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Pedro Cerone
El Melopeo y Maestro (1613)
Libro octavo
En el Qual se Ponen las Reglas para Cantar Glosado y de Garganta
Translated by Sion M. Honea
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Translator’s Preface Even this brief passage extracted from the 1160 pages of Cerone’s immense treatise provides some justification for the choleric Fétis’ unfavorable view of the author. Cerone does display lapses of critical judgment, a tendency to reproduce entire passages from other authors with insufficient evaluation and a form of Spanish that can be confusing. In this particular case, his worst flaw is that he accepts too much of his exemplar, Zacconi’s pointless and confusing ambiguity and redundancy of terminology; although it must be said in Cerone’s defense that he is not so bad in that as is Zacconi himself, nor does he succumb to Zacconi’s exasperating prolixity, convolutions and circumlocutions apparently committed for superficial stylistic considerations. These faults conceded, it is possible to assess Cerone’s positive values. This eighth book on the technique of vocal ornamentation and diminution is in three-‐quarters or more some degree of reproduction of chapter 66 of part 1, book 1 of Zacconi’s Prattica di Musica (1596). Some is literal translation, other is paraphrase more or less exact, most is reordered according to Cerone’s own structure. As a result of this process Cerone can sometimes produce a text that is more clear than his source, purged of trivial stylistic superficialities, most ambiguity and much redundancy. To this extent Cerone stands as an improved Zacconi, and it is possible to wish that he had dealt similarly with all of the latter’s book. It is also not inconsequential that Cerone, in choosing to deal with this subject, demonstrates its importance to a Spanish audience, thus implicitly documenting the practice in early seventeenth-‐century Spain. To the extent that I have compared them, Cerone also provides musical exercises different from those of Zacconi, which indicates at least a certain degree of independence; though, if consistent with the rest of the text, someday it may yet be discovered that they were borrowed from some other source. Cerone also did not entirely slavishly follow one single source. There is one surely definite and one other probable occasion when he refers to Finck’s Practica Musica (1556). It seems a not inconsequential indication of some degree of intellectual independence for a Catholic Priest in 1613 Spain to have read and absorbed the work of a German Lutheran teacher and musician of half a century previous. In sum, Cerone cannot be considered as an entirely independent additional source on vocal diminution. Yet, his work as a clarification of Zacconi’s book, itself one of the major sources, is valuable. It is my usual practice to state in the prefaces of these translations any practical matters of concern to the reader. Much of what I would ordinarily say has proven of sufficient importance to warrant the creation of both a glossary and a small guide to Cerone’s Spanish, which appear at the end. Cerone’s text, the reader will be grateful to know, is fully paginated, which page numbers appear in the translation with brackets. Unfortunately, the book is a folio whose large pages are closely printed, one original page yielding about 50 lines in translation. In a strange twist of fate for an author who has so often clarified his source, in a few occasions I have been able to use Zacconi to clarify either printing blemishes or obscurities in Cerone’s text. In a few notes I have documented the solutions to some of the more difficult and interesting of Cerone’s linguistic “puzzles.” I do so in the hope that these may aid a future translator. The only musical example that I have transcribed and included here is that concerning the accentos, and that with some hesitation. I see nothing sufficiently distinctive about the remainder to warrant the time and labor necessary to prepare them for inclusion. The reader who is interested in the study of the actual material is far better off to buy a copy of Francesco Rognoni’s Selva
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de Varii Passaggi (1620), a facsimile of which is in print by Arnaldo Forni. Forni offers some of the other sources in reprint as well. Bovicelli’s Regole Passaggi di Musica (1594), is also now available online in an on-‐demand reprint by Chapitre Livres. Copies of the older Bärenreiter reprint of 1957 are now quite difficult to find.
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Chapter 1: That in all activities grace and skill are required, and on the way of singing with feeling (Acento). [541] In all human activities, whatever kind they may be, grace1 and skill are required. I do not say “grace” so as to mean that which individual subjects under kings and emperors have, rather, that which men have when in doing something they demonstrate doing it without difficulty and with skill, adding grace and beauty. One recognizes, then, how much difference there is in looking at a horse for a knight and for a peasant,2 and with what grace a good ensign holds in hand and manages the standard, [as compared with] seeing it in the hand of an infantryman;3 indeed, one has to see4 that not only does he not know how to unfurl5 it nor manage it but not even how to hold it in his hand.6 This grace and these skills, some are taught us of the same nature, as walking quick and easily,7 in the course of life, and some others are learned8 later by means of conversation and talking, just as by seeing the diverse actions of others, which oblige us to make ourselves their servants.9 For this reason there are many who are friends to those whom the graces and beautiful actions were the means of producing the friendship. Previously they were distinct, who without ever having been seen or known, only by means of the gracious actions that they showed in performing their actions did they come to love and be united.10 Then it is not beyond the purpose, when the singer must be among a variety of people when making a public concert, to show him how to behave gracefully. Because it is not enough to be moderate in all those actions that can make him objectionable, but it is also required that his manner of singing be attended with grace and skill. This manner of singing and these graces and beauties are commonly called cantar de garganta11 by the lay public, which is the same as cantar de gorgia,12
1 Cerone’s opening turns on the different meanings of the word gracia, “grace,” in Spanish and seems rather an artificial literary affectation than a real clarification. Many writers of the time, Cerone among them, are given to such forced analogies that often more obscure than clarify their intended meaning. Only a few years earlier Cervantes had poked fun at such literary devices in his prolog to Don Quixote. 2 Presumably this means the difference in skill between a trained warhorse and a plowhorse; the reference is not clear. 3 The word “zapatero,” today means “shoemaker;” however, given the circumstances I conjecture that Cerone means an infantryman by the comparison. 4 The phrase is “bien se echa de ver.” Modern Spanish does not use bien adverbially, nor does any modern sense of echarse seem to apply here. Cerone uses the verb in apparently similar contexts several times, and it seems to have either a causative force or one of necessity. 5 The text reads “desplear,” which must be desplegar. Cerone has already dropped an intervocalic “h” sound above in “manee” from manejar, “manage,” which he immediately repeats here. At the end of this translation I have added a list of some of the idiosyncrasies of Cerone’s Spanish, he was Italian by birth. 6 As stated in the preface, Cerone’s text on this subject is largely dependent upon Zacconi’s, with whom he shares a certain predilection for fanciful similes and analogies. This passage seems to be a series of comparisons in which the presence or absence of grace and skill are the determining factors. 7 The first phrase of the simile is apparently not idiomatic Spanish, neither do I see it as comfortable Italian. This translation is a conjecture based on the clear evidence that he is comparing actions learned more immediately with those learned later in life. 8 The word “deprenden” seems to be an Italicisim. 9 This is a rather forced simile for saying that we learn and imitate some conventional behaviors by necessity. 10 At this point the reader may well feel that Cerone has made the concept of grace less clear. 11 See the glossary for this and the following term. It is the first of many terms that Cerone will use in connection with the passaggio and its technique of throat articulation.
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according to the term of the Italians. This is nothing else than uniting of many eighth-‐notes and sixteenth-‐notes collected and united within some part of a tactus (compas). It is so natural that because of the speed with which so many notes (figuras) are combined, it is much better learned by ear than with examples.13 Then the singer accompanies his actions with grace every time that when singing he accompanies the pitches (vozes) with beautiful and graceful accentos.14 Because compositions do not always proceed by step in their parts but sometimes one [note] is distant from the other by a leap of a third, fourth, fifth, etc., for this it will be good in order to win the goodwill of the audience that they [the singers] try to give some graceful accento to the notes (figuras), because the composer who composed them did not give the work anything [542] more than to arrange them [the notes] according to the appropriateness of the harmonic arrangements, but the singer is responsible to adorn them according to the propriety [meaning] of the word. For this he must know that the said notes (notas)15 are accompanied by some accento caused by some lateness and sustaining of pitch, which is made by removing a part of one note [figura] and giving it to the other.16 Now, so as to begin to provide an understanding of the manner in which they are beautified, I say that when the first note (figura) is performed, it must be prolonged somewhat more than its value, which retardation must be only of the value of a quarter-‐note, and this value is made in escaping as if it were a dotted eighth and sixteenth.17
12 Originally these terms simply referred to the technique of throat articulation, thus “singing in the throat,” but by this time they imply that the technique is employed in the practice of diminution. Maffei (1562), also included in this translation series, produces a masterful and incomparably the best analysis and description of this technique. 13 This passage relies upon Zacconi, 58r. Unfortunately, Cerone adopts and perpetuates Zacconi’s ambiguous use of the word figura, which he seems to use mostly to mean a “note” but sometimes seems alternatively to indicate a musical “figure.” See the glossary to Zacconi’s text in this series, under the word figura. 14 The emphasis on the use of accentos is common not only to Cerone and Zacconi but to other authors on vocal performance practice of the time. The term itself indicates a variety of similar ornaments of an anticipatory nature. The simplest can be seen clearly in Rognoni’s Selva de Passaggi (1620). Cerone’s are of a somewhat more elaborate type. The term is so common that I have chosen to Anglicize it and use it in its Italian form. 15 This is an example of Cerone’s (following Zacconi’s) causal attitude toward terminology, there is apparently no distinction here between nota and figura. 16 The nature of the accento as described in the contemporary sources is diverse, apart from the fact that it is also understood by some as indistinct from the portar la voce. I have declined to use the expression “confused with” because this is an anachronism from our perspective, which presumes that ornaments originally possessed distinct origins and that they have been confused by some degenerative process. For a proper understanding of the nature of ornamentation it is far better to assume an original inchoate state, from which more specific differentiation slowly emerged. This is certainly consistent with the gradual development of musical, and all, terminology, which has not even yet achieved 100% stability. That said, Cerone’s description sounds sufficiently like one of the more elaborate approaches to the accento, apart from the remarks on lateness and sustaining of the pitch. His illustration shows what originally, presumably, were two whole-‐notes, with a quarter-‐note worth
subtracted from the latter in order to form the dotted ornament as described, e.g., ! ! becomes ! ⊙. # $. or in some cases
! ⊙## $. 17 Cerone’s explanation leaves something to be desired. According to the illustration, what he means is that a quarter-‐note worth of the second whole-‐note is subtracted from it and given to the ornament. This is what he describes as prolonging the first note. It is also possible that, like so many early illustrations of ornaments, the musical illustrations of them are entirely misleading as to the duration values. Very frequently the ornamental note or notes are merely “shoved into” the musical context with no regard for realistic rhythmic representation.
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First, these graces can be used on notes (figuras) that rise or fall consecutively [i.e., stepwise], except that it will not be made on mi or ut, such as in the descent from fa to mi and re to ut. The reason is because the nature of mi does not have sweetness, and singing thus would be rough and crude. Ut, having below itself no other note (figura), rightly cannot have support.18 When the notes (figuras) ascend stepwise, [the singer] descends one step lower than the first note (figura) and there one begins the accento, but if the notes (figuras) descend, then four steps are descended [from the first note] and there the same accento begins, paying attention that when you have more notes, the accento is made only on the highest when ascending, and when descending on the lowest, not ending the passage on one of the two prohibited steps.19 See [examples in] letter A. The note (figura) being for [the upper pitch of] the interval of a third, one must lengthen on the same pitch of the preceding note (figura) [the lower member of the third], as one can see at letter B. But in performing the fourth and fifth with accento and grace, it is necessary to maintain a diferent manner, because the value of the quarter-‐note is performed on the pitch of the first note (figura) and then rapidly passes to the second note (figura). There are others who perform them differently than I say. As to all that rise by eighth-‐ and sixteenth-‐notes, escaping to their place, all the manners are shown at letter C. Pay attention that fourths and fifths are sung with an accento only when ascending and never descending.
Musical Examples of Accentos A to C
[See Next Page]
What Cerone does not explain, but leaves to the reader to infer from the illustration, is that the redistribution of duration may or may not involve the pitch of the preceding, first whole-‐note. In fact, Cerone’s illustrations, unlike Rognoni’s simpler ones, seldom involve the use of the previous pitch. I debated as to whether it were advisable to include Cerone’s illustrations on the grounds that they might well confuse more than aid the reader. I feel that any reader who is not already very conversant with this ornament might only be confused by the difficulty of trying to make Cerone’s description conform to his illustrations. The reader is much better served by consulting the simple version in Rognoni (1620), which is readily available in reprint and whose preface will eventually appear in this translation series. 18 I regret that I cannot explain to the reader Cerone’s reasoning on this point. 19 That is, on either mi or ut. The word “devadados” as from devedar is either archaic and obsolete or a neologism. It must be the past participle of an intensive form of vedar, forbid or prohibit.
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Be advised then, that the lengthening does not have to be much, nor very heavy, except only so much as to be perceived and make itself recognized a little because a considerable lengthening causes a graceless ugliness.20 These are things that with difficulty can be made understood in writing, and with difficulty can be learned fully without an example in pitch. For this reason I say that just like finding gold in the street, or silver or whatever else may be of precious value, we are inclined to take it as “good fortune,” just as feeling that our student ought to try to imitate the graces of some excellent singer as much as he could in order to be benefited in a better style than were possible. But, the reason why singing with accentos and affect is a delightful and sweet style, far be it from me to advise masters, that in teaching these accentos and these graces, they be advised to restrain their students from making them so much that they come to make them almost all the time. Because just as too much of something sweet causes one to loose precious dishes, thus so many affects and so many diminutions (glosas)21, although they delight the ear very much, cause annoyance and do not always gratify. In previous times composers avoided the occasions of having their works sung when there were such singers,22 and for
20 This clearly indicates that Cerone’s illustrations, expressed in specific note values, are not to be taken literally, but it also leaves uncertain what exactly he does mean. My belief is that he is trying to express in notes of specific durations a type of ornamented performance that we would rather consider to be one of flexible rhythm. In other words, there is a tenuto on the first note and the notes that he expresses in specific values are to be understood as in that same freer concept of rhythm. 21 Ortiz in his Trattado de Glosas (1553), both Spanish and Italian editions, treats glosa as synonymous with passo, here rendered as passaggio. 22 Cf. Zacconi 64v.
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nothing else [543] except only that they wanted to hear them with simple accentos, because the master by whom they were composed knows better. Chapter 2: The manner of singing Notes (figuras) with greater Liveliness and greater Strength. Other than singing notes (figuras) with beautiful accentos, one also makes use of breaking them with a certain liveliness and strength, which makes a very beautiful effect in music, for creating which one has some examples, similar to what a man of judgment from these few can maintain as guide and take light for many others. Notice that after the entire passage, the diminution follows in regard to number ten.23
Musical Examples
[These begin with simple two-‐note patterns and proceed to more elaborate melodic fragments, each with one or more diminutions provided.]
With this series one can break any cadence whatever and in any clef whatever. Chapter 3: Easy Principles for the Exercise of Beginners in Diminution (Glosa). So that anyone can see the passaggi (passos) completely and in all perfection and of how it is embellished and made diminished (glosan), these few examples are presented, among which are some for unison as for ascending and descending seconds, thirds, fourths, fifths and other intervals.
Musical Examples
[These are very much as are standardly found in the literature.]
[544] [545] These examples can be transferred to any part and in any clef, as well in that of Gsolreut, or in Csolfaut as in Ffaut, as well in B-‐natural as in B-‐flat, and as well in the treble and contralto as in the tenor and bass. Those who would wish, then, to become masters of the aforesaid and of the following examples, should first arm themselves with patience and then study them in detail, because the efforts in long study easily will fulfill their desires. Chapter 4: The Way for making Diminutions (Glosas) on Cadences
23 Judging from the plain sense of this statement, I see no particular need for it, except perhaps that the passaggio for example ten appears on the next rather than on the same line as the original.
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The places that invite the singer to make embellishments and beautiful diminutions (glosas) are the cadences,24 which are of such a nature that anyone who does not make them well removes all beauty and makes our ears seem full of deformity and ugliness. So as to show some few in practice, these examples are produced.25
Musical Examples of Passaggi on Cadences [546] There are other cadences among the following collection. Chapter 5: On making Diminutions on some Passagges that appear like Cadences but are not. Other than what I have said, one ought to note that sometimes some ordinary passages are found that can be said to be like ordinary cadences. As many instances as found in all songs, we see are also those here.
Musical Examples [547] since these passages appear much in the cadences, it is good that the conscientious singer, when it takes place, first hears the work in order to know what is in it and to understand what is a true cadence and what deformed. Chapter 6: On what manner the Bass part can be Beautified with Diminutions (Glosas) and Graces. I am more than certain that what is said in chapter 11 [sic]26 will not be entirely satisfactory to those who perform on the bass part, because it prohibits them from making it [the music] all passaggios (glosa). Because I am going to imagine that some bad-‐tempered ones and others prideful are not able to endure singing it so simple and so plainly and that so as to satisfy themselves these people want to produce marvels. So that they do not pass the bounds of all inappropriateness, a style of passaggi (passos)27 is selected that sounds less unpleasant, since one cannot avoid one, in the way that one is accustomed to choose28 the lesser of two evils in case of need, as Plato says,29 “from two evils we are compelled to choose one, no one chooses the worse, so long as he is permitted to choose the lesser.”30 Which Aristotle says more briefly, “the lesser evil must always be chosen.”31 I say then, that if someone wants to beautify the bass part with ordinary accentos, leaving aside the long diminutions (glosas) for when singing solo or duets, he will be able to do it in imitation of the examples that follow, which serve 24 This is essentially a word for word translation from Zacconi, 60v. 25 This phrase must be the victim of a misprint. “Platica,” “speech,” must surely be a misprint for pratica. 26 This is an obvious error of Roman numberal XI for VI. He can only be referring to what he says in chapter 6. 27 This is the first occasion when Cerone has clearly used passo to mean passaggio. 28 As an example of Cerone’s orthography, here “choose” is spelled escojer, whereas in the immediately previous line it was escoger. 29 This and the following of Aristotle are exactly the kind of learned obiter dicta that Cervantes ridiculed. 30 The quote appears in the Protagoras 358c. 31 This appears to refer to a passage in Nichomachean Ethics, book 5.
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in all those places where the low part supports the high ones; observing, however, the rules that were stated and declared on other occasions.
Musical Examples
[Diminutions for the bass. Conspicuous in these examples is the use of scales and trill-‐like figures.] [548] Chapter 7: On how it is not Necessary in Diminutions (Glosas) and Cantar de Garganta to put precisely Eight eighth-‐notes or Sixteen sixteenth-‐notes in a Tactus32 and other various Advices. All these graces and beauties require dexterity, speed, clarity and time,33 without which nothing is produced,34 and the singer in using them or in availing himself of them must keep to this advice: to take as many notes (figuras) in one breath as can be conveniently performed. This is said and advised because many singers in the diminution (glosar) exceed the number of eight eighth-‐notes, but because they place them well cause agreeable pleasure, and no one, however accomplished the singer or composer that he may be, notices in the count of them that there are too many. Rather, if they had put the accurate number for the tactus and that stated number had not fallen in time, it would always be judged that he had there some note (figura) more or less. For this reason I advise novice passaggio-‐makers (glosadores) that even if in the passaggios (glosas) the number of the notes—eighth-‐notes or sixteenth-‐notes, as may be—does not correspond to the number of notes (figuras) that must be in a tactus, it makes no difference, every time they fall without defect within one half or whole tactus, and that in performing them one does not recognize in it a defect or dissonance.35 Perfection, then, in singing such graces consists more in the time and measure than in moving with speed,36 because if one comes round to the determined end slower or faster, all that was done goes for nothing. Two things37 are required in one who wishes to make this a profession, strength of chest and disposition (dispusicion de gargantaI):38 strength of chest for being able to bring to a just close one such quantity and such a
32 The tactus is represented by the whole-‐note (semibreve). 33 Because Cerone is so dependent on Zacconi, I translate tiempo as “time,” by which Zacconi understands a concept of unarticulated duration. It is not clear as to whether Cerone fully understands this. 34 This is taken from Zacconi, 62v. 35 In other words, so long as the non-‐rhythmically correct number of smaller notes fits within the half or whole tactus so that the tactus pulse falls correctly, then no one will detect an error. 36 This passage is more than a paraphrase and only slightly less than an exact translation of Zacconi, 62v. For a lengthy discussion of the issues of time and measure, I refer the reader to the translation of Zacconi, in this series, and especially to my notes 10, 22, and 59 there. In Zacconi chapters 28 and 29 deal with the issue of time and measure. In brief, time (tiempo) is unarticulated duration and measure (medida) is that duration as articulated into notes of specific value. 37 Cf. Zacconi 58v. 38 This is a key term, the central word of which is disposition (dispusicion). Maffei gives the best discussion—also available in this translation series—but it is a term of central importance and long duration in the literature. It began as the physiological aptitude for the technique of throat articulation and came gradually to be extended to the practice itself.
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number of notes (figuras),39 and disposition for being able to perform easily and without labor. Because many not having strength of chest are compelled to interrupt their design in four notes (figuras), or interrupting in the middle they finish the rest [after taking a breath]. Others because of a defect of disposition do not produce the notes (figuras) strong enough to be recognized as a passaggio (glosa); that is, they do not perform them so specifically and clear. Also, in cadences that repetition of sol-‐fa-‐sol, la-‐sol-‐la, fa-‐mi-‐fa and the others can be held so long as to last all the time that is required.40 I want to give this advice: take care not to perform the end of cadences weakly, unsteady and almost dead as some make them very effeminate, who imagining they do it very sweetly and very elegantly, make it so deformed and so ugly that they make the audience stop up their ears so they cannot hear it. Asserting, I say that the final part of the cadence, which is the closest to the end, when it is desirable to accentuate it with a double or single accento, [a singer] may make its lower third performed so decreased and weakened that afterwards in raising it that [singer] inevitably gets carried away, drawing it out, becoming like crawling along.41 This cannot be shown in an example, since the difficulty arises only in the bad performance of the notes (figuras) and in nothing else. Other than this,42 the singer ought to be advised that when singing some type of counterpoint or imitation (fuga ò imitacion),43 in order not to destroy the beautiful series of repetitions,44 do not make a delay on any note (figura), but he [the singer] has to sing them45 equally according to their value. I say without any kind of ornament because the said counterpoints have their requirement, [549] being something precise, that each one has its own and delights in it. There are other notes (figuras) also, which because of the words must not take accentos, but only require their natural and lively power, as when one must sing “clamavit,” “ascendit Deus,” “Intonuit de caelo Dominus,” “fuera, fuera cavalleros,” and other various things that the conscientious singer must determine. Just as on the contrary, there are also things that of themselves call for beautiful accentos, such as to say “Tristeça [sic]46 y muerte,” “dolorem meum,” “misericordia mea,” which without being demonstrated instructs the singers in what way they must be sung. That is because they ordinarily are such words clothed in melancholy and bitter music, the singer, in order to satisfy
39 This phrase brings to a head the confusion over the meaning of figura as used in Zacconi and copied in Cerone. In Zacconi see 58v and especially my note 12 for a discussion of the problem. The essence of the issue here is that if figura means note, the note can only reasonably be the whole-‐note, which is the measure of the tactus and moves at about 70 bpm, making an incredibly short-‐winded singer who can manage only four, about the equivalent of one andante 4/4 measure in modern notation! 40 Cf. Zacconi 62v. 41 This also comes from Zacconi 62v, where, as a departure from norm, its meaning is more clearly expressed. 42 This so closely follows a passage from Finck (1556, SsIIIv) as certainly to be either a paraphrase of it or of a “common ancestor” for both. If from Finck, then the Catholic priest Cerone has reached back over half a century into the work of a Lutheran schoolmaster. 43 I avoid translating “fuga” as “fugue,” which is clearly a later development. Fugue is too precise and “counterpoint” too general, but the latter is preferable for not introducing an unwonted anachronism. Tinctoris’ definition of fuga is very likely quite close to what is intended here. “Fuga est identitas partium cantus quo ad valorem nomen formam et interdum quo ad locum notarum et pausarum suarum. “Fuga is an identity of the parts of a song in regard to the value, name, form and at times as to the position of the notes and their rests.” 44 That is, the statements of the melodic “subject” in turn by each of the voices. 45 This is the second instance of Cerone’s very interesting use of the auxiliary “haber” conjunctively as “cantarlasha.” Once might well have been a misprint but twice is surely intentional. 46 The character “ç” is used fairly often in place of “z” or “c” to indicate the English “th” sound, as in the title of Bermudo’s Declaraçion (1555).
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those who are present, takes care always with his sweet and beautiful accentos to temper and reduce the said bitterness and melancholy. Although in this matter I do not quite agree because if the text signifies sadness and mental suffering, it seems more appropriate to me that the singing be with bitterness than with sweetness, so much the more if the composer in his music wanted to preserve it [the text] in its [the music’s] nature and well considered, it is an improper thing that tearful and sad words be performed with jubilant and rejoicing voice and with emotional affect.47 Chapter 8: Other Advice follows for the One who wishes to sing Passaggi (Cantar Glosada). The most beautiful and perfect thing required in singing passaggi (cantar de garganta) is time and measure,48 which spices and adorns the entire combination of notes (figuras), and who departs from this measure and time, everything that seems beautiful by means of it (as I have maintained so many times) in the end perishes without any agreeableness. This, then, is the most difficult thing there is in singing passaggi (cantar de garganta), and he has more need of diligence and study who does not have the desire to reduce so many notes (figuras) to one49 and because of this that singer will be more praised who has made a small passaggio (glosa) in time and strays little,50 than the one who straying far comes to the conclusion either late or ahead of time. Rather, because the one who listens to [a singer] who does little and well gives him a thousand prasises and marveling at him always expects51 he is keeping other better ones. How much better is it that someone should go away content because of little but well done, than by much and badly drawn-‐out he goes away badly satisfied? But the one who puts himself to making sure to do well, and next to
47 Taken at face value, as I believe it should be, Cerone appears to be repudiating the new technique of the baroque emotional aesthetic. In fact, it could be a direct rejection of this “new music” as described in Caccini’s preface to Le Nuove Musiche (1601), which Cerone could very possibly have known. The central issue seems to be not so much as to whether music should communicate emotion but how it ought to do it. As to how, Cerone seems in complete disagreement with Caccini and the latter’s use of ornamentation, for Cerone states quite clearly that he sees ornaments like accentos as adding “sweetness,” whose object is to give pleasure. For this reason Cerone says that singers add them to sad texts so as to ameliorate the negative emotions, whereas he says the text should remain sad by singing it plainly in order to express the bitterness. This of course, contradicts Caccini’s belief, though it has a certain kind of superficial logic, given Cerone’s assumptions. Cerone might ask “how can one and the same ornament express both joy and sadness as you say, Caccini?” To which Caccini might respond, “in the same way, Cerone, that the same notes can express different emotions.” What Cerone overlooks, apparently, is that the emotion is not primarily inherent in the notes or the ornaments but in how they are performed, in the performance practice and the interpretation of the performer. 48 Again, this borrows extensively from Zacconi 58v ff. I have mentioned the issue of time and measure above, and it is discussed in notes 10, 22 and 59 to Zacconi’s text. 49 Given the context, this seems to mean a singer who wants to reduce a single note into many smaller notes. The passage in Zacconi does not entirely clarify it, 50 Cerone would seem to help clarify Zacconi here. Cerone’s word is “apatarse,” “go away, stray,” where Zacconi has coined the verb lontanarsi from the adjective lontano, thus making the verb’s meaning somewhat speculative. What in Zacconi appeared from its source word to mean “go far,” from Cerone’s understanding means “go astray.” 51 The word is “fixo” and appears to come from fijar, whose preterite is fió, with Cerone’s common treatment of the aspirate. The reflexive is se fijó.
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keeping it in time, in that way he may give satisfaction to all. Let him keep to the first rule,52 that in beginning any song, when the other voices are silent do not begin with a passaggio (passos de garganta), nor less, immediately thereafter having made a beginning, when the others are not singing, let there be no passaggio (gracias de glosa), because it is customary to say that the high pleases and delights by the contrast with the low, and one voice alone, as all know, delights little and pleases little. Nevertheless,53 many voices joined make a pleasant harmony. Because of this one sees that counterpoint in the low or in the high part, produced without the other parts, does not please because the contrasting part makes it delightful. So also the sweetness of the articulation (garganta) gives rise to that beautiful and succinct movement that the parts make when one of them moves more quickly. The beginning, then, ought always to be performed with simple accentos, so that one may hear better when the other parts enter, because any player is not praised for playing alone but for playing well in a group. Further, that singer who finds himself for the first time in an ensemble of singers, whom he does not know, [and] occupies himself entirely in making passaggios (glosar), casting out everything he knows, not only is worthy of reprimand for striving to make them believe that he knows something, but even more he does something so as to receive shame and dishonor. Because, if by chance it happens there is another [singer present who is] better than he, at the best of his pride, who can enter with a new style more delightful and artful, and [then] with it take from him what up until then that pitiable [first singer] had gained. Because of this, very wisely do those do who in the practices where there is singing, those being there to sing never on the first occasion reveal what they know. But with prudence and much caution they listen to the others in order to hear what they do, feeling that in all places and at all [550] times a man can learn. Even so, he spends a while in listening and then when he has heard what there is, he begins gradually to bring out his graces and beauties, so that in this way rousing the listeners to a new delight and new pleasure, he will come to gain his own honor and immortal fame.54 In addition, the conscientious singer takes care not to do at the end what many do, those who produce a great quantity of passaggi (glosas) and embellishments, all of which they want to show at the end, leaving the middle empty and dead. This is what little boys do,55 without any danger they run straight over a beam, when, however, it is placed on the ground long and extended, because the ground is seen nearby and they know that if they fall nothing bad will happen. But, when it is placed higher and they see from the sides the danger and the precipice with the ease of falling, not only do they get afraid and fear greatly to walk over it, but even men fear and become frightened of the fall that threatens death. So also the one who sings passaggi (canta de garganta) ought not so solely to demonstrate his courage at the end, but likewise he ought to show his ability with daring in the middle. More ought to be reprehended the fault of those who want on each note to make something, whether small or large, and in making it, should it chance to be good, it causes the text to be ruined. In order to prevent many errors, beyond the other advice, I wish them to give this particular attention, that they avoid making passaggi (passajes de garganta) on quarter-‐notes, when they are accompanied by individual syllables because their natural
52 This keeps to Zacconi’s text 58v-‐59r. 53 The word “emperosi” seems to be an obsolete form of empero. 54 This entire passage is a paraphrase from Zacconi 59r. 55 This rather overwrought simile also comes from Zacconi 59r.
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speed does not consent to extensive diminution (diminucion),56 nor do they support subdivision except when the quarter-‐notes are being sung on one syllable,57 which on such occasions without doubt because of the graces and embellishments turn out always more beautiful. In the same way, those are condemned who at the end of the song never finish and want the others on the end of the last note to keep waiting on them , and many times even if they have preserved a good rate58 even so they would like to finish after the rest. It is good and proper to elaborate somewhat at the end, when, however, in the middle of the work one also did what one ought, otherwise it is not permitted, and those who do it are worthy of abhorrence. But, at the ends, neither slowly nor fast and speeded up, except in time one must conclude with the others, leaving aside superfluous multiplications of passaggi (glosas) and embellishments, because the retarding of one part is the cause of a good, sweet and delightful end not being heard. Well-‐made passaggi (glosas) and embellishments are not prohibited, but an excess is prohibited, and that makes the other parts slow down. Because the importance, as said, is in the middle and at the points taken from the cadences, just like boys who do not know how to swim, diving into the water are playing around and holding on to the bank. The more excellent, assured and good swimmer, in swimming goes out where it is deep, and where it is deeper there rejoices in his self-‐assurance and there shows his prowess. Because there is more to be desired on this subject, I continue to advise the student that on every occasion he abstain from making a passaggio (glosar) while another part is making a passaggio (glosar), because beyond the offense that it produces in the composition, doing it seems more dissonant than consonant, also it displeases its composer. Beyond this, it shows that you have little respect for the one who first makes a passaggio (glosa), and the one who has no respect for another, shows himself a man who is a boor and without breeding. Allow, then, to the one who is in the process to finish first and give place to the one who is making his. Because, if all wanted to make a passaggio (glosar) at the same time—try it and you must hear it59—it would seem60 like being in a Jewish synagogue or among a multitude of geese or goslings. But, if the compositions and their composers do not permit that two parts make passaggios (glosen) at the same time, how could they then permit that all of them should make a passaggio (glosen) at the same time? All the same, we see and hear some conceited passaggifiers (glosadores) who for the sake of ambition—as in stubbornness—are moved all at the same time to produce dis-‐graces instead of graces. Sometimes in order to show themselves more virtuosic, they go so far astray from the counterpoint contained in the composition—and because of this so enveloped and embarrassed in dissonances—that they give bad satisfaction, not only to those experienced in the profession but likewise to those who neither understand nor know what music is. Then they increase these dissonances and confusions more—we see, for the love of God, how far this vice and frenzy goes!—whenever those who perform in the bass part [551] (not remembering—so I 56 This is a rare instance in Cerone of the use of the word. 57 He is saying that passaggi should not be made on quarter-‐notes in a syllabic context, but that it can be done when the quarter-‐notes are in a melismatic context. 58 Cerone’s word “ratico,” if not a misprint, is apparently now obsolete and no longer in dictionaries. It seems possible that it is a misprint or corruption of “rato,” which possesses a sense of time. 59 This is another instance of the “conjunctive haber,” sentirlohas. 60 The form is parecerieha.” The context makes the conditional sense obvious, but I cannot explain the form except as a dialectical variant or a misprint, though it seems also to include what I have called “conjunctive haber, “ha.”
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don’t have to say not knowing—that it is the bass and the foundation on which the song is built, which if it isn’t restrained and very solid, it is likely that all the structure is going to collapse) act like knights [riding on] the chimera of passaggios (glosas), and it is a particular delight they allow themselves to advance so aggressively that not only do they pass into the tenors but arrive among the contraltos, and that not sufficing, very nearly into the trebles, ascending in such a way to the summit, which then they cannot descend except by fits and starts and in pieces.61 In this kind of way62 the other parts are hesitating because of being in very great danger of going over a cliff without any hopes of being able to be saved. Such a one, however, as desires the name of a very practical and judicious bass sings his part firmly, with integrity and sweetly. When63 the music is “à lo humano,” it can use some sincere emotions, and sometimes some accentos, but never ever passaggi (glosa), unless on the occasion the solo were sung with organ or other instrument without the accompaniment of another part, or when often with one [part] only, on which occasion in order to demonstrate that he knows how to perform his part according to the place and time, it is suitable—rather it is held to his credit—to sing with passaggi (cantar glosado) and with drawn-‐out diminutions (tiradas de garganta), ascending and descending as much as he can do conveniently. Which with great enjoyment and satisfaction I heard done in Rome on various occasions in the year of the jubilee of 1600, particularly by the famous Paulone at the Vespers that were held in St. John Lateran on the Day of the Circumcision of Our Lord. In conclusion, I say that in order to make diminutions (glosar) well in a work, two things must be noted. The first is that if it were possible, all the voices equally make passaggi (glosa). That is, that one voice takes as many passaggi (glosa) as another. The other thing is that just as the vocal [parts] are imitated, so also the passaggi (glosas) in all the parts are imitated, except when some impediment should obtain, which does very often happen, except for the bass part, which does not always have to be bound by this law, to the extent it is held to observe its proper duty. But, when all the parts are not making passaggi (glosando),
61 The term “rompicuello” is obscure, but the meaning is fairly obvious from the context and the root “romp-‐,“ “to break.” 62 The word “demedio” is a misprint for “de medio.” 63 This passage from “When the music . . . “ to “can do conveniently” is problematic. There are two main points of difficulty, The first is the phrase “à lo humano,” which from the context appears to mean songs, mostly solo, and probably of a more natural than artful kind. It is only the exceptions that help to clarify what Cerone means; these are solo songs with organ or instrumental accompaniment, or when there is another but only modest second vocal part. The second problem involves these exceptions, for they come in the negative protasis of an unfilled condition beginning “unless.” This clause logically provides the exception to Cerone’s previous statement, but it is separated from it by a full period after “never ever passaggi,” which is changed to a comma in this translation. In truth, Cerone’s punctuation, as is the case essentially in all prose of this time, is virtually meaningless for indicating syntax. That there are exceptions detailing when passaggi can be used is made clear by the following “on which occasion . . . it is suitable, etc.” Cerone, who is slightly more semantically consistent than his exemplar Zacconi, destroys any shred of such consistency by his apparent equation of cantar glosado (sometimes emphasizing technical diminutions) with tiradas de garganta (garganta usually emphasizing the technique of throat articulation. Finally, it is worth mentioning that on one striking occasion Cerone has previously shown a knowledge of Finck (1556), who also possesses a passage similar to this, except making the opposite statement (cf. SsIIIv), stating “there are many also of the number of those who as autodidacts have used no teacher and sing with instruments on all occasions and do not fear in singing to use organ-‐like coloraturas, which in fact are wrong . . . .” This passage in Finck is on the same page as the passage that Cerone apparently very nearly translated word for word, see note 42.
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it is better to sing the beginnings and fugas simply as they are, in order not to obscure64 the artfulness of the composition, as has been advised on other occasions. Chapter 9: A Compilation of 156 Passaggi (Passos Glosados) for the Accommodation of those who desire Variety and a New Style. So that anyone can know how to make a diminution (glosar) on his part completely and with all perfection, there are notated here all the best kinds of diminutions (glosar) that there are, according to the modern usage, both as to the treble clef as for those of the contralto and tenor and also for the bass, on the occasion that he [the bass] may have to sing solos or at most singing duets. If he [the singer] wants to do well, it is appropriate that, on any of these examples, he sing all five vowels, which are A E I O U. Because some want to be pronounced close, such as I and U—which for this reason the Roman and Neapolitan singers of passaggi (glosadores) have banished them from their exercises, I say, because of how difficult and ugly they seem in performance—some others are half-‐open, such as E and O, and one is wide and entirely open, which is A.65
[552] Musical Examples [563] This is the diversity of passaggi (passos glosados), printed for the service of new passaggio makers (glosadores), of which someone will take one and someone else another, until in the end all will be taken, because those gloves that are not good for one wear well for another, and in this way all are sold and put to use.66 Chapter 10: On how any Passaggio (passo glosado) can serve in Parts other than that it is written for, and how they can be Changed from One to a Different Clef. But because it could be that some passaggi (passos) are more agreeable than others, and those whom they gratify might be of a contrary voice, for this reason so as to open the way for them in what manner a passaggio (glosa) is accommodated to various positions for the service of various parts, I have taken the first passaggio (passo) in the clef of Gsolreut for B-‐natural and then I have placed it for all the parts where it can naturally be placed, by which is shown what one can do with the other passaggi
64 The text reads “escurescer,” which does not appear in the modern dictionary. It is a useful example of solving the kind of idiosyncrasy that Cerone often presents. For example: e can be dropped or added before s; sc can stand for z (English th), u and o can interchange, intervocalic r can be double or singled. This is the type of problem that is often solved fortuitously and even years afterward. Having exhausted the first dozen Spanish alternatives, I began on Italian and Latin. Dropping the initial e for Italian led to the obsolete scurare an older form of oscurare, “to obscure,” which led back to Spanish oscurecer. As Watson with Holmes, after it is solved it always looks easy. 65 Maffei says that O is best. Interestingly, Cerone’s exemplar Zacconi says that A is more difficult to perform because it requires more air, “ma che l’A per voler piu fiato di tutte l’altre si stenta piu a pronunitare” cf. 60r, an observation omitted here by Cerone. 66 Cf. Zacconi, 75r.
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(passos) and on how many positions of the Hand67 one can conveniently sing the same thing.68 For this it suffices to place a little of the beginning with its particular clefs, etc. [564] I took care and particular consideration in breaking the passaggi (passos glosados) by diminution69 the least that I could in order not to pose to the students something laborious and almost impossible for them, striving only that my works would not be without benefit, because if such70 I were to believe they had to be,71 I would be the same about them as it is customary to say “my own murder and destruction.”72 But, although73 what I said is true, that the passaggi (passos glosados) of the human voice have to be continuous and not separated, not for this reason, having broken some few myself, in breaking them have I contradicted myself because it would seem that no voice could be able to do it, considering all the many singers there are who break them with such facility. For this reason I have broken them, not only because one may see by what means the breaks can be done, but also because no one should believe that singing must be always continuous [i.e., in notes of the same rhythmic value] and stepwise.74 Orderly passaggi (glosas) go only in eighth-‐notes in order that beginners can learn them with more facility.75 It is the case that these particular labors are not made for those who are skilled and
67 He refers to the Guidonian Hand, following Zacconi 75r. 68 This passage comes from Zacconi 75v. 69 The simple use of “con diminucion” at this point in the description goes far to render clear a passage that in Zacconi’s original was quite obscure. 70 This is illegible owing, apparently, to broken or damaged type. What survives is s…/les, ending one line and beginning the next. Fortunately Cerone has plagiarized Zacconi so closely that si tales can be reconstructed confidently. 71 The phrase creyera ouiessen de ser is quite problematic. Creyera is simply the first person singular imperfect subjunctive of creer (protais of a condition unfulfilled), but in modern Spanish would take the construction ”que.” Ouiessen is much more problematic and appears in varying forms five times, on pages 548, 549, 550, 551 and here on 564. Again it is useful as an example of the linguistic gymnastics sometimes necessary in dealing with Cerone’s text. First, this imprint uses the “u” character for “v,” which is commonly phonetically interchangeable with “b.” Second, owing to the flexible spelling of the text and the frequent exchange of double with single letters (-‐ss-‐ for -‐s-‐) and vice versa, this is clearly the personal ending of the alternate but today less common form of the third plural of the imperfect subjunctive. The natural inclination is to see the word as a strange twisted form of oir, but for only one of the instances does this supply a coherent meaning. Cerone’s spelling of the verb haber often omits the “h,” as is the case with Italian at the time, and Cerone was Italian. Cerone’s spelling is, as is normal for all the vernaculars at this time, inconsistent and affected by pronunciation. A comparison with the modern third singular imperfect subjunctive of haber = hubiesen, dropping the silent “h” and seeing “o” as an idiosyncratic or dialect variant of “u” yields “obiesen,” then b is represent by v, using the character u, yielding a very plausible understanding of “ouiessen.” It is here the idiomatic use of haber de = necessity, and so “they would have to be,” which supplies the condition’s apodosis. 72 To a modern reader it cannot but seem bizarre to find Cerone copying Zacconi so literally in a passage that ostensibly is meant to communicate the most sincere and personal feeling. The concept of plagiarism was not really recognized at this time. Nonetheless, one would think! 73 Cf. Zacconi 75v 74 The term “arreo” appears in no modern dictionary. Fortunately Thomás Sancta Maria in his Libro llamado arte de tañer gives an excellent and perfectly clear definition complete with a musical example. 75 I find Cerone’s restatement of this passage from Zacconi to be far more clear than Zacconi’s own turgid convolutions and semantic redundancies and ambiguities. As a result my understanding of the passage in Zacconi has changed from what I originally thought. It is possible that the two intended different meanings, but I suspect that Zacconi is just inarticulate. In that Cerone’s statement, by being pruned of Zacconi’s redundancies and obscurities, focuses on rhythmic values and diminution, the meaning appears now clearly to be that the sample passaggi are not “broken” into different rhythmic values as much as could be done. In other words, they are
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advanced in this profession but only for those who do not know more than so much and desire to get some learning. Here I can make an end to this present book of passaggi (glosas) and accentos, having said about them all that is necessary to say. Only this remains for me, that it may very well be that some will be very diligent and reflective on these little things, and after having seen and considered, they do not refrain from saying that they are of little moment or that they have no value. But, I console myself in this, that on the other side he must praise me who from them has felt helped and rewarded.
mostly “continuous” in stepwise eighth-‐notes without smaller notes being used. Bovicelli provides examples of the latter.
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Idiosyncrasies of Cerone’s Spanish Cerone’s Spanish text possesses a number of idiosyncrasies that may profitably be pointed out to those readers who may wish to deal with the text themselves. These idiosyncrasies probably arise from a variety of sources, the major ones being three. No vernacular language at this time was yet stable in its spelling, grammar, syntax, punctuation or prose style. Neither was printing at the time an exact science; compositors felt significantly greater latitude in many ways not only as to spelling but also as to fidelity in reproduction of an author’s text, itself in manuscript and undoubtedly often difficult to read. Many of the idiosyncracies here are most likely shared by all printed Spanish at this time. Finally, Cerone possessed his own set of personal peculiarities as a native Italian writing in a second language, which produced not only alterations induced by that language but must also have created some degree of underlying uncertainty about Spanish. Finally, some of what I call “idiosyncrasies” are in fact not that at all. An example is Cerone’s use of the supposedly defunct future subjunctive. I remember reading a Spanish grammar, though I cannot now find the citation, that stated that the future subjunctive was obsolete by the year 1400, yet not only does it appear frequently here, but I have also met it in even the little I have read of Cervantes’ Don Quixote I (1605). A reader who wishes to deal with Cerone had better be able to recognize it. Consonant issues
• B and V interchange often because of the similarity in sound • M & N sometimes interchange • G, J and X often interchange to produce the English H sound • H often is lost • Z, C and Ç interchange to produce the English TH sound. In Cerone’s text there seem to be no
consistent conditioning factors as to which is used. • QU often appears instead of the more modern CU spelling, e.g., quanto for cuanto.
Vowels • O and U can interchange • U also represents V, which can interchange with B.
General • Influence from Italian and Latin • Creation of –ar first conjugation verbs from verbs of other conjugations • Frequent use of future subjunctive • Forms of present tense of auxiliary haber can be used conjunctively, attached to end of verb
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Glossary A glossary is particularly necessary for Cerone’s treatise because of the problems of inconsistency and confusion carried over from Zacconi’s text. For these reasons in many cases it is not possible to provide the reader with one simple uniform meaning but rather with the variety of meanings that Cerone apparently intended. Cantar de gorgia—Cerone’s Italian equivalent of the Spanish cantar de garganta. Cantar glosado and cantar de garganta—Cerone uses these two terms in the title of Book 8 and seems
to equate them. He then identifies cantar de garganta specifically with the Italian cantar [sic] de gorgia.76 In origin, the two terms indicate two different things. Ortiz’s Trattado de Glosas (1553) must stand as authoritative on this question, in which the glosa is a passage of music resulting from diminution, the subdivision of a longer note into a series of shorter note values, the Italian passaggio. Thus, cantar glosado is the passagio that results, whereas Cantar de garganta is the technique of throat articulation used to produce the passagio (glosa), the Italian cantare di gorgia or cantare con la gorga as Maffei (1562) terms it. Because of this, it is unclear from the very beginning as to whether or how far Cerone distinguishes the two as the technique and the result of the technique.77 He further obfuscates the issue by the use of a series of other terms, apparently indiscriminately, or if discriminately not perceptibly so. These other terms are: glosa, passo, garganta, passo de garganta, passajes de garganta, glosar, tiradas de garganta, passos glosados. The result, regrettably, is very nearly complete confusion for the reader, who must wonder whether Cerone intends some distinction or not. The translator’s opinion is that often he did not. It must necessarily, and also regrettably, leave the reader in doubt as to whether Cerone, as with Zacconi, was truly in command of his subject.
Clausula—Cerone generally uses this to indicate a cadence, but some instances might be of somewhat wider significance. The best evidence for his intention is, perhaps, the title of chapter 5 in which he alludes to passages (passos) that appear to be clausulas but are not.
Compas—the tactus or basic pulse of music through the renaissance and somewhat beyond. Thomás de Sancta Maria provides a particularly good and clear definition in his Libro llamado arte de tañer (1565).
Dispusicion—this is the Italian disposizione or disposition, the physiological condition conducive to throat articulation as is used in singing passaggi.
Figura—This is one of the less well-‐defined of Cerone’s terms, continuing Zacconi’s ambiguous use of it. He seems to use it like nota to indicate a single note or possibly series of written notes and, perhaps, more specifically to a regular metric grouping of notes. It may also
76 Cantar de garganta que es lo mesmo que cantar de gorgia, p. 541. 77 There is some, though inconsistent, evidence that he does sometimes distinguish them. There is a slight implication that Cerone more frequently uses glosa in connection with the resulting passaggio and garganta with the throat articulation technique. But, the two also seem to merge, in that both sometimes seem to indicate the technique of diminution as embodied in the improvisation itself, articulated de garganta and resulting in the finished glosa.
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