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School Effectiveness and Inequality:

Challenges in Low- and Middle-income

Countries

Effective Schools –Challenges & Issues in India

Renu Singh

Young Lives, India

OVERVIEW OF PRESENTATION

• Indian Policy Context

• The Learning Crisis

• Gender and Social Inequities

• Young Lives Longitudinal

Findings

• Way Forward

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3

Uttar Pradesh

Bihar

Maharastra

Madhya Pradesh

West Bengal

Andhra Pradesh

Tamil Nadu

Rajasthan

Karnataka

Gujarat

Orissa

Kerala

Assam

Pakistan

Bangladesh

Iran

Vietnam

Philippines

Ethiopia

Zaire

Thailand

Myanmar

Tanzania

Sudan

Canada

Iraq

60 40 20 0 20 40 60 Child population in millions Source Census, 2011

Many states have child populations similar to large countries

Population: 1.21 billion Children 0-6 yrs:158.8 million (13.1%)

0-18 yrs: 380 million (37%)

India : The scale of things...

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Increasing Acess

•

12.44

13.19 13.41 13.44 13.35 13.52

11.5

12

12.5

13

13.5

14

2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11Enro

lmen

t (i

n c

rore

)

Primary level

2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11

Series1 4.36 4.75 5.09 5.34 5.45 5.78

4.36 4.75 5.09 5.34 5.45 5.78

0

2

4

6

8

Enro

lment

( in

Cro

re)

Upper Primary level

2005-06

GER 59.1 2012-13

GER 82.50

Source: DISE <70 70-80 >80

GER – Upper Primary (residual gaps)

24 States reported universal access at PS and UPS

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Learning Crisis • 12th Five Year Plan: Social Sectors’ states that four main

priorities for education policy are access, equity, quality and governance, and that Twelfth Plan will ‘place the greatest emphasis on improving learning outcomes at all levels. ‘

• Annual Achievement Survey (NCERT,2012) Grade VIII showed that Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Categories scored significantly lower than students in the General category

• Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2014, showed that quality of learning (measured by reading, writing, and arithmetic) has either shown no improvement or actually worsened in the last nine years. According to this report the portion of students in Class 8 who can do divisions has declined by almost 23% during the same period.

Governance & Planning • 1.43 million elementary schools of which 75.5% are public

schools with 62.6 % of student enrolment share (DISE 2012-13)

• Transition Rate primary to upper primary is 86.7% (DISE 2012-13)

• 7.35 million elementary teachers of which 538,000 or 7% are contractual(DISE 2012-13)

• 78.58% of regular teachers have professional qualifications and 7.5% teachers are expected to retire in next two years

• Single teacher primary schools have increased from 11.1. % in 2010-11 to 11.8% in 2012-13 and schools <50 students has also increased from 38% (2010-11) to 40.5% (2012-13)

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OVER TIME, A LARGE GAP OPENS UP BETWEEN PUPILS TEST

SCORES IN INDIA AND VIETNAM

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

India Vietnam

Site-level average maths score at age 14-15

Source: Rollestan, 2013

Learning Levels are Declining

Inter-cohort Comparison in Maths (12 Years Old) in Public and Private Schools

71.478.3

88.8

39.739.0

55.5

71.9

19.3

0102030405060708090

100

Average Raw Scorein Maths

"Which of these isequal to 342?"

"Which of these isthe name for 9740?"

"A piece of rope 204cm. long is cut into 4equal pieces. Which

of these gives thelength of each piece

in centimeters?"

2006 2013

Pe

rce

nta

ge

of

YL C

hil

dre

nw

ith

Co

rre

ct A

nsw

ers PUBLIC

77.782.9

89.4

48.552.7

67.6

84.0

33.8

0102030405060708090

100

Average Raw Scorein Maths

"Which of these isequal to 342?"

"Which of these isthe name for 9740?"

"A piece of rope 204cm. long is cut into 4equal pieces. Which

of these gives thelength of each piece

in centimeters?"

2006 2013

Pe

rce

nta

ge

of

YL C

hil

dre

nw

ith

Co

rre

ct A

nsw

ers

PRIVATE

Young Lives Round 2 & Round 4

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Young Lives Longitudinal Findings :

Increase in Private School Enrolment,

with Increasing Inequities

25.1 21.4

62.3

10.6 11.6 12.7 20.4

45.7

23.2

50.4

37.1

80.3

31.3 29.3 21.7

44.2

70.4

44.1

0102030405060708090

8 year old cohort in 2002 (OC R1) 8 year old cohort in 2009 (YC R3)

Poorest children attending Govt. schools

83.9

74.2

48.0

13.9 16.1

25.8

52.0

86.1

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Quartile 1(poorest)

Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 (leastpoor)

Ch

ild

ren

in

sc

ho

ol(

%)

Wealth Quartile

Govt. Private

Round 3, Young Lives

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Students in private schools have significantly higher

average score in mathematics than students in govt.

schools 0

.005

.01

.015

.02

Den

sity

0 20 40 60 80 100

Rasch Score (Mathematics)

Public School Private school

Effect of teaching quality on children’s mathematics outcome

Estimate the following models:

1. Mathscore= α + β1teach + β2child + β3house + U

2. Mathscore = α + β1teach + β2child + β3house + β4

mathscore_ lagged+U 1 Lagged Value- added

specification

The Value-added model has also been estimated including

community fixed effects to control community level unobserved

heterogeneity.

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Public School Teachers -Better Qualified

Young Lives Round 2 & Round 4

Effect of teaching Quality on children’s learning

outcome VARIABLES OLS OLS-VA

Private school 16.08*** 11.19***

Teachers characteristics

Teacher gender (Female=1, Male=0) -0.59 0.08

Teachers experience (in year) -0.2 -0.08

Teacher's training (D.Ed/B.Ed/M.Ed) (training=1, no training=0) 8.30*** 4.74*

Teachers education - (Ref: Secondary and higher secondary)

Graduation Degree 2.65 1.84

Master's and above(MA) 2.18 1.61

Graduation* training -3.57 -0.88

Master's and above(MA)*training -2.72 0.32

Specialisation (Ref: no specialisation)

Other subject specialisation dummy -1.87 -1.87

Math specialisation dummy -2.36 -0.71

Teachers score 0.08 0.04

Teacher's living place (Ref: Out of the mandal in same district)

Same village 6.94*** 4.66**

Same mandal 6.63*** 4.20**

Homework correction (Ref: None of the works has been marked)

Almost all the exercise/piece corrected 4.69 3.49*

Approximately half of the excercises 0.71 1.21

A few of the excercises 0.78 0.81

Teachers attitude towards students

My teacher treats me fairly (agreed=1, 0 otherwise) 7.00*** 4.48***

Teachers perception of their schools

Better than other school in the community -1.2 9.43***

Same as other school in the community 1.13 11.35***

Teachers salary 0 0

Regular teacher 1.83 1.23

My class teacher often does not come to school -4.42*** -1.18

Round 3 math score 0.65***

Observations 746 726

R-squared 0.386 0.542

what teacher does counts

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Teaching Quality

• Standard characteristics of teachers like experience,

gender, content knowledge, and subject specialisation

do not have any significant influence on children’s

learning outcome

• Teachers with professional qualification

(D.Ed/B.Ed/M.Ed) have significantly higher student

outcomes i.e. mathematics scores (10 percent in value-

added specification) as compared to students taught by

senior secondary pass teachers.

• Proximity of teacher's residence to the school, teacher’s

professional qualification and teacher’s attitude towards

schools and students and teaching practices such as

regular checking of books, emerge as important

determinants of students’ outcomes.

School Governance & Management

For private schools,

we pay money, we

can question them

if children come

home early or if

they don’t study

well if they don’t

teach properly, we

wont send the

children to their

school but in

government the

teachers come and

teach for the sake

of their salaries, so

they just come and

go daily

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Loan Burden Associated with Private

Schooling

The mother of Supraja (OC, urban location) shares that her daughter has

changed three private schools at age of ten. She shares :

“We have to raise money somehow and pay her school fees and later

on try to clear the incurred loans. ... This is very burdensome. We will

not have any savings as we spend everything on education. Strictly

speaking, even people of our status cannot afford these schools. Now

we have to send our child to even lower rung [private] schools ... the

difference in the fees between [the] two types of schools and the

quality of education offered is very different. There is a lot of

disparity.”

Source: Singh & Bangay, 2014

Business As Usual-not working • Policy measures for Universal education must focus on

equitable learning outcomes for the most disadvantaged

• Quality framework evolved to review curriculum and measure

educational progress through sample panel-based data sets

• Stratification of children into government and private schools

must be addressed- 25% reservation needs careful planning

and implementation

• Teacher Management and School leadership development

requires special focus

• Greater accountability and regulatory mechanism for ensuring

‘quality assurance’ must be given priority

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We Owe It to Them

Education should be helping

to change the world, to make

it less oppressive, less

unequal and should help to

build greater equity and

justice, greater and wider

access to life opportunities