllables. rz. a, ai,a u , 1 3 . e , e u . 1 4 . i , o , u . 1 5 . d , t r . t 6 , 8 , 5 . 1 7 . i , i i .

18-27. The vowels of unaccented syllables. 18-23.Final syllables. 18. Final long vowels. rg. Shortvowels. zo. Other long vowels. zr. Final consonant.zz. Anaptyctic vowel with nasal or liquid. 23. Otherdevelopments. 2+-27. Other than final syllables.24. Assimilation of medial vowels. 25. Anaptycticvowel. 26. Syncope. 27. Pre-tonic.

z8-37. The Pr.Gc treatment of IE consonants.z8-33. The shift ofthe IE stops ('First Sound-Shift').28. IE system of stops. zg. Voiceless stops. 3o. Voicedstops. 3r. Voiced aspirates. 32. Vemer's Law.

33-37. Other consonant changes. 33. Other IEconsonants. 34. Combinationswith t. 35. Gutturalz.36. Final t, d. 27. Final nasal.

38-4o, West Gc modifications of Pr.Gc consonants.

38. z. 39. Gemination with j. 4o. Gemination with r.

4r-45. The HG Shift of Pr.Gc stops and fricatives('Second Sound-Shift'). 4r. Scope of shift. 42, Voice-less stops. 43. Voiced stops and fricatives. 44. Sum-mary. 45. Development of Verner's Law.

xii

.7

r 3

r 6

r 8

2 l

C O N T E N T S

46-5r. Other consonant changes of OHG. 46. Sim-plification of double consonants. 47.w.48. j. 49. Nasals.

5o. h. 5r. Dentals.

r v . A C C I D E N C E ( D E S C R I P T M A N D C O M P A R A -

r rvE)r-r7. Declension of nouns. r. Categories of declen-

sion. z. Principal masculine and neuter declension.

t. M and Nj-declension' 4. M and N zo-declension.

5. Principal feminine declension . 6. F -inn'd'eclension.

7. F J:declension. 8. F abstract nouns in -i. S. M

r-declension, ro. F l-declension. rr. z-declension.rz. M a-declension. r3. N z-declension. r4.F n-de-

clension. 15. Other consonant-stems. 16. Mixed

declensions. r7. N -ir- declension.18-24. Declension of adjectives. r8. Categories of

declension. r9. Strong principal. zo. 1-declension.zr. zo-declension. 22. Weak. 23. Present participles.

24. Past participles.z 5--28. Cornparison of Adjectives. z 5. Comparative.

26. Superlative. 27. Irregular comparison. 28. De-

fective comparison.z9-3r. Adverbs. 29. Formation' 3o Comparison.

3r. Irregular comparison.

32-37. Numerals. 32. Cardinalandordinal. 33. r-3.

34. +-r2. 35. 2o-roo. 36. Ordinals. 37. other nu-merals.

38-46. Pronouns. 38. Personal. 39. Reflexive. 4o.Possessive. 4r. Simple demonstrative. +2. Com-pound demonstrative. 43. Other demonstratives. 44'Simple interrogative. 45. Other interrogatives. 46.Indefinite.

47-66. Verbs. 47,Patas of the verb' 48. Conjuga-

tion. 49. Strong verbs. 5o. Class I. 5r. Class II.

52. Class III. 53. Class IV' 54. Class V. 55. Class VI'

56. Class VII. 57. Weak verbs. 58. First weak con-jugation. 59. Irregular preterites. 6o. Second weak

conjugation. 6r. Third weak conjugation. 62. Pre-

terite-present verbs. 63. The verb 'to be'. 64. tuon.

65. gdn and std.n. 66.'will '.

v . S Y N T A X ( n E S c n I e r l v e )

r-6. Cases. r. Nominative. z. Accusative. 3. Geni-

tive. 4. Dative. 5. Instrumental. 6' Prepositions.

27

3 8

4r

43

44

46

52

68

C O N T E N T S

7-9. Adjectives. 7. Weak. 8. Strong. 9. Indefinitepronouns.

ro-16. Pronouns. ro. Definite article. rr. Indefi-nite article. rz. Personal and reflexive. 13. Indefinitepersonal. r4. Pronouns with genitive. 15. Relative.16. Distributive relative.

r7-3o. Verbs. t7-zz. Tense. ry. Aktionsart and,tense. r8. Present. 19. Future. zo. Preterite. zr. per-f.ect. 22.'Imperfective'. 23. Passive voice. z+-26.Mood. 24. Indicative. 25. Subjunctive. 26. Impera-tive. 27-31. Non-finite verb forms. 27. Infinitive.28. Infinitive as substantive. 29. present participle.30. Past participle. 3r. Negation.

3z-33, Concord. 32. Gender. 33. Number.34-36. Word-Order. 34. Noun and attributes. 35.

Preverb, preposition. 36. Verb.37-5o. Clauses. 32. Without conjunctions. 38. Con-

junctions. 39. Mood and tense. 4o. Indirect command.4r. Final. 42. Result. 43. Temporal. 44. Conditional.45, Concessive. 46. Causal. 42. Cornpu^tive. 48.Relative. 49. Indirect speech. 5o. euestions.

S P E C I M E N O F O H G D I A L E C T S A N D O T H E R

O L D G E R M A N I C L A N G U A G E S

r. East Franconian. z. South Rhenish Franconian.(a) Weissenburg Catechism; (b) Otfrid. 3. Alemannic.4. Bavarian. 5. Notker. 6. Old Saxon. 7. Gothic.8. Old English. 9. Old Norse. ro. Latin original.

S E L E C T B I B L I O G R A P H Y

xl

I J

l 5

8o

8q9o

92

99

r07

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS I

INTRODUCTION

l. 1. By Old High German (OHG) we mean the High Germandialects of the German language from the beginning of itsearliest monuments in the eighth century up to about the endof the eleventh century. OHG (and Old Saxon) literatureflourished in the ninth century, which period forms the basisof the grammatical framework here given, though importantworks occur also later.

1. 2. High German and Low German (see MHG $ r) are partof the 'West Germanic' division of the Germanic branch of theIndo-European family of languages. The other two divisionsof Germanic (which have much in common with each other)are'East Germanic', of which the only language known by anyconsiderable records is Gothic (chiefly Bishop Ulfilas's fourth-century translation of the Bible), and'North Germanic', com-prising East Norse (Swedish and Danish) and West Norse(Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese). 'West Germanic' is used toinclude all the remaining Germanic languages (although Englishand Frisian have some features in common with North Ger-manic, and HG with Gothic), namely English, Frisian, the LowGerman dialects, including Dutch, and HG. Low German isrepresented in the period of OHG mainly by Old Saxon (OS),but also comprises Low Franconian, which is divided from theother Franconian dialects by the 'Second Sound-Shift' (3.

4r-44).OHG is divided into three dialect groups:

(i) Upper German (UG), spoken in the highlands of southGerman-speaking territory, and comprising Alemannic andBavarian.

2 INTRODUCTION

(ii) Upper Franconian (UF), comprising East Franconian

(spoken in the old duchy of Francia Orientalis, east of the

Rhine as far as the Fichtelgebirge) and Rhenish Franconian

(bordering on the Rhine, southwards as far as Weissenburg),

including South Rhenish Franconian.

(iii) Central Franconian (CF), spoken along the Moselle and

the Rhine from Coblenz to Diisseldorf.UF and UG are the principal sources of OHG literature.

OS is in many respects close to OHG, a great proportion of

its forms differing only in the regular phonetic differencesl

where the latter (given in 3. rz-16, 23-27, 4r-5r) are not

enough to identify an OS form, it is given explicitly in the

Accidence.

I . 3. The otherknown branches of the Indo-European family are

(i) Indo-Iranian, comprising Indic (Hindi, Bengali, &.;

Sanskrit is Otd Indic) and Iranian (including Old Persian and

Avestic, Modern Persian and Pushtu).

(ii) Slavonic, including Russian, Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian,Polish, Czech, Slovak, Slovene, Serbo-Croat, Bulgarian.

(iii) Baltic, including Lithuanian and Latvian.

(iv) Armenian.

(v) Albanian.The above are satem-languages, i.e. they change the original

palatal stops (cf. 3. z8a) to sibilants.

(vi) Greek.

(vii) Italic, comprising Latin and the Oscan and Umbriandialect groups.

(viii) Celtic, including Gaelic and Brythonic (Welsh, Corn-ish, Breton).

(ix) Tocharian, discovered in r9o8.

More distantly related to the above IE languages than they areto each other is the recently discovered language or languages

INTRODUCTION 3

known as Hittite, which preserves an earlier phonetic stage (see3.r), and which also among other features shows some sharedwith Germanic, e.g. the *€ of the preterite plural (4. 48).

The wider family including Hittite is sometimes referred toas Indo-Hittite.

1. 4. Unlike Old English, where the West Saxon dialect be-came the literary language, the OHG documents written in thevarious monasteries continued to be written in local dialect.Because of copying by scribes speaking different dialects, themanuscripts contain much dialectal mixture, including OSelements. This is one reason why some knowledge of OS is anintegral part of Old German studies; other reasons (apart fromits historical relation to modern continental Germanic lan-guages and dialects) are the literature in OS itself, some of thebest of Old German literary works, and the intermediate placeoccupied by Low German between HG and our own branchof Germanic, Anglo-Frisian.

The most important works in the various dialects include:Alemannic : Sth cent., St. Gall Paternoster (6,3) and. Credo;

9th cent., Rule of St. Benedict, Hymns of Murbach; roth cent.(from Franconian), Christ and the Woman of Samaia (verse).

Bavarian : 8th cent., Wessobrunn Prayer (verse); 9th cent.,Muspilli (verse), Freiingen Paternoster (6. $, St, EmneranPrayer; roth-r rth cents., Notker's translations (St. Gall) (6. 5).

East Franconian: 9th cent., Tatian (Fulda), (with CF orLG admixture) Lex Salica (Trier); rrth cent., Williram'stranslations.

Rhenish Franconian : 8th cent., Isidore (with Alemannicadmixture), Lu&oig slied (verse).

South Rhenish Franconian: 9th cent., WeissenburgCatechi.sm (6. za), Otfrid (verse) (6. zb).

Central Franconian: roth cent., Treves Capitulary.Old Saxon : 9th cent., Helinnd (6, 6), Genesis.Upper German mixed with OS, 8th cent., Hildebrandslied.

I I

DESCRIPTIVE PHONETICS

2. 1. OHG was written in the Latin alphabet, virtually un-

modified. Vowel length (here indicated by the macron -)

*"s

either not shown, or rePresented by doubling the vowel; but

sometimes also by diacritics (^, ').

All the other old Germanic languages were written in modified

Latin alphabet except Gothic, which used an alphabet derived

from the Greek alphabet (here transliterated into Latin letters),

and the oldest Norse (third to eleventh centuries), and other old

inscriptions, which used the runic alphabet. Literary Old Norse(and Modern Icelandic) is written in an alphabet founded on the

Old English adaptation (modelled on the Irish) of the Latin

alphabet, which also influenced the writing of OS (and OHG).

2,2. OHG had short vowels, long vowels, and diphthongs,

written with the letters a, e, i (y), o, u, and combinations of

them. The simple vowels (and constituents of diphthongs) were

pronounced as in MHG, that is the letter e represented two

short vowels ("f. e. 7), open e (here (z-4) written €) and close

e (sometimes written g; see 3. rz). There were at most (depend-

ing on period and dialect) seven diphthongal phonemes: ei

(ai), ou (au), iu (not a simple vowel as in MHG), io (eo)' ia

(ea), ie, and uo (ua, oa). They were falling diphthongs, i.e.

the first constituent was the sonant element.

Besides different combinations of vowels into diphthongs, theother old Germanic languages differ in the following particulars:

Gothic: e and o represent long (close) vowels only; i shortonly: ei long i; ai and au (i) diphthongs or open (long) vowels(e, o), (iil(here written ai, air) before r, h' h/ only (i and short u

occurring elsewhere), short (open) vowels (E, 6).Old English (West Saxon) has the additional letters e (tr) for

open e (raised fronted a; see 3. ra and 15) and y (I) for ii'

D E S C R I P T M P H O N E T I C S 5

Old Norse further has o for short 6 and e (cf. MHG) forlong 6 (similarly e and re); I for open o (rounded a).

Old Saxon sometimes uses ae (or g) for e.For the MHG equivalents of the OHG vowels, see MHG $ 5.

2. 3. Consonants are found written in the following principalways in OHG. Stops: voiced (or lenes, i.e. voiceless but weak,see MHG $$ ra, r9. i), b, d, g; voiceless (or fortes), p, t, k(c, q). Fricatives: labiodental f (v only for the lenis (MHG

$ 19. iv) from Gc f), interdental th (dh), dental (both voiceless,see MHG $ r9. xi) s, z (here (z-4) written a), h (ch) (h finallyand medially before consonants, and doubled). Affricates: pf(ph), z (c) (here written z), and UG kh (ch, qh). Nasals: m, n.Liquids: I, r. All these (except the digraphs with h) are alsofound double (pronounced long) (cf. z. $. Aspirate h, initialand medial before vowels, and semivowels w (written asdouble or single u or v) and j (written as i, e, or g) only occursingle, and guttural n only before other gutturals.

The other old Germanic languages differ in the followingmain respects:

OE: f represented both the voiceless and the voiced fricative(the latter medial only); runes were used for w and the th soundsof English (b); U was also used for the latter, especially thevoiced sound.

ONhas OE use of f ; v is a bilabial fricative, representing Gcw;z is voiceless affricate, like German; p and 6 voiceless and voiced.

OS used OE d or, like OHG, th ; andb for labial voiced fricative.Go uses b, d, and $ for voiced fricatives as well as stops,

and f, p, g for voiceless fricatives; g also for z before gutturals;qfor kw (OHG qu), and hv f.ot hat; z for voiced s.

In writing pr. Gc forms we use b' d' g' z forvoiced fricatives,f, D, x, s for voiceless; here and in pr. IE p may be used forguttural n occurring only before guttural consonants (9. Sg).

2.4.The vowels a and close e alternate under certain phoneticconditions (see 3. rz, 4. 9, ro, 17, 25, 26, 29, 30, 3r, 38a,48a, 58)and in addition in certain morphological categories (".g. +. S8)(also ou (au) and e,3. 47). (Otherwise in most OHG writings

- l

6 DESCRIPT IVE PHoNETICS

there is no graphic representation of German (ilj-) Unlaut(MHG S ro).) d and i, io and iu alternate under phonetic condi-tions (3. 3, 13, 4. 48a) and independently (+. +9, nim). Othervowels alternate (always independently of phonetic conditions)in certain morphological categories, principally in the conjuga-tion of strong verbs (4. 48,62), also 4. 59, 66 and e.g. wolla,wool, adjective wullin (3. 5). Double consonants medially be-fore vowels alternate (2. +6) with single consonants finally andmedially before consonants (and frequently after long vowels),e.g. 4.6, 16, 3r (and (+. St) suffun, siifu); independently ofphonetic conditions (:. :S), e.8.4. 54a, SSd, 58.In Notker b,d, €,, and sometimes v, occur after vowels, liquids and nasals(in the same or the preceding word), p, t, k, f , elsewhere (cf. 3.43a), Other consonantal alternations independent of phon€ticconditions are found, e.g. 3. 45 (4. Soo, 5rD, &c.). Consonantalternates with vowel (or zero), e.g.3. +7 (4. +, zt, 5ob,5rc,57).

Urnlaut (which did not occur at all in Gothic) was betterrepresented in OE and ON than in OHG and OS, e.g. OEtrrils, v26usp, tttjs, mice; hdl, whole, hElan, to heal; (w-Um-laut) heofitn (6, 8, n. +); ON lauss, loose,leysz, to loose; (w-Umlaut) lgnd, plural of land. Consonantal alternations weremost extensive in ON, e.g. annafr, other,beside dative gdrum.

2. 5. Stress (accent) falls upon the first syllable of words,except the kind of compound words like verbs with inseparableprefixes, which became single rvords after the Gc shift of theoriginal accent(3. r)-cf. the laterjoining of stressed(separable)prefixes (S. :S).

Any vowel can occur in final unstressed syllable (but see

3. 4), unlike MHG (MHG SS 6-8). On vowels of other un-stressed syllables see 3. z4-7,

I I I

PHONOLOGY (COMPARATIVE ANDHISTORICAL PHONETICS)

Tnn Pn.Gc Eeurver - rxTs oF THE INoo-

E u n o p n e N V o w n r - S o u N p s

3. 1. The Indo-European vowels which are preserved as dis-

tinct sounds in Germanic are:

Short vowels a, e, i, o, u.

Long vowels e, E, ir 6, ff.

Diphthongs ai, ei, 6i, oi, au, eu' ou.

Sonant I, f , r"n, B.

Other IE languages distinguish further sounds, e.g' short andlong diphthongs in all combinations (not only ei' €i). Germanic(and all IE but Indo-Iranian) a is also derived from what isusually considered a neutral vowel e (er), giving Indo-Iranian i;and Germanic e (and z) sometimes from a2 (one or more furtherneutral vowels, with e-, &c., colouring). The narrow vowelsi, u, like the vocalic tiquids and nasals, originated as unaccentedforms (zero-grade) of diphthongs with e, o' as did e of €, et(or zero) of simple e. The vowel o in most cases was an alterna-tion, also possibly due to accent, with e. The vowel a (possiblyin all cases), and o in some cases, may possibly be derived frompreceding, long vowels not alternating with short from following,Indo-Hittite 'laryngeal' consonants (ones which remained inHittite as an h, e.g. hanti, Latin ante, OHG ant-) modifyingthe IH primary vowel 'e'(while IE € might result from anotherlaryngeal, which remained as a in zero-grade).

The accent in IE (here written ') could fall on any syllable

of the word. Distinct from word-accent is syllable-accent, long

vowels having one of two syllable-accents, normal long quan-

tity with acute tone ('), or longer quantity with circumflex

tone (-), derived from contraction or 'compensation'.

8 PHoNoLoGY

3.2,lE a (Latin a) remained in pr. Gc as a, e.g. Latin ager,Go akrs, OHG ackar,frcW,E acre; Latin ad, Go, E at,OHG a4.

IE o (Latin o) also became 8, e.g. Latin octo, Go ahta,OHG ahto, eight; Latin hortus, Go g,ards, OHG gart,

garden.Thus both ai (Latin ae) and oi (Latin ii) became ai, e.g.

Latin aes, Go aiz, OHG Er, E ore; Latin iinus, Go ains,OHG ein, one; and both au (Latin au) and ou (Latin t)became au, e.g. Latin auris, Go auso, OHG 6ra, ear;Latinriifus, Go raups, OHG rdt, red.

3. 3. IE e (Latin e) in general remained as e, e.g. Latin decem,Go taihun, OHG z€han, E ten; Latin pellis, OHG fil,shin;but was narrowed to i:

(a) before a nasal{consonant, e.g. Latin ventus, Go winds,OHG wint, W wind.

(b) followed by an i, i, or i, e.g. Latin est from *esti, Go,OHG ist, zs; Latin medius from *medhios, Go midjis,OHG mitti, middle; IE *bhEreti > beredi > beridi> biritli, oHG birit, he bears.

Thus the diphthong ei gives i, e.g. Latin dic6, Go gateihan,to tell, OHG zihan, to accuse; while eu remains in pr. Gc,except that the e becomes i in the conditions of (6), e.g. Latindiicd, Go tiuhan, OHG ziohan, to lead, draw; pr. Gc*liuxtjanan, OHG liuhten, to light.

(c) in unaccented syllables except before r not followed by i,e.g. OHG lembir from pr. Gc *-ez6 (:. :8), but fater, AS, .&c. (4. r5).

3. 4. IE i (Latin i) in general remained as i, e.g. Latin piscis,Go fisks, OHG fisk, E fish; but was lowered to e whenfollowed in the next syllable by the open vowels a, o, or e,unless either nasalf consonant or i or ! intervened, e.g. IE

P R . G C E Q U M L E N T S O F I E V O W E L - S O U N D S I

*uiros, Latin vir, OHG w€r, man:IE *nizdos, Latin nidus,

OHG n€st, E nest. This phonetic process has many aPParent

exceptions in the various Gc languages due to analogy.

3. 5. IE u (Latin u) in general remained as u, e.g. Latin $ustus'taste, Go $,a-kusts, OHG kust' test, choice; but was lowered

to o under the same conditions as i to e (:. +), e.g. Latin

iugum, OHG joh, yokc; cf. OHG fol with fulli' E full.Pr. Gc thus reacquired an o (cf. 3. z).

3. 6. IE d (Latin d) was rounded to 6, e.g. Latin frdter, GobroPar, OS brdthar, brother, OHG bruoder. Thus, likeshort a and o, long d and 6 fell together (but into a vowel ofdifferent quality), since 6 remained as d, e.g. Latin flds' Gobloma, OHG bluomo (or F bluoma),flowey.

3.7.lE 6 (Latin 6) was lowered (shifted in the direction of a)to (an open long e like d in NHG Grtifn), e.g. Latin Edimus,Go etum, OE Eton, E ate, OHG d4um. But it remained oforiginal e-quality in unaccented syllables (cf. 3. zo).

The diphthong Ei, too, resulted in a more open sound thanthe short ei (> i, 3.3), namely 6(a close long e like NHG,See),e.g. Go her, OHG hiar (3. 16), here; OHG stiaga, stair,beside *Ei in stigan; OHG skiari, clez.ter, beside *Ei in Goskeirs, OS skir, c/ear.

3. 8. The narrow long vowels i (Latin i) and fl (Latin f,) re-mained, e.g. Latin suinus, adjective from sts,plg, Go swein,OHG swin, pig;Latin siis, OHG st, E sow; Latin mts,OHG m[s, E mouse.

3. 9. Short vowels before nasal gf x, namely a, i, u (see 3. 3a,3. 4, 3. 5), were lengthened in'compensation'for loss of the nasalconsonant I (1. lS), e.g. agx > OHG dh; e.g. Latin pan$,o'

fasten, Go, OHG fdhan, to seize; Latin vinc6, Go weihan,

OHG wihan , to fight; OHG diihta, seemed, beside dunken.

PHONOLOGY

3. 10. The liquids and nasals when sonant, {0 (Latin em), +(Latin en), g (Latin or), | (Latin ol, ul), developed a u beforethem, e.g. Latin septem, Go sibun, OHG s6bun, seoeniLatin portus, OHG furt, E ford.

3. 11. It follows from 3. z-g that pr.Gc had the followingvowel-system:

Short vowels a, e, i, o (1. 5), u (3. 5, ro).Long vowels d (:. g), tr, E (3. 7), i, 6, [.Diphthongs ai, au, eu (iu).

THr OHG Dnvn ropu rNT oF THE GENERALGrnueNr c Vownr . - Sys ruu

The Vovtek of Accented Syllablcs

3. 12 , Gc a generally remained in OHG, e.g. Go, OHG faran,to go; Go dags, OHG tap, day. It appears sometimes tobecome o, e.g. mohta (+. 6:).

Umlaut of accented a to close e took place, beginning about

75o and becoming universal in the ninth century, before i or jin the following unaccented syllable, e.g. ferlt beside faran;kelbir, caloes, lesti,gzesls, beside kalb, $ast; brennen, Gobrannjan; lengi, length. besides lang.

It did not take place in the following cases:

r. Before ht, hs, or consonant*w, e.g. maht, power, pl.miihti; wahsit, he grows, inf. wahsan; bi-scatwen from*skatwjan, to shade.

z. In UG before lf consonant, before hh, ch(: G61, ,. nr;,and often before r{consonant, and before h (: Germanic h),e.g. UG haltit beside UF heltit, lu holds, inf. haltan; UGaltiro beside UF eltiro, older;UG sachit beside UF sshhif,he quarrels, inf. sachan, Go sakan; UG warmen besidewermen, Go warmjan, to warm; slahit beside slehit, lestrikes, inf. OHG, Go slahan.

3. In words ending in -nissi, -nissa, or -lih, these not

O I I G D E V E L O P M E N T O F V O W E L - S Y S T E M I I

being completely unaccented, e.g. firstantnissi, understand-

ing t W aftlilr, s tr ong i tagalih, daib.The vowel a also became e in the diphthong ai' in eighth-

century OHG, except finally and before r, old h, and w, where

the diphthong had become 6, e.g. Go stains, OHG stein,

stone; Go haitan, OHG hei4an, to call; Go air, early, OHG

6t, before; Go maiza, pHG mEro' greater; Go laisjan'

OHG lEren, to teach; Go aihts, OHG Eht, possession; Go

laihv, OHG lE!n, lent; Go snaiws, snow, OHG gen. snewes;

Go saiwala, OHG s6(u)la' soul; Go wai' OHG wE,utoelGo pai, OHG dE,they.

In OS ai was always monophthongized to 6, except beforej, where it became gi, e.g. stEn' hEtan, 6r, mEra, lErian'

l6h, sn6wes, s6ola, w6; twgo, two (gen.).Similarly in au, a was assimilated by the u to o' in ninth-

century OHG, except before d, t, Z, s' tl' r' l, and old h,

rvhere au became 6, e.g. Go augo, OHG ou$a' eye; Gohaubip, OHG houbit, head; Go daupus, OHG t6d, death;Go raups, OHG r6t, red; Go $aut, OHG fdq, poured; Gokaus, OHG kds, chose; Go laun, OHG ldn' reward; Goauso, OHG 6ra, ear; Latin caulis, stalk, OHG kdl;

Go hauhs, OHGll.dh,high.In OS au was always- monophthongized to 6, except

before w, where it remained as au' e.g. 6Sa, hdbid, ddd,rdd,96t, k6s, ldn,6ra, hdh; hauwan, to hew.

In OE, Gc a became fronted and raised to a' e.g. federtOHG fater (on other developments of it see nn. to 6. 8).

3. 13. Gc e generally remained as 6, e.g. w6$, way; stdlan,

to steal; E1Zan, to eat.It became i, in OHG and OS, when followed by a u in the

next syllable (and in OHG when followed by w' cf. 3. 47), e.g.hilfu, biru, gibu, beside inf. hdlfan' to help, b€ran' to bear,gdban, to gioe; sibun, Latin septem, seneni OHG fihu'

Latin pecu, cattle. There are many apParent exceptions due

1 2 P H O N O L O G Y

to analogy, e.g. OHG, OS fihu beside OHG fihu by analogywith the oblique cases fdhes, fdhe.

Thus the diphthong eu became iu (falling together withGc iu, 3. 3) before ur e.g. kiusu, I choose; it also became iuin UG before labials and gutturals except old h, e.g. UG liup,dear, tiuf, deep, siuh, slc&, liugan, to ke, Otherwise in thediphthong eu the u was assimilated by the e to o, and this eoduring the first half of the ninth century became io, e.g.kiosan, Go kiusan; lioht, Go liuhap, a light.In Otfrid iosometimes occurs, but mostly becomes ia, or ie by assimilation.

After w- o may be found for €, e.g. wola, E well.In OS e also sometimes becomes i, e.g. before labials in

giban, beside g€ban, to gioe, niman, beside n€man, to tahe,and before o, a in knio, OHG kneo, hnee,tian, beside t€han,ten. In OS eu remains finally and before w when a, e, or ofollows or originally followed, e.g. treuwa, OHG triuwa,Ioyalty.

In OE e is 'broken' under certain conditions, see notes to 6.8. On Gothic see z. 2.

3. 14. Gc i remained as i, e.g. fisk, fuh; wi4an, OS, Gowitan, to knozo. In OS it sometimes becomes e before r, e.g.herdos, herdsmen.

Gc o remained as o, e.g. g,ot, E god; giholfan, helped.Gc u remained as u, e.g. sunu, soz; $ibuntan, bound.In OS u is often found where OHG has o, e.g. gumo,

gomorman.On Gothic see 2, z,

3. 15. Gc 5, E fell together as OHG ti, e.g. Go, OS and OHGfdhan, OE fdn (f. S); Go ga-deps, OE dEd, OS ded,oHG tet.

3. 16. Gc E became in OHG ea in the eighth century and thenia in the ninth century, which in the middle of the century

OHG DEVELOPMENT OF VOWEL-SYSTEM t3

became ie (Otfrid has ia or ie, or by assimilation io)' e.g. hiar'Gohet, hsre.

Gc 6 developed similarly, but not at the same rate in alldialects, remaining as d in Bavarian till the ninth century, else-where becoming oa and then ua in the eighth century and uo

by the tenth century, except in Franconian other than SRF(which has ua, Otfrid also uo by assimilation), where it passedstraight to uo in the second half of the eighth century. E.g.fuo4, Go fotus,/oof; fuor, Go tot,went; suohhen' Go sok-

ian, to seek.OS has 6 and also ie, 6 and also uo, e.g. h6r, fdt' fdr'

sdkian.

3. 17. Gc i and fi remained in OHG, e.g. sin' Go seins' lr;biqan, Go beitan, OS bitan, to bite;his, house; diihta' Gopflhta, OS thfihta, it seetned.

The Voasels of Unaccented Syllables

Final Syllables

3. 18. Final long vowels had been shortened: *-d ) u' e.g.Latin fero, OHGbitrt, I bear, exceptwhen originally *-6' which

> o, e.g Latin homo, IE *-6 for *-dn, OHG $omoi -i ) i'as preterite subjunctive r and 3 sing. ndmi beside 3 pl. ndmin.

3. 19. Short a (IE o and a) (not the -a resulting in 3. zo), whichwas originally final or became final through the loss of a follow-ing consonant, disappeared in forms of more than one syllable.

The short vowels u and i (including the results of 3. 18,but not of 3. zo), which were originally final or became finalthrough the loss of a following consonant, disappeared informs of more than two syllables, and in forms of two syllableswhen the first syllable was long. The regular operation of thislaw was often disturbed by analogical formations.

Regular forms were: OHG weie: Greek o?.6o, I know(+. +g); OHG nom. wolf from *wulfaz (a. z); OHG beran

1 4 P H O N O L O G Y

from *beranan, IE *bheronom,tobear;OHG wei4 : 61""pot6e, he hnows (4.49); OHG ist from IE *esti, it (+. +g, 6i);OHG gast from *gastiz, guest, Latin hostis; OHG meri,sea, cf, Latin pl. mari-a; OHG wini from *winiz, friend;OHG tdd : Go dauFus, death; OHG fihu: Go fafhu,Latinpecus, cattle;OHGnom. sunu: Go sunus, soz;OHGsitu : Go sidus, custom; OHG biru, Latin fer6, I bear.

Then after the analogy of these and similar forms were madestat for *steti, place; sun beside sunu, soz; hilfu for *hilf,I help; &c.

3.20. Long vowels after which an -n or -zhad disappeared(3. 37 and 38) were shortened in words of more than one syl-lable. So were the i from older -iji and the long vowels, 6, 6,deriving from -ai (as well as from IE *-6,

3. 7) and -au,either originally final or final after loss of -2. The *-6 wastreated differently according to its syllable-accent: *-6 > -o(c f . 3 . 18 ) ; * -6 > -a .

E.g. gen. pl. tago (4. z), zungdno, Go tuggono (4. 14) ; butnom. pl. taga, Go dagos (4. z); nom. sg. h€rza, Go hafrto(+. r:); acc. sg. QEba, gift (4. 5); nom. pl. masc. blinte, Goblindai (+. tg); loc. sg. used as dat. tage from *dagai (4. z);ahto, Go ahtau, eight; gen. sg. suno, Go sunaus (+. rr);wili from *wiliz, thou wilt; nom. pl. gesti from *gastiz,older *gastijiz (+. g); neri from *nazi, older *naziji, saoethou,

3. 21. Short and long vowels remained in final syllables whenfollowed by a consonant, e.g. blinta4 (+. til inan (4. 3g);hdlfan(4. 5z); tages (4. z); hanen, herzen(4. rz, r3);lembir(4. r 7) ; enstim (4. r o) ; nim it (+. +il ; ubil, etil ; hanon (4. rz) ;sibun, seoenl tagrurn (+. z); habEn (+. 6t); n6m6s (+. +il;blint€m (4. 19) ; mahtig , mighty;tiarlih, dear;hdhim (4. S) ;ndmis (+.+g); salbdn (+. 6o); suohtds (+. S8); g€b6m,zunpdm beside gdba, zunSa(+. S, ,+); zungiin (+.r+).

OHG DEVELOPMENT OF VOWEL-SYSTEM 15

3.22.lf a nasal or liquid, preceded by a consonant, came to

stand finally after the loss of a, it became vocalic and then

generated a new a before it, e.g. nom. acc. €ban, etsen, from*€bn, older *ebnaz, *ebnan; nom. acc. fo$al, bird, fromxfog,l, older *faglaz, *fuglan; nom. acc. acchat, field,from *akr, older *akraz, *akran; &c.

The a, thus generated, became transferred to the oblique

cases also, at first after short syllables, and then later after long

syllables as well, e.g. fogales' wuntare' &c.

3.23. In OHG of the tenth century, and to a small extent of

the ninth century, i and u in final syllables become e and o.

Notker, who sometimes writes this and original e as i, alsoreduces all short vowels before a consonant in final syllable toe. Writing of final short -e as a is sometimes found, e.g. inIsidor; and in Bavarian of the tenth and eleventh centuries e

short and long of final syllables becomes a.In OS all final-syllable long vowels are shortened; final-

syllable e and a often fell together, usually as a.

Othn than Final Syllables3. 24. Medial vowels were often assimilated to final vowels,e.g. keisar, ernqem, gen. keiseres ; wuntordn, to tttonder,beside wuntar; sibun, seom, obliqtte sibini; &c.; cf. OSh6lap, hElogo, &c.

In OS medial long vowels are shortened ( cf..3.4), and medial

vowels generally are much confused, especially before r (cf.

+.a i l .3. 25. In all dialects a vowel was developed between medial rh

and lh, and before w in rwr lw, and medial sw. The vowelthus developed appeared mostly as a or o, but it notunfre-quently regulated itself according to the quality of a neigh-bouring vowel, cf.. 3. zz and 24. Examples are: b€raht, Gobairhts, clear; furhten, to be afraid, pret. forhta, forahta ;wurken, to work, pret. worhta, worahta; felhan, felahan'

1 6 P H O N O L O G Y

to hide, bifiluhu, I hide, bifilihit, he hiiles; laro, ready,garwer beside garawer; melo, meal, flour, gen. melwesbeside melawes, dat. melewe; z€swa, right hand, besidez6sawa.In UG and OS this happened sometimes also betweenr and other consonants, e.g. UG perege, OS burug.

3. 26. The i in the preterite and past participle of weak verbsof Class I (+. S8) was regularly syncopated after long-stem syl-lables, as btanta,,burnt, p.p. gibrantEr; hdrta, heard, p.p.gih6rtEr; beside nerita, saoed, p.p. ginerttEr; &c. Cf. OSdiur(i)da; d6pida, d6pta.

3.27.In pre-tonic syllables (cf. z. 5) the vowels of the prefixes(and unaccented monosyllabic prepositions) were reduced,varying according to period and dialect. Briefly: ga- > gi- inthe ninth century (latest in Bavarian), > ge- (sometimes g-before n-, &c.) by the eleventh century (OS gi-, ge-); so za-(OS te-, ti-); ant- > int- early (OS and-); ur- > ar- > inthe eighth to ninth centuries lr-, er-; so in general fur-, for-(also ) f- before l-) (OS for-, far-, fer-); bt- > be- late(OS bi-, be-).

The vowel e in pre-tonic position became o in the procliticwords odo beside 6ddo (S. g8) and noh, noh- beside nih- (cf.a. a6). Cf. OS of, af beside 6f (5. 38).

Similar variation occurs in the conjunction anti (enti),inti, unti, &c.

Tsn Pn.Gc TnrermpNr or Inoo-EunopEeN CoNsoNax rs

The Shift of the Inilo-European Stol,s ('First Sound-ShiJt,)

3. 28. IE probably had the following system of stops:

v o i c e l e s s . . l p I t | ( | t I t uvoiced . l b I a I g I C I e*voiced aspirate I bh I dh I gh I Cn I g*n

P R . G C T R E A T M E N T O F I E C O N S O N A N T S 1 7

(a) The existence of unlabialized velars is concluded toexplain treatment like palatals in centum-languages (r. 3)beside treatment like labiovelars in satam-languages, e.g. Sans_krit gaus, OHG kuo, coar.

(D) It is also possible to postulate voiceless aspirates, butthese fall together with the simple voiceless stops in Gc.

3.29.I8 p, t, t and k (see 3. z8a), kq became pr.Gc. frica-tives f, p, x, xw (and see 3. 3z).

p ) f, e.g. Latin pEs, Go fotus, OHG fuo4, E foot.t ) D, e.g. Latin tu, Go pu, OHG thu, du, E thou; Latin

vertere, to turn, Go wairlan, OHG w6rdan, to become.t, k > x, e.g. Latin cor, Go hairto, OHG hirza, E

heart; Latin decem, Go tafhun, OHG zlhan, ten.kr ; xw, e.g. Latin quod, Go hya, OHG hwa4, wa4B

what.

(a) They remfied stops after s.spr e.g. Latin spuere, Go speiwan, OHG spiwan, to

s?it.st, e.g. Latin stdre, Go standan, OHG stantan, E

stand; Latin est, Go, OHG ist, u's.sk, e.g. Latin piscis, Go fisks, OHG fisk,yis&.(D) The stop t remained after original p, [, k.ft, e.g. Latin neptis, OHG nitt, niece.xt, e.g. Latin octo, Go ahtau, OHG ahto, E eight;

Latin rEctus, Go raihts, OHG r6ht, E right.

3. 30. IE b, d, € and g (see 3. z8a), gq became pr.Gc voicelessP, t, k, kw.

b ) p, e.g. Latin lflbricus, Go sliupan, OHG sliofan,E slip.

_ d > t, e.g. Latin decem, Go taihun, OHG z€han, E ten;Latin edere, Go itan, OHG eg4an, E eat.

1 8 P H O N O L O G Y

e,g > k, e.g. Latin $enu, Go kniu, OHG kneo' E knee;

Latin iugum, Go juk, OHG joh' E Yoke.g* ) kw, e.g. Latin venire, Go qiman, OHG qu€man'

E come.

3. 31. IE bh, dh, fh and $h (see 3. z8a),9*h became Pr.Gcfricatives b, ?1, g, gw.

b, ?l initially, and b, d, g medially after their corresponding

nasals, became stops br d' 8.b, e.g. Latin fer6, Go bairan, OHG bdran, E bear;

Latin frater, Go brobar, OHG bruoder, E brother;

Sanskrit jambhas, tooth,OHG kamb, E comb.

d, e.B. Latin fores, Go dafr, OHG tor, E door; Latin

offendix, Go bindan, OHG bintan, E bind.g, e.g. Latin an$d, Go aggwus, OHG en$i' narrow-

b, tt, g remained in other positions, except that in WGc

tf > d. See 3. 43 and 44.

3. 32 ('Verner's Law.') Before the accent changed from free

accent (3. r) to root-accent (2. 5), the medial or final voiceless

fricatives f, F, x, xw, s (except sp, st, sk, ss, ft, fs, xs, xt),

when the vowel preceding was not accented, were voiced to

b, tf, g, gw, z () WGc and Literary ON r). (Cf. E abs6loe

beside dbsolufe.) For the development of the latter see 3. 3rand 38. Examples: Latin septem, Go, OHG sibun, E seven;

Latin tertius, Go Dridja, OHG dritto, E third; Latin

cum-, Go g,a-, OHG 9i-; Latin aqua, OHG ouwa beside

aha; Latin aes, bronze, Go aiz, OHG €r' E ore.

Other C onsonant C hanges

3. 33. The remaining IE consonants, voiceless fricative s (cf.

3. 3z), semivowels g and !, liquids I and r, and nasals m and n

(and dental and guttural n before corresponding consonants),

in general remained in pr.Gc. Changes in these, and other

PR.GC TREATMENT OF IE CONSONANTS 19

changes in the original stops, were confined to combinatory orconditional changes, i.e. changes taking place only underconditions of combination with another particular sound, or ofparticular position in the word.

3. 34. Every labiallt ) ft, e.g. Go ga-skafts, creation,OHG gi-scaft, creature, besides Go skapjan, OHG skephen,to create; Go fra-gifts, a giving, OHG gift, gef, beside Gogiban, OHG g€ban, to gizte.

Every gutturalft ) xt, e.g. Go, OHG mahta, pret. ofmagan, to be able; Go warirhta, wairrhts, OHG worhta,gi-worht, pret. and p.p. of Go wafrrkjan, OHG wurken, tozoork.

Everydentalf t > ss, e.g. Gowissa, OHGwissa,w€ssa,pret. of Go witan, to hnow.

ss > s after long syllables, e.g. Go un-weis, unknozring,OHG wis, E wise, beside Go witan.

ssr > str, e.g. Go gup-blostreis, worshippn of God,OHG bluoster, sacrifue, beside Go blotan, to worship.

Instead of ss or s, st is often found by analogy with otherforms that kept the t, e.g. Go waist for *wais, OHG weistfor *weis, knowest, by analogy with Go last from lisan, logather, OHG maht from magan, &c.; OHG w€sta besidewdssa, knut,by analogy with OHG worhta, worked, &,e.

3. 35. Guttural n (g) disappeared before x, see 3. 9.

3. 36. The consonants which arose from IE t, d in final posi-tion were dropped in unaccented syllables in pr.Gc, e.g. GoWa, athat, Latin quod; Go bafrai, OHG b6re, from*bh6roit, he may bear.

3.37. Original final -m became -n in pr.Gc. This -n, as alsooriginal final IE -n, disappeared in disyllabic and polysyllabicwords. For examples see 3. 19, 20.

2 0 P H O N O L O G Y

Wrsr Gnnnnex rc MonrF rcATroNS oFPn.Gc. CoNsoNewrs

3. 38. Pr.Gc z, which arose from s (3. 3z), became r medially,and was dropped finally (except that probably *-anz ) -osr-as in OS daS,os, OE dagas (+. z)), e.g. Go maiza, OHGmEro, greater; also Go huzd, OHG hort, E hoard; Godags from *dagaz, OHG tag, day; Go sunus from *sunuz,

OHG sunu, soz.

3. 39. In WGc all single consonants, except r, were doubledafter a short vowel before a following j. This j was mostlyretained in OS, but was generally dropped in OHG (see 3. 48,46), as also in OE, e.g. OHG sellen, OS sellian, Go saljan,OE sellan, to gioe up ; OHG fremmen, OS fremmian, ONfremja, OE fremman, to perform; OHG kuninginna, OS-innia, from -injd- (+. 6); OHG frauwa, frouwa, from*frawjo-, woman (2. +Z).

bj, ilj, and gj became bb, dd, 89, e.g. Go sibja, OS sib-bia, relationship; Go bidjan, OS biddian, to pray; Gohugjan, OS huggian, to think.

Go skapjan, OS skeppian, to create; Go satjan, OS set-tian, to set; Go uf-rakjan, to sbetch forth, OS rekkian, lorclate.

For the OHG treatment of WGc bb, dd, 89; pp, tt, kk,see 3. +2, +3.

3.40. p, t, and k were also doubled in WGc before a followingr, e.g. OHG kupfat, copper, from Latin cuprum; OHGsnottar, Go snutrs, wise; OHG bittar, ON bitr, E bitter;OHG wackar, ON vakt, asatchful. These consonants werealso sometimes doubled before l, e.g. OHG aphul, ON epli,E apple; OHG lutzil, OS luttil, E little.

( " t )

THe Hrcn Grn l reN Ss r r r o r Pn .Gc . S ropsl xn Fn rce r l vns

(' S e c ond S ound- S hift' )

3. 41. The most striking feature in which HG differs from theother WGc languages is the general shifting which certainconsonants underwent. This process had its beginning beforethe period of the oldest HG monuments, and was practicallycompleted by the end of the eighth century.

The only consonants which were shifted throughout thewhole of the HG dialects were the voiceless stops p, t, k.The shifting of the voiced fricatives and stops did not extendover all the HG dialects. The shifting of p to d through theintermediate stage tt took place in historic times; beginningfirst in UG about 75o, it had gradually extended over all theHG dialects by the end of the eleventh century (cf. 3. 5r).

This shifting, together with 3. 29-3r, is often referred to asGrimm's Law.

3.42.W.Gcp, t, k(except sp, st, sk, tr, ht, ft) were shifted:

(a) medially or finally after vowels, to voiceless double (long)fricatives (and see 3. 46), ff, 1q,hh (cf. z. 3).

p ) ff, e.g. Go slepan, OHG sldffan, E sleep; Go skip,OHG skif, E ship.

t ) 11, e.g. Go itan, OHG e11 nt E eat; Go wait, OHGwei4, E wot.

k > hh, e.g. Go sokjan, OHG suohhen, E seek; Gojuk, OHG joh, E yoke.

(D) initially or medially after consonants (1, r, m' n) orwhen doubled, to affricates, pf, tz, and, in UG, kh (cf. z. 3).In RF p was shifted to pf only after I and r, remaining p inthe other positions; while k remained unshifted in Franconiangenerally.

2 2 P H O N O L O G Y

p > pf, e.g. Go paida, OS pEda, C and RF peit, EF andUG pfeit, shirt; OS, C and RF pl€gan, EF and UG pfl€$an,

to cale for; Go hilpan, OS and CF h€lpan, UF and UGhilphan, E help; Go skapjan, OS skeppian, C and RFskeppen, EF and UG ske(p)phen, to create; pf becoming fafter I and r during the ninth century, e.g. h€lfan.

t ) zt e.g. Go taikns, OS t6kan, OHG zeihhan, Etoken; Go hafrto, OS hdrta, OHG h€rza, E heart; Gosatjan, OS settian, OHG sezzen, E set. k > kh, e.g. Gokarirn, OS and F korn, UG khorn, E corn; OS and Fwirk, UG werch, E work; Go us-wakjan, OS weckian,F wecken, UG we(c)chan, E awake.

3.43. Pr.Gc voiced stops and fricatives.

r. UF retained b, bb, whereas UG shifted them to p, pp,e.g. UF bdran, to bear, sibba, peace, beside UG p€ran,sippa.

UF and Alemannic shifted b to b, whereas in Bavarian itappears as p, e.g. UF and Alemannic sibun, Go sibun, Eseven; ubil, Go ubils, E evil, but Bavarian sipun, upil.

z. All HG dialects shifted dd to tt, e.g. Go bidjan, OSbiddian, OHG bitten, to reEtest; Go midjis, OS middi,OHG mitti, middle.

UG and EF shifted single d (pr.Gc. tl, d) to t, whereas RFretained d initially, but frequently shifted it to t in other posi-tions, e.g. OS dohtar, daughter, bindan, to bind, biodan, looffer, appear in UG and EF as tohter, bintan, biotan, andin RF as dohter, bindan, biodan, beside bintan, biotan.

3. gg remained in Franconian, but was shifted to kk inUG, e.g. OS liggian, Franconian liggen, to lie dozun; OShruggi, Franconian ruggi, bach,beside UG likken, rucki.

Single g (pr.Gc g) remained, except that in UG it wasmostly shifted to k when initial or final, and rarely whenmedial, e.g. Franconian gast, guest, tvg, dajt, stiSan, to

H G S H I F T O F P R . G C S T O P S & F R I C A T I V E S 2 3

ascend, oluga, e!e, UG kast, tacr stigan or sticanr ou$a

or ouca.

Notler has p/b, k/$,, see z. 4, like t/d from *F, but

t { *d, *d is invariable, e.g. beside unser dfr, unser tdteltcha

br6tkib.3. 44. The following table gives a summary of the sound-

shift. For the pronunciation of the various orthographies see

z. 3. The letters representing shifted sounds are printed in

italics.

Pr.GcGo, ON, OSOECFRFEFUG

Pr.GcGoONOEOSCFRFEFU G P

*p *t etk

p t kp t c

p f r 234 ( t ) k hhp (p f ) f f z4zkhhp f t r zzqkhhp I f r z qg chhh

b lb fb b(f)b v(f)b bb b(b) bp

*bb (f)

*tl *gd(p) ed , d g

d gd gde

d( t et gt k g e(f t)

3. 45. As a result of Verner's Law (3. 3z) and the developments

of 3. 4r-44, the following pairs of consonants alternate in

oHG (OS):f/b (OS f/b), e.g. hefren, to raise, OS af-heffEan, Go haf -

jan, pret. pl. huobun, OS huobun.d/t (OS th(O)/d), e.g. lidan, to go, OS lioan' Pret. pl.

litun' OS lidun.

2 4 P H O N O L O G Y

(OS th(d)/nd, e.g. fi6an, tofind, pret. pl. fundun.)h/9, e.g. zioh;an, to draw, pret. pl. zugun.h/w, e. g. lihan, to lend, Go leilvan, pret. pl. liwun ; s€han,

to see, p.p. gisdwan, also OS pret. subj. sewi.h/ng, e.g. fdhan, to seize, pret. pl. fiangun (OS fengun);

OS thihan, to thriae, githungan,/zll-grwm.s/r, e.g. kiosan, to chaose, pret. pl. kurun.

O tu rn CoNsoweNr CneNcns o r OHG

3.46. OHG double consonants were simplified in the follow-ing cases (cf. z. 4):

r. When they became final, e.g. f.El, hide, gen. fdlles; far,bull, pl. farri; uninflected form grim,fierce, inflected grim-mEr; swimm n,to swim,ptet. sg. swam; rinnan, to run,pret. sg. ran; nom. sg. man, man, gen. mannes; E??:an,to eat, pret. sg. a1; nom. sg. kus, fo}s, gen. kusses; spr6h-han, sprdchant to speah, pret. sg. sprah; &c.

z. Before other consonants, e.g. kunnan, to hnozo, pret. sg.konda; kussen, to Aiss, pret. sg. kusta; brennen, to burn,pret. sg. branta; &c.

3. Frequently medially after long vowels, e.g. slAfan besidesldffan, to sleep; Id4an beside ldqqan, to let, Ieaoe; litarbeside liittar, pure; &c.

4. Sometimes after unaccented vowels, e.g. $ommanesfrom pommannes, cf. OS himilik from himillik.

3. 47. Single w became vocalized, to o if it came to stand at theend of a word or syllable. This o was then mostly droppedafter long vowels, e.g. sEo, s6, sea, gen. sEwes; kneo, knis,hnee, gen. kndwes; garwen, to prepare, pret. garota, besidepar(a)wita; tr€so, treasure, gen. tresewes; &c.

Final aw > ao > d, as uninflected form r:ao, t6, ravr,beside inflected rawEr, gen. rawes.

O T H E R C O N S O N A N T C H A N G E S O F O H G 2 5

ww, whether it was general Gcww(Go ggw, ON gg(v))

or WGc ww from wj (1. fg), formed a diphthong with the

preceding vowel: aww > auw > ouw, which became ou

when final, e.g. OHG glouwEr, exact, clear, uninflected glou,

ON glq$$r, Go adverb glaggwo, exactly; houwan, to hew,ON hq$$va; frouwa, u)oman, from *frawj6-; frouwen, torejoice, from *frawjan, pret. sg. frewita(3. rz) from *frawita

(the inf. form frewen was a new formation by analogy with thepret. and pres. r and z sg. frewis, frewit; conversely thepret. form frouwita was by analogy with the inf. and pres.r sg. and pl.); both eww and iww(> ewj) became iuw, whichbecame iu when final, e.g. bliuwan, to strike, Go bliggwan;triuwi, true, faithful, Go triggws; iu, dat. pl. to ir, ye;spriu, chaf, nom. pl. spriuwir; siuwen, to sew, from*sewjan, Go siujan; niuwi from *newja, Go niujis.

In OS awj ) oi, e.g. froio,lord.

3.48. The semivowel j after r is never written'e'; in Fran-conian and Alemannic rj ) rr. When absolutely final, j

became vocalic i, e.g. nom. sg. heri, army, cf. Go harjis.The original rising diphthong (cf. z. z) ja (jd) became e infinal syllables, e.g. nom. pl. sunte, vhs, OS sundia (4. 7);kennen, to hnou, OS kennian.

3.49. Final -m became -n in OHG in the course of the ninthcenturlr and in OS from early times, in unaccented syllableswhen not protected by analogy, i.e. in inflectional, not stem,syllables, e.g. tagun from tagum, dat. pl. of tag, day;habEnfrom hab6m, r sg. pres. of hab€n, to haoe, In OS, as inAnglo-Frisian, nasals before fricatives generally were treatedlike Gc A before x (3. 35, 9), e.g. iidar, ddar, OHG ander,E other.

3. 50. Gc h was dropped in OHG, but not OS, in the initialcombinations hl, hr, hn, hw, in the course of the ninth cen-tury. In other cases Gc h, hw (from x, xw) had a twofold

2 6 P H O N O L O G Y

development according to their position in the word. Initial hbefore vowels and medial h, hw, between vowels, became theaspirate h, as hab6n, to haoe; s€han, to see, Go saihlan; inother positions they remained fricatives, and thus had thesame sound as the HG h which arose from Gc k; cf. naht,night, Go nahts; sah, saw, Go sahy, with OHG ih,,f, OS,Go ik; sioh, E sick, OS siok, Go siuks; sprah, spohe, OSsprak.

3. 51. Gc p became d through the intermediate stage d in thecourse of the OHG period (3. 4r ). The UG dialects had changedp to d in all positions by the beginning of the ninth century.Tatian and Otfrid wrote th initially, but d medially, e.g. UGddr, Franconian th6(r), OS th6, the, but HG 6rda, OSertha, earth; UG chuad, UF quad, OS qua6, ryoth. OSwrote th or 6 (2.3) in all positions, but pronounced a voicelessfricative initially and finally, voiced medially, cf. the medialchange (also E, ON) of f to b (so written in OS), and finalchange of b to voiceless f.

IV

ACCIDENCE (DESCRIPTIVE ANDCOMPARATIVE)

Note.The EF consonants are usually taken as normal, because

they mostly agree with those of M and NHG, but d has been

substituted for the Franconian th.

DBc r ,ENsroN oF NoUNS

4. 1. OHG nouns have two numbers, singular and plural;

three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, as in MHG,

from which the gender of nouns in OHG does not materially

difier; five cases, Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative,

and Instrumental. The Instrumental Singular is in the majority

of nouns identical with the Dative; in the Plural, Nominative

and Accusative, Dative and (5. 5) Instrumental, ate always

identical. There is (as in all Gc languages except Go) no Voca-

tive distinct from the Nominative.OHG nouns may be classified into declensions according to

the Gc (and IE) stems from which they are derived, or accord-

ing to the types of endings they take in OHG itself. In this

book they are divided in the latter way, for descriptive pur-

poses, but the divisions are put in an order corresponding to

the older classification, for comparative purposes. This order

is: stems ending in vowels ('strong' declensions); stems ending

in -n ('Weak' declensions); other stems ending in consonants

('Minor' declensions).

The terms strong andweah otiginated with Grimm (cf. 3' 4r),who regarded a declension or conjugation (+.+8) with a greatervariety of stems as more vigorous and hence sfarft.

4.2. The Principal Masculine and Neuter Declension (Gc

pure a-stems; IE pure o-stems (see 3. z)). (MHG I (a) I and

II (a) t).

2 8 A C C I D E N C E

Mascukne l{euterSing. Nom. Acc. taS, day wott, word

Gen. tages (-as) wortes (-as)Dat. ta$e (-a) worte (-a)

Instr. ta$u (-o) wortu (-o)Plur. Nom. Acc. tz$d, -a wort

Gen. tago wortoDat, tagum, -om, wortum, -om,

-unr 'on -un, -on

(a) The endings -as, -a of the gen. and dat. sing. do notoccur frequently until after the end of the ninth century; theyare the regular endings in OS, which merges -e in -a(2. zi.-un, -on are the usual dat. pl. endings of the ninth century

h.+i l .(D) Like tag are declined most OHG masculine nouns, e.g.

b Et Q, m ount ain, w E!, w ay, leist, s p ir it, hirnil, h e azt e n, tiufal,dettil, kttnins, king, taorn (also neuter), judgemmt.

(c) Disyllabic nouns ending in -al, -ar, -an with long stemssometimes drop the a before a vocalic ending, e.g. nom.ackar, field, gen. ackres, &c. See 3. zz.

(d) Proper names of this declension take the pronominalending -an in the acc. (also in OS; and cf. MHG $ 54), as alsotruhtin, Lord, Sot, God, e.g. nom. Petrus, acc. Petrusan;acc. truhtinan.

This pronominal ending is derived from the originally adjec-tival (4. 19) compound names, but its effect is to mark together(with strong adjectives) nouns and pronouns which have uniquereference (cf. 5, ro).

(e) Like wort are declined barn, child, sdr, pain, swert,sword,honz{o, honey, zwifal(cf. 3. zz), doubt,f6l (gen. filles),shin, kind, child, &c.; here belong also the diminutives in-in and -lin, as magatin, little maid, fingarlin, little finger,

D E C L E N S I O N O F - N O U N S 2 9

except that UG retains the -n in the gen. and dat. only, andthat the nom. acc. pl. end in -iu in Alemannic.

IE and pr.Gc endings of tag (pr.Gc *dagaz) wereNS *-os (Lat. -us), x-az (Go da$s, ON dagr)AS *-om (Lat. -um), *-an (Go, ON da$)

IS *-El6 (Lat. qud), *-Eld (Go D dag,a, ON D hring)NP *-6s, *-62 (Go dagos, ON dagar)AP *-ons (Lat. -6s), *'anz (Go dagans, OS da€,os?, OE

GP *-6m,dagas?, ON daga)

*-6n (ON OE daga)DP I ending (from other stems) giving x-anniz (Go dagam)

The OHG AP is probably derived from the pr.Gc N, whereasthe OS, OE N probably < A. The DP -um (all but Go) hasu < *a because of following labial nasal or ( *{n, the wholeending then being borrowed (from consonant stems).

The pr.Gc NAP of *woralan : wort (NAS like tag A) wasin -6, like NS of F 6-stems (4. 5), but OHG has generalized theoriginal long-stem form (3. r9) without -u (with some excep-tions, cf. (e) and a. 3).

4. 3. The Masculine and Neuter j-declension (Gc ja-stems;

IE io-stems) (MHG I (a) tI and II (a) t).

Singular Plural

M N M N

hitti,herdsmankwnni,race bTtte kunni

GS *-e/oso,DS *-Oi

hirteshirtiehirtiu

*-ilasa (Go dagts, ON dags)*-ai (ON dege)

kunnes trirteo, -io kunneo, -iokunnie hirtlm, -um kunrdm, -umkinniu

NAGDI

(a) The nouns of this declension (in HG, cf. :. :S) early (bythe ninth century) went over (in all but NAS ending (M andNHG -e)) to the Principal M and N Declension (4. z), exceptthat the DP is found in -im (-in) (usually ascribed to borrow-ing from i-declension (+. S)) ".

well as -um (-un, -on), andthat in neuter NAP -iu occurs, possibly from adjectives (4. t9).

30 ACCIDENCE

(D) Like hirti are declined the nomina agentis ending in-dri ( -ari, -eri), as wahteri (wahtari, wahteri), watchman,lErdri, teacher, scribari, writer, scribe; as also karkdri'prison, altdri, altar, and a few others, as rucki' back,ptnttzzi,puzzi, well, kdsi, cheese,

(c) Like kunni are declined very many neuters, ̂ s enti, end,richi, kingdom,betti, bed, collectives in gi-, abstracts in ni/-nissi/ -nessi/ -nussi, compounds like elilenti, foreign parts ;note heri, army, GS heries, DS herie (:. gS).

Pr.Gc endings of hirti (pr.Gc xxirtliJaz) wereNS *-ijaz (Go. halrdeis, ON P*-ijdz (Go hairdjos)

hirder)A x-iJan (Go hairdi) *-iianz (Go halrdjans)G -iji/asa (Go hairdeis, OS hir- *-ijdn (OS hirdios)

deas, ON hirOes)D *-ijai (OS hirdea, ON hirde) *-iiarniz (OS hirdiurn)I *-ijc/o (Go D hairdja)

Kunni has -nn- in the NAS (pr. WGc xkuni) by analogywith the other cases (:. SS).

4. 4. The Masculine and Neuter w-declension (Gc wa-stemsIE go-stems) (MHG I (a) r and u, and II (a) t).

Singular Plwal

M N M N

snGo, snE, kneo, knee sn€w5, -a kneosnozD

sn€wes kn6wes sn6wo kn€wosn€we kn€we snewurn, kniwurn,

-llll, -611 -ltllr -otl

(a) On the forms of the NS see 3. +7. When the w is precededby a consonant an a (sometimes o, e) is developed in the in-flected cases, thus nom. neut. trtiso, treasule, gen. tr€sawes;nom. masc. scato, shadow, gen. scatawes, see 3. 25.

NA

GD

D E C L E N S T O N O F N O U N S 3 r

(D) To this declension belong the masculines 160, grave,sEo, sea, bii (gen. biiwes), dwelling, and the neuters rEo,colpse, z6so, right side, smiro, grease.

4. 5. The Principal Feminine Declension (Gc pure 6-stems(and wd-stems); IE d-stems (see 3.6)) (MHG III (a) r).

NAGD

GS *-6s (Lat. (pater)farnilids)

DS *-ai (Lat. -ae),

GP *-6rn,DP *-Eirnis,

gdba, -u, -o gdbdno

S,6bu, -o gdbdm, -6n, -on

Pluralgdbd, -a

*-dz (Go gibos, ON giafar,OE $iefe)

x-ai (Go gibai, OE giefe)

Pluralkuninginnd

, ,kuninpinndnokuninginndm

Singular!6ba, gift

(a) In OS are found alternative NAS in -e and DS in -a.

(6) Like g6ba are declined a very large number of nouns,e.g. €rda, earth, Eta, honour, zala, number, triuwa, fiddity,corunga, temptation, hertida, har dne s s, miltida, c omp a s sion,

tindda,faooar, l6sunS,a, delioerance, stunta, time, &c.

IE and pr.Gc endings of g,6ba (pr.Gc xgebd) wereNS *-e (cf. Lat. mensa), *-6 (Go giba, OE giefu, ON gief)AS *-5m (cf. Lat. -am), *-5,tt (Go giba, OE giefe)

NAP *-as (Lat. A mensds), *-02 (Go gibos, ON giafar,OE $iefe)

x-dn (Go gibo, ON 9iafa, OE Siefa)x-drn7z (Go giborn, ON !,iofom,

OE $,iefum, OS gebon)The OHG NS is derived from the pr.Gc A (conversely to the

ON); DS from Gc I *-d (cf. 4. z),IE *-A (OS 86bu, ON piqf);GS forms from D; GP (OS gebono) from the n-stems.

4. 6. Feminine -inn-declension (Gc -inj6-, OS -innia) (see

3. 3e).Singular

N kuningin, quemA kuninginna, -inG kuninginnaD kuninginnu

3 2 A C C I D E N C E

Like kuningin are declined forasagin, prophetess,friuntin, fiend, &c.; most inanimates like burdin, burden,have S (all cases) and NAP burdi (like 4. 8) or burdin, GPburdino.

4,7. The Feminine j-declension (Gc jd-stems; IE id-stems)(MHG III (a) I).

Singular PluralNA sunte, -ea, -ia, sin sunte, -ear -iaG rr sunteonoD suntiu sunte6rn

(a) The nouns of this declension (cf. M and N j- 4. 3) early(by the ninth century) went over (including NS) to the Prin-cipal Feminine Declension (+. S).

(6) Like sunte are declined helle, hell, sibbe, sippe, peace,minne, Iooe, krippe, manger, &c,

To 4. 6 and 7: The NS pr.Gc ending was (short stems) -jO(Go -ja, OS -ta), (long stems) -i (Go -t, OHG -(in)- (+. 6)(3. 18, r9)) .

4. 8. Feminine Abstract Nouns in -i (MHG III (a) r).S (all cases) and NAP hdhi (hohin), height, GP hdhino,

DP hdhim.Like hdhi are declined sc6ni, beauty, suo44i, sn)eetness,

sn€lli, quickness, tiufr, depth, menigi, managi, multitude,irstantani, resurrection, tovfr., a dipping, weli, choice, leiti,a leading, &c.

These nouns comprise two classes of stems which were dif-ferent in Gothic, but of which there is no trace of difference intheir inflexion in OHG-(r) adjectival abstract nouns the stemsof which originally ended in -in, NS -i (Go weak declension,like tuggo in 4. 14 (with Go -ei- for -o-); ON -e, OE d- (Prin-cipal Feminine) declension, OS i- declension); (z) verbalabstract nouns (comparatively few in OHG) with stems endingin -ini, Go i-declension, like ansts in 4. ro except N andGP -o-.

D E C L E N S I O N O F N O U N S

4. 9. The Masculine i-declension (MHG III (a) u).

Singulnr PluralNA Sast, guest gestiG gastes gesteor -io, -oD gaste gestim, -in, -enI gastiu, gestiu, gastu

(a) On the consonantal combinations which preve t Um-laut, see 3. t2.

(D) Like gast are declined liut,peoph, vrurrn, worm, aplnnllapple, sla!, bloz.o, sctit, step, &c.-wini,friend, quiti, saying,and a few others retain the -i in NAS, but follow gast in theother cases. Many u- and consonant stems have passed intothis declension: original u-stems were skilt, shield, wirt,master of the house, heit, manner, sun, .roz; consonant stems,fao4foot (cf. 4. 16), z n, zandl, tooth, nagal, nail.

4. 10. The Feminine i-declension (MHG III (a) It).

Singular PluralNA anst,faoour enstiG ensti ensteo, -io, -o

D ensti enstim, -in, -en

(a) See 4. ga.

(D) Like anst are declined st^t, place, jugund, youth, fart,journey, lilt, gift, giburt, birth, and many other Feminines.krtri, choice, and turi, door, rctain the -i in the nom. and acc.sg., but follow anst in the other cases. Like anst are alsodeclined tlre old u-stems flrtot, flood, lust, desire, and theconsonant stems $ans, goose, miluh, milk, rna$ad, virgin,and a few others.

To 4. g and ro. IE and pr.Gc endings of gast (pr.Gc *gastiz)and anst (pr.Gc xanstiz) wereNS *-is (Lat. -is), x-iz (ON gestr, OE giest)AS *-im (Lat. -irn), *-in (ON gest)

6486 D

33

DS *-oi/ei (Lat. -i), *-atl-i (Go anstai' ON geste)NP *-eies (Lat. -Es)' *-i!iz (Go $asteis, ON $ester' OE

Engle)AP *-ins (Lat. -is), *-tnz (Go $astlns, ON Eeste' OE

Engle)GP *-i6m, *-jdn

DP *-lmis, *-irrrlz (Go Sasttm)The M S has been assimilated to Gc a-stems (Principal M

Declension, +. z). OS has GP f,estio, DP gestiun' F DS alsofard, ferdiu. The OHG NP probably comes from the acc. TheON F entirely goes over to the 6- (Principal F) declension. InOHG the NAS -i was dropped regularly in long stems, after theanalogy of which it was dropped for the most part in short stems.See 3. r9. The distinction is better kept in OS (e.g. quidt' GSquidlas, beki beside OHG bah' stream, also neuters e.g.landskepi) and OE.

4. 11. The u-declension (MHG $ at).The only trace in OHG of the u-declension, apart from the

NAS -u (and rare GS -o) in M nouns that have otherwisejoined the M i-declension (situ, custom, fridu, peace,ll.vSv,

understaniling, sigu, oictory, wittr, wood, sunu (beside sun),soz) and in neuter fihu, cattle, otherwise declined like wort(4. z), is the DP -um (-un' -on) in F hant, hand, otherwisedeclined like anst (+. to) (cf. MHG $ 5z).

IE and pr.Gc endings of sunu (pr.Gc *sunuz) wereNS *-us (Latin rnanus), *-uz (Go sunus, ON sunr' OE sunu)AS *-urn (Lat. -urn)' *-un (Go sunu' OE sunu' ON sun)

34

GS *-ois/eis'

GS *-oges,

DS *L -egi, -ogi,

GP *-eg6m'DP *-umis,

A C C I D E N C E

*-alzhiz (Go anstais)

*-awiz (Go sunaus, ON sonartOHG suno, OE suna)

*-lwi, -ei, -awi (OHG I suniu;ON synt' OS suni; Go sunau'OS suno)

NP *-eUres (Lat. -ts)' *-7wiz (Go sunJus, ON synir)AP *-uns (Lat. -ts)' *-unz (Go sununs' ON sunu' OE

NA sunu)*-lwdn (OS sunio)*-urniz (Go, ON, OE, OS sunurn)

D E C L E N S T O N O F N O U N S 3 5

The OHG transition to i-declension was partly due to WGcphonetic coincidence in DS, N (and G) p.

4,12.The Masculine n-declension (MHG I (6)).

Singular PluralN hano,cock hanon, hanunA hanon, hanunG hanen, hanin handnoD hanen, hanin han6m, handn

Like hano are declined many nouns, e.g. hErro, hEro,master, wahsmorlfrzr?, ohso, o#, st6rno, star, gorrro, ?nan,namo, narne, willo (early willeo), will, forasafo, prophet.

IE and pr.Gc endings of hano (pr.Gc ,txan6) wereNS l-Cnr

*-En (ON haner Go hana?)/*-6n, *-6n (Go hana?FN OHG OS -a, OE -e)/*-6 (Lat. homd), rr-d (OHG OS-o, OE -a, FN Go -o, ON -a)

AS *-onF (Lat. -tnem), *-anun (Go hanan, ON hana, OShanan (on))

GS *-erres (Lat. -inis), *-iniz (Go hanins, OS hanen (an,on))

DS *L -eni (Lat. abl. -iae), *-int (Go hanin, OS hanen (an,on))

NP *-ones, *-aniz (Go hanans, OS hanan (on, un)){!

*-(o)n4s (Lat. -inEs), x-(a)nt z (Go hanans, ON hana)$f f-ndm,

*-ndn (Go airhsne, OE oxna, ON yxna)DP *-nrnis, *-unrniz (OS hanun (on))

Some of the OHG (OS) forms are diffcult to explain:-o/un < *a possibly because of following nasal (cf. Dp of i. z ?),possibly from generalization of u-IJmlaut in some forms. TheOHG GDP are borrowed from F (4. ,4), which has stem *-6n-(Lat. serrn6, sermdnis), ) tr for the same possible reasons as-o/un 4 '*a;

4. 13. The Neuter n-declension (MHG II (6)).

NAGD

Singular Pluralb'6tza,heafi h€rzun, lnEtzonhdrzen, h€ruin hdrzdnohdrzen, hdrzin h6rzdm, h6rz6n

36 A C C I D E N C E

Like h€rza are declined ou,ga, eye, 6ra, ear, wanEa'

cheeh.

4. 14. The Feminine n-declension (MHG III (D)).

Si.ngular PluralN ztnta, tongue zunP,iinA zung,flnG zanQrd;n zun$6noD zung,tn zungdm'zuntdn

Like zun$a are declined many nouns, e.g. qu€na,

zroman, diorna, maidm, sunna, sun, rnluS$a (early mu$$e),

flv.4. 15. Other consonant-stems (OHG minimum-ending declen-sion) (MHG $ 5z)

NAGD

Singularnaht, night (F)nahtnaht

Pluralnahtnahtonahtum, -un, -on

buoch, booh, was mostly neut. in the sg., declined likewort (4. z); in the pl. it was fem. and declined like naht.

blur!, city, and brust, breast, were sometimes declined likenaht, and sometimes like anst (+. to).

IE and pr.Gc endings of nabt (pr.Gc xnaxts) wereNS *-s (Lat. nox)' *-s (Go nahts)AS *-r.n (Lat. noctern), *-un (Go naht)GS *-es (Lat. noctls), *-iz (OE $€s' ON merkr)DS L -i (Lat. abl. nocte), *-i (OE €Es, Go naht)NP *-es, *-iz (Go nahts, OHG, OS naht' OE g€s, ON merkr)AP *-4s (Lat. noctEs),*-rroiz (OHG, OS naht)GP *-6rn, *-6nDP* - rn l s r x - rn i z>+>urn

muoter, mother, tohter, daughtn, swdster, ister, and Mbruoder, brothcr, in OHG (and in OS also fader) are declinedlike naht.

D E C L E N S T O N O F N O U N S 3 7

IE and pr.Gc endings of bruoder (pr.Gc *brbpEr) wereNS *-6r, *-dr (Go -ar?)/*-er, n-er (ON, OS -er)

AS *-orm, *-arnn (Go -ar)/*-errn, *-erun (OS -er)

GS *-gs, *-urz (ON fgUor)/*-res (Lat. fratris), *-riz (ONfe0r)

DS *-ri (Lat. abl. -re)' *-ri (OE brEper, ON feUr)NP *-ores, *-afizl*-eres' *-iriz (ON bredr)AP *-r+s (Lat. -r€s)' *-runz

GP *-r6rn, *-rdn

DP *-rrnis, *-rtniz > -rurn (OS brddrun)

4. 1 6. Mixed Declensions (IE consonant-stems) (MHG I (a) tv).

Singuhr PluralNAGD

NAGDNAGD

lftan, man manmannes mannoman, manne mannum, -un, -on

eoman, ioman, someone, neoman, nioman, no one,have the pronominal ending -an in the acc., eomannan, neo-mannan.

man (Go lnanna, OE rnan(n), ON madr) was probablyoriginally an n-stem (4. rz) with zero grade of the suffix -n- (cf.Lat. caro, carnis).

Singulw Pluralfatet,father latetdr -afater, fateres faterofater, fatere faterum, -un, -onfuiant,frimd friunt, friuntd, -afriuntes friuntofriunte friuntum, -un, -911

Like friunt was declined fiant, enemyi a number ofother present participles (ct.4.4) used as nouns, e.g. wigant,warrior, have passed completely into the Principal MasculineDeclension (4. z).

Pr.Gc endings of frlunt (xfriJdndz) wereNP *-iz (Go NA fr{onds,

OE friend)NS *-z (Go frtjonds)

38 ACCTDENCE

AS *-un (Go frijond) AP *-unzGS *-iz (OE fr€ond) GP *-6nDS *-i (OE friend, Go fri- DP *-rniz (ON OE OS -um)

Jond)Other traces of consonant-stems are DP fuo4um beside

fuo4im ("f. +. rr), and (though there are more probableexplanations) possibly forms like DS hfls, to a house.

4, 17 . The Neuter -ir-declensio n (G c iz I zz-stems ; IE es/os-stems) (MHG II (a) u).

Singulnr PluralNA larnb,lamb lembirG lambes lembiroD lambe lembirum, -un, -on

I lambu, -o

(a) Like lamb were declined kalb, calf,blat,leaf, trab,graoe, and a few others.

(D) In OS, lamb and most such nouns have gone over com-pletely to the Principal Neuter Declension (4. z).

D n c r , r w s r o N o r A n ; n c r r v r S

4. 18. Adjectives are declined Strong or Weak (cf. 4. r ; for usesee 5. 7-9). They have three genders, and the s:rme cases zrsnouns. The endings of the Strong declension are partly pro-nominal and partly nominal, corresponding to the PrincipalM, N (+. z), and F (+. S) declensions and to the j- (+. l, il urdw- (4. 4,5) declensions.

4. 19. Strong Declension: Principal Declension (Gc pure a-and 6-stems; IE pure o- and d-stems).

M I T FblintEr, bknd blinta4blintan ,,

blintesblintemu, -emo

blintiublintablinterablinteru, -ero

SNAGD

D E C L E N S I O N O F A D J E C T M S 3 9

IPNAGD

blintu, -oblinte blintiu blinto

blinteroblint6m, -En

(a) The nom. all genders and acc. neuter have often an un-

inflected form, e.g. bllnt' see 5. 6.

(D) The NSF and NAPN frequently drop the i before the u

in UF, e.g. blintu.

(c) Adjectives ending in -al, -ar' -an with long stems some-

times drop the a before a vocalic ending, e.g.bittat, bitter,

bittrEr k...).(d) Like blint are declined all adjectives whose uninflected

form ends in a consonant, e.g. guot' g ood, alt, old,ianQ'young,

guldin, golden, mahtig' mtghty, erdlih' earthly, &c,

Gc adjectival declension being an innovation (cf., for example,

the purely nominal Latin adjective), the old Gc languages do not

hav! the same endings in all parts of the Strong adjective'

NSM Go -s (and NANeut -), ON M -r, corresponds to'un-

inflected' in OE OS (where it is the only neut. form) and OHG,

the peculiarly OHG -€r comes from the pronoun d€r' with

vowil lengthened under accent as in OS th6; A has Go -ana,

OE -ne; NASN Go -atar ON -t, corresponds to OHG -a4'

does not exist in OE and OS; DSMN corresponds to Go-amrna (3.46.4), while oNM -orn' OE oS -urrl are borrowed

from P; to I corresponds ON DSN -o; GSF Go -aizos is by

analogywith P, ON has -rar, OE -re; DS ON OE has -re,

Go has nominal -ai; NAPF is pronominal as opposed to Go -os;

NAPN OHG (like NSF) comes from dlu, as opp' Go -a' others-; GP ON OE -ra, Go -aTzelo from D; DP pronominal like

Go -aim, unlike ON -om, OE OS -um. OS often confuses

NAP M -er -4r F -a, -e, N -, -e, -a.

The ending -lu in UG was a falling diphthong (z' z) and there-

fore remained (6), in Franconian a rising diphthong (i : i)' and

the i was therefore lost (cf. 3. 48).

4.20. Strong Declension: j'declension (Gcia- and j6'stems;

IE io- and i6-stems).

4 0 A C C I D E N C E

The j-declension differs from the Principal Declension inthe uninflected form only, which regularly ends in -i, e.g.scdn€r, &c., beautiful, scdni.

Like scdni are declined all adjectives whose uninflectedform ends in -i, also all present participles, e.g. festi, .fasf,meri, rcnov,ned, tiari, dear, biderbi, useful, bEranti, bear-ing, &c.

4.21. Strong Declension: w-declension (Gc wa- and w6-stems; IE po- and gd-stems).

The w-declension differs from the Principal Declension inthe uninflected form only, which regularly ends in -o; if thisis preceded by a consonant there usually develops an a (seldome, o) between the consonant and the w in the inflected forms(see 3. z5), e.g. garo, gar(a)wEr, ready.

Like garo are declined g6lo, yellout, z€so, right-hand,fao, fd, little, sl6,o, slE, dull, frao, fr6, glad, joyful, rao, 16,ruw. See 3, 47.

4.22.The Weak Declension (Gc, IE n-stems).

This is exactly the same as in nouns (4. n-r4).

SingularM N

N blinto blintaA blinton, -un ,,GD blinten, -in

Fblintablintiinblintiin

PluralNA blinton, -un blintun, -on blintfinG blintdnoD blintdm, -dn

In the same way are declined sc6no and gar(a)wo.

4.23. Declension of Present Participles.

The present participle has both the strong and the weak

D E C L E N S I O N O F A D J E C T M S 4 r

declension. The former is a j-stem, the latter like blinto ; e.g.

nimanti, taking, salbdnti, anointing, hab6nti' haoing.

In pr.Gc the M and N were consonant-stems (cf. 4. 15) andthe F a jd-stem (+. Z). In Go all were weak, with F -ei (4. 8),except NSM -nds beside -nda.

4.24, Declension of Past Participles.These too have both declensions, the uninflected form of

strong-verb participles ending in -an, of weak verbs in -t' e.g.ginoman, taken, liritan, ridilm, €,ihab6t' had., Qisalbilt,anointed.

In Franconian the suffix -an occasionally appears as-on-, -en-r or -in- in the inflected forms (1. z+).

Coupen rsoN oF ADIEcT IvES

4.25. The Comparative is formed by means of the two

suffixes -ir- and -or-r to which are then added the endings of

weak adjectives (OS usually NSM -a instead of -o). Poly-

syllabic adjectives formed with derivative suffixes and com-

pound adjectives take -dr- ; j-stems -ir- I uncompounded

Principal Declension adjectives sometimes the one, sometimes

the other. For example:

PoitfuesdliS, blessedtiarlih, dearen$i, narrowsulolit svJeetlanS, Ionghdh, high

Comparatioesdli$6rotiurlihhdroengirosuo4irolengirohdhiroh6hdro

In OS the two suffixes are partially confused by phonetic

convergence of unaccented syllables (2. zZ),e.g. liobera, -ara,

beside -ora, aid very few adjectives show -ir-; and syncope

42 ACCTDENCE

is widely retained (cf. 3. 26, &c., OHG substantival hErro),e.g. leobra.

The ending -iro is sometimes weakened to -ero inFranconian. Beside jungiro, younger, appear jungdro andjiipiro.

Both suffixes are found in Go, -iz- (IE -is-) and -oz- (fromadverbs in -d, 4. z9), but in the other old Gc languages -62-, notcausing Umlaut, has become more widespread, With jtgiro cf.Go Jf,hiza (r. gS, S) beside juggs.

4.26.The Superlative is formed by means of the two suffixes-ist- and -6st-, to which are then added the endings ofweakadjectives (OS as comparative). Adjectives which have -irohave -isto, and those which have -dro have -6sto, e.g. sdli-gdsto, tiurlihhdsto, engisto, suo4isto, lengisto, h6histo,hdhdsto. In OS the vowels -i- and -o- are retained before-st-, but very few adjectives have -ist-.

The superlative suffix consists of the comparative suftx f theintensive suffix -t- (cf. intensive verbs like Latin capt6?).

4.27.bregllar Comparison. The following adjectives formtheir comparative and superlative from a root different fromthe positive:

Srtot, good beqqito

lbil, bad wirsiro (OSwirsa)

rnihhil, great mEroluzzil, little minniro

be44isto(OS beztolbesto)

wirsisto(OS also wirrista)

meistominnisto

(a) Beside the regular form mEro (: Go maiza) occur inAlemannic the forms m6riro, m6rdro, which are doublecomparatives like E nearer and OHG wirsiro beside OSwirsa (cf. 4. 3r).

(6) le44isto, /ast, is defective (OS positive lat).

C O M P A R I S O N O F A D J E C T I V E S 4 3

4.28.In a few cases there is no positive adjective, the compara-tive and superlative adjective being formed from an adverb orpreposition, as in Latin.

after, after aftro, aftaro, aftrdsto,afterdsto,-ero aftristo

Er, formdy 6riro Eristofota,fati, before furiro furistofutdirrforwards fordro,fordaro, fordardsto

-6ro

hintar, behind. hintarolnne, within innarooba, abooe obaro, obdrotntar,down untarofq,

hintardstoinnar6stoobardstountardstoii4,ardsto

Beside the regular forms obaro, &c., Alemannic fre-quently has forms with double comparative endings, e.g.obaroro, &c., cf. mEriro, m€rdro.

FonnrerroN oF ADVERBS FRoM AolecrrvnsaNo Corrp lRrsoN oF ADVERBS

4.29. Adverbs are formed by

ra. Simply adding -o to the uninflected form of the adjec-tive when it ends in a consonant, e.g. mahtigo, ubilo, tiur-lihho.

rD. Dropping the -i, and Umlaut if any, of j-stems andadding -o, e.g. scdno, tiuro, fasto, samfto beside semfti.

z. Adding -licho sometimes when no adjective in -lich isfound, e.g. gernlicho, garalicho, OS ktrdliko.

In OS adverbs are found also in -ungo. See also S. z-4.

4. 30. The comparative degree of adverbs ends in -dr (never

44 ACCIDENCE

-ir); the superlative mostly ends in -6st, but sometimes alsoin -ist, thus:

adj. lang,, long; adv. comp. IanSdr superl. lang6stf.esti, fast; fastdr fastdstjunf-, young; jungist

4.31. The following are irregular:

wola, well, comp. ba4 superl. be44istwlrs, s{rolsemEt, moremin, /ess

(a) Beside m6r, meist occur the weakmEra, meista as adverbs.

wirsistmeistminnist

neut. adj. forms

Nuvrrnlr,s

4.32. Cardinal and Ordinal

Cardinal Ordinalein, one Eristo, furistozwei, tan anderdrt, three drittofeor,fior,four feordo, fiordofimf,finf,five fimfto, finftos€hs, slr sdhstosibun, seuez sibuntoahto, eight ahtodonlun, nine niuntozilhan, ten zilhantoeinlif, el"asen einliftozwelif., twebe zweliftodrizdhan, thirteen drittozihantofiotz6han, fourteen fiordozdhantofinfzilhan, fifteen finftazdhantos6hszdhan, sixteen Notker s€hzEndosibunz€han, sez;enteen sibuntoz€hanto

NUMERALS

Cardinalahtozdhan, eightemniunz€han, dnetemzweinzu$, twentydriqqng, dri4rg, thirtyfiorzug, Ioltyfitrfzuf-,fiftysdhszug, v*tysibunzug, seventyahtozu!, eightyniu.nzufo, rinetyzilhanzug'\oundredhunt Izwei hunt, two hundreddtsunt, thousand

For the etymologies of the numerals see Walshe, EtymologicalDictionary.

4. 33. The first three cardinal numerals are declinable in allcases and genders.

r. ein follows the Strong declension, when used as a numeral ;when used in the sense of. alone, it follows the Weak declension.

45

Ordinal

niuntazdhantozweinzug6stodri4ugdstofiorzup,6stofinfzupdstos6hszug6stosibunzugdstoahtozug6stoniunzugdstoz€hanzug6sto

2.

NAGDJ .

NA

GD

M NzwEne zwei

z:weiozweim, zwein

F

zwd, (zwd)

dri driu drioOS tlria, -ie, -ea

driodrim, drin

4.34. The cardinal numerals 4-rz remain uninflected when

they stand before a noun, whereas if they stand after a noun

or are used as nouns they are declined according to the i-

46 ACCTDENCE

declension. The NA N has, in OHG but not, of course (see

+. tg), in OS, the adjectival ending.

MF (os N)NA .iG -€or -oD -im, -in (OS -iun)

N-iu, -u

4. 35. The cardinal numerals zo-roo ending in -zu!, OS -tig,

also alternative forms from 7o like sibunzo, OS antsibunta,and OS analogical thflsundig, r,ooo, are followed by genitive,OS also sometimes used adjectivally. diisunt is mostly treatedas a feminine substantive, but sometimes also as a neuter.

Go shows the original substantival nature of these numeralswhich accounts for the genitive construction (5. 3), twat tigius(zo), &c., Piisundt.

4.36. ander, second, anderer, -a1, -iu, follows the Strongdeclension, the remaining ordinals the Weak declension.

4. 37. Other Numerals.

r. Distributive, e.g. einluzze, one b1t one, zwiske, two bytwo.

z. Multiplicatives, e.g. einfalt (falt : E -fold), zwifalt, &c.

3. Numeral adverbs, e.g. eines (gen. sg.), once; zwitolzwirort zwiton, tatice; dtitor, thrice. The higher numbers,as also once to thrice, are formed by means of prefixing thecardinal numerals to stunt, time (OS sid), e.g. sibunstunt,seoen times.

PnoNouNs

4. 38. Personal Pronouns.

SingularN i h , IA mihG minD mir

PIuralwirunsihunsEruns

PRONOUNS

SingulatN dil, dtt, thouA dihG dinD dir

Singular

M NEt, he if itinan, in ,lsin €s, sin

imu, -o

PluraI

sie siuiroim, ln

PIuraliriuwihiuwEriu

Fsiu, si, si, sDesia, sieira, -u, -o

iru, -o

sio

47

NAGD

NAGD

(a) ih and du were often attached enclitically to the verb'

especially in verse, e.g. $ibuh : gibu ih, me$ih : ma€' ih'

nnaistu: findis du. 6r, i4, ds, in were sometimes attached

enclitically to a preceding word, e'g' $iloubt-6r : giloubta

€r, imos: imo 6s, &c.

(D) Beside the accented forms inan, imo, iro' sia' sie' sio

occur the unaccented forms nan, mot rot sat set so'

(c) Beside 6r appear in some Franconian monuments the

forms hir, hE, OS h€' he.

IE and pr.Gc forms of th and du were (for €r (Latin' Go is)

cf. der, 4.-4r, and for G of r, z see 4' 4o)'in."do 1L"t. ego;, *ed,om (Lat- egom-et)' xek (oN ek)'

*ik (Go, OS ik' OE ic)A *me-de' ime/ik (oN rntk, oE mec, mE' oS mr(k))

D *rne,"*me/i-z(Go rnls, ON mGr, OE mE' OS mI' me)

SN *tf (Lat. tE), *pir, other cases as *ik.

p *ge-i-sr *wiz, unstress"a > OffC, ON v€r' OE wE' OS

wl, we *ns-, *uns-

48 ACCTDENCE

PN *lu-, *Juz, unstressed > ON Er; OE 96, OS S,i, ge are byanalogy of *wiz.

OS (Go, ON, OE) has a Dual, wlt, utlk, unkero, git, ink,lnkero.

4. 39. Reflexive Pronoun.

OS has no reflexive pronoun; for it is used throughout, as inOHG D, GSF, GP, the third person pronoun (+. :8).4. 40. Possessive Pronouns.

The possessive pronouns of the first and second persons,and the S MN third and reflexive, were formed from the samepronominal adjectives in -in or -er as the genitive, and declinedaccording to the strong declension, e.g. minEr, &c. For tlleFS and the P of the third person, the genitives ira and irowere used.

(a) Beside unser6r, iuwerEr, the forms unsarEr, iuwarErsometimes occur.

(&) Beside unser6r, unsera4, &c., occur in FranconianunsEr, unsae, &c., like (the inflected forms of) OS Esa,euwa, unka, inka.

4. 41. Demonstratives: the simple demonstrative pronoun,ddr, used both as definite article (5. ro) and relative pronoun(s. 's) .

SingularM N

d€r daZddn ,,

ddsddmu, -o

diu

NAGDI

SingularA sih, himself, &c.G sin (ira)D (imu, iru)

Pluralsih(iro)(im)

Fdiudea, dia (die)d€ra (-u, -o)

diru, -o

NA d6, dea,dia, die

GD

P R O N O U N S

PluraIdiu (dei) deo, dio

ddrod6m, dEn

(a) Beside the nom. form th€r occurs also thie (th6) inTatian.

(D) The form de, and in Tatian also thie, is used as a relativeparticle (S. tS) for all forms of d€r.

(c) Beside the NAFP thio occur in Franconian also thie,rarely thia.

(/) d€r, &c., when used as relative pronoun, frequently hadcontracted forms, especially in verse, e.g. thiuns : thiu uns,zdn: zi thEn.

Pr.Gc forms of d€r wereNSM *sa (Go sa, ON sd), *se (OE sE), OHG and OS (thE)

substitute the IE *t- pr.Gc *p- stem of the other forms, andOHG adds -r from other pronouns

NSF *sd (Go so, ON sE), xsJO (OE sEo, OHG, OS -iu)NASN *Pat (Go Pat-a)ASM *pan, -a (Go pana, OE pone), OHG & OS (thena) have

-e- from GDASF *I,6n (Go Po) > *Pa (ON OE pd), xpjdnGSMN *pesa (Go pis' ON pess)' ttpasa (OE pas)GSF *bezdz (Go pizos), xpalzdz with -ai- from GDP (ON

pelrar), *paIzl6z (OE DEre)DSMN *I pasm6/6 (Go pamma), *L pairni (OE Ftrm' ON

Feim)DSF *pezat (Go ptuai), *V,^7zal (ON peire' OE p6re)rsN *pj6 (oE py)NpM *pat (Go Fat, oE MFN pa, OS MFN th6, ON pei-r),

> *PE (OHG dia)NAPF xpdz(G opos, ON b&-t),xpj6z(OS MFNthia), OHG

from accented -62NAPN *I'6 (Go po, ON Fa-u), irpj6 (OS MFN thia)OP114 *panz (Go Pans, ON DA)

49

50 ACCIDENCE

GP *balzdn (ON petra, OE piira), Goptuelo with -t- from SDP xbairnlz (Go patm, ON peirn, OE p6m)

4. 42, The Compound Demonstrative Pronoun.

SingulmM N

ddse, ddsEr, thls diil,ddsan ,,

ddssesddsemu, ddsemod€siu, disiu,ddsu, disu

NAGDI

NAGD

Fdisiu, disiu (thisu)ddsadEseraddseru

PIurald€se ddsiu, disiu (thisu) ddso

ddserod€sEm, -en

The NSM is therEr in Otfrid. The GSF is th6rera inOtfrid, and thdrra (th€rro) in Tatian; DSF thdreru inOtfrid, thdrru (thdrro, th€rra) in Tatian; GP th€reroin Otfrid, thdrero (thdrro) in Tatian. Notiker has disEr.

This pronoun was peculiar to N and WGc and originated asd€r f particle -st (cf. *sa in 4. 4r); the first part is still partlydeclined in OS.

4. 43. jenEr, that (yon), is (except that there is no uninflectedform) declined like a strong adjective (4. r9), as is solih, such.

sdlb, seff(Latin ipse), may follow either the strong or theweak declension. Combined with the definite article it meangsame (Latin idem), and always follows the weak declension.(cr .s.g)4. 44. fnterrogatives: the simple interrogative pronoun hadone number, grammatically singular, and one form for Mand F.

P R O N O U N S

MF I/hwdrrwiltrwho hwaqwaqrwhathw€nan, w6nan, w€n ,,

hw€s, wdshw€mu, w€mo

(a) The initial h was dropped fromninth century(S.So).

hwiu, wiu

the beginning of the

(D) For the I wiu the form hiu is also found (in Franconian).

(c) See 5. 14-16.

Pr.Gc forms of hw€r (latin quod, quis) wereNSM *xwaz (Go hras, Oswedish (rare) har(r), OE hw[;,

OHG (OS hwE) -e- from GD, or ( *xwizNASN *xwat (ON hwat, Go hla from unaccented (indefinite)

use (3. 36))ASM *xwan (Go hran-a, OSwedish (rare) han, OE hwone),

on OHG (OS hw€na) see NGS *xwasa (OE hwas, ON hwes(s)), OHG (OS hw€s) from

nounsDS as d€r (4. 4r)

4. 45. (h)wddar,afiichof ta,o, (h)w6lih,which, and hweolih,wiolih, of what sort, are declined like strong adjectives, 4. 19.

4. 46. Indefinite Pronounssum, sumilih, a certain one, someone, declined strong.ein, one, a(z) (in plural, some),einig, eining, declined strong

(in negative sentences, anyone).sd wir s6,whoeoer (5. t6), 6tewir, someone.ddhein, anlone, in negative sentences, no one, no, none.tn t , one (5. t:), ioman, somebody, nioman, nobody (cf.

4 . l 6a ) .ni(h)hein, no(h)hein, no, none $. z7 and 46).iowiht, wlht, anything, niowiht, nothing.

5 r

NAGDI

52 ACCIDENCE

gillh (Iike), wdlih, with noun in genitive plural, each:manno lilih, each man.

8iw€lih, iogiwElTh, each.

Vnnss

4.47.The OHG verb inflects for number(singular and plural),person, tense (present and preterite), mood (indicative, sub-junctive, and in the present, imperative), and has participlesof both tenses and infinitive of the present. The last is de-clined according to the Principal Neuter Declension, with stemin doubled consonant, e.g. n€man, ndmannes, ndmanne(ndmannu). The p.p. usually has gi- prefixed, if no otherinseparable prefix, see 5. r7. On periphrastic tenses, &c., see

5. rg,2r-23.Gothic also has dual number in t, 2 pers., and passive voice

in present. ON has middle voice formed by sufixing reflexivepronoun. The Infinitive is declined only in WGc, from a stemin *-nja- (IE *-n!o-) (beside NA *-nan), OS nimannias,nimann(i)a, OE (neman) nemennes, td nemenne, OHGsometimes ndmenn-. The prefixing of the p.p. is regular onlyin OHG and OS, frequent in OE.

The Gc preterite is derived from a fusion of IE Perfect(Latin pepigi) and Aorist(Latin vEni), subjunctive from opta-tive (Latin simtis, Greek $$-ot-p,ev) and possibly subjunc-tive (Latin amEmus).

4. 48. OHG verbs are either Strong or Weak. Weakverbs formtheir preterite and p.p. with a t-suffix. Strong verbs have nosuffix in the preterite, and -n in the p.p., and show vowel-gradation. There are seven classes of Strong verbs, accordingto the (Gc) vowels resulting from the gradation. The OHGforms are as follows:

I .II.

III.IV.v.

VI.VII.

vERBs 53

Present Pret. sing, Pret. pl. PPi e i , 6 i tio (ii) ou,6 u oi ( € ) a u u r oE a e oi!(0 a i i eL U O

a, d, ei, ou (6), uo ia, ioa

as Present

The vowel of the present differs in the ind. sing. inclasses II-V (iu beside io, i beside 6) according to 3. 3 and r3,and, in z and 3 pers., in VI and VII (e beside a) according to

3. 12.

For the origin of vowel-gradation see 3, r. On u in present,Class II, see 4. 5r; otherwise Classes I-V have e-grade (cf. g. Sand 13) in present, o-grade (cf. 3. z and, n) in pret. sing., ClassesI and II zero-grade (3.4, S and 14) and III e2-grade (3. ro) inpret. pl. and p.p., Classes IV and V lengthened €-grade (cf. Z,Zand 15) in pret. pl. and er-grade (cf. 3.r and ro) in p.p. (or Ve-?). Class VI has lengthened 6-grade in pret. Class VII isexplained either as originally reduplicating in pret. (Go hal-hait, &c.; ON rera, OE heht, OHG ki-skrerot?)oras originallong-grade Aorist (some with analogical vowel).

4. 49. Conjugation of Strong Verbs.The conjugation of ndman , to take (Class IV) will exemplify

the endings of Strong verbs; the vowel-gradation depends onthe Class (+. 48, 50-56).

Present

IND.

S r. nimu2. nimis(t)

3. nimitP r. ndmemEs (-€m, -6n)

z. n€met

3. n€mant (-ent)

suBJ.ndmendmEs(t)n€menimEm6s- (Em, -6n)nim6tn€mEn

56 A C C I D E N C E

Pres. Pret. sing. Pret. pI.I ei , 6 (3. rz) i

risan, to fall reis rirunsnidan, to cut sneid snitunspiwan, to vomit spE(o) spiwundihan, to thritse d6h digunlihan, to lcnd lEh liwun

PPi

girirangisnitangispiwangidigangiliwan

(a) On the consonant changes see 3.45.(D) On spE(o) see 3. +7.

4.51. Class II: examples areSing. Pret. sing. pret.pl.

io ([) iu (tr) ou,6(3.r4) u oliogan, to ke liugu loug lugun giloganklioban, to cleaoe kliubu kloub klubun giklobanbiotan, to ffir biutu b6t butun gibotankiosan, to choose kiusu k6s kurun gikoranziohan, to draw ziuhu z6h zug,un Sizoganeifan, to sip, sflfu souf suffun gisoffan

drinksfig,an, to sack sfigu soug sug,un gisogan

(a) On the UG forms of the pres. with iu (liugan) see 3. 13.(6) Cf. +.Soa.(c) Verbs of this class ending in w(3. 47)haveiu throughout

the pres. and fr in pret. pl. md p.p., e.g. kiuwan, to chew,kou, kiiwun, giktwan ; in the last two forms the w was oftendropped.

siifan, sEEan, have their pres. vowel-grade from old Aoristtheme.

4. 52. Class IIf, strong verbs having medial nasal or liquid con-sonant, and a few others with two other consonants. Those wittrnasal have i in the pres. and u in the p.p. (3. 5); the rest have6 (i, 4. 48) and o.

V E R B S

Present Singular Pret. s. Pret. pI. PPi , € i a u u ; o

bintan, to bind bintu bant buntun gibuntanainnva, 1q 7un rinnu rann runnun $irunnansingan, to sing sin$u sang sungu gisun$anwetdan, to be- wirdu ward wurtun wortan

cotne

st6rban,todie stirbu starb sturbun gistorban

hdlfan, to help hilfu half hulfun giholfan

fdhtan, to fight fihtu faht fuhtun gifohtan

br6stan, to burst bristu brast brustun gibrostan

(a) dwingan, to compel, h^ p.p. gidungan beside $i-dwungan.

(D) biginnan, to begi.n, and bringan, b bring, have theweak prets. bigonta, bigonda, brdhta, beside the strongbigan, brang.

4. 53. Class IV, strong verbs whose stems end in a single nasalor liquid, and a few others.

6 i a d on€man, to take nitnu nam nemun ginoman

bdran, to bear biru bar bdrun $lboranh€lan, to hide hilu hal hdlun $iholanst€lan, to steal stilu stal stdlun $lstolanqueman, to quimu quam qudmun quoman

spr€chan, lospeak

br€chan, lobreak

sprichu sprah sprdchun gisprochan

brichu brah br6chun gibrochan

Beside the p.p. quoman occurs also qudman' according

to Class V. Beside que-, qui- occurs old Aorist theme (cf.

57

58 AccrDENcE

4. 5r) ko-, ku- ; this is found early, e.g. in Tatian, and comesto replace the other, e.g. Notler chomen, p.p. chomen.

4. 54. Class V, strong verbs with €, i (3. 3) in the pres. otherthan Classes III and IV.

€ i a A 6gdban, to give gibu gab g6bun gigdbana6han,to see sihu sah sdhun gis€hanquildan,to say quidu quad quddun giquidanE4lan,to eat ilZu dq dqan g*ZqanwEsan, to be wisu was wiirunl6san, to read, lisu las ldrun gil€ran

gathersitzen, to tit sitzu e^1 sd4un gis€44anbitten, to beg bittu bat batun gib€tanli$ten, to lie liggu lag liigun gildgan

doan

In bitten, &c., the -tt-, &c., belonged to the present only.

_- sttzel from *sitJanl bltt€n from *bidjan (Go bidjan),Itqg-gg from_*ligjan (OS strtian, btddian, riggri"y. S"";. 3;:With the 6 in54,, cf. Latin Edi.

4.55. Class VI.Present Preterite ppa, e (3. z)

faran, to gotragan, to carrywahsan, to grwslahan, to strikestantan, to standheffen, to raiseskephen, to createSwefien, to xqear

uofuortruogwuohssluogstuonthuobskuofswuor, guor

agifaran

$itragangiwahsanglslagan

$istantan-habangiskaffangisworan

VERBS 59

(a) The z, 3 S pres. ind. have Umlaut under the conditionsof. 3, rz.

(6) The pret. S sluog has been formed after the analogy ofthe pl. The regular form sluoh still occurs in the oldest monu-ments.

(c) stuont, stuontun, gistantan have the n in the stemfrom tlle pres., cf. OS stdd' and occasional OHG forms likeforstuotun. For the shorter pres. forms see 4. 65.

(d) The pres. of swerien follows the rst Weak Conjugation,

4. 58. The regular forms of the z, 3 S pres. ind. and z S imper.of hefren were hevis, hevit, hevi (2. 3). This v then becametransferred to other forms of the pres., e.g. inf. heven, pres.part. heventi. Later it was replaced by the b of the pret. andp.P.

heffen from *hafJan, skephen from *skapJan, swerlenfrom *swarJan (OS hebbian, skeppian' swerian). huob has6 from pret. pl. and p.p.

4. 56. Class VII.

(a) The pret. intfiegun in Tatian for intfien$un was formedby analogy with the pres.

(D) For the shorter pres. of $an$an see 4. 65.

a, e, eihaltan, to holdganga'o, to gofallan, to fallfdhan, to seizehdhan, to hang

ldqan, to letsldfan, to sleepretan, to adviseb|ei1an., to callskeidan' to seoer

ia (3. 16)hialt $ihaltan$tan$ $i$an$anfial gifallanfiang gifanganhtang $ihan$an

liaZsliafriatb;laqskiad

lililqangisHfangirdtangihei4angiskeidan

6o A C C I D E N C E

gimei4an

giloufangihouwan

$istd4angiruofan

(c) UG has the pret. forms liuf, hiu, and riuf (f . t:).

On fdhan, hdhan see 3. 35, 9. These thus being originallyshort stems, OS, which still has held, &c., has feng besideanalogical fieng; Franconian sometimes has e before ngr e,g.Isidore geng,un, as also Bavarian kenc.

4. 57 . Weak verbs are divided into three classes according asthe infinitive ends in -en, -dn, -6n.

For -en is often found -an, especially in UG, by analogywith strong verbs.

While strong verbs correspond to Latin 3rd Conjugation (cf.4, 4g), the pres. of verbs in *-en < *-J- corresponds to that ofLatin 4th and end Conjugations, in -€n to that of Latin znd,-d1 to rst. And the p.p. of weak verbs in (OHG) -t-, pr.Gc*-th-, IE -t6-, corresponds to Latin -tus, -itus, -Etus, --dtus.The Gc weak pret. is a new formation, variously explained as anoriginal periphrasis with 'did'(IE *dhE- ) pr.Gc *-d-, exceptthe prets. in (OHG -dlt-) pr.Gc -blt- (+. 59,62)-analogy wiihverbal adjective in *-p-, IE *:t- ?), as a generalization of a z Spersonal ending IE x-th€s, or of intensive suffix IE *-t-(cf. +. z6).

4. 58. First Weak Conjugation.Verbs with double consonant (except the affricates (pf), zz,

ck), and those with ri (or rr, see 3. 48), in the present stem,e.g. nerien, to saoe, have single consonant, and r, in the z, 3 Spres. ind. and z S imper., e.g. neri, and (except sometimesthose in -tt- or -Il-) single consonantfit- in the pret., e.g.nerita (zelita). Other verbs (and sometimes those in -tt- and-ll-) have -t- added direct to the stem, e.g. suohta (zalta).

'Jrei?:an, to cutou ,6 , uo

lotufan, to runhoawan, to heutst64an, to pushrrtofan, to call

mialio (3. 13)liofhiostio4riof

VERBS

The p.p. uninflected form has -it,

pret., e.g. $inerit, -itEr (4. z4).

6 r

the inflected follows the

suBJ.zellezellEs(t)zellezellErn, -En, -em6szellEtzelldn

z^lti, zelitizaltis(t), zelitis(t)zaltim, zelitim,

-in, -im6s

z ltit,zelititzaltin, zelitin

Present

IND.

S r. zellv, I tellz. zelis(t)

3. zelitP r. zellemEs' -Cn

z. zellet

3. zellent

Imper. z S zeli, r, 2 P as ind., inf. zellen, pres. part' zellenti.

Preterite

S r,3. zalta,zelitaz. zaltds(t), zelitds(t)

P r. zaltlJm,zelitum,-un, -umes

2. zaltvt, zelitrrt

3. zaltvn, zelitunp.p. $izelit ($izalt)

(a) Alemannic and Isidore have 6 instead of u in pret. ind.

pl., and subj. S r,3 -i.

(6) Tatian sometimes has -it- in the -t- verbs, and has single

consonant throughout pres.' e.g. zelen.

(c) See 3. +6 (z) for brennen, branta; kussen' kusta;

wanten, wanta.

Originally only long stems syncopated the IQ. z6). OS, whichhas -i- as well as double consonant (except r' d) (g' 39), hasrather more prets. without t. For OS endings see 4. 49.

6 z A C C I D E N C E

4.59. The following verbs of the rstWeak Conjugation have

irregular preterites

denken, to thi.nkdunken, to seemfurhten Iilil;;i to be afraid

wurken, to work

The -t- after h (S.S+), pr.Gc *-t-, is probably from IE *-t-

h. zg), cf. 4, s7.

4.60. Second Weak Conjugation.

Present

IND.

S r. salb6m, -on, I anoint?. salbds(t)

3. salbdtP r. salbdm6s, salb6n

2. salbdt

3. salbdnt

Imper. z S salbo, r, 2 P as ind., inf. salbdn, pres. part.salbdnti.

Preteite

S r,3. salb6ta salbdti&c., like zellen (p. 6t)

p.p. gisalbdt

(a) cf. 4. 58a.

(D) The r P pres. ind. and imper. and the whole of the subj.pres. have also longer forms salbdEn, salb6e, &c., in UG.OS has in pres. pl. and subj. r, 3 S, inf. and pres. part., alterna-tive forms in -oia-, -ia-.

ddhta (:. :S, q)dtrhta ,,forhta Lforahtai \3' 5' 25)

worhta, worahta (:. 5, z5)

SUBJ.

salbosalbds(t)salbosalbdm, -6n, -6m6s

salbdtsalbdn

V E R B S

4. 61. Third Weak ConjugationThis is exactly like 4. 6o (and a) with

habEm, I haoe, subj. habe.

63

6 (e) for 6 (o), e.g.

(a) Forms like hebis, hebit, hebita; segis, se$it' se$ita'

are due to a contamination with the rst Conjugation. This has

gone further in OS, where the E-conjugation survives only in

(alternative) z, 3 S pres. ind., z S imper., of hebbian' seggian'libbian.

(D) Longer forms occur, hab€En, hab6e, as in the znd

Conjugation, 4.6ob, except that they are rare in Bavarian.

4. 62. Preterite-Present Verbs

These verbs have the present like a strong preterite, except

the z S ind. which ends in t and has the same vowel as ther, 3 S. They have weak preterites.

Class I: weil, I know (OS wEt, negative nEt), z S weist

(:. f+); r P wi4,4,um (-um€s), subj. wi44i; Pret. wissa

(w€ssa, w€sta) (:. :+); lnf.wi7:lan; Pres. part. wi7qanti1'

p.p. giwi44an.

Pl. eigun, arc haoe, th4t haoe, eigut, subj. ei$i (p.p. ei$an

is adj., own).

Class II: 3 S toug, it aoails, benefits,3 P tu$un (OS subj.

dugi); pret.3 S tohta; Pres. part. toganti.

Class III an, I grant, pl. unnun, subj. unni' pret. onda

(onsta), inf. unnan.kan, I hnow (hwt to), z S kanst, pl. kunnun, subj' kunni'

pret. konda (konsta); inf. kunnan; pres. Part- kunnanti.

darf, 1 need, z S darft, pl. durfun, subj. durfi' pret.

dorfta, inf. durfan.gitar, I dare, z S g,itarst, pl. $iturrun, subj. $iturri'

pret. gitorsta' P.P. gitorran.

6 + A C C I D E N C E

Class IV: skal, / arn to, z S scalt, pl. sculun, subj. sculi;pret. scolta, inf. scolan, pres. part. scolanti.

(OS man, I believe, muni, &c.)

Class V?: mag (OS also mah), I rnay, ,oo, z i maht, pl.magun (mugun),subj. megi (mugi),pret. mahta (mohta),Inf. magan (mugan), pres. part. maganti (muganti).

Class VI: muo4, I may, 2 S muost, pl. muo4un, subj.muo4,i, pret. muosa.

Some forms of skal occur occasionally without k or c, e.g.Tatian sal, solta.

The z S -t with'singular'grade is the original Perfect ending,and general ending of z S strong pret, in E and NGc; the -i withthe same grade as plural of the WGc strong pret. is from the IEAorist (with the same grade throughout (in e-verbs) as Perfectplural), IE *-es, Gc *-iz. Cf. +. +5.

Onsta, konsta, are by analogy with gitorsta (pres. *-rs-, I-rr-). On weak pret. generally see 4. 59.

Etgun has its vowel from S, mag (originaUy Class VI ? pl.(Perfect) *ma$h- extended to sing. ?) its altemative forms fromClass IV.

sol- from *skl- zero-grade dropping k between consonants.

4. 63. The verb 'to be'.

Present

IND.

S r. bim, bin2. bist, bis3. ist

P r. birum, birunz. birut3. sint

Inf. (not in very oldest OHG) sin.

SUBJ.

sisis(t)sisim, sinsitsin

These forms have occasional alternatives fromwdsan(4. 54),which supplies the remaining forms.

vERBs 6S

This and the succeeding verbs (+.6+, 69 were athematic -trrJ(cf. Latin szm) as opposed to thematic -6 verbs; the -m from*-ml has been extended to the originally thematic weak verbsin -6n and -En.

IE and pr.Gc forms of the present indicative wereS r. *esrni, xizrni (Go im, ON em (with e- from er- of pl.),

OHG and OS (bium' cf. OE eom) from contaminationwith *bheu- (Latin fu-).

z. *essl (Latin es), *isi (Go is, ON est, OHG and OS(bis(t)) as S r).

3. *esti (Latin est), xisti (Go ist, OS is(t), ON ess later er).P 3. *senti, ttsintli (OS r z 3 sind(un), OE r z 3 sind(on),

beside Go 3 s{un' ON 3 ero (*-{rt, and 3. 32)).

4.64.The verb tuon, ' to do' .

IND. TATIAN OTFRID

duan ttonduas(t), duis(t) t0ostduat, duit tffotduen tfi(o)enduet t0ontduent, duant ,,

S r. tuon2. tuos(t), tiiis

3. tuotP r. tuomEs, tuon

z. tuot

3. tuont

suBJ.

S r, 3. tuo (tuoe,tuoa, tue)

z. tiEsP r .

2. tuot

3. tuon

IMPER.

S z. tuomesP r. tuom6s

2. tuotINF. tuonPART. tuonti5486

due

duestduen

duaduemEsduet, duatduan

F

NOTKER

tO(o)e

t0(o)esttfl(o)entt(o)enttO(o)en

tiio

tffonttfion, tffentfionde, tfiende

6 6 A c c I D E N c E

The preterite is inflected like a strong verb of Class V, exceptthat the r and 3 sing. have the form t€ta (OS also rest of pret.also dEdos, &c.), e.g. tetun, tiiti; the p.p. is git6n.

While the pret. pl. -d- beside sing. original reduplicating -e-

(Perfect, or Imperfect of Present (cf. OS dedos)) is by analogywith Class V verbs, the p.p. -e- (OS giddn beside gid6(e)n'gidiian) comes from the original E-grade as in noun tiit (3. r5).

4, 65. The verbs gdn (gEn), 'to go', and stdn (stEn), 'to

stand'.The strong verbs g,angan (4. 56) and stantan (4. 55), which

regularly form their preterites giang, stuont, have besidethese shorter present forms. The Alemannic dialect has theforms $iin, stdn, while Bavarian and Franconian have mostlythe forms gEn, st6n.

TND.

S r. gdm, gdn gem, g6nz. ges(t) gEs(t)

3. get g6tP r. gdmEs, giin g€mEs, g6n

z. gAt

3. gent

suBJ.

gegcs(t)g686ngEtgen

gEt

$Ent

IMPER.

S z. [$ang]P r. gdm6s, gEmEs, g6n

2. get, g6t

The z S ind. is in Otfrid geist, steist, and the 3 S mostlygeit, steit.

While standan is an extended form (cf. Latin stat-uere) ofsten (IE *stEi-), gangan (IE *gh-, cf.3.z8a) and gdn(*ghE)are originally unconnected. Stdn has its 6 (beside d from IE *din pret. stuo-) from gdn; g6n and stEn their E from weak verbslike folg€n (cf. OS ful-gan, -gangan, ,to fulfil', besidefolgon?).

Inf. gdn, g6nPart. ginti, $,€nti

VERBS

4.66. The verb 'wil l ' .

Present

rND. SUBJ.

S r. willu (wille, willa) welle2. wili(s) we[Es(t)

3. wili(t) welleP r. wellemEs, wellen wellEm6s, wellEn

2. wellet wellEt

3. wellent well€nInf. wellen Pres. part. wellenti

Preterite

rND. suBI.

S r. wolta wolti, -i

The present forms which have the stem vowel e, haveo in Franconian by analogy with the preterite, thus inf.wollen, &c.

The present tense of this verb was originally an optative formof a -rni verb, used indicatively, cf. Go wiljau. To this wasformed a new subjunctive and a weak preterite; and the present'indicative', beginning with plural and S r, assimilated to regularverbs.

The -e- beside S willu (OS willi(u) ' wtli(s) or wilt' wil(i) 'williad, willien, willeandi beside welliu, welliad, wellian)may come from wellen, 'to choose', Go waljan (cf. OS waldabeside welda, wolda?), or i by analogy with strong Class III;-o- is probably by analogy with skolta (+. 6z).

67

V

SYNTAX (DESCRIPTIVE)

CesEs

5. l. The Nominative is used as in MHG, e.g. Fater unser(vocative) . . . si giheilagdt thin namo (stbject); tho gisaz ermuader bi einem brunnen; ob er arbeidi so- jung tholon mahti;thuruhwondta er stum; ungildndt ni bileip;6rst druhtin(complement) thii gimuato in himilom iohdh€r (cf. 5. 8) ; kindwarth lner faterlds ; ther blint hier betol6nti saz.

5. 2. The Accusative is used for the direct object, includingcognate e.g. sldf sldfan; werk wirken; sang singan; raubabirahanen, and internal, e.g. weindtathen bruader; thaz kindsie thar thd betdtun; er theso ddti zurnta; unsar brdttaSalThhaz gib uns hiutu; wihi narnun dinan; chlag€ta in sied#; including in impersonal expressions, e.g. al daz in lusta;mih e'sr wuntar; for objective complement, e.g. ih mih gotessrrnr nemnu; er saztaz widar heilaz; slnan stual er liazitalan; funti gangan sinan sun; den himil offanan sehan; derv'cZ suntigen weiz; dfi dine geista machdst poten; cf. Gothicso swtja frijans izwis briggip; for adverbial expressions of:quantity, e.g. luzil drank ih es thdr,luzil ih es rnohta joh gdrages gismakta; thd n1ttun sie nan ginuogi; hinterqudmun mEta('erschraken mehr'); sie sih zi sinen guatin thdh etheswazgtfuagtin; gib uns follon thtnes selbes lira; degree, e.g. ginuogziero; rnichil gimuati; al gilicho; respect, e.g. niowiht zidihemis; fleisg nist biderbi niowiht; manner, e.g. sdrio thiameina; gdnun; illun; maniga wisa; andrawis; spaceand time, e.g. alla faft; floug e/ sunnun pad, sterrdnostrdza, wega wolk6no; fuarun andara striza; (OS)gengun wegos endi waldos; shenkit allan then da{-; sih

C A S E S

inthabdta er zwEne daga; thaz man firiti eina wechiin;lag fiardon da| bigrabandr; betdta allo stunta ; alle daS,a-firisti gote thion6n; hinaht; eina wila . . . andera wila;thrittun stunt; allaz, &c. Double accusative: thaz ni hilu('hehle') ih thih; er lerta sie dtmuati i le-rtun sze inan einanruam; (OS) lerda thia liudi langsamana rdd; cf. Gothiclaisida ins in gajuhom manag (note not noun) ('he taught themmany a thing in parables').

5. 3. The Genitive is used possessively, e.g. stimma ruafentesin wuastinnu; truhtenis ist diu erda; theiz allaz sines faterzaas; subjectively, e.g. thes widarweften fdra ('temptationby the devil'); of identity, e.g. daz sines lichamen Zz1; dessteines burdin; (OS) kuninSes namo; qualitatively, e.g.guotero slahta man; commaa adales; ein ediles man; wtberwirdigero tdti1, sint tie Liute danne so ganzes sinnes; ofappertaining, e.g. hwelihhes cnuosles dfi sis; partitively,e.g. evangeliilno deil; mdra tolaheiti; Iides zwei mez;stucchiu brdtes; sinero degano filu; hinuoh hilfa; deroslahet ir sume; similarly with numerals (and cf. 5. rz) e.g.tndndd,o fiari; sumaro endi wintro sehstic; also as partitiveobject, e.g. shankta sinan fianton ("f. S. +) bitteres lides;bringan thero fisgo; sie(cf.5. z) thes btdtesgiward; objec-tively in general, e.g. alles kazualt; darba fatetes mines;sluzzila himiles; of exclamation, e.g. s6 zt€ hin hio theslibes!; depending on adjective (more widespread than inMHG), e.g. (objective) gomrnanes zuis; thil ni bist es zoei;ferahes frdtdro ('more experienced of life'); (respect) sie sintgotes worto fliz;g fiIu harto; alt jdro; sumdr biscof namenZacharias; tie imo des newaren geuolgig; (ablative) arbeo laosa('deprived of heritage'); (causal) sines wortesy'o-; of measure,e.g. zueio elndn lang alde breit; of manner generally (.f. 5. 5),e.g. heimwartes; thes thritten dages; elilentes ('abroad')

fuor in oerra lantscaf; thes ganges sie iltun; eines blickes;

69

7rf'

7o SYNTAX

mines dankes; thus gradating into adverbs, e.g. sewara segeloafan waldes ode weges ode heido; in €wun sinro thenkensal dages inde nahtes; winteres . . . sumeres; alles; in-cluding from adjectives, e.g. sdsd mir anderes giburidi;rehtes ; niuwes; tagoliches; and causally, e.g. chilmig bin ihiaro ju filu manegero ; u)urtun tdte man queke sines wortes ;thera ferti er ward irmuait; hintarquam er harto thero selberoworto; wuntoldta dero worto; tddes sterbanl gradatinginto secondary object, e.g. waz quidis thfi es?; in des biten;thes wdges er sie wista; (cf. 5. z) des est mih wuntar; nfr dihes lustit.

It is thus used regularly with particular types of verbs (cf.MHG $ ror, vii), e.g. (separation) furldz xtns unsara sculdi;ldsen; biroubdn; (need) thurfan; intberan; mangaldn;gibristit imo des g,isiunes ('he lacks sight'); (partitive) cordn('to taste, test'), costdn (also acc.); hordn wolta sin Got;walten, &c.: so brfihhe er es lango; huoten Ewo; (aim) ilen;gdhen; gerdn; fragEn; beitdn ('to await'); ihten (,to per-secute') ; zilot iuet ; sin quemantes bitan; (mental) denken;dingen ('to hope'); huggen; suorgen ('to take thought for');zwifaldn; rehtes sie githahtun; wdnit sih kindda; (communi-cation) jehan ('to say'); bijehan ('to confess'), also acc.;(fur)lougnen; (emotion) lachen, klagdn.

5.4. The Dative is used for the indirect object, e.g. sd ztirfurldzamds unsarEn sculdigdn; giwalt gab rnannurn; datsagdtun laai; garwen truhtine thuruhthigan folc; of. motion,e.g. boton quement mlne thir; nu willih thaz rnft folgo.-z; (OS)irn gigangan; wi irn folgddun; for the sole object of certainverbs (cf. furldzan above and with acc. dese solihhe farlaz-zante saar dei iro sezl willoom eiganeem farlazzante), e.g.helfan; fluohhen; Sod.e thancodun; dher gerno gode dhionot;(OS) gode thiondda; (OS) ne williad rro drohtine hdrian(btfihElag word hdrian); dativus commodi or incommodi, e.g.

C A S E S

her imos (cf..5. :); iu scal slnheil; zod demo inoizstri; includingwith another dative, e.g. th6n wortun rll,ir giloubi; ginad1t eruns thEn sElon; with impersonal, e.g. chiliihheda iru in imztmineru s6ulu; ethic, e.g. scein uns der sterro; also dir tetpanttela; and cf. 5. rz; with nominal expressions, e.g. ther indrost was; gradating into equivalent of genitive: (OS) wdrunimu friund; ni ward in sun (cf. Gothic ni was irn barne);themo namo u)as Joseph; dd wart demo Balderes volon s1nvuoz hirenhit; ni ist in hihuttin himilskin gote; with certainadjectives, e.g, chid was her chonnEm mannum liutenkelop; OS gilik drohtine; adverbially for time, place, man-ner, e.g. eineru stunthwilu; ju rnanagerw ziti; sario thEnstuntdn; dritten tage; morgane; ther gotes wizzodekleib; dE habEs hdrne herron gdten; allEn halb6n; selb6nthesEn worton; vollen guot; einazzEn; luzig€m; smalih-hEm; offenlihin; thus absolutely with participles, e.g.iifganganteru sunnun; tougalo gihalot6n magin ('themagi having been summoned secretly'); bin gote helphantethero arabeito zi ente; bislozanEn thinen turin; ce himele

fuor, sindn iungerEn ana sehentEn; selbemu g,otes sunequhedhendemu; gisantEn sinen herin; gibuntan6nsinEn fuozin inti hentin; and of comparison, e.g. thesEnmdr; hlittrdr liohte; wizero snEwe; bezzer sint dine spunnedemo wine; waz ist hugelichera unde minnesamera wine?ibeziron theru iuweru guati; cf. Gothic swinpoza mis('mightier than I').

5. 5. The Instrumental or Dative is used for instrument ormeans, e.g. swertu hauwan; lambes giskirmler bluote; (OS)ddpte Krist handun sinun; ztili mih dinu speru werpan;cheisuringu gitan; cf. OS wordun wehslan; hordtn imuwordu; cause, e.g. hungiru irsterban; (OS) wundun $oh,wApnum wwnd; accompanying circumstance, e.g. (OS)listiun talde; (OS) hreopun hltidero stemnun, stridiun geag

tS Y N T A X

(cf. tholoda githuldion); hltittru muatu singit; fuarunsEragemo muate; liutif.Eherno muate; respect, e.g. (OS)wordun wts,handungibundan; thus measure with compara_tives, e.g. liuzelu minnerun; michilu menigiron; (OS) sehsnahtun e7, mikilu betara, suliku swlsor; diu mi-r; thi wirsi:(des) diu Daz; desde drahor; (in demonstrative pronoun) ascorrelative of causal conjunction, diu daz, diuztanta(cf . 5. 3g);(also confined to demonstrative) diu gilih (and, cf. 5. 6).

- - -

The construction with mit (or other prepositions, cf. 5. 6)and Instrumental or Dative that finally altogether ,rrppl".rt"ithe instrumental expression without preposition, is found fromthe earliest, e.g. mit eetu, mit dinEm wortum; bretdn mitsinu billiu.

The distinct instrumental case is formed only from nouns(cf. 4. r) signifying tools, parts of the body, weapons, material,abstracts (not from animates, cf. the possibly agential dativefatere giboran), and is not used with individuating quali_fiers (exceptions occur hke mit diu lrriru), e.g. mit drostu,mit tlnerno droste, mit scazzu, mit rnihhilerno scazze, mitezzichu, mit bittererno tide (theheino rnezzo is an appa_rent exception). It is formed from adjectives and p.orro,rr,,usually only in the substantival neuter, but there

"r" "*..p_tions (some among examples above), e.g. mit sinu nide.

5. 6. Prepositions governAccusative: iino, duruh, furi, suntar, umbi. unz

(an).Dative: aba, az,6r, gegin, oba,iz (izze),izzat.Dative or Instrumental: fona, ndh.Dative, and pronominal Instrumental diu wiu: after.

zuo.Accusative and Genitive: inne.Accusative and Dative: fora, hintar, obar or ubar, iiffan,

untar. widar.

cAsEs 73

Accusative and Dative or fnstrumental: ana(n), bi, in.Accusative, Dative, and Genitive: innan, ttzzan.Instrumental or Dative and Accusative: mit.Some pronouns present other peculiarities: government of

different cases, e.g. after des, dno sin; use with prepositionsof the demonstrative (and relative) and interrogative adverbsddr, wdr, danndn, &c.

An ;nc r r vns

5. 7 . The weak adjective is used after the definite article, e.g.thia dzgalichfi'n zuhti; der rnahtigo khuninc; thie h6hunaltfatera; daz luzzela , . . daz michela; and after the pro-noun dese, e.g. diz guota barn; but is also found withoutthese preceding, both as substantivized adjective, e.g. neri-ento, almahtiso; oh the indun unchilaubun Iudeo liudi;and qualifying noun, e.g. himiliskin (cf. 5. rc) gote; engil gotesguato;/oz himilisgen liohte (all these containing a definitemeaning); unser tdgelicha brot; including in vocative use,e.g. truhtin guoto ; cot almahtigo.

5. 8. The strong adjective is used with no qualifier preceding,e.g. iudiisg6r man; ez sdligeru ziti; fonll.eidinemo wibe;including vocative, e.g. heil magad zieri, thiarna so- sc6ni;after ein and the possessives, e.g. ein tiurlih marigreoz; un-sere? sculdi$En; unsar brdt tagallhb:az1' broot unserazernezzigaz; and substantivally, e.g. gab atmEr joh ther rtchoantu:urti gilicho; der ddr arteillan scal totEn enti quekkhEn;

blinte gisehent, halze gangenl; snel indi kuoni, thaz was imogehunni; atd in mir armeru ; zzs firddn6m ; but is also foundafter the definite article, e.g. thes christanes folches, thenfronisgan zt:ln (beside then guaton win), thero scdnerov,torto, dea kahdnte.

The 'inflected' or pronominal forms of the nominativeand accusative (4. r8-I9) are found predicatively as well as

74 SYNTAX

attributively (attributively they are more usual (with the excep-tion of NAPN) after the noun than before it (cf. 5. g+), e.g. gi-wellh buohhdri gilErtEr in rihhe himilo), e.g. thn lichamo 'ist iufhl6r; thaz wig thaz zsf sahebigaz; wdrun steininiu thiufaz;enf,Er wec ist; thd anrd ther fater alttu gotes wihi irfult$r;

fon in ward ouh libotaniu sin muater; dia fianta v'zf bifangu-l6te; sie wurtun sldlentefona mgilon gimanbte; deakaladilteutdrun; er fand inan tdta;n; thdr findist inan eizaltan; (OS)quidi wndad wdra; usurdun gidgida; weros tind kumane;fand ie sldpan sotSandie; hie habit sia farfarana; and thenominal forms of the SN (and Neut. A) are found attribu-tively, e.g. prooth unseer emezzihic; blint man; eogawelihsctiba galdrit in rlhhe hirnilo; as well as predicatively, e.g. altwas siu jdro; thiz was szs gibdri; but the AS and NAp onlypredicatively, e.g. er fand inan tdt; khenfun sint sd kreftic;thie ziti. sint sd heilag; thfr findist fiol then salmon fon thes*nthingon; (OS) findis thil lisund (beside eisundan) magu-jungan tnan. The present participle, however, is found in itsuninflected form (cf. 4.4) not only in both numbers of thenom., e.g. inan ni findanti fuorun widar, but in the DativeAbsolute ("f. 5. +), e.g. twdla tuonti themo brfitigomen.

5. 9. Most indefinite pronouns are always declined strong(+. +6); the comparative and superlative always weak (4. 25,z6), e.g. thrt bezzisto Theophile; Adam was manno Eristo; azoard altero; er mir liobdsto was; er lsl furisto; similarlyordinals, e.g. nu zsr thritto tagl er thrittiin stunt nan gruaztaG.lz, z6).

Ein strong (+. :t) has uninflected forms preceding noun,with andar, or with genitive, e.g. thero gomono ein; inflectedwhen alone, e.g. sag€n ih thir einaz (also ih sagin thir ein),preceded by genitive plural of a personal pronoun, or correla-tive with ander6r, e.g. einEr bno den stuol ze Romo under-gieng unde alla ltaliam, ander6r ndJtor imo Greciam begreif.

ADJECTTVES

Ein : 'alone' is weak (+. ::), e.g. steig in bug eino betdn (butalso wer mag furldzan suntd noba ein gol?); *non muot'in;wanona sculun Francon einon thaz bhpankdn.

Al is always strong, most often uninflected, or al in all casesbefore der; e.g. elliu aseroltl thisu worolt ella; all(az) daz

tuoni al daz in lusta.Selb has all forms, e.g. selb druhtines; selbEr ther diufal;

selbo druhtln; des birit rr ez selbun archundun. In Otfrid it is

mostly weak, in Notker mostly strong.

PnoNouws

5. 10. TheDefinite Article (4.4r), originally a demonstrative,

indicates something already referred to, e.g. surniu fielun in

thorna, tho wohsun thie thorna; thahta, wekh wari thaz wola'

Eteti ('she wondered what this greeting might mean'); gradat-

ing into generally definite, e.g. brah inti ziteilta sinen iungiron,

thie iungiron thd thiln manigin; joh htnd.tun ouh th6 mdri thazq ther kuning wdri; sdr sd ih diu sEla in den ind arher.]it enti

sr den Trhhamun likkan lazzit; (OS) an therrr hi.milo rikea;

including with substantivized adjective, e.g' thio tumbun thEn

spahon Etddun; or generic, e.g. denne det man in pardiru pii

hfuiinnit. Definiteness may be expressed without the article,

e.g. sunna ni skinit; huob er S,undfanon frf; ddr scal denne

hant Erehhaa, houpit sagen. Thus with proper names, e.g.

Ktist guatEr, and similar nouns (having pronominal accusa-

tive, 4. 2d), e.g. holdda inan truhtin; ni ist in kihuctin himili-

skin gote; and usually with prepositions, e.g. in etdu, ufi'n

himile, fiz lante, zi holza, in henti, zi h:etzen; tumbo saz

inbetge. Usage varies with noun qualified by noun in genitive,

e.C. @er) boto gotes; mannes sun habet giztsalt in erdu (cf. above)

zi furldzzene suntd; or by possessive pronoun' e.g. (der) fatertnin, or by adjective, e.g. saasat chind ; hwitte scilti ther ira

sun guatdr.

7S

r76 S Y N T A X

5. 11. The Indefinite Article (4. 46) gradates from its originalsense of oze, including translating Latin unus, e.g. hier zsl einkneht (puer unus) ther habet fimf leiba; fundanemo thanneeinemo (una) diuremo merigrioze; ein6r (unus) fon sinen iun_girdn; sd quimit ein heri fona himilzungalon, daz andar fonapehhe; through 'a certain', e.g. sie . , . sterron einansdhun;einan kuning weiz ih, heizit her Hludowig; in dagon eineshuninges was ein iwarto; and .a case of', e.g. thi mohtis einanruam joh ein g{uari mir giduan; (plural:) uaptun thdr thie liutieino briltloufti (cf. eino ziti, in einEn buachon); abacus zsl eindescriptio, daz chit ein bilde; to,some', ,any', e.g. ein bilde aneinemo brete alde an einero pagina; philosophi habe-ton einbret fore in, daz sie hiezen mensam; this last use is fully developedin Notker (though in OS the Heliand already has it). The in_definite article is often omitted (cf. 5. ro), ,.g. quo*boto fonagote; daz ist reht firinlih ding; especially with internal object(Notker always, Otfrid sometimes), e.g. gibirit sun; regularlyin the plural, e.g. dat sagetun mt sEolid.ante; and particularlyin the 'any' sense, e.g. thie thdr (S. tS) gisihit wib; gilih iarihhi himilo (S. ro) tresewe giborganemo in accare; so mang,uatemo scal, sd muater kindeline duat; with abstractnouns, e.g. $ habeta gilouba filufesta (,she had a very firmfaith'); with negatives, e.g. nist tn n, thaz gumisgi al'gizeile('there is not a man that could count the whole human iace');with words like s6, sus, e.g. dat (5. 3z) zoas s6 friuntlao, *u,('he was so friendless a man'); and with prepositions, e.g.steig thdrn skifelin.

fn the more definite senses (,a certain', .one' and ,other') isfound sum, usually uninflected (contrast Gothic sums, 5. r4),e.g. sum man habetu zztsdne suni; sum sr4s lugindri, sumskachdri; but inflected in sumEr Descd

5. 12. The personal pronouns, when subject apart from im_personal 3 S, e.g. mih hungirit, dih es lustit, brast thes

P R O N O U N S

ufines, watd tho (cf.. sdz regendt, sd ndzzent ti bouma, sd iz wdt,s6 wagdt iz; in sinen dagon was iz fram; iz mohta il)esan setctazit), are usually expressed, e.g. dat gafregin ih; ik gih1rta datseggen; was iz ouh giwdro gotes driit; at least the first time in thesentence, e.g. thifundi huldi mit gote, s€no nrt inphdhis in reoeinti gibiris sun; cf. her th6 arstantenti skumo fora in nam thazthar(5. 15) her analagi but, whether as survival of IE usageor as imitation of Latin, are often omitted (more frequently inTatian than in Isidore), e.g. pifilhu min herza; thdl fundistinan gizaltan; utio ddti sd bi then win?; sprichist, thaz (5.r5) zi scalt. They are regularly omitted in imperative, e.g.faramEs, but may be inserted for emphasis, e.g. heil zos tht'

especially with negative, e.g. ni forhti thrD thir. They are alsofound pleonastically (or for emphasis) with nominal subject,e.g. Lazarus er was iro ein (5. tt); selbo Moyses et quidit, asis der, e.g. thie morganlihho tag ther bisuorget ih selbo;Agamemnon,det irrah an dero zestdrdo Troiae.. . . Der is found

elsewhere for er, e.g. der hapet in ruoau rah1no ttehha; fun-danemo . . . einemo diuremo merigrioze . . . coufta then.

Reflexive pronouns (+. :8, 39) gradate to pleonastic and

ethic dative use, e.g. siln druabte thes muates; ni miduh rnih

thcro worto; mannolih sin goume; sie sorgent ito thdre; zi hiun

er irno quenfin las; ik rni dE ddre wit (cf, Gothic miton sis);

er sah itmo thaz iamar; du bist dir aher Hun, ummet spdhEt.For r, 2 S reflexive genitive, Otfrid uses with selb the 'es

form of the possessive pronoun, e.g. thines selbes /e7a;

mines selben wisi; and so emphatic a S faru ia sines selb

gisihti.

5. 13. The indefinite personal Pronoun is man (cf. 4, 46),gradating from meaning of 'a man', e.g. wanta ir ni hdrta rnan

thaz, thaz io fon magadburti m;an giboran uturti; ddr rnan poah

pirgit; bitet inti iu gibit man. But the indefinite meaning is also

expressed by er (zi manne' with negativ€, . . . er), e.g, ni

78 SYNTAX

wctrd et io z1 tnanne ('there was not born any man'\, ri etgisehe annne . . . then druhttnes heilant; or by 3 P, e.g. dltazsdanne sie inan chisdhin dhoh sd chihubiclin.

5. 14. The following pronouns (ct. a.44-46) are followed bythe genitive, plural or neuter singular: welih, gilih, wiht,niwiht, iht, niht, waz, wet, weder, nohhein, dehein,nloman, e.g. albro lido welihc; rahhdno welihha; niallero rnanno welih; albro ubilo gihuelih; allero teilqgilih; chunno Silih;az; ist thdr wiht so- sarphes odo iawihtouh sd gelphes; zs, iaman hiar in lante es iawiht thoh

fastante?; ni habe-s, quad si, fro min, fazzes wiht .g, thiu herain, . . ? ; hwer fin fater utdri fireo ; waz ist libeldses. . . ? (cf.daz upiles; al daz tir lewdhtllches dsr); (OS) mannoni$En, hwat manno, hwederon sea thero ffieio tuomianweldin; cf. Gothic sums manne. So also corresponding ad-verbs, e.g. sd wdr sd er lantes giang; wanana lantes thuszi.

5. 15. The Relative Pronoun is sometimes omitted, e.g.then weg, sie faran scoltun; mit therno brunnen, thii nfr. gtlst;

funtun einan tnan, mit namon Simeon hiez; ein slahta natardno,heizit aipera; w€ demo (cf. below) in ztinstri scal sino ttiriniistfre-n; ih scal iu sagen imbot, gibdt ther himilisgo got.

The usual relative pronoun is der, with or without correlativedemonstrative der, e.g. der fi doh nu argdsto dstarliuto det dirnfr wiges warne; ter detno dimot, tet ist follrtn ori; then tag, inthemo thise vterdent; birit dar durih den drdchen d6r irouiret; o sponse, den ih mit allcn chreften minno; ih bin Gabriel,thie azstantu fora gote; thaz may be used for other genders,e.g. nist man, thaz gumisgi al gizelle. The antecedent may benot expressed, e.g. tho quaman 6stana in thaz ldnt thie hkantunvinnun fart; niuse dE mdtti ('try who may'); gode thancodunthd sin beidddun; sprihhist, thaz ri scalt; tho anrd thar irfullitthaz forasago singit; tuont daz ie ni muozun tuon; unde daz

PRONOUNS 79

ouh wirsqa was ; cf.. Gothrc wcit atta izanr pizei jus pairb,up,and contrast (as well a-s waz in 5. 16) (OS) hie it gilruggion nimuot, thes hie Utharf. Or one word may combine form ofrelative and case of antecedent ('attraction of relative') withor without antecendent separately expressed (cases above likeer rihtit t\az in worolt ist could be regarded as a special caseof this), e.g. thia gilouba . . .lAz dft themo iz lisit thm; allesdes ih io nissagrahl des wazares des man gisdhe; deracalaupa, dera ir in herzin cahuctliho hapEn sculut; allerominno sunteno thero ih gi.ddhda; denne anrit er ze detumahalsteti deru ddr kitnarchdt ist; mit wortun then er tbiealtun torasagon zaltun', cf. Gothic fua aileip ei taujau pam-

nei q;pip piudan Iutlaie?Relative adoerbs of place (cf. 5. 38) are used with or without

preposition (cf. 5. 6), e.g. daz leitit sia sar, dat iru leid wirdit;dero burg io, danndn du burtig pist; (OS) te them knuosle,thanan hie ans; (OS) fuor hie thdr hie wolda; bfrohchameratat tt gerno inne sdze; er uondn magede libe menncsgen lih-haminfinc, ddt er unsih mite l6sta.

The adverb ddr (dar, der) is found together with the rela-tive pronoun, e.g. tninm wortun, thiu thar Sfultu arcrdentlther ther thanne thi.ob was; geizzo corter ('a herd of goats') dazder gat iifre demo berge Galaad; der dir skephan ist himilis;ther thir Heinih ni gerade; (OS) buotta thern thar blindawdrun; and forming a relative expression with a personalpronoun, especially z S, e.g. fater unser, thu thar bist inhinilc; wir dar nihhil teil birun; ih tir €r tita frokhhiu sdng;the personal pronoun alone is also used as relative, e.g. fateruttrer, thv in himilnn bist; cot almahtico, dn himil inti erdagaanrahtds; heil thil krist, tha therero liuto kuning bist; ErahThonas, er ein thero einlifo was.

Another relative expression, especially in Otfrid and in OS,is the particle the for all parts of the pronoun, e.g. thie wegaihtct olb the ze herzen iu gegangen; in berge, tbre er mo zei.nti;

8o SYNTAX

furi thie tble giloubenti sint; thih waltu (: thero); in douJe tlr'e(beside thiu) unih reindt; (OS) thena balhon the thil habes;(OS) thia the thdr gfulda indun; this is also combined withthe relative pronoun, e.g. Judas, nalles thetde hariothis heiz-a#; (OS) mannon sagdatherntll.e hie gihoran habda; cf. OSmanega wdron, the sia iro mdd gespon. The relative adverb ofmanner sd gradates into another pronoun-equivalent, e.g, pistalsd gialtat man, s6 dfr Awin inwit fuortds; ne teta er ze E-restnieht uber daz sd demo cheisere lieb was; thero giloubun sdso e/gisah; allaz s6 thir liub ist; (OS) allaro erlo gihwdm, s6 im

fruokno tuo ferahes dhtid; (OS) kuningduom, s-o ina thie hc'sur

caf.5. 16. The generalizing relative pronoun is (sd) wer s6 (wdrsd, &c.), e.g. (sd) hwer sd ztili gihaltan wesan; sd hwer sd

faruh forstilit; sdwdr sdse e/ wilit sachun sinu ce geuene;sduerse sachun simu thuruhe sdlichedi sdlu sineru . . . oersellanwikt; swer zuo ir beginnet oan, si machdt iz imo also ztunderlieb,

Without the relative adverb of manner sd (cf. 5. 15) theindefinite-interrogative pronoun is also used as relative, e.g.thaz er thaz gihdrti,waz druhtin thes giqudti; (OS) ze mag thatgitellean man,hwat thdr usard.

V n n s s

Tense

5. 17. Aktionsart and Tense. Aktionsart is the linguisticcategory expressing the temporal character of the action initself. The determinate Aktionsart indicates a specific terminusto the action, e.g. findan beside suohhen; this may be itsinception (ingressive), e.g. gistantan (which comes to mean'begin' in general (5, .Z), e.g. her fragen gistuont). All prefixedverbs are determinate, e.g. ni ist s6 listic man der ddr iowihtarliugan megi; thus almost any simple verb may be madedeterminate by the prefix gi-, e.g. sie g,isehente ('catching

VERBS 8 r

sight of') then sterron gifdhun; ipu sia daz Satanazses kisindikiwinnit (winnan, 'to struggle'). In certain verbal forms thedeterminate meaning is extended to one more associated withtense; but note that this is aol generalized into an obligatoryexpression of. perfectioe aspect (cf. 5. zz) as in the Slavoniclanguages. Thus in PP (S. :+), dependent infinitive (5. z7), andsubjunctive (5. +z); in preterite, Perfectic meaning (5. zo); inpresent, future meaning (5. t8); but in all except PP of mostverbs (5. 34) the unprefixed form also occurs (see examplesthere).

5. 18. The Present, besides being used for present time, e.g.(OS) $ sind nfr sd d.ruobia, and general time, e.g. ndt nimetten gezralt, (OS) thu bist lioht mikil, is found at least once forpast, Historic Present: thd ni was iz burolang, fand her thiaNorthman: Gode l6b sageda, her sihit thes her gerida; and oftenfor the future, e.g. Eksabeth $ibirit thir sun inti nernnis thfrsinan namon lohannem; ih itstdn after thiu; after dhiu sd dhrtsldfis (dormieris) mit dhinem faterum; quimit he gisund fi2,ih grldndn imoz; qaernent noh thio ziti; fon thir quimittuomo, ther tihtit min folc lvahel; luzzila stunta ni gisehet

ir mih; karisit denne, daz allero manno welih ih selpan desatirdicangatde (5. z5), cotes sun ze zt)esan; sd daz Eliases pluot inerdo kitriufit; sd hztanne so- (5. 16) dhi dhina daga afiullis(impleveris).

5. 19. The Future is also expressed by auxiliary verb withinfinitive, e.g. berga sculun swinan; daz hdrtih rahhdn . . . ,daz sculi der antichristo mit Eliase p6gan; sd denne der mahtigohhuninc daz mahal kipannit (5. t7, t8), ddra scal queman

chunno kilthaz; nfr scal mih swdsat chind swertuhauwan; indein Ewun sinro thenken sal dages inde nahtes; zft arwehhudhinan sdmun after dhir, dher wesan scal fona dhinem sunim;(OS) e? skrl iu seggean; wuo rnag daz sin?; wdr rrrugrunstir nfr. big,innan, mit koufu brdt Qiwinnan?; vtio rnet iz io

r

8z SYNTAX

werdan zttdr, thaz ih werde sanngar? ; andero werlte mvozzintir fressan habin; ih willu faran betdn nan; wil thii thaz richiitsezzen; er scal sinen drfrton thrdto Qimuntdn, then altanSatanasan wilit er gifdhan.

For expression of the Conditional see S. 44. (Preterite indi-cative of the 'future' auxiliaries is used only for 'future in thepast'(inasmuch as non-modal, cf. 5.2+).)

5.20. The Preterite, besides being used for simple past, e.g.ther hneht wdrlthho wuohs inti stran{Eta; (OS) giwEt imuan Galileo land; is used for perfect, e.g. e& gihdrta dat seggen;(OS) sa alde man sprdkun; or pluperfect, e.g. so- imo se dqchuning gap ('which the king had given him')i thiz zeichandeta druhtin hrist mennisgdn zi Erist sid er hera in worolt quamjoh mannes lichamonnarrr; tizzan er iz mit alamusanuhtrivie$i;thd sie lihdrtun then cuning, fuorun It is also used gnomically,i.e. for general statements, e.g. ungildndt zi bileip, dn goteswizzdde kleib ; io

-ahta thes guaten, ther thdr ubil was; and for

wishes, e.g. kesah in got, der ih kefi iro ze gesatdnfle; watdwola in thdn thingon.

5.21. The Ferfect is also expressed by auxiliary verb withpast participle, e.g. unseru liohtfa,s sint erlosganu; nfr ist erqueman herasun; min quena fram ist giSangan in ira tagun;(gradating from objective complement) phigboum habEta

Sipflanzdtan (arborem . . . plantatam); v'e eigun mir gino-manan lioban druhtin minan; er habEt uns lizeisdt; tfrhab6st tih selbo vertriben: nii habEt Uodalr.rch firloranirdno gilih; heigun (+. 6z) sa Northman harto biduungan;thdr sah si druhtin stantan joh hab6ta inanfantan; pidaz er inwerolt kiwerkdt hapEta; denne dn paldet dn kipuazzithabEt;OS: sind minatidi kumana; siawdtunkurnan; hiis ferahes habad farwerkot; habda sr'e ginerid; habda imhdlagna gest bifolhan1' that sea bihlidan €gun; habdun izrwidersakon gihaloden te helpu. It is found for preterite in

VERBS 8g

Otfrid for rhyme's sake, er habEt in thar gizaltan drdstmanagfaltan.

Notker has perfect infinitive (zigen si mih pesrmizzenhabEn) beside present for perfect (uter zwtaelot Romanos iuwesen allero richo lterren).

5. 22. Auxiliary verb with present participle is used to trans-late the corresponding construction, and others, in Latin, andmay be regarded as expressing an imperfective aspect (i.e. notmarking the action as completed), including the continuousmeaning of the corresponding English construction, e.g. l,rithwesan: thiu menigi was thes folkes fizze bet6nti; so- wdrunsie unz an enti thaz llb leitenti; joh was sih ldsenti theruzunghn gibenti; (engil) was sm beitdnti; was thaz folcbeitdnti; auh ist galihsam himilo rihhe demo suohhenti istguote marigreoza; was er liut beranti; (OS) thia tnuoder thesmendendia sind; fon anagenge worolti ist er ginAddnti;vyith werdan (cf. 5. z3): wirdist swigenti; thowatdmundsindr sdr sprechantEr ; wio er sehanti wurti; (OS) wurdunim is wangun blikandi; cf. Gothic was lohannes daupjands.

Voice

5. 23. The Passive, which in the Present Gothic expresses byinflection, e.g. prailfetus hauhistins haitaza ('thou shalt becalled prophet of the highest'), is expressed by the auxiliarieswesan or werdan w'ith PP (cf. Go qam Iesusjal daupips was

fram lohanne; sabbato in mans warp g,askapans). The ingres-sive meaning of werdan can develop into future meaning (cf.

5. r7), cf. thar wirdit wuoft inti clafunga zenio ('there will bewailing and gnashing of teeth'), (OS) lies wirOid sd faganman, and(5. zz) wirdistswigenti, e.g. denne wirdit urztar inwlcarhapan, cf. Go gaaiskwops wairpa('I shall be ashamed').From the ninth century werdan and wesan begin to havethe MHG meanings (MHG $ ro9), cf. Go pamelip ist ('it is

8+ SYNTAX

written'). E.g. si giheilagdt thin namo; sang was glisungan,atig was bigunnan; kepiotantes stimma tdtim si kefolgEt;(OS) nfr ist Krist giboran, Erodes was gikoran; din namowerde geh6ilig6t; gientdt werde ubarloubnissi; ddr derheligo Christ ana arhan{an ward; wdrun fragenti, wdr etgiboran wurti; (OS) werdad mina hendi Qibundan; wur-dun farworpan.

Passive infinitive is found, e.g. mugut e'r gitoufit wesan ; cf.Go shal sunus mans uskusans wairpan; but fona discoomkeban kerisit; ir gisehet umbi$eban fon here Hierusalern; cf..Go qemun pan motarjos daupjan; and mixed, bezzera vin-d,en mugun werthan.

Mood

5. 24. The Indicative is the mood of reality, including insubordinate clauses, e.g. sa- zoir furldzemCs unsaro-n sculdig1n;bithiu wanta Elisabeth was unberenti; ibu du mi Enan sagis, ikmi dE 6dre wEt; fliuhit er in then si, thdr giduit er imo wE.It may be used as in Latin with modal auxiliary verbs, e.g.se'e mohtun bringan mEra ('they could have (poterant) broughtmore').

5,25. The Subjunctive is used in main clauses (Present) forjussive (including first person imperative), will or wish, e.g.singEm; petd6m; duruch wach€Em; n[ frew€n szZ esalle; ni gileitEst unsih in costunga; queme thin rihhi; gise-gendt sis thfr untar utibun; wese mir after thinemo worte; themosi iamer heili; thin herza mir geloube; OS faran wil, witingil, diurida si drohtine!, wita kiosan!; (Preterite) unrealwishes (Latin utinam), e.g. wolti gor, hab€tin wir deheina;wolti got, erwundin dise zite (utinam redirent); (Present andPreterite) deliberative or dubitative questions, e.g. waz tuoienwirs (5.3) bruodera?; thu sus inan nfi l6z6s?; scolti er sinKrist guat€r?; (exclamatory) anr eo diz lahldtti! ; (Present and

VERBS 85

Preterite) hypothesis conditionally possible of fulfilment or(Preterite) hypothesis impossible of fulfilment, e.g. wAristth& hiar, ni tllrtrltin wir nE thesa quist; iz ne rnzhti niomananderro getuon; guot wdri imo, thaz giboran ni wdri ther man;sdse min sculd wdri ('as I should have done'); OS:. ef wigisaldin silubershatto ta6 hund samad, tweho wdri es noh than;nio it than te suliharu frumu ni watdi; w€st thi, that thfi giwaldhebbian zi mohtis; potential, e.g. ih wane, therEr fulle alla,thaz ih wille; thu mohtis ein gifuari mir giduan (beside maht,cf . 5. z 4) ; (O S ) z:.s wdri the s firiwit mikil t e ztit anne ; thfr rnallLtisman wesan thes the thdr sftd,

On Subjunctive in various types of complex sentences see

5. 40-50.

5.26. Examples of the Imperative are: arldsi unih fonaubile; heili thih selbon !; Biheili mih fon theru stuntut; giougi

thih themo biscofe! ; ouget mir thenmuniz thes zinzes!; fata-m6s; bittemEs; (conditional) stip nidar, wir gilouben thir sdr.

Non-Finite Verb Forms

5.27 . The Infinitive is used with auxiliary verbs (cf. 5. r9),e.g. atir wollemEs then heilant gisehan; bimidan thu niwollEs; hiar mag er lernEn; ai mohtun giheilan inan; nikan inan bimidan; (OS) skalt thfi libbian, (omitting in-finitive) gi an that fiur skulun ; and other verbs, e.g. ih meinodanchdn guotdn unde undanc}adn ubilin; (OS) inan nidarwerpan hogdun; expressing purpose with verbs of motion(Latin Supine), including (gi)stantan (5. t7), and wesan,e.g. si wdrun in thero burg, koufen iro ndtdurf; sttonden

{ro ding slifen; OS geng zuid iro kind spreken, fuotan thatbarn sehan, leng im gisittian, len$ furi is thiodan stdn,ine warvn weros wiggeo gomean; OS giw6t im faran(gangan), giwitun im si6on, sidodun gang,an; similarlyafter verbs of sending with (or without) object, e.g. ih santa

r

r86 syNTAX

iwih atndn (si santun zi Kriste ; kunden iro ser) ; andtransitiveverbs generally, e.g. aethici sint the unsih lErent haben rehtesire ; (OS) thi is bddon l6ras ; oba iz irloubit si in sambaztagzaola tvon odo ubilo; then fater hdrt er sptechan; dazhdrtih rahhdn dia weroltrehtwison; (OS) hie ina kumangisah, gihdrdun ina tellian; ih irkanta thia kraft faran

fona mir; (OS) fundun ina sittian; her wolta inan ginem-nitan wesan; (OS) thfi mahtis that hiis standan giduon,thuo bddan thia liudi that word wendian, bddun drohtinantliikan t hi a l4r a, th e s ik sia lEstian hEta ; ni liaz re gon6n ;(OS) that man ina gangan liet, ik giwaldan muot thikquihan ldtan; gradating into accusative and infinitive for in-direct speech as in Latin, e.g. nihhil gdtlth ist, daz der man denalmahtigun truhtin stnanfater \vesan quidit; nu quedetir rnih wesan; Mercurium saget kehiien ze philologia;bikndta e/z sia wesan mina ammfrn; er sih sagEt got sin; erchad sih finden sin herza; wiintun sih geist gisehan; (OS)thdr he thena man wissa goma thig{ean. It is also foundinstead of participle (5. zg), e.g. (OS) weros SanSan qudmun;swdgan quant engil.

5.28. The Infinitive as Substantive. Nominative or accusa-tive, e.g. minnon mEra ist thaz; d,az trinkan; daz firstan-tan; ld din menden sIn, ld din furhten sia. Genitive, e.g.gilusten weindnnes; tra$annes anst; fona minnu des ana-plasannes; ni gab si. . . thes ruaffennes stal; petrus sdrthes sindes swimmannes begonda ; (OS) ik giuhusweriannias,kussiannias. Dative, e.g. hweo ist in Salomone zi firstan-danne; forgip mir tiufl.an zi widarstantanne; ih habdngiwalt thih zi irhdhannei tDas giwon ther grazso zi forldz-zaflne; uns sint hint zi beranne daga furiJarane; habo ih zttze ougenne; ih tuon dir stata ze sprechanne; garo bin zifaranne; wedar ist 6dira zi quedanne . . odo zi que-danne . . .; ddira ist olbenthn thuruh loh ndtdfrn zi faranne;

VERBS 87

was ube imo ne tohta ze lebenne ; waz scal es sd zi frd$enne ;oba iz anrd zi fehtanne; senta er mih fon himile thiz selba thirzi sa$anne; si qudmun al zisamane thaz kindilin zi sehanne;giengut ir mit suerton inti mit stangon mih zi fdhanne; sleblyent sar zerthorrenne; ziu si iro frowun etewaz neliezeslafen, iro scdni ze behaltenne; za petdnne ist; nist zichilaubanne; mannes sun ist zi sellenne (tradendus est) inhant manno; ih haben thir sihztaz zi quedanne; thd sleih ther

fdrdri irfindan, wer er wdri, thaz zi irsuachenne ubar al; ingikmphit zoahsan, mih zi minnirdne; (OS) gisendid was terihtianne; fundos te faranne ; hA im bifalh te segseanne; hiekan te gethenkianne; us girisid gihzriltk re gifullianne;giwald habda te gitdgianne; garo te gebanne; fts tefaranne; thatis rnin te duonne.

5.29. The Present Participle is used predicatively (unin-flected, but also, like adjectives in general (5. 8), inflected, cf.examples in 5. zz and (OS) thar hie utissa hriohantondi, fandvZ sldpandia), e.g. betolonti izzen, dawaldnti liggen,forahtenti stantanl fuar druhtin bredigdnti; joh fuar erkundinti thaz; (OS) quam thar tuo lan{andi; also attribu-tively after noun (cf. 5. 34), with object in imitation of Latin,manfilu ezzenti. Where the predicative use is quasi-adverbial,an adverb formed from it in -o may be used instead, especiallytranslating Latin ablative gerund in -d, e.g. er fuar ilento;oh sie danne zellarrto (dicentes) quedant; inti unsih sehanto(videndo) hirihti; singento ode betento; wanta jil Er consulesin curru ritento ad curiam darfrfe sdzun,

5. 30. The Past Participle is also used predicatively (besidesin periphrastic verbal forms, cf. 5, zr, z3), e.g. giscriban

stdn; bitraban liggen; mit thAn er lag biwuntan; zuir sesehEn SenErdte ; (OS) humad gifaran. All verbs that have notalready an inseparable prefix take gi- (5. t7), except(usually) afew that are necessarily determinate in themselves: enili wardh

"'/tll

88 SYNTAx

wordan druhtines wort; iz dunhal eigun funtan; zudnechilninga ntirdendn ch6mene ; brdht ; troffan; and except in afew particular phrases, e.g. wuntane baugd; filu kepan (valdedata); preitit ward; and except original participles that havebecome independent adjectives: from preterite-presents, e.g.kund; from other simplex verbs, e.g. trunkan; in com-pounds, e.g. Eristboran.

5. 31. Negation is expressed by the adverb ni before theverb, alone, e.g. ni princ unsih in hhorunha; (OS) ni tharft thfistunt wesan; or with indefinite pronoun or adverb, e.g. niwdniu ih in lip habbe; er wiht es thoh ni westa; (OS) that siaim wedares giutin wiht ni andridin; (OS) ni was iu tperdeowiht; or some other general expression, e.g. neo danahalt; nio in altare ; or with other negatioe words, e.g. niomannist in thinemo cunne; sie ne quedent imo niowiht; noh poumnoh pereg ni z/ras; tm ne waltest neheinmanegi nieht; nales

forhta nihlein; rihtuorn ne ist dndereytio nleht hemeine; OS:ne ik gid mannes ne anrd aei; nek it dk god ni gesk6p; nolninig gumono ni skal; nia thana wih ni forle-t; ne ik thi ni deriuneowiht; ni slerea neoman; ni was im tweho ni$6n.

The adverb ni is found in subordinate clauses after verbs ofprevention, and in subordinate clauses without conjunctionG. SZ), gradating into use as conjunction itself (5. 38, 44), ".g.er mo firbdt thio ddti, thaz er ni suntdti; thaz man sih ni fir-swerie, thaz, wdn ih, zoizzdd werie; miniu ztsort thiu zlerrent, thazh sdr ni suenent; nist man nihein, ther queme zi themo fater,ih inan ni leite; nist ther in himihichi quetne, ther geist johwazzar nan nirbere; joh mcnnisgon alle, ther se iz ni untarfalle,al eigun si iro forahta; sd duan ih, ddt ni rette mir iz, al thaz thil,gibiudist; ni magin die biderbinoergin sih des nieht irzoergin si nimuozzin foleztaran zi des meis parm; ni frliaz in thn ndti nii imo folgeti; zt)anana sculun Francon einon thaz biwankdn,ni sie in frenhhgon biginnen, sie gotes l6b singen?; OS (usually

VERBS 89

with subjunctive after negative present): thd ni. was lang thethiu, ni it gilastid ward; ni mahta he- bimidan, ni hd sprak;nis thes tweho 6nig, ni sie fargelden; that eo ni bilihd, ni he thesI1n shuli antfdhan; gi biwardon ni mugun, ni gi awerdiat.

CoNcono

5. 32. Gender. Violation of grammatical gender concord by

natural gender concord is found, e.g. (OS) gisdhun that barnEnna standan; iogiwelth thie thdr gisihit wib sie zi gerdnne;thiz wib firworaht habet ira l7b, bifangan rst si . . . ;qudmun zi bisnidanne dzz kind' namtun inan Zachariarn;gieng in, thdr thaz magatin lag, inti fieng ira hant inti quad

iru; r'sr thiz kint iuer, ther blintEr zoard giborandr.

Neuter plural is used for different genders combined, e.g. siu(Zacharias and Elisabeth) wdrun rehtiu beidu, cf. Goanesunuh pan Sarzihta ba; (OS) th;iru g6dun tw6, Josep endiMaria, be iu; (OS) win endi brod wihide bEdiu. Apparent lack

of concord may be due to adjective, but not noun, followingLatin gender, e.g. mana$iu (multa) enti unertknitiu sintmino sunta. The identifying pronoun does not necessarilyagree in gender with the identified noun' e.g. (OS) sagde thathElit iro hErro was. Similar (but cf. also OS in 4. 25, z6) is

use of neuter comparative or superlative, e.g. thrt mo liabara

bist thanne al gifugiles; bist thil ni zi wdre furira Abrahame;

theist dages heizesta joh arabeito meista; manno liobdsta;

to-do wirsesta.

5. 33. Number. The identifying pronoun does not necessarily

agree in number with the noun, while the verb does with the

latter, e.g. thiz sint buah frdno; (OS) thit sind thie shuldi.

Similarly with a pronoun referring back, e.g. thd wdhsan thie

thorna, inti h$t}lrarrrfnrn iz. A verb may be singular with

singular subjects co-ordinated, e.g. $ab armEr joh ther icho

antrrurtigilicho; (OS) wanwind endizprter; or even with plural

f-si

90 SYNTAX

(neuter) subject, e.g. wuofit sih allu erdcunnu; (OS) themu is

be iu gidfian. A singular pronoun or adjective may refer to

plural noun or pronoun, e.g. alte joh junge, in thiu et tharazua

githinge, nietdt er ich libes; sd sint se alle ginit, thes usiges

gimenit, ther in thera ndti. thdr imo folg4ti; thoh sie sih westin

reinan (to rhyme with einan). Collective singulars may be

referred to as plural, e.g. liut sich in nintfuarit, ni sie in

thiondn; gisah rneni$i sturmenta inti wuofenta inti weindnte.

Wonn-Onorn

5. 34. The Noun is most often preceded by its adjective, but

for emphasis or in verse the adjective often follows, e.8. fanaltEn ztsizagdn; thia dfl{alicllrun zihti; thaz rninnisti deil;

hdrron SdtEn barn unwahsan; gfrdca timeinin; Kristguat6r; kuningin thia richlD'n; broot unseraz ernezzilaz.

Similar variation is found with personal pronoun, the com-

bination being preceded or not by der, e.g. thin narnoi narnothin; ntimo thiner , . .thinaz richi . .. thines selbes /era;

ther ira sun guat€r; thaz sin adalhunni; and with genitive, withor without the genitive article, e.g. (der) $otes Dolo, (det) botogotes; des hiises wirt;fon anagenge werolti; ze ende deto

werlte.

5. 35. Preverb, Preposition. Stressed preverbs are separablefrom the verb except when it is finite and final (5. :6), e.g.suohtun inan in zi tra$anne; min quena fram est gigangan

in ira tagun; dd quam des Adames sun und sluo$ /es tiufeles s-u.nzvo zeinero stfrdon; dea ubilun aoar wurphun iiz; thie ubil.oniizwurphun. Separable preverb gradates into postposed pre-position, e.g. ic dir ndch sihe, ic dir ndch sendi; s6 ih ia diu

ougon anz firliaz; der rihtuom einemo zuo slingit; ist in iowihtana; (OS) stdd ina zoerodumbi,ina dno.

5. 36. Position of the Verb. Normal position for the verb in a

main clause is the second place, with either subject or some

woRD-oRDER 9 r

other part (including interrogative words other than conjunc-tions (5. 5o)) preceding, e.g. dln riche chome, d.in willo

$esc6he . . .; dhazs kind was gerdndi fona muoter brustum;ich scal imu wesan infater stedi; gizt;ihit si namo thin; unsar brdttagalihhaz gib uns; ni unih firleiti in khorunha; unde inchdrunga ne IEitCst du ilnsih; taz urlub kab imo Zeno; s6chimen aber nordendn Langobardi; lo-t ist Hiltibrant; thdquam Herodes; zi gote rihta se iro muat; mit gEru scal mangeba infdhan; wela gisih.u ih in dinem hrustim; jd bin ih scalcthin; unde charn mir ougdn keht; wittu irmingot, quad Hilti-brant, obana ab heoane; sorg€n tnac diu sdla; pidiu scal imohelfan des hhniles kiwaltit. Final place occurs as survival inverse, and, even where not in Latin original, in prose beforeNotker, e.g. sunufatarungo iro saro rihtun; ik mi de 6dre wEt;

forn her dstar fiweit:. sid Ddtrthhe darbd gistuontun;;foaa

hreoe aer Lucifere ih dhih chibar (genui te). Initial place isemphatic, found in questions without interrogative word (cf.

5. 5o), with imperative with or without subject or jussive, &c.,subjunctive (5. z5), and in graphic narration, e.g. si thln willo;si giheilag1t thtn namo; (OS) gef fis dago gehutikhes rdd; wandher dd ar arme wuntane bauga; holdda inan truhtin; lietz herheidine man obar seo hdan: faar thd sancta Maria.

In subordinate clauses the verb may be found in any posi-tion, e.g. thil thdr bist in himile; sd zuir farldzettrEs unsarEnsculdigdn; ein bret . . . daz sie hiezen mensam; taz tu ne weiztnoh ne chanst cheden chuospinci; daz hdrtih rahhdn dia v,teroltreht wison, daz sculi der antichristo mit Ekase pdgani but thetendency is to position after two elements, including finalposition, e.g. fater unser, thu in himilom bist; (OS) al sd zoidthrum mannunx ddan; Er Antichristo richesdn begondi; dazElias in demo wige arwartit werde; sd daz Eliases pluot inerda kitriufit; ztsanta er ni hdrta man thaz io fon magadburtiman giboran wurti; dd ddr niwiht ni was (cf. dd was derei.no); sd ea regendt (cf. so- nazzent die bouma); si garo ze

92 SYNTAX

aergebenne daz luzzela alsd er welle daz imo vergeben werdedaz michela; bifiem wir, thaz sin namo'in ans rnannom werdhegiwlhit thuruh guodiu werc; peuitimate position is often found,in particular when the finite verb is part of a periphrastic formor otherwise accompanying non-finite part, e.g. thaz wir sinthiondnti ; dd manige liute . . . hara ubere bigondon varen ; so-harcr sd wdnit, dhazs izs in Salomone wdti al arfu.llit.

Thus the order in clauses generally may vary between theextremes of apparently conforming completely to ModernGerman usage, e.g. dd quam des tiufeles sun iif Adamesbruggen unde sciteta einen stein ce witel Petrus lesantaPaulurn sinen bruoder, daz er Aderfina dderon ferbunde; anddiversity like ahd artruknent, muor varswill;.it sih, suilizdtlougiu der himil, mdno valit, prinnit nittilagart, st€n nikistentit.

C l e u s r s

5. 37. Clauses may be in effect co-ordinated or subordinatedwithout conjunctions , e.g. qudmun fleogente, frdzun daz; spenismih mit dinem wortum, atili mih dinu speru werpan; eindr frdgEt,anderEr antztturtit; anrd th6 in themo ahtuden tage, qudmun zibisnidanne thaz hind; (OS) Johannes stdd, ddpte allan dag; ichweiz her imos ldndt; ni utdniu ih iu lib habbe; quad, himilrichindhti; stimma mdndt, quedEm ldb truhtine; (OS) qilan, hd is geldgerewedi. Thus conditional clauses with initial verb, e.g. niduas thfi sd, ldn ni habds thfi es nihein; wile du uizen annniindu burtig sist . . ,; quimit hi gisund iiz, ich gildndn imoz; (OSlw-ad it nil thin wilko, than ni zadri fis wiht s6 guod; (OS) wissinsia that, than ni. gidorstin sia; nist ther thia (jungistun zVQgizeino, ni si min fater eino; thfr alleswio ,ri ddi, ni si a/ sotrih thih bdti; OS; mid is, ni si that ima god helpafarlihe; bi futrtit mahti giwer an so-, ni weri that it gibod godes selbes wdri;ne wdri that it thi god fargdbi.

Expressions like ni si, and ni (5. 3t), gradate into conjunc-

CLAUSES 93

tions, as do correlated demonstratives like der and sd (cf.

5. r5), while new correlative expressions emerge, e.g. sd un-pililono enti sd irlicho sdsd d€ mgila in demo himile dlnanuillun arfullant, des tnezzes wir inan arfullan muozzin.

5. 38. Conjunctions. Co-ordinating: avar, but, again, d6,duo, but, for, doh, yet, but, aho, eddo (odhe, &c., OS efdo),or, eddo . . . eddo (OS also the), either . . . or, enti, and, ia(ouh), and, joh, also, eoen, and, noh, and not, oh (OS ak),but, yet, ouh, also, but, for, suntar, but, izzan, except that,unless, but, izzat, unless, but, izzotth, but, wanta, for.

Subordinating: danin, whence, wherefore (5. t5), danne,when, because, than(5. 43, 46, 47), danta,because(5.47), ddr,where(5. rS, 44), dara, athither (5. r5), daz,that (5. 4b43, 49),diu, the with comparatives (5. 47, 4r), after diu, ndh diu,after (5.43), bidiu, because (5.46), fone diu, therefore, in diu,when, if (5. +2, ++), innan diu, while (S. +:), rnit diu, athen,while (5.43), zi thiu, in order that (5.4r) (all of which may havedaz after diu), doh, although (S. +S), dd, duo, as, when, while

G.n, +7),6r (6), before (5. 43,44,47), ibu (oba, ube, OS ef,of),iJ,tthether (5.44, 5o), inu, nonne, num (5. 5o),ni,unless,that not (5. gt), niba, unless, except that, but (5.44), niwan,unless, except that (5.44), n[ (nu), num, numquid (5. 5o), sid,since, because (5. +5r 46), s6, as, as when, as soon as, so that(5. +2, 43,47), sama s6, just as (5. +j), sd . . . sd, a.s. . . ds,the . . . the (5. 47),suntar, but that(S. +8), unz, until (S. +S),izzan,unless(5.44), wanta, because(5.46), wedar. . . eddo,whether . . . or (5.5o), wio, as, as tthen (5. +il.

5.39. Mood and Tense in Subordinate Clauses. Mood insubordinate clauses depends on whether the reference is toreality or on the type of clause (5. 4o-5o), tense depends on thetense of the main clause; e.g. zi thiu thaz ir wizzit . . . thirquidu; in ldzze framgieng thaz her toihrouh branti; ihsentu, thaz ir irkiasEt; tiat er, wio er Abelan sluagi.

{ -

94 SYNTAX

Apparent exceptions are due to expression of further time

relations or to direct quotation, e.g. ni huti ztteih thir sa$6ti;

(OS) skerida im, that he ni mrahta sprehan, er than thi wir'

did hinit giboran; or in Otfrid to rhyme, e'g. $iduent see

lfrtmdri, thaz er io druhtin wdri; kundt er imo in droume, er

thes wibes zttola Soume,

5.40. Indirect Command has the transposition into subor-

dinate clause of the jussive subjunctive (5. z5), e.g. god mir

gibod thaz ih hier $ivuhti; Sanctus Paulus hehiez . . . t^z et

Er nechame, e, (5. lil . . .; butem zuir dhaz sin namoin mannom

werdhe giu;ihit; nemet gouma thaz ir ni sit thie bouma; OS:

hiet, that fruod gumo foroht ni wdri; gibdd, that git it hBtin

s6; kudda, that sie buottin; wisda, that see lEstin; ni gibu

ik that te rdde, that hE bi$inne; bddun, th^t ve mdstin;

thigida ina, that &ee muosti al6sian; ne welleo ih, th:at gi it

wiodon; thes willeon habad, that he flilEstea1' cf. (OS) 6wa

gibiudit, th^t thfr man ni slahl

5. 4l . Final (Purpose) Clauses have similar subjunctive, e.g.

brdhtun . ., thaz sie inan gote liantwurtin ; ddz -' . tfi - . . in n6t

prdht wlrdlst ; thaz ig iz cosan muozi ; daz er sin reht allaz

hirahhdn rnuozzi; solihhiu gisaraztti, diu dih skirmtin; OS:

harmskara, the im h\lag god, mahtig marcoda, that hE godes ni

forgiti; hwat skal ik dfran, an thiu tb'e ih hebanriki gehalon

mdti?; sie hietun im hwit giwddi umbi leggian, tllriu tnEt hie

wurdi them liudion te gamne; ne wdrun geuwno, that sie

gehdrdin; ik bium garo, that ik fasto $istande; gern ans he-,

that hi mdsti; wirdig is the ztturhteo,that man ina fddea; thea

gumon giward , that sie ina lihdbin; is betara, that hE wetpz;

liof is gihzlilihumu, that man ina aldte; znas im tharf mikil, thzt

ve Siho$din ; that is min te duonne, that ih mina fuoti sette;

ef thfr gikiosan wili, that man liwitkea; but indicative if the

f,rrpo* is stated as also an achieved result (cf. 5. 4z), e.g. OS:

ldddan ina ford, that ie an Abraharnes barm seola $isettun;

CLAUSES 95

gengun, that sie wid Krist sprikun; habad gimarhot, thzt u,tiskulun ; gikoran habda, that hd welda ; cf . gibodan habad, thatde wardos sind; verbs of admitting take subjunctive onlywhen they are in preterite, e.g. OS: im giwald fargaf, that siemdstin; im habde farliann, thLa/' he mohte; ni was im thiu

fruma gibidig, that sie mdstin.

5. 42. Result Clauses have subjunctive, especially after nega-tive, e.g. sd thaz . . . thaz einnisi in thrinisse zi €renne si; OS:ni was fimea sd gdd, that siu lang libbian m6sti; wit thesgighnan ni.mohtun, that ait erbiward e-gan rndstin; hwd magthat giwerdan so-, that ik magu fddie?; ni mahtun giwinnan,that ie farfeng,in; he ni mahta gibiddian, that man weldi ;god ni. giskuop, tlral the bdm b:afi; or indicative, e.g. OS:habda them herishipie herta gisterkid, that sia habdunbithutungana thiodo gihwiliha; atillik thi tdgean sulik tdkan, sdthfr an treuwa tnaht wesan an werolde; stuod €n man garo,that hie nami he habad maht, that hE aldtan rnag.

5. 43. Temporal Clauses have indicative after most conjunc-tions, subjunctive after Er when the main clause is not nega-tive, e.g. Er an himile stemon skin€n; OS: ztit habdun aldrestwentig wintro, Er than qudmi thit wif; thes sie ni mahtun

farstandan, Er it im Krist seggean welda; cf. OS: that jdr

furder shrid, und that that barnfiartighabda dago;bethat hEthea wurdi farsihid, than wdt hi; sd hE thma toirdk drd!,gruios qudmun im.

5.44. Conditional Clauses have both Moods, e.g. rihtuom,den manige hab€n ni mugun, ander€n ni arrne; in thiu thazet mig s6 sama duo; OS : ef thil nibist that barn godes, bist thfrthan Helias?; hil skulun wit libbian, ni hier ztind kurrrit?;hie ri mohrta sprekan, newan that hi wisda; the subjunc-tive is used when the condition (whether or not possible) isunreal (the apodosis may be indicative, e.g. (OS) wdh war6

f,

96 SYNTAX

thesaro vteroldi, ef. thil iro skoldis giwald' egan; (OS) welda'ina man gerno farldtan, thdr hie is habdi giwald; ot (cf . 5. z5)

ih rna! gizuinnan heriscaf, engilo giwelti, ob ih iz duan wolti),

e.g. ube er in uberwunde; ubi Christus Got ni wdri; OS : ef

it giwerdan muosti, than ne wurdi gi6 the dag kuman; libes

weldi ina bil1sian, of. hi rnahiti; thdr thfi mi nahor wdris,

than ni thorfti ih rulik harm tholon; an thiu the sea kbbian

weldin; or (unlike Gothic) after 'unless', e.g. nioman mag

queman zi mir, nibi thie fater ziohe inan; sd thaz winloub ni

mac beran zoahsmon, nibi,g wone in theru winrebun, sd lr, nibi

ir in mir wonilt; mo unsar €an tuomit siu man, nibi $ill.dte fonimo; OS: (cf. nisthi werd eoutiht te bimidanne, nebo thf imlun

that reht sprikis) it wesan ni mag, nebu eft tholoie; n:i was

im tuteno nigEn, neba sie weldin sidon.

5. 45. Concessive Clauses have usually subjunctive, e.g. dhoh

er in Cyres namin qtdti; iznan er iz mit alamusanu furivie$i;

OS: ne ldt thil ie thi thiu ledaron, thoh srlt ESi barn; ward

spraka bildid, thoh ha spdhan hugi bdri; but (OS) thohth i i . . . habes.

5.46. Causal Clauses have indicative, e.g. bi thiru,thazih

irdualta . . . scal ih iz mit willen. . .; OS : that was sd sdbg man,

hwand hie gerno gode thionoda; ik thi skal biddean, ni ik

sus gigamalod bium; sd (S. :Z) wit sd rnanagan dag wArunan thesaru werold:i, sd mi thes wundar thunkid.

5. 47. Comparative Clauses with 'than' in general have

Potential Subjunctive, but sometimes indicative after negative

main clause, e.g. gituost . . . kurziron tag dante d.iu naht si;

fuar $. . .ba2. . . thanne ther huning ddt i ; OS: th iuhabad

fidu miran, than thea man E$in; ni gisah €nig mhon minnia,tLran he tu them nlannuln $inam; thia man hangon ni lietun

lengeran hwi.la, than im that /y' skridi; betara is imu thnn

6dar, that hi thana ftiund farwerpa, than sre helligithaing bedea

CLAUSES 97

gisdkean i d mugun iuuta werh biholan werdan, than mEr tlclethiu burg ni rnzg, thiu an berge stdd, biholan werdan. Compari-sons of equality and clauses of manner have mood dependingon reality, e.g. OS : habda nc" gilistid, al sd r gigengi was;was im thi, al sd he- thritig habdi wintro; so deda the sunu, sdneo Judeon umbi that thiu mEr zi gildbdun; id humid the dag,sd it 6r these liudi ni witan.

5.48. Relative Clauses with superlative, and generic relativeclauses (5. r5, 16) in general, as also negative relative clauses,also have potential subjunctive, e.g. (OS) hdrdes mEst therothie gzb man elllti (beside (OS) allero /zdo lofsamost thero theik eo lisaln) ; ih wirdu bijihtig, thes (5. r 5) ih mrehte.s gisdhi ;swer (5. t6) dar-inne welle zimberdn; niuse dE mdtti; nist mannihein in znorolti, thaz saman a/ irsa$6ti . . .; nist boum ni-hein . .. suntar iu nan suente; OS : 6ast thi Enig thero thi hierEr wdri?; sd hwat sio ih thes gidida, thes zuithar mineruhristinh4di wdri; ni utas forlebid wiht, that shenkin druogin(beside ne ailliad thes farldtan zttiht, thes ve spenit).

5. 49. Indirect Speech has subjunctive, e.g. joh kundtun ouhtho tndri, thzz er ther hning wdri; quedant, dhaz noh Christni qwdtni; daz hdrtih rahh6n, daz sculi der antichristo mitEkase pdgan; OS:- quddun, that ie wissin; hiet shliban, thatthat w-ari huring Judeono; drund,i brdhta, that siu gisdwi; sumsagad, that thfi Elias sis; hie sagit, that hie drohtin si; sagda,that kuman skoli e? kuning; sagda, that hie weldi; ni weldunantkewtian, thzt he- god wdri; ni gildbdun, that hie alowaldowdri; afiniu ik, that thanan stankkarne; mt tlrunhid, that hiesi betara; gitruoda siu, that is waldandes barn helpan weldi;antrid,that ie biniimin; also indicative for facts, e.g. OS:seggiu ih iu, that gt ne tnugun fargeban; sagda, thzt barnhuning sokean welda; and with affirmative verbs of objectiveperception, e.g. OS:- gisdurun, that thandn bluod endi water

H

f-98 SYNTAX

sprung,un; farstdd, that hie hirron habdun; rlras that skin,that hi drohtin was; gihfidda, that hie habda hraft.

5. 50. Indirect Question has similar use of Moods, e.g. sihwio wit i si; sorgin mac diu s/-la, zi wederemo herre siugihalot werde ; er frag€n gistuont . . . wer sin fater wdri ; OS :fragodun, ef. he wdri that barn godes; anlda is muodsebanun-darfindan, hwat hie rnohti; bigan thenkean hwo he sie fot-lEti; gibod, hwdr s/e gangan skoldin; ztundrodun, bihwi hethorfti; hwat quedat these, bwat zft sil; hie it gihuggian nimdt, hwd hie liwirkie; habda gilEid, hw6 sre l6f tuirkeanskoldin; sagda, hwilik thero wdri; roolda shriban, hw6 seZskoldin frummian; hdrdun, hwd thiu engilo hraft ldbodun;ni forstodun, bi lrwi ie pisprak ; ztsit god, hwes thea bithur-bun; hfrddun, hwilik im thar bilidi watd gitagid; ni ztilliu ikhelan, hwat iu skal te sorgu gistandan; he gihugid, hwzt h€gifremida; skal le-rean,hwd sea skulun; mag seggian,hwdit giwerdan skal; giskriban u)as it, an bdkun giwritan, hw6giboden habad alomahtigfader; seggiu eA, hw6 eo gibiudit.

Direct questions may be introduced by the conjunctionsthat introduce indirect questions, funetioning as interrogativeadverbs, like Latin -ne, nuntr, nonne, with or without 'or',

e.g. enoni tuont tltaz heidane man? (nonne); inno trifet tihtero deheinez ana? (num); (OS) hweder lediad gt wundmzgold?; (OS) hweder thfi that fan thi selbon sprihis, the ;t thi6dra sagdun? (cf. (OS) is it reht, t}ae nis?).

VI

SPECIMEN OF OHG DIALECTSAND OTHER

OLD GERMANIC LANGUAGES

6. 1. East Franconian, ninth century, Tatian.

Fater unserl, thU2 ther3 bist+ in himiles, si6 giheilagdtz thinnamo8, quemee thin rihhito, si thin uuillotr, sdt2 herl3 in himileist, so si her in erdul4, unsarrs brdt tagalihhazr6 gibtT unshiuturs, intile furlez2o uns unsara2l sculdi2z, so uuir fur-ItrzemEs23 unsar€n24 sculdig6n25, inti ni gileitcst26 unsih2T incostunga, fizouh28 arldsizs unsih fonalo ubile.

r. 4.40, cf. nn. 14, 19.2. t l r - 3 .4r .3 . 5 . 1 5 .+. 4 .q .5. 4. z, 5. ro.6 . 4 . 6 3 , 9 . 2 5 .7 . 4 . 6 c .8. 4. rz; on order see 5. 36.g. +. 49 and 53, MHG $ 36, ii.

ro . 4 .3 .r r . See n . 8 ; uu 2 .3 .1 2 . 5 . 3 8 .4 . 4 .38c .14 . 4 .5 , 5 . ro .15. 4. +oa.16. 4, rg.17. +.49 and 54.18. From *hlu (cf. +. :8c) tagu, instrumental.19. 5. 38.

H 2

i

roo S P E C I M E N O F O H G D I A L E C T S

zo. 4.+g and 56; - rd- 3.27.2r . 4 .40 (and see n. 15) and 4. ry@f.4. za) .22. 4. ro,23. 4.+g and 56.24. 4.40 and 19.2 5 . 4 . 2 2 .26. Subjunctive, 4. 58, 5.z.5.2 7 . + . 3 8 -28. 5. 38.zg. 4. 58; a- 3.27.30. 5. 6.

6. 2. South Rhenish Franconian(a) eighth century, Weissenburg Catechism.

Fater unsEr, thu in himilomr bist2, giuuihitl si namo thin4,quaemes richi thin, uuerdhe6 uuilleoz thin, sama8 sd in himileendis in erthu. Broots unseraz emezzigaz gib uns hiutu, endifarldzro uns sculdhi unsero, sama so tuir farldzzemlo scol6munser6m, endi ni gileidi unsih in costunga, auhrl.arldsi unsihfona ubile.

r . + . 2 .2 ' 5 . 3 6 .3. uuih- vocabulary shared with Go, as opp. Tatian (6. r)

(and Notker (6. 5) and later German generally) heilag-shared with OE (and ON).

4 . 5 .34 .5 . 2 . 2 '6 ' 3 . 4 t .7 . 2 . 3 , 3 . 4 8 , 4 . 1 3 .8. s . :8 .9 . 3 . 4 3 .

r o . 3 , 2 7 , 4 . 4 9 .n . 5 . 2 6 .

S P E C I M E N O F O H G D I A L E C T S I o I

(D) ninth century, Otfrid (II. zt,v. z7-4o).

Fdterr unser gtrato2, bist dnlhtin thu gimfatoin himilom io h6her, uuih si n6mo thiner.

Biqudme uns thinaz richi, thaz hoha himilrichi,thdrar uuir zua io gingena ioh emmizigens thingen.

So uuillo thin hiar nidare, sos 6r ist ufin himile6.in 6rdu hilf uns hiare, so thu engilon duistT nu thrire.

Thia d6galichun8 zrlhti gib hiut uns mit ginrlhtiioh f6llon ouh, theiste m6ra, thinesro selbes lera.

Scrlld bilaz uns iillen, so uuir ouh duan uu6llen,srlnta thia uuir thdnken ioh 6mmizigen uuirken.

Ni firllzerr unsih thin uuira ir1 thes uuidaruuerten fdrar2,thaz uuir ni missig6ngen, thara dna ni gifiillen.

L6si unsih io thdnana, thaz uuir sin thine theganaioh mit ginddon thinen then uu6uuonre io bimiden. Amen.

r. Otfrid marks stressed vowels ', cf.. 6. 5.z . 5 . 7 ; - u a - 3 . 1 6 .

3 . 5 . 6 .4 . 4 . 5 8 .5 . 5 . 4 .6. 5. ro.7. +.6+.8 . s .z .9- 4 .+ r .

to . 5. rz .r t . 5 . 2 5 , 3 . 2 7 .1 2 . 5 . 3 -13. 4. 12.

6.3. Alemannic, eighth century, St. Gall.'

Fater unseer, thu pistr in himile, uuihi namun dinan, qhuemezrihhi din, uuerde uuillo diin, s6 in himile sdsa3 in erdu. Proothaunseer emezzihic kip uns hiutu, oblaz uns sculdi unseero, souuir oblezcm uns sculdik€m, enti ni unsih firleiti in khorunkas,itzzan6 kaneriz unsih fona allEm suntdn.

,\\-

I O 2 S P E C I M B N O F O H G D I A L E C T S

t - 3 .+3 .2 . 3 .+2 .3 . 5 .38 .4 . 2 . 2 .

5. 3.42 and 43.6. Ct .6. r , n . 26.

7 . 3 .27 .6. 4. Bavarian, ninth century, Freisingen.

Fater unser, du pist in himilum. Kauuihit si namo din.Piqhueme rihhi din. IJuesaI din uuillo, sama sd in himile ist,sama2 in erdu. Pilipi unsraz3 emizzigaz kip uns eogauuanna.t.Enti flAzs uns unsro6 sculdi, sama so uttir fldzzam€s unsrEmscol6m. Enti ni princ unsih in chorunka. Uzzan kaneri unsihfona allem suntdn.

r. See 6. r, n. 19.2 . 5 . 3 7 -3. +. 19-

4. eo (MHG ie) and S,awanna, cf. giwelih ^ +. +6.5 . 3 . 2 7 .6. 4.+o-

6. 5. Tenth to eleventh centuries, Notler, Bavarian.

Fdter unser dirl in himele bist, din nimo werde gehdiligot.Din richez chome3, din wlllo gescdhea in erdos, ils6 in himele.Unser tdgelicha6 brot kibz uns hiuto unde rinsere scrllde bellzrlns, dls6 duh wir bellzen unserdn scr1ldig6n8. Unde inch6runga ne liitdst du rlnsih. Nrlbe l6se 0nsih fdne ribele.

r. Notker marks stressed short vowels ', stressed and somcunstressed long ^,

diphthongs on first vowel (cf. z. z),closing ones (i.e. nnirower vowel last) and iu ', opening'.For the Anlautsgesetz see 3. 43.

2 . 3 . 2 3 .3 . 4 . 4 2 .4 . 3 .27 .

S P E C I M E N O F O H c D I A L E C T S r o 3

) . J . ) .

6. 4. zz, 5.7.7 . 3 .43 .8 . s .8 .

6.6. Old Saxon, ninth century, Heliand.

Fadarr iisa2, thu bist an thema himilo rikeaa. Geuuihid sithin namo. Cuma thin riki. Uuertha thin uuilleo, s6 sama anertho, so an them himilo rikea. Gefs os6 dagoz gehuuilikesss5de, endi aletro us managoro m€nsculdiorr, al s6 uu6r26thrumr3 mannum d6anr4. Ne lit us farledean l€tha uuihti, actshelp us uuithar allun ubilon dadiun.Ir

r . 3 . +r ,23.2 . 3 .49 ,4 ,4o .3. Alternative to tiemu ( 4.4t), u -m to -mu in adjectives

(4. r9);5. ro.4 ' 3 ' 4 2 , 4 8 ' 4 . 3 '5 . 3 . 5 r .6. s.+g.7 . + ,2 .8. +.+6.9. NHG Rat.

ro. a- : OHG ar-, with *-z- lost before consonant (as inWGc *mEda (f . 16), Go mizdo) after unstresscd vowel.

rr. 4. ro; m6n : O}lG mein, crime.r z . 4 .38 .13 ' 3 ' 49 ,4 ' 19 '14. Frisian form (cf.4.64).1 5 . 5 . 3 8 .

6.7. Gothic.

Attat unsar pu in himinam2, weihnai3 namo+ Fein. Qimaipiudinassuss peins6. Wairpaiz wiljas peins, swee in himina jahtoarnr I afrpu. Hlaif t2 unsara113t3 psnat{ sinteinan gif une himmats

'q-

T O 4 , S P E C I M E N O F O H G D I A L E C T S

daga. Jah aflet uns pateil6 skulanslT sijaimals, swaswere jahweiszo afletam Paimzt skulam unsaraim. Jah ni briggais22 unsin fraistubnjaiz3 ak24lausei2s uns af pamma ubilin26.

r. Go fadar occurs only once, in SN, cf. 4. 16.z. 4, z;differentsuffix (-n-) from German(-l-), cf. 6. 8, n. 5.

. 3. -n: inchoative suffix, Go 4th weak conjugation.

, . 4 . Neu te r ,4 .13 .

, S. 4. r r ; from piudans, hing, piuda, people, OHG diot-.. . 6 . 4 . 4 0 , 1 9 .

, 7 , 2 . 2 .8. : .ss .g. as, cf, s6, 5. 38.

ro. OHG joh, 5. 38.r r . 5 . 6 .

:' rz. brbad, OE hlef, OHG leib (S. So).13. 4. ry-OHG unsaran by 3.t9.r+- 4. +r-15 . 4 ,38c .16. -ei forms relative pronouns; thus : daz conjunction.17. +. 12.18. Regular subjunctive inflexion added to subjunctive

stem of *es- (cf. +. +9, q).r9 . C f . n :9 .z o . 4 . 3 8 .2 r . 4 . 4 r , 5 . 3 + .zz . 5 .25 ,4 . 58 .2 3 . + . 3 .24 . C f .6 .6 , n . r 5 .2 5 - + . 5 8 .26. 4. 13.

6..8. Old English." Fagdert trre3.dtr 6e3 earta.on.heofonums, si din narrragehalgod, Td becume din qice. Gewurde din willa on eorpanO

SPECIMEN OF OHG DIALECTS ros

swd swd on heofonum. UrneT daghwEmlican hlaf syle8 ustd dag. And forgyf us ure gyltaso, swi swii wE forgyfaploUrum gyltendum. And ne geltrd dtr Us on costnunga ac 6lls usof yfele.

r . 3 . r z .z. Possessive pronoun from GP iire beside tiser.

3. Cf. 5. 15.

4. a broken to ea before r; this z S and pl. :earon aieprobably from perfect of *er-, Latin orlor. '

5 .2.+ l : Go h imin wi th d iss imi lat ion of m, so OSheban beside himil (6. 7, n. z).e broken (n. 4) to eo.

4 . 1 9 -OHG sellen, OE also sellan.

4 . 2 .4 . 4 9 .

6. 9. Old Norse.

Fader vdrrr, sd pt ert i2 hifne, helgesk: nxf11+ pitts. Til komepitt rike. Verbe pinn6 vile, suii 57 iQr68 sem 6 hifne. Gef oss idag vdrt dagligt braud. Ok fyrerlnt osse ossar skulder, sud semvEr fyrerldtom ossom skuldo-nautom. Ok innro leid oss eige ifreistne. HeldrlI frels pu oss af illo.

r. New formation from F 6r (cf. z. +) < xunsard- (cf.ossar, ossom below, and n. 9), with v- from vEr.

2. < *in, with'compensatory' lengthening.

3. Middle voice, cf. 4. 47 (from suffixed -sik).

4. < -rnn-, cf. 6. 8, n. 5.5. ( -nt r c f . nn.2,9.6. < -nr.

J . 1*an, c f . n . a.8. e vUmlauted (2. $ to jg before *-u < *-d (+. S).9. < *uns, cf. n.5 (and n. r).

6 .

d .

9.ro.

F-

1 0 6 S P E C I M E N O F O H C D I A L E C T S

ro. OHG inne.rr. Go haldis' OHG halt' rcthor.

6. 10. The Latin Original.

Pater noster, qui es in caelis, sanctificetur nomen tuum.Adveniat regnum tuum. Fiat voluntas tua in caelo et in terram.Panem nostrum cottidianum da nobis hodie. Et remitte nobisdebita nostra, sicut et nos debitoribus nostris. Et ne nos in-ducas in temptationem, sed libera nos a malo.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHYr . O H G G R A M M A R S

Armitage, L., An fntroduction to the Study of Old High German,Oxford, r9 r r.

Braune, W., Althochdeutsche Gram.matik, siebente Auflage (bear-beitet von K. Helm), Halle, r95o.

z . O H G R E A D E R S

Barber, C., An Old High German Read.er, Oxford, r95r.Braune, W., Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, elfte Auflage (bear-

beitet von K. Helm), Halle, 1949.Jolivet, A., and Moss6, F., Manuel de l'allemand du moym 6ge,

Paris, 1942.

3 . H I S T O R Y O F G E R M A N

Kirk, A., An Introduction to the Historical Study of Neu HighGerman, Manchester, rgz3.

Priebsch, R., and Collinson, W., The Gernun Language, secondedition, London, 1946.

Walshe, M. O'C., An Etymological German Dictionary, London,I95 I .

Wright, J., A Middle High Germnn Primez, fourth edition revisedby M. O'C. Walshe, Oxford, rg5r.

a . O T H E R G E R M A N I C L A N G U A G E S

Gordon, E., An fntuoduction to Old Norse, Oxford, rgz7.Holthausen, F., Altsdcltsis ches Elementarbuch, Heidelberg, r 9z r.Sweet, H., An Anglo- S axon Reader, Oxford, r 9o8 ( r zth ed., r g5o).Wright, 1., An Elementary Old English Grarnmar, Oxford Gg4),

I 9 5 I .- Grammar of the Gothic Language, Oxford (r9ro), 1948.

5 . G E N E R A L G E R M A N I CHirt, H., Handbuch des Urgennanischen, Heidelberg, r93r-z

(z vols.).Loewe, R,, Germanis che Sprachzlissms chaft, Leipzig (Gdschen),

rgo5.Prokosch, E., A Comparathte Germnnic Grammnr, Philadelphia,

r939.

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