eea europe environment 4th assessment 2007

Europe's environmentThe fourth assessment


The fourth assessment

Europe's environment

TH-78-07-127-EN-C

European Environment Agency Kongens Nytorv 6 1050 Copenhagen K Denmark Tel.: +45 33 36 71 00 Fax: +45 33 36 71 99 Web: eea.europa.eu Enquiries: eea.europa.eu/enquiries Price (excluding VAT): EUR 50.00

-60

-70 -60

-80

-90 -70 -100

- 0 -80 11

-130 -100 -140 -110 -120 -90

-150 -120

-130-160 -140

-150

-160 -170

-170

M

n i a S i b e r

G

R

E

E

N

L

a

E a s t

A

E

N

E

N

E a s t

D

L

A

S e a

R

n

G

a n S i b e r i

S e a

N

D

a

S e a

R

AN

A

c

c

t

l

a

n A

t t lnO

i

a

n

e

c

tReykjavik

iN D I C E L A

c

e

N O R T H PO L E

KPK

AN

M

E

S e aC H A T

L

Y

g B e r i nGE

O

n g B e r iS K

K

n

Dublin

D

OOslo

R

W

AN

Y

e n t s S e aIN SU L P EN A

r

r e n t s S e a

A

NN o v ay a Z em ly a

IN

S

T

O

B

a

B

a

Y

M

U

L

K Y A N S

I

40

40

r

c

t

i r

c

t

i

Y

R

A

O

Y

H

S

O

Aian

A

e a

c

e

c

e

S va l b a r d

c

V

cPE

E

R

K

k h o t s k

a

a

R

A

N

G E

S e a o f O k h o t s kS ak ha l i n

n

O

O

I ce l a nd

o f

IY

IN

ly

S

K

ma

U

A

LA

o

N o

rw N o

r wSe

e

Se

e

g

D

gi

R H U D Z U G ZH

a

a

an

N

IREL

AN

UNIT

NS

L

London

W

E

D

E

aFHelsinki

A

SC

A N

D

IA N A V IN

PUTORANA MASSIF

D

a

Ar

ct

ic

C

ir

cl

e

f

S e

Se

N

Vnern

CS

EI

NB

T

RR

A

L

ED

N

K

h NM t DE r o a N e S f o yS y c aL AND

IN

or

NA

S

I

GD

K

th

f o y a y Ba isc B

Ba M O

Se

H

IL

D

O

Amsterdam

Stockholm

I

EG

A

NYIN

a

T

BT NEB

E

isR

N L I - A

AR

HE

S

PO

Madrid

AC

Berlin A S SI F M

A

N

e Baikal

YCH

CEN TRAL

P

SV

M

MA LG30

e

S

M

M Ljubljana eA N R IN OS

SL O

EN

SRPA TH A N CA I

OU

30

SarajevoM O NT

U

Podgorica E G R

EN

SEO

RB

IA

IA

A

R

Belgrade

M

A

MO

N

LD

OV

I

N

A

NT Rome AUN AS

R

O

R

A

Kiev

P L A IN

E

VO LG A U P L A N D

L

H

ER

A ZE O S G N IA O VI NA

U N R O Zagreb G A Budapest RY AT I BC

IA

H

S

S

I

A

N

O

T R I A Vienna

Bratislava S LO V AK IA

LA

RU

Moscow

R

U

P A N N O N I AN

K

C E N TR RU A L SS IA UP N LA N D

U

-

BL IC

BE

U

F

E

D

P

L

A

I NAYA N

A

S

I

LO

Lak

TE

N

A

U

RE PU

Warsaw

Minsk

E

U

R

O

N

R

-

VaduzLI

ZE

Prague

N

D

P Vilnius

T

H

P

E

A

N

T

Berne

O

LI

LA A

L

RU FE S. D.

TH

U

IA Riga

A

OR

N

IA

P

L

A

I

N

I N

R

TU

t i B a l

W

EE

S

T

S

I B

E

RR

A N I A

T

S

T

A

Lake Ladoga

Lake Onega

O

I

H

I

A

N

OU

N

T

S

Lisbon

G

AL

Copenhagen

N

ELG

Paris

H

K

Brussels

i cE S T l t L A O N I Tallinn B a A T VN

c

V

O

IU

F

M

IB

R

M G X E UR LU B O

E

G

A PN EN

R

E

R

SP

M A N C H U R IA N

IA

S EE EN PYR

M

U E SSW LAN CN I

N

M

O

40

P LA IN

AIAN

40

A ZE L IT D

N

DO

MO

S

H IN EC ST E

RR A

NACO

S E N N I N E A P P

AT

I T A L Y

IC AR DIN

L

A

A M

d

di

i

OA

Chisinau

I

TiranaAL

I

BA

S

MN

AT

IA

N

F AC Y R ED o f ON IA

Skopje

Sofia

BU

Bucharest

Astana

LG

U

M AL TA

Valletta

G

AR

R

IA

E

E

C

B l a c

Sea of Asov

Athens

E

k

e

LT

a

a

nS

nTCY

Ankara

a

U

R

G E OI A RG M Tbilisi I AARM

A

S

a

AS

La k

e

S

Blac k

KCAU

AC

Z

A

K

H

S

T

A

N

I

K A Z A K H

M

O

NL

GGT

B

I

P AL

t

te r

S

r a n e r

S

A

Ero

R

e

S

N

N D H I G H L Alkhash Ba

I PanEuropean region country groupings in the reportWestern and Central Europe (WCE) European Union 25 N A Member States (EU25) European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Andorra, Monaco, San MarinoN KA South Eastern Europe (SEE) M A L A N S T A K Western BalkansA I

A

ra

e

e

Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA) Eastern Europe Central Asia Koko Nor Caucasus

30

30

n

CIN

C

Aral SeaBishkek

pian as

as

Ip

20

ic

Bof20

e a LI

SY

K

O

U

R

Z

B

PR

US

C

Y

B

N icosia

e aI A

E

Y

Yerevan

AZE

E

R B AI

J AN

K

K Y Z Y LN K U M

I

Baku

S

T

KYRTashkent

GY D E S E R TP I AMIR S

T ZS

A

ul kK Issy

S

H

U

S

Se a pi an

A

Y

a

AIS

n

ce

Ar0 100020

N

LE

SBA

NO

R

T U RLake KMUrm ia

NTA JIKK U M I S TE D A E RT SN Dushanbe

N

T

I A

E

N

EN

Global land cover Forest Bare areas Water bodies Snow and ice Urban areas110

IA

S ea

EN

E

0

500

500 1500 Km

G

RA

DEL

N

IS

K A R A

C

H

E

1000 Y20 30

P

1500 Km

S

IER

Ashgabat

T

A

N

T U N K U M O and Romania N L U N BulgariaTurkey

Outside report coverage Capitals

Shrubs Wetlands Cropland

IT

R

A

Q

R50 40

A

T

40 30

N

60 50

AFGH

P

S ANI

N TA7060

I AK

S TA N8070

90

80

100 90

110 100


Design: DOBEL | RZESZOT Layout: EEA

Legal notice The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the official opinions of the European Commission or other institutions of the European Communities. Neither the European Environment Agency nor any person or company acting on behalf of the Agency is responsible for the use that may be made of the information contained in this report. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the copyright holder. For translation or reproduction rights please contact EEA (address information below).

Information about the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server (www.europa.eu). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2007

ISBN 978-92-9167-932-4 EEA, Copenhagen, 2007 Environmental production This publication is printed according to high environmental standards. Printed by Schultz Grafisk Environmental Management Certificate: ISO 14001 IQNet The International Certification Network DS/EN ISO 14001:2004 Quality Certificate: ISO 9001: 2000 EMAS Registration. Licence no. DK 000235 Ecolabelling with the Nordic Swan, licence no. 541 176 FSC Certificate registration code: SW COC 698

Paper Woodfree matt fine paper, TCF The Nordic Swan label

Printed in Denmark

REG.NO. DK- 000244

European Environment Agency Kongens Nytorv 6 1050 Copenhagen K Denmark Tel.: +45 33 36 71 00 Fax: +45 33 36 71 99 Web: eea.europa.eu Enquiries: eea.europa.eu/enquiries

Contents

Abbreviations and acronyms ...................................................................................... 5 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. 11 Contributors by chapter/section ................................................................................12 Foreword .................................................................................................................. 16 1 Europe's environment in an age of transition ...................................................... 19 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 Is the pan-European region meeting its environmental challenges? ........................20 Key socio-economic developments across the pan-European region .......................23 Towards pan-European sustainable development ................................................36 Assessing the pan-European state of the environment..........................................46

Environment and health and the quality of life .................................................... 53 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Introduction ...................................................................................................54 Environment and health perspective ..................................................................56 Air quality ......................................................................................................72 Inland waters .................................................................................................90 Soil .............................................................................................................114 Hazardous chemicals .....................................................................................126

3

Climate change .................................................................................................. 145 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 The challenge: tackling climate change ............................................................147 Climate change and its impact .......................................................................149 Interaction between climate change and ozone-layer depletion............................159 Greenhouse gas emissions ................................................................................. 161 Mitigation.....................................................................................................168 Adaptation to climate change..........................................................................172

4

Biodiversity ....................................................................................................... 175 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 The commitment: halting biodiversity loss by 2010............................................177 The case: Europe's threatened biodiversity .......................................................177 Providing a backbone: ecological networks .......................................................186 Achieving sustainable use: forestry and agriculture............................................192 Controlling invasive alien species ....................................................................199 Getting the message across: monitoring and public awareness ............................202

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

5

Marine and coastal environment ........................................................................ 207 5.1 5.2 5.3 Introduction ................................................................................................210 Policies to protect pan-European seas .............................................................212 Main issues on the state of the marine and coastal environment in the pan-European region .................................................................................... 215

6

Sustainable consumption and production .......................................................... 251 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Introduction .................................................................................................254 Production and resource use ...........................................................................255 Consumption ................................................................................................266 Waste ..........................................................................................................277

7

Sectors that drive environmental change .......................................................... 291 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Introduction .................................................................................................292 Agriculture ...................................................................................................294 Transport .....................................................................................................306 Energy ........................................................................................................322 Tourism .......................................................................................................340

Annexes ................................................................................................................. 357 Annex 1 Legal instruments .....................................................................................358 Annex 2 Country statistics .....................................................................................375 Annex 3 International comparisons .........................................................................384 References ............................................................................................................. 411


Abbreviations and acronyms

Abbreviations and acronymsAAUs ACAP ACEA ACIA ACS ADB AMAP AMD APHEIS API ASCIs ASCOBANS ASEF AWI BaP BauA BDE BFRs BMB NEMO assigned amount units Arctic Council Action Plan European Automobile Manufacturers' Association Arctic Climate Impact Assessment automatic control stations Asian Development Bank Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme Armenian dram Air Pollution and Health: A European Information System air pollution index Areas of Special Conservation Interest Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas Asia-Europe Foundation The Alfred Wegener Institute benzo(a)pyrene Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Germany bromo diphenyl ether brominated flame retardants Baltic Marine Biologists database on Non-indigenous Estuarine and Marine Organisms billion biochemical oxygen demand Best Available Technology Reference Documents Black Sea Commission Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (oil pipeline) degree Celsius Clean Air for Europe Coordination of European Research for Advanced Transport Noise Mitigation Common Agricultural Policy Capacity Building for Air Quality Management and the Application of Clean Coal Combustion Technologies in Central Asia Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development and Stabilisation Regional Environmental Action Programme for Central Asia Regional Environmental Centre for Central Asia Convention on Biological Diversity Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society CLE CLRTAP CMP CEPF CEPI CERA CERs CFCs CFP C6H6 CH4 CI CIFAS CIS CISSTAT CITES CEMR CENEf CEP CEPA CCS Cd CDDA CDM Cefic CEHAPE carbon capture and storage cadmium Common Database on Designated Areas Clean Development Mechanism European Chemical Industry Council Children's Environment and Health Action Plan for Europe Council of European Municipalities and Regions Center for Energy Efficiency Caspian Environment Programme Communication, Education and Public Awareness Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Confederation of European Paper Industries Cambridge Energy Research Associates certified emission reductions chlorofluorocarbons Common Fisheries Policy benzene methane confidence interval Cross-compliance Indicators in the context of the Farm Advisory System Commonwealth of Independent States Interstate Statistical Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora current legislation Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol carcinogenic, mutagenic and repro-toxic chemicals Convention on Migratory Species carbon monoxide carbon dioxide Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity in the Dalmatian Coast through Greening Coastal Development chemical oxygen demand Eurostat database on trade data Conference of the Parties Committee of the Regions Coordination of Information on the Environment continuous plankton recorder

bn BOD BREF BSC BTC C CAFE CALM CAP CAPACT

CMR CMS CO CO2 COAST

CARDS

CAREAP CAREC CBD CCI RF CCMS

COD COMEXT COP COR CORINE CPR



CROSTAT CRF CRU CSD CSI DALYs dB DDE DDT DEFRA DEPA DESD DEU DFT DG DG SANCO DKK dl DMC DMI DMI DOE DPSIR DTI EAP EBCC EBD EBRD EC ECB ECCP ECDC ECHO ECMT ECNC ECOEHIS ECP EE

Central Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Croatia Common Reporting Format Climatic Research Unit Commission on Sustainable Development Core Set of Indicators disability-adjusted life years decibel dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs, United Kingdom Danish Environmental Protection Agency Decade of Education for Sustainable Development Domestic Extraction Used Department for Transport, United Kingdom Directorate General Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection Danish krone decilitre Domestic Material Consumption Direct Material Input Danish Meteorological Institute designated operational entity driving forces pressures state impact response Department of Trade and Industry, United Kingdom Environment Action Programme European Bird Census Council Environmental Burden of Disease European Bank for Reconstruction and Development European Commission European Chemicals Bureau European Climate Change Programme European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control European Commission Humanitarian Aid Office European Conference of Ministers of Transport European Centre for Nature Conservation Development of environmental health indicators for European Union countries Ecoregional Conservation Plan Eastern Europe

EEA EEB EEC EECCA EEHC EEK EEZ EfE EFNCP EFTA EHPR EIA EICTA

European Environment Agency European Environmental Bureau European Economic Community Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia European Environment and Health Committee Estonian kroon Exclusive Economic Zone Environment for Europe European Forum on Nature Conservation and Pastoralism European Free Trade Association Environment and Health Performance Review Environmental Impact Assessment European Information & Communications Technology Industry Association European Environment Information and Observation Network Environmental Impact of Products European Land-Ocean Interaction Studies Eco-Management and Audit Scheme Emergency Disasters Data Base European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme European Marine Strategy European Network of Environmental Authorities Environment and Health Information System European Neighbourhood Policy Environmental and Engineering Consultancy Environment and Security Initiative Environmental Protection Agency European Pollutant Emission Register Environmental Performance Review European Pollutants Release and Transfer Register equivalent emission reduction units Education for Sustainable Development European Statistical Laboratory European Spatial Planning Observation Network European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity

Eionet EIPRO ELOISE EMAS EM-DAT EMEP EMS ENEA ENHIS ENP ENTEC ENVSEC EPA EPER EPR EPRTR eq ERUs ESD ESL ESPON ETC/ACC ETC/BD



ETC/RWM ETC/WTR ETR ETS EU EU-10

European Topic Centre on Resource and Waste Management European Topic Centre on Water Environmental Tax Reform Emissions Trading Scheme European Union Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. Joined the European Union on 1 May 2004 Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom EU-15 + EU-10 European Union Coastal Conservation European Nature Information System euro EU-15, EFTA and other western European countries, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Cyprus and Malta most of the Caucasus, Central Asia and south-eastern Europe, Poland and Slovakia Eastern Europe, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary and Kazakhstan European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation Federation of Nature and National Parks of Europe Statistical Office of the European Communities EU Water Initiative Mediterranean component Food and Agriculture Organisation Food and Agriculture Organisation's Statistical Database Final Energy Consumption fluorinated gases software for fishery statistics Framework Programme Food Standards Agency Framework Directive gram Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies Great Britain pound gross domestic product Global Environment Facility Global Environment Monitoring System Global Environment Outlook Global Earth Observation System of Systems German Environmental Survey

GFCM GFN GHG GHS GIS GISS GIWA GMAPS GM crops GMES GMOs GMP GOST GPA GPP GRID GTZ ha HadSST2 HBM HC HCB HCFCs HCH HCMR HELCOM HFCs Hg HNV HP HPVC IA IACMST IAEA ICARDA ICBL ICCA ICCAT ICCM

General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean Global Footprint Network greenhouse gas Globally Harmonized System Green Investment Schemes Goddard Institute for Space Studies Global International Waters Assessments Global Model of Ambient Particulates genetically modified crops Global Monitoring for Environment and Security genetically modified organisms global monitoring plan State standard of the Russian Federation (Russian: ) Global Programme of Action green public procurement Global Resources Information Database Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH hectare Hadley Centre SST data set Human Biomonitoring hydrocarbon hexachlorobenzene hydrochlorofluorocarbons hexachlorocyclohexane Hellenic Centre for Marine Research Helsinki Commission Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission hydrofluorocarbons mercury high nature value hydroxypyrene High Production Volume Chemical Impact Assessment Inter-Agency Committee on Marine Science and Technology International Atomic Energy Agency International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas International Campaign to Ban Landmines International Council of Chemical Associations International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas International Conference on Chemicals Management

EU-15

EU-25 EUCC EUNIS EUR EUR-A

EUR-B

EUR-C Eurocontrol EUROPARC Eurostat EUWI MED FAO FAOSTAT FEC F-gases FISHSTAT FP FSA FWD g GAINS GBP GDP GEF GEMS GEO GEOSS GerES



ICES ICLEI ICM ICZM IDPs IEA IEEP IES IFCS IFOAM IHPA IIASA ILO IMO IMR INSPIRE IOMC IPCC IPCS IPIECA IPPC IPSC IRIN ISO ISS ISSCAAP

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives integrated crop management Integrated Coastal Zone Management Internally Displaced Persons International Energy Agency Institute for European Environmental Policy Institute for Environment and Sustainability Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements International HCH and Pesticides Association International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis International Labour Organisation International Maritime Organisation Institute of Marine Research, Norway Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Programme on Chemical Safety International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association Integrated Pollution Prevention Control Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen Integrated Regional Information Networks International Organisation for Standardization Central Public Health Institute, Italy International Standard Statistical Classification of Aquatic Animals and Plants International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation International Union for Nature Conservation International Water Management Institute Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association Joint Implementation Joint Research Centre (European Commission)

k KAMA KCBTA KEO km l/L LBS LIFE LMEs LTAA LULUCF M m MA MAB MAC MAP MARPOL

kilo Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association Kyrgyz Community Based Tourism Organisation Carpathians Environment Outlook kilometre litre land-based sources EU Financial Instrument for the Environment Large Marine Ecosystems long-term annual average Land use, land-use change and forestry million metre Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Man and the Biosphere Reserves Programme maximum allowable concentrations Mediterranean Action Plan International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe Millennium Development Goals Mediterranean Education Initiative for Environment & Sustainability Pollution Monitoring and Assessment Programme Mediterranean Region Ministry of Environment and Forestry of Turkey material flow accounting milligram Ministry of Environment of Spain Mediterranean Information Office for Environment, Culture and Sustainable Development millimetre The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Meeting of the Parties Modelling opportunities and limits for restructuring Europe towards sustainability Member State Meteorological Synthesizing Centre-East Marine Strategy Directive maximum feasible technical reduction nitrous oxide

MCPFE MDGs MEdIES MED POL MEFT MFA mg MIMAM MIO-ECSDE

mm MNP MODIS MOP MOSUS

ITOPF IUCN IWMI JAMA JI JRC

MS MSC-East MSD MTFR N2O



NAI NAO NASA NATO NC NEAP NEC NEHAP NERI ng NGO NH3 NH4 NMVOC NO2 NOX NOAA NOBANIS NRC NSIDC NSR NUTS O2 O3 OECD OSCE OSPAR

net annual increment North Atlantic Oscillation National Aeronautics and Space Administration North Atlantic Treaty Organization National Communication National Environmental Action Plan National Emission Ceilings National Environment and Health Action Plan National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark nanogram Non-Governmental Organisation ammonia ammonium non-methane volatile organic compound nitrogen dioxide nitrogen oxides National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration North European and Baltic Network on Invasive Alien Species National Reference Centre National Snow and Ice Data Centre Northern Sea Route Nomenclature of territorial units in the EU oxygen ozone Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic phosphorus polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon lead Priority Conservation Area polychlorinated biphenyl Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy Pan-European Ecological Network Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects perfluorocarbons perfluorooctanoic acid perfluorooctane sulfonic acid platinum group metals

pH PHARE PM POPs ppm PPP PRTR psu PVC R&D RAC RAINS RAPEX RASFF RCEP REACH REC REReP RIVM RLNP RMP RPG SACs SAHFOS SAICM SASI SAUP SCALE SCIs SCP SD SDSs SDT SEA SeaWiFS SEBI SEE SEEA SEIS

hydrogen ion concentration EU Pre-accession assistance programme particulate matter persistent organic pollutants parts per million purchasing power parity Pollutant Release and Transfer Register practical salinity units polyvinyl chloride Research and Development Regional Activity Centre Regional Air Pollution Information and Simulation model Rapid Alert System for non-food consumer products Rapid Alert Systems for Food and Feed Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals Regional Environmental Centre Regional Environmental Reconstruction Programme National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, the Netherlands Research Laboratory of Nature Protection refrigeration management plan regional priority goals Special Areas of Conservation Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Sciences Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management Social and Spatial Inequalities Research Sea Around Us Project Science, Children, Awareness, EU Legislation and Continuous Evaluation Sites of Community Interest sustainable consumption and production sustainable development safety data sheets Sustainable Development of Tourism Strategic Environmental Assessment Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor Streamlining European Biodiversity Indicators South-eastern Europe Serbian Energy Efficiency Agency Shared Environmental Information System for Europe

P PAH Pb PCA PCB PEBLDS PEEN PEEREA PFCs PFOA PFOS PGM



SF6 SI SIAM SIDS SMMR SO2 SOX SOE SOER SOER-RF SOVEUR SPAs SPECA SSM/I SST ST-EP SUTOUR

sulphur hexafluoride sufficiency index SIDS Initial Assessment Meeting screening information data set Nimbus-7 Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer sulphur dioxide sulphur oxides State of Environment The European environment State and outlook State of the Environment Report Russian Federation Mapping of Soil and Terrain Vulnerability in Central and Eastern Europe Special Protection Areas Special Programme for the Economies of Central Asia Special Sensor Microwave/Imager sea surface temperature Sustainable Tourism Eliminating Poverty Supporting tourism enterprises for eco-labelling and environmental management sport utility vehicle tonne Travel & Tourism total allowable catch EU assistance programme Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of Independent States tributyltin Technology and Economic Assessment Panel total energy consumption Transport, Health and Environment Pan-European Programme total material requirement tonnes of oil equivalent tropospheric ozone forming potentials total primary energy supply Policy assessment model to study the effects of different transport and environment policies on the emissions of the transport sector Tourism Satellite Accounts total suspended particles Federal Environment Agency (Austria and Germany) United Nations United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

UNCLOS UNDP UNECE UNEP UNESCAP UNESCO UNFCCC UNHCR UNICEF UNSD UNWTO USA USD USSR UV UWWT VAT VOC WAIS WB WBCSD WCE WCI WCMC WEEE WEI WFD WG WGMS Wh WHO WMO WSSD WTO WTTC WWF y/yr g

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea United Nations Development Programme United Nations Economic Commission for Europe United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations Children's Fund United Nations Statistics Division United Nations World Tourism Organisation United States of America United States dollar Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ultraviolet radiation Urban Waste Water Treatment value added tax volatile organic compound West Antarctic Ice Sheet World Bank World Business Council for Sustainable Development Western and Central Europe World Coal Institute World Conservation Monitoring Centre waste electric and electronic equipment water exploitation index Water Framework Directive working group World Glacier Monitoring Service watt hour World Health Organization World Meteorological Organization World Summit on Sustainable Development World Trade Organization World Travel and Tourism Council World Wildlife Fund for Nature year microgram

SUV t T&T TAC TACIS

TBT TEAP TEC THE PEP TMR toe TOFP TPES TREMOVE

TSA TSP UBA UN UNCCD

10


Acknowledgements

AcknowledgementsNational contact points (NCPs) and other national contributorsAlbania Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia-Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Malta Republic of Moldova Monaco Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Serbia and Montenegro Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tajikistan Turkey Turkmenistan Ukraine United Kingdom Uzbekistan Auron Meneri, Diana Xnyheri, Narin Panariti Gennadi Kojoyan Johannes Mayer, Bettina Schwarzl, Daniela Wappel Rasim Sattar-Zada, Lahuti Aliyev Svetlana Utochkina, Saveli Kuzmin Jan Voet, Marleen van Steertegen Mehmed Cero Ioana Hristova, Krassimira Avramova Jasna Butui, Monica uur Christina Pantazi Jir Hradec, Jana Tesaov Michael Stjernholm Leo Saare Tapani Syntkari, Ari Makela, Pertti Heinonen Jacques Thorette Nino Sharashidze, Nino Tkhilava Christina Pykonen, Christoph Schlueter Mata Aravantinou Pl Bozo, Elemr Szab Gunnar Jnsson Gerard O'Leary Claudio Maricchiolo, Rita Calicchia Mykhtar Thumanovich Tultabaev, Olga Suvorova, Sanjar Aitmatov, Zulfira Zikrina Baglan Salikmambetova, Omor Rustembekov Ilze Kirstuka Hermann Schmuck Liutauras Stokus Eric De Brabanter Svetlana Gjorgjeva, Katerina Nikolovska Antoine Zahra Violeta Ivanov, Gavril Glc Wilfrid Deri, Carole Lanteri Roel Thomas Johnny Auestad Lucyna Dygas Ciokowska, Andrzej Jagusiewicz Maria da Graa Espada Dorina Mocanu Valery Chelukanov, Yuri Tsaturov, Serguei Chicherin, Vladimir Bogachev Natasa Veljkovi, Branko Karadic Vladimr Benko, Tatiana Plesnkov Irena Rejec Brancelj, Urka Kuar Jose Ignacio Elorrieta Prez de Diego Bernt Rndell Jean-Michel Gardaz, Nicolas Perritaz, Charles Ashley Tajiniso Nosirova A. agatay Dikmen, Cengiz Yilmaz Irina Atamuradova, Timur Berkeliev Stanislav Kolotusha, Valentyna Vasylenko, Natalia Zakorchevna, Alexei Iarochevitch David Lee, Ian Whitwell Irina Bekmirzayeva, Nariman Umarov


11

Acknowledgements

European Commission contactsPaul C. Smits, Pamela Kennedy (Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability (JRC/IES)); Peter Wicks, Annika Ageblad, Tania Mrquez Uriarte (Directorate-General (DG) Environment); Christian Heidorn (European Statistics (Eurostat)).

Contributors by chapter/sectionChapter 1 Europe's environment in an age of transitionAdriana Gheorghe (European Environment Agency (EEA)) and Thomas Henrichs (National Environmental Research Institute, University of Aarhus (NERI)), Denmark). David Stanners, Peter Kristensen, Christiaan Steenmans, Anita Pirc Velkavrh, Barbara Clark, Ann Dom, Pawe Kamierczyk (EEA); Michael Scoullos, Vasiliki Malotidi (Mediterranean NGO Federation (MIO-ECSDE)); Victoria Elias (Pan-European Coalition of Environmental Citizens Organisations (ECO-Forum)); Ella Behlyarova (UNECE Steering Committee on ESD); Otto Simonett, Nickolai Denisov (UNEP/GRID-Arendal); Marika Palossari (Environment and Security Initiative (ENVSEC/UNEP)); Monika Zimmermann, Holger Robrecht (Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI)); Malcolm Fergusson, Eleonor Mackay (Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP)); Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting S.r.l.subcontracted to TietoEnator).

Author(s)

Partnership with international organisationsRoberto Martin-Hurtado, Carla Betuzzi, Aziza Nasirova, Eija Kiiskinen (OECD Environment Directorate); Ronald G. Witt (UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Europe); Otto Simonett, Nickolai Denisov (UNEP/GRID-Arendal); Garret TankosicKelly, Biljana Vujoevi (UNDP Podgorica); Mikhail G. Kokine (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe/Working Group on Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Secretariat (UNECE/WGEMA)); Marika Palosaari (UNEP/ENVSEC Regional Office for Europe); Suzette Pedroso-Galinato (Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (ECSSD-The World Bank)); Jeremy W. Webb (United Nations Statistics Division Environment and Energy Branch (UNSD)); Eszter Horvth (UNSD/Department of Economic and Social Affairs); Francesca Bernardini (UNECE/Secretariat Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes); Michael Stanley-Jones (UNECE/Aarhus Convention Secretariat).

Contributors

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Regional Environmental Centres (RECs)Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Gevorg Arakelyan (Association 'For Sustainable Human Development') Islam Mustafaev (Ecological Society 'Ruzgar') Manana Juruli (Georgian Environmental and Biological Monitoring Association), Rusudan Simonidze (Organisation 'The Greens Movement of Georgia')

Chapter 2

Environment and health and quality of life

Kazakhstan Kaisha Atakhanova (Karaganda Ecological Center 'EcoCenter'), Vladislav Sadomsky, (Regional Environmental Centre for Central Asia (CAREC)) Kyrgyzstan Republic of Moldova Ulan Naamatbekov (Naryn reserve and NGO 'Bugu-Maral') Andrei Isac (Regional Environmental Centre-Moldova (REC Moldova)

Section 2.0 Author(s) Section 2.1 Author(s) Contributors

Introduction Dorota Jarosinska (EEA). Environment and health perspective Dorota Jarosiska (EEA) and Peter Prt (DG/JRC). Anna Bckman, David Gee, Ingvar Andersson (EEA); Birgit Van Tongelen (DG Environment); Paulo Barbosa (DG/JRC); Bettina Menne, Micha Krzyanowski, Dafina Dalbokova, Nathalie Rbbel (WHO/Europe); Kerstin Becker, Marike Kolossa-Gehring, Wolfgang Babish (Federal Environment Agency (UBA), Germany);Rena Kubnov, Vladimra Puklov (National Institute for Public Health (NIPH), Czech Republic); Greet Schoeters (Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO));

Netherlands Sasha Gabizon (Women in Europe for a Common Future) Russian Federation Ukraine Victoria Elias (Eco-Forum), Michael Kozeltsev (Russian Regional Environmental Centre (REC Russia)) Olena Paschenko (All Ukrainian Children's Union 'Ecological Guard'), Anna Golubovska-Onisimova (MAMA-86 National Environmental), Gennady Marushevsky (National Ecological Centre of Ukraine) Muazama Burkhanova, ('Foundation to Support Civil Initiatives'), Timur Idrisov, (Environmental organization 'For the Earth')

Tajikistan

12


Acknowledgements

Jan Voet (National Focal Point (NFP), Belgium); Oral Ataniayzova (NGO Perzent, Uzbekistan); Sylvia Medina (French Institute for Public Health Surveillance (InVS)); Elizabet Paunovi (Secretariat for Environmental Protection, Serbia); Miriana Domic, Goran Dosev (House of Health Obrenovac, Serbia); Brigit Staatsen (National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Netherlands); Janina Fudaa (Institute for Ecology of Industrial Areas (IETU), Poland); Fatima Esprito-Santo (Portuguese Meteorological Institute (IM)); Hans Boegli (Federal Office for the Environment (BAFU), Switzerland). Section 2.2 Author(s) Contributors Air quality Jaroslav Fiala (EEA). Dorota Jarosiska, Jeff Huntington, Peder Gabrielsen, Zuzana Elenicova, Anke Lkewille (EEA); Hans Eerens, Frank de Leeuw (ETC/ACC); Steinar Larssen (Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU)); Vladislav Bzek (DHV CR, Czech Republic); Sylvia Medina (InVS, France); Volodymyr Demkine (UNEP). Inland waters Peter Kristensen and Niels Thyssen (EEA). Steve Nixon (Water Research Centre (WRc), United Kingdom); Aliaksandr Pakhomau (Central Research Institute for Complex Use of Water Resources (CRICUWR), Belarus); Nicolai Dronin (Moscow State University (MSU)); Siegfried Demuth (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)); Rainer Enderlein (UNECE); Attila Lzr (VITUKI Consult, Hungary); Ali Gl, Asim Acikel (EEA); Sanjar Aitmatov (CAREC); Arie de Roo (DG JRC/IPR); Carlo Lavalle (DG JRC/IES). Section 2.4 Author(s) Contributors Soil Anna Rita Gentile (EEA). Jock Martin, Franz Daffner, Andreas Barkman, Ali Gl, Dorota Jarosiska, Andr Jol, Etem Karakaya, Gabriele Schning (EEA); Martin Schamann (UBA, Austria); Maria Germenchuk (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, Belarus); Victor Dries (Public Waste Agency of Flanders (OVAM), Belgium); Andreas Lehmann (Hohenheim University, Germany); Erika Michli (Szent Istvn University, Hungary);

Marco Falconi, Antonella Vecchio, Francesca Quercia (Agency for the Environmental Protection and Technical Services (APAT), Italy); Jaume Fons (ETC/LUSI); A. agatay Dikmen (NCP, Turkey); Valentina Vasilenko (Ministry of Environmental Protection, Ukraine); Elysabeth David (UNCCD Secretariat); Jaap van Woerden, Ronald G. Witt (UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Europe); Arwyn Rhys Jones (JRC/ISPRA). Section 2.5 Author(s) Contributors Hazardous chemicals Gabriele Schning (EEA). Dorota Jarosiska, David Stanners, David Gee, Gunnar Sander, Gordon McInnes, Peter Kristensen (EEA); Trine Susanne Jensen (NERI); Jan Voet (NFP, Belgium); NRC chemicals, in particular: Etleva Canaj (Albania), Hugo van Hooste (Belgium), Nikolas Kazantzis (Greece), Ingunn Skaufel Simensen (Norway), Britta Hedlund (Sweden), Peter Mller (Switzerland); Ivo Offenthaler, Peter Wei (Federal Environment Agency (UBA), Austria), Christoph Blum, Peter Lepom, Kerstin Becker, Marike Kolossa-Gehring, Myriam Bossuyt ((UBA), Germany); Christian Heidorn (Eurostat); John Vijgen (International HCH and Pesticides Association (IHPA); Timo Seppl (Finnish Environment Institute, (SYKE)); Norbert Theobald (Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH), Germany); David Schweswig (Rheinisch-Westflisches Institut fr Wasserforschung (IWW), Germany); Greet Schoeters (VITO); Ilya Ilin (Meteorological Synthesizing Centre East (MSE-East), Russian Federation); Violeta Ivanov (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Republic of Moldova); consultant: Elena Veligosh (UNEP/GRID-Arendal).

Section 2.3 Author(s) Contributors

Chapter 3Author(s)

Climate changeJan Karlsson and Ricardo Fernandez (EEA) in cooperation with Jelle van Minnen, Guus Velders, Thomas Voigt (European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change (ETC/ACC)). Andr Jol (EEA).

Contributors


1

Acknowledgements

Chapter 4Author(s) Contributors

BiodiversityYbele Hoogeveen and Tor-Bjrn Larsson (EEA). Dominique Richard, Ben Delbaere, Pamela Westerlund, gnes Bruszik, Ana Nieto Seradilla, Jo van Brusselen, Katja Troeltzsch (European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity (ETC/BD)); Snorri Baldursson, Ema Gojdiov, Melanie Josefsson (SEBI 2010 Expert Group on invasive alien species); Frdric Achard (DG/JRC /IES); Svetlana Anachkova (UBA, Austria assistance project for Georgia).

Chapter 7

Sectors that drive environmental change

Section 7.0 Author(s) Section 7.1 Author(s) Contributors

Introduction Jeff Huntington (EEA). Agriculture Jan-Erik Petersen (EEA). Nicolai Dronin (MSU); Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl). Transport Peder Jensen (EEA). Jan Karlsson, Jeff Huntington (EEA); Eelco den Boer (CE Delft); Lauri Klein (ETC/BD); Mirko Radovanac (COWI A/S, Denmark).

Section 7.2 Author(s)

Chapter 5

Marine and coastal environmentEva Royo Gelabert (EEA). Steve Nixon, Summer Warr (WRc); Nikos Streftaris, Argyro Zenetos (Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Greece); Gunnar Sander, Jeff Huntington, Andrus Meiner, Jacqueline McGlade, Trine Christiansen, Peter Kristensen (EEA); Wolfram Schrimpf, Dario Tarchi (DG/JRC); Gert Verreet (DG Environment); Norman Green, Anders Ruus, Dominique Durand (Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Norway); Franoise Breton (ETC/LUSI); Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl). Section 7.3 Author(s)

Author(s) Contributors

Energy Franois Dejean and Jan Karlsson (EEA) in cooperation with Tobias Wiesenthal (DG JRC/IPTS), Matthew Savage (ETC/ ACC). Judith Bates, Sarah Winne (AEA Technology); Andr Jol (EEA). Tourism Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl). Adriana Gheorghe (EEA); Vedran Jelavi, eljko Kurtela, Milos Brajovi, Monica uur (University of Dubrovnik and Croatian Environment Agency).

Contributors

Section 7.4 Author(s) Contributors

Chapter 6

Sustainable consumption and productionPawe Kamierczyk (EEA), Christian Fischer, Stephan Moll, David Watson (European Topic Centre on Resource and Waste Management (ETC/RWM)) in cooperation with Lars Fogh Mortensen and Bartosz Zambrzycki (EEA). Stefan Bringezu, Helmut Schtz, Jzsef Szlezk, Matti Viisimaa (ETC/RWM); Aleh Cherp, Edina Vadovics, Ruben Mnatsakanian (Central European University (CEU, Budapest); Thomas Lindhqvist, Oksana Mont (International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics at Lund University (IIIEE), Sweden); Rie Tsutsumi (UNEP Regional Office for Europe); consultants: Jasmina Bogdanovi, Elena Veligosh (UNEP/GRID-Arendal), Ljubov Gornaja (Tallinn University).

Author(s)

Annex 1Author(s)

Legal instrumentsRossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl) and Adriana Gheorghe (EEA).

Contributors

Annex 2Author(s) Contributors

Country statisticsRossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl). David Simoens (EEA); consultant: Jana Tafi.

1


Acknowledgements

Layout and production

Annex 3Author(s)

International comparisonsAnita Pirc Velkavrh and Adriana Gheorghe (EEA); Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl); consultants: Elena Veligosh (UNEP/GRID-Arendal). Jan Karlsson (Climate change and energy), Ybele Hoogeveen, Tor-Bjrn Larsson (Biodiversity), Eva Royo Gelabert (Fisheries), Pawe Kamierczyk, Bartosz Zambrzycki (Waste and material flow), Jan-Erik Petersen (Agriculture), Peder Jensen (Transport).

Pia Schmidt, Henriette Nilsson Pedersen, Marilou Pehrson (EEA). International data Cefic, CISSTAT, EM-DAT, Eurostat, FAO, IEA, ITOPF, JRC, MOSUS Project, OECD, UNECE, UNEP, UNICEF, UNSD, UNWTO, WB, WCMC, WHO, WTO, WTTC. Editing and support assistance Peter Saunders, Bart Ullstein (under contract to NERI); Svetlana Payne, Suzannah Walmsley, Charlotte Howard, Ian Payne (Marine Resources & Fisheries Consultants (MRAG Ltd), United Kingdom) with support from: Helle Mller, Ilona Schiler, Helle Furbo, Dana Bjurner (EEA), Sofia Drengsted-Nielsen. Country data and information support Suzette Pedroso-Galinato (ECSSD-The World Bank); Jeremy W. Webb (UNSD); Asim Acikel (EEA); consultants: Ljubov Gornaja (Tallinn University); Jasmina Bogdanovi, Elena Veligosh (UNEP/GRID Arendal); Svetla Anachkova (UBA, Austria assistance project for Georgia); Nicolai Dronin (MSU); Svetlana Dolgikh (CAREC); Merab Sharabidze (UNEP); Jana Tafi, Anna Paramonova. Quality checking of Russian version Consultants: Ljubov Gornaja, Nicolai Dronin, Jana Tafi, Anna Paramonova, Tamara Malkova; Ilona Schiler, Galina Hristova, Andrus Meiner (EEA). Report coordination Adriana Gheorghe, David Stanners (EEA). Contributors Thomas Henrichs (NERI), Peter Kristensen (EEA).

Thematic contributors

Data support and quality control Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl); David Simoens (EEA); Ljubov Gornaja (Tallinn University); Peter Kristensen, Carsten Iversen, Jan-Erik Petersen, Jane Feehan, Ali Gl (EEA); Jelle van Minnen, Guus Velders, Thomas Voigt (ETC/ACC); Christian Fischer, Henrik Jacobsen, Stephan Moll, Matti Viisima, David Watson, Mads Werge (ETC/RWM); Grgoire Lois, Lauri Klein, Marie-Paule Vignault (ETC/BD); Nikolay Sobolev, Irina Onufrenya (Biodiversity Conservation Centre (BCC), Russian Federation); Olga Pereladova (World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF), Russian Federation); Frank Mrschel (WWF, Germany); Maria-Luisa Paracchini (DG/JRC); Steve Nixon (WRc); Stuart Butchart, Ian Burfield (Birdlife International); Jana Tafi. Design and production of maps Mette Lund, Christiaan Steenmans (EEA); Andres Bastholm, Mona Maundrup Poulsen (Atkins, Denmark).


1

Foreword

ForewordMore than 16 years have passed since the first meeting of Europe's environment ministers at Dobris Castle in June 1991. Since then Europe has changed enormously, as has its environment. In this, the fouth assessment report, we underline the changes that have occurred in the environment and socio-economic context to help explain many of the environmental trends that have been observed. We identify successes and improvements but also register old legacies that need further effort such as, in particular, air pollution, water issues and contaminated sites. New threats, which challenge piecemeal solutions and call for integrated strategic measures at European and global levels, are described such as persistent chemicals in the environment, biodiversity loss, sustainable production and consumption and climate change. And a new overview is given of the state of European marine areas and inland seas. The current assessment makes a number of things clear first, the type of challenges that we face, and second, the barriers to progress. We can recognise three types of challenge distinguished by the manner and difficulty of their control and management. First, there are those issues such as air and water pollution where, by and large, we know how to solve them and what implementation action is required. However, while progress has been made, problems of this type still persist largely due to the difficulties with working out in practice and at local level how to implement the known solutions. Second, there are the more complex challenges, such as biodiversity loss and river basin management. Here progress is also being made, but because of the strong cross-border, inter-regional and international cooperation required to deal with them, and the need for a diversity of inter-linked actions, the progress is often not fast enough to keep pace with changes. Thirdly, there are the issues such as climate change and current patterns of production and consumption which are particularly complex to deal with, and progress is slow, since they necessitate changes now without immediate and obvious benefits. However, action is needed since these issues have the potential to seriously limit future options for meeting needs sustainably thereby posing significant threats to our health, environment and livelihoods and those of1 EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

future generations. These issues require long-term, integrated cross-sectoral measures to be taken that need to be underpinned by strategic international agreements which encourage diverse, robust and innovative technologies and adaptive management practices. Ministers have designated the Belgrade conference to be a 'conference of delivery'. So how can more progress be made to solve the 'simple' challenges or quicker and more effective action be taken to deal with the more complex issues of the second or third types. And what is the place of pan-European cooperation to deal with these issues? We need to strengthen the will to act. We need a good understanding of the problems, of their nature and distribution across societies and generations, and of the costs and impacts of action and inaction. This requires analysis, assessment, communication and explanation to help those who need to act. This report is part of that process. We need to strengthen the capacity to act. On its own, understanding is not sufficient for action to be taken. We need to enable actions by public administrations, businesses and individual consumers and households. A diversity of actions appropriate to local circumstances needs to be encouraged. An enabling legal framework can help unleash the necessary investment and innovation to do this, but greater attention also needs to be given to implementation that is, understanding better how to do things. To facilitate this and build up the capacity to act, information is needed on good practice, ecoinnovation and new environmentally friendly technologies, as well as an overarching commitment to capacity building, especially to training and education. Four pan-European environment assessments have been published since the Environment for Europe process began. But we still need an information and knowledge system to support action to protect the environment across the region. The EECCA core set of indicators is a good step, but a lot still needs to be done. Future assessment activity needs to be accompanied by a commitment to build a shared environmental information system for all the countries and regions of Europe.

Foreword

The 32 member countries of the EEA are already starting to build such a system. Similar steps are also being taken by the countries around the Mediterranean. Across Europe there are also examples of cooperation around common environmental and ecological areas, such as inland seas, transboundary river basins or mountains. To complete the picture, and to make existing cooperative arrangements more effective, we need to join up such activities so that knowledge can be shared, learning increased and experiences and good practice exchanged. This is not only a European challenge but a global one that requires the involvement and participation of civil society. A number of other developments are currently converging which help us to understand, with new clarity, the meaning and benefits of the 'Environment for Europe' process: demographic and economic transformations across Europe, the enlargement of the EU, increased cooperation between the EU and its neighbours and between neighbours of neighbours, the rising challenge of climate change, energy security, water and the increased awareness of the importance of ecosystem services and sustainable consumption and production patterns. If not tackled correctly and in time, these environmental issues combined will not only seriously damage our health, but may also undermine the very security on which our societies are built. Emerging economic and social instabilities combined with environmental

issues are likely to lead to asymmetric threats to security which cannot be resolved within the traditional domains of security policy. Tackling these requires partnerships to deal explicitly with the environmental concerns and the necessary associated transformations. We need to focus on sustainability which promotes cooperation and partnerships. In the years since the start of the Environment for Europe process we have learnt much about the meaning, benefits and significance of pan-European and global cooperation on the environment, and have begun to act accordingly. The evidence and insights which this fourth assessment offers will, I hope, help to strengthen the resolve for continued environmental cooperation and partnerships in the future. Finally, let me thank all the individuals, organisations and countries who have collaborated with us on this project, sharing their data and ideas, and providing their valuable expertise and insights. The fruit of this pan-European cooperation, is the Belgrade report, for which we are very grateful.

Jacqueline McGlade Executive Director


1

01Europe's environment in an age of transition

Europes environment in an age of transition

1 Europe's environment in an age of transition

Photo:

Crossroad of two continents, Bosphorus, Turkey Chris Steenmans

1.1

Is the pan-European region meeting its environmental challenges?

The UNECE 'Environment for Europe' process today brings together 56 countries across three continents (the UNECE region covers 53 countries in the pan-European region, see Table 1.1, plus Canada, Israel and the United States of America) to address jointly environmental challenges. To support this process, environment ministers in their Kiev Declaration of 2003 called on the European Environment Agency to prepare a fourth assessment report (see Box 1.1). The report covers the entire pan-European region, which stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to beyond the central Asian plains in the east, from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Mediterranean Sea in the south. To meet the ministerial request, the report sets out to provide policy-relevant, up-to-date and reliable information on the interactions between environment and society for the pan-European region and to highlight progress made towards meeting the region's environmental challenges over the past four years.

The pan-European region harbours a rich cultural and environmental diversity. It is home to a multitude of natural and semi-natural habitats and ecosystems ranging from wetlands to deserts, from coastal lowlands to alpine mountains and from dense forests to treeless steppes. With diversity comes both complexity and dynamics, therefore it is no surprise that the pan-European region has had its share of changes and transitions. The region has developed through centuries of history marked by evolution and revolution, with change and diversity seeming to be among the few constants the region may rely on. Over the last twenty years, the social, political and economic maps of the pan-European region have been redrawn and a range of transition processes have unfolded and are still unfolding. The socio-economic climate today is significantly different from ten to twenty years ago. Again, security issues and concerns about food and health are high on the agenda, and to this is added a popular disquiet about globalisation. At the same time, environmental concerns such as climate change, loss of biological diversity and global environmental degradation, are regularly seen in news stories adding to people's

Box 1.1

Excerpt from the Declaration by the Environment Ministers of the region of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) at the Fifth Ministerial Conference 'Environment for Europe'

'We call on the EEA to prepare the fourth assessment report for the next EfE ministerial conference building on new partnerships, especially with UNECE and UNEP. We encourage international collaboration to enhance the international comparability of environmental information in priority areas such as air emissions, urban air quality, transboundary inland and groundwater pollution, marine pollution, chemicals, hazardous waste, waste management, human health and biodiversity []'.

20



Table 1.1

The pan-European region, sub-regions and countries (1)

Region (group) Western and Central Europe (WCE) EU-25

Sub-regions EU-15 (Western Europe)

Countries Austria (AT), Belgium (BE), Denmark (DK), Finland (FI), France (FR), Germany (DE), Greece (GR), Ireland (IE), Italy (IT), Luxembourg (LU), the Netherlands (NL), Portugal (PT), Spain (ES), Sweden (SE), the United Kingdom (UK) Cyprus (CY), Czech Republic (CZ), Estonia (EE), Hungary (HU), Latvia (LV), Lithuania (LT), Malta (MT), Poland (PL), Slovakia (SK), Slovenia (SI) Iceland (IS), Liechtenstein (LI), Norway (NO), Switzerland (CH) Andorra (AD), Monaco (MC), San Marino (SM) Belarus (BY), Republic of Moldova (MD), Russian Federation (RU), Ukraine (UA) Armenia (AM), Azerbaijan (AZ), Georgia (GE) Kazakhstan (KZ), Kyrgyzstan (KG), Tajikistan (TJ), Turkmenistan (TM), Uzbekistan (UZ) Albania (AL), Bosnia and Herzegovina (BA), Croatia (HR), Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (MK), Serbia (RS)*, Montenegro (ME)* Bulgaria (BG)**, Romania (RO)**, Turkey (TR)

EU-10 (Central Europe) European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Other WCE countries Eastern Europe Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA) South-eastern Europe (SEE) Eastern Europe Caucasus Central Asia Western Balkans

Other SEE countriesNote:

* = In many instances throughout this report, information on 'Serbia' and/or 'Montenegro' is given jointly for 'Serbia and Montenegro' * = (Montenegro and Serbia were proclaimed independent republics on 3 and 5 June 2006, respectively). ** = Bulgaria and Romania joined the European Union on 1 January 2007.

increasing sense of insecurity. Indeed, the resources of both the pan-European region and the planet are recognised as being under increasing stress due to human-induced pressures, including those brought about by economic growth, industrial development and modern consumption patterns. Environmental concerns range from the pollution of air, soil and water (all of which have improved significantly, but nevertheless remain of concern in parts of the pan-European region, see Chapter 2), to Europe's significant contributions and vulnerability to the consequences of global problems. Current challenges addressed in this report include: Patterns of production and consumption, driven by society's desire for ever higher standards of human well-being together with increasing resource needs, deplete

and contaminate natural resources within and beyond Europe's borders. Since the Kiev conference, the issue of sustainable consumption and production has become more prominent on the policy agenda although few substantive results have emerged. Patterns of consumption are changing rapidly across the region, with increases in the shares for transport, communication, housing, recreation and health. Total waste generation is increasing in the pan-European region. At the same time, the legacy of old waste sites still presents a major problem in some EECCA and SEE countries, although many have developed waste strategies and legislation for specific waste streams. However, waste management plans and effective legislation have yet to be implemented in some countries (see Chapter 6).

(1) For practical reasons the groups used are based on established political groupings (as of 2005) rather than environmental considerations only. Thus there are variations in environmental performance within the groups and substantial overlaps between them; where possible, this has been highlighted in the report.


21


Environment-related health concerns result from continuing pollution of air, water and soil. Despite considerable reductions in air pollutant emissions in much of the pan-European region, atmospheric pollution (in particular current levels of fine particles and ozone) still poses a significant threat to human health and the environment as a whole in EECCA countries most air polluting emissions have increased by more than 10 % since 2000 as a result of economic recovery, increase in transport, and the persisting poor effectiveness of air pollution protection strategies. Similarly, although water quality appears to have improved in rivers across the region, some large rivers and many smaller watercourses remain severely polluted. More than 100 million people in the pan-European region still do not have access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation; and in EECCA and SEE the quality of water supply and sanitation services has deteriorated continuously over the past 15 years. Soil degradation, in particular contaminated sites, remains to be an issue of concern across the region. Yet, some progress has been made in terms of policy development and the availability of information on soil issues (see Chapter 2). Climate change, mainly driven by energy consumption and the resulting emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), exacerbates extreme weather events (such as flooding or droughts) and has an impact on a range of socio-economic activities such as agriculture and tourism. Impacts of climate change on society and natural resources are already occurring both across the pan-European region and worldwide, and are projected to become even more pronounced. A global emission reduction of up to 50 % by 2050 is necessary to achieve the target proposed by the EU to limit temperature increase to a maximum of 2 degree Celsius above pre-industrial levels. However, even if global emissions of greenhouse gases are drastically reduced, some unavoidable climate change impacts make adaptation measures an urgent need (see Chapter 3). Biodiversity loss in the pan-European region (particularly in farmland, mountain regions,

forests and coastal zones) is occurring as a result of land use changes, urban sprawl, infrastructure development, acidification, eutrophication, desertification, resource overexploitation, both intensification and abandonment of agriculture, as well as climate change. The global target of halting biodiversity loss by 2010 will not be achieved without considerable additional efforts. More than 700 species are currently under threat in the pan-European region, while the number of invasive alien species in the pan-European region continues to increase. National forest plans that link sustainable forest management with an ecosystem approach are being implemented. Nevertheless, illegal logging and human-induced forest fires are a growing problem, particularly in EECCA and SEE (see Chapter 4). Overuse of marine resources and pressure on coastal environments continue to be high. Eutrophication remains a problem in all enclosed seas and sheltered marine waters across the pan-European region. Over-fishing and destructive fishing practices are still widespread in all pan-European seas. Improved policies and stricter enforcement are needed to stop illegal fishing and enable fish stock recovery, but also to reduce fisheries impacts on the whole ecosystem. Major accidental oil spills have generally decreased in European seas, although oil discharges from day to day activities, such as maritime transport and refineries, are still significant (see Chapter 5).

In response to these and other environmental challenges, the concept of sustainable development addresses the need for an increased understanding of the complexity and interconnectedness of the socio-economic and environmental systems. It calls for a fundamental change in the way society approaches its own economic, social and environmental future. Increasingly, Europe has been embracing the concept of sustainable development as more and more responses to environmental challenges make use of integrated approaches that link environmental policies directly to transport, energy and agricultural policies in particular. In western Europe (EU-15), but also increasingly in many of the central European (EU-10) and

22



south-eastern European countries as well as in countries in eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia, first steps have been taken towards implementing more integrated approaches to environmental issues. Despite this, traditional regulatory instruments are still widely used to deal with environmental issues, and impacts caused by general patterns of production and consumption are rarely taken into account. In addition, policy instruments that link market mechanisms and environmental protection, such as economic market-based instruments and voluntary agreements, are being developed but are not yet used to any large degree across the pan-European region. In many cases, environmental progress and the use of integrated policy approaches are hampered by an 'implementation gap'. While a range of multilateral agreements and declarations on environmental protection and sustainable development have been signed and adopted, a number of these do not attain a subsequent full and swift implementation (see Annex 1 for an overview of multilateral environmental agreements, and their signature, ratification and entry into force at national level). Thus, continuing with the transition towards sustainable development, as emphasised in the 'Environment for Europe' process and reinforced by the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development, will require more impetus towards full implementation of agreed-upon environmental policy measures (see also Section 1.3 and Annex I). Indeed, the upcoming 'Environment for Europe' ministerial conference to be held in Belgrade in October 2007 has been designated as a 'conference of deliveries'. The main objective of the meeting will be to assess the progress made in the implementation of the legal instruments adopted in the pan-European context. Furthermore, a transition towards sustainable development will require attention and action at all levels: local, regional, national, international and global, as well as involvement of all parties from government, business and civil society, and by organisations and individuals. The tools and capacity for this are still weak across the pan-European region but progress is being made. While scientific research and knowledge development are increasingly needed to meet

these new challenges and while much knowledge is already available, it is often not in a form or place which is readily accessible or usable. Still greater access to, and appraisal of, existing relevant information and research results is needed. This should include a better understanding of the importance and significance of different types of knowledge held for example by lay, local and indigenous people. Actions are being taken to improve the access to and use of this knowledge, for example by making use of the spread of information technologies such as the internet in recent years. Politically, these developments are, amongst others, supported by the implementation of the Aarhus Convention (which calls for improved access to environmental information, public participation in decision-making processes and access to justice) and the furthering of the concept of education for sustainable development thereby providing the building blocks for a long-term transition towards sustainable development.

1.2

Key socio-economic developments across the pan-European region

Today's environmental challenges are ever more closely linked to a variety of socio-economic developments. While each of the challenges we face has its own characteristic dynamics, many share common underlying driving forces which are often directly or indirectly linked. A full review of each of the many individual drivers of environmental change is beyond the scope of this pan-European assessment. Rather, this section focuses on a limited number of socio-economic developments that underlie or may exacerbate many of the key environmental changes outlined in this report. Key issues highlighted include the changing demographic patterns, recent trends in migration, as well as economic developments and poverty across the pan-European region. The relationship between political transitions, conflicts and environmental risks is also emphasised. Finally, this section illustrates that the demands of modern consumption can in most cases no longer be met by domestic resources alone. This has led to growing interdependence across the region and the globe.EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT 2


This needs to be reflected in approaches aimed at addressing shared environmental concerns and securing environmental resources more equitably for current and future generations.Demographic patterns and migration

Demographic patterns play a key role in how environmental challenges unfold since they govern consumption and determine the demand for resources, goods and environmental services. Generally speaking, population size and density within a region give a first indication of pressures on environmental resources, such as air pollution, freshwater use, land use and soil degradation, as well as biodiversity loss. The age structure of populations also inevitably shapes their consumption patterns and demands for environmental services. The current trend across Europe towards an 'ageing society' may further alter the susceptibility to adverse environmental changes and health risks, both positively and negatively. Today, more than 870 million people live in the pan-European region although population size and distribution vary considerably across the region (Table 1.2). More than half of this total

population live in western and central Europe, making this sub-region one of the most densely populated regions of the world, with an average of nearly 110 persons per square kilometre. This is in stark contrast to the relatively small populations in eastern Europe and Central Asia, where the average density is well below 20 persons per square kilometre. The diversity of demographic developments in the pan-European region is also reflected in the evolution of population trends over time. Trends vary significantly and highlight the very different dynamics across the region. Between 1960 and 2000, Central Asia (more than 120 % population increase), the Caucasus (60 % increase) and south-eastern Europe (80 % increase) have experienced considerably higher growth rates than those reported for countries in western and central Europe, and particularly, eastern Europe (World Bank, 2006b). Eastern Europe, and to a lesser extent the Caucasus region and most of the central European countries, witnessed a turning point in population growth in the early 1990s. Since then, population growth has stagnated or even declined, and this trend has continued into the new century (Table 1.3).

Table 1.2

The pan-European region: key socio-economic indicators for 2005 Land area (1 000 km2) Population (million) Density (population per km2) 119 100 26 11 85 15 82 90 31 Income (GDP per capita in USD) 22 337 5 594 36 550 2 034 1 112 955 2 236 3 052 11 869 Total GDP (as percentage of regional total) 83.4 % 4.0 % 4.4 % 4.0 % 0.2 % 0.5 % 0.5 % 3.0 % 100.0 %

WCE EU-15 EU-10 EFTA (IS, NO, CH) EECCA Eastern Europe Caucasus Central Asia SEE Western Balkans Other SEE Pan-European totalNote:

3 243 739 468 17 943 186 4 003 264 1 132 27 980

385 74 12 204 16 58 22 102 874

See also Annex 2, Country statistics.

Sources: GDP and population data: World Bank, 2006b (World Development Indicators Database). Land area data: FAOSTAT, 2007 (FAO Statistical database).

2



Table 1.3

Countries experiencing population declines of more than 200 000 persons in the period 2000 to 2005 Population (thousands) Change between 2000 and 2005 (thousands) 3 000 2 100 800 400 319 246 224 200 (%) 2.1 4.3 3.6 1.0 4.0 5.2 2.2 0.3

Russian Federation Ukraine Romania Poland Bulgaria Georgia Belarus ItalySource:

2000 146 000 49 200 22 400 38 600 8 060 4 720 10 000 57 700

2005 143 000 47 100 21 600 38 200 7 741 4 474 9 776 57 500

World Bank, 2006b (World Development Indicators Database).

For most countries of western and central Europe, a trend towards stable or even declining population totals is discernable although Cyprus, Ireland and Spain are noteworthy exceptions and currently show population growth of more than 1 % per year. Turkey and all Central Asian countries (with the exception of Kazakhstan) are experiencing equally growing populations. According to data provided by the World Health Organization, life expectancy at birth has increased substantially across the region over the last four decades, although a significant gap remains between EECCA countries (life expectancy ranging from 66 to 73 years) and the other countries in the region (ranging from 69 to 81 years) see Annex 2. World Bank data for 2005 (World Bank, 2006b) highlights that the balance between young and elderly people varies considerably across the region. While in Central Asian countries those under the age of 15 make up well above 20 % of the total (the highest in Tajikistan with 39 %), they account for less than 20 % in most other countries (with exceptions in Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Ireland, Iceland and Turkey). Conversely, in many western and central European countries, the proportion of the population over the age of 60 has increased significantly, leading to an 'ageing society' with a demographic pattern characterised by a relatively low proportion of children. At the same time, fertility rates are low in much of Europe, and almost everywhere have fallen below two infants per woman (although exceptions include Albania, Iceland, Ireland and most of

Central Asia), which is insufficient to maintain current populations without inward migration (Figure 1.1). Migration of people across the pan-European region has been on the rise in the region since the 1990s. The movement of people in an increasingly interconnected world reflects not only changes to countries' economies and distribution of industry, but also results in political, social and even cultural transitions. Several characteristic trends in migration can be identified, including

Figure 1.1

Net migration (millions) required to hold working age population constant at 1995 levels in 2050

Net migration 20002050 (millions) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 EU-15 Additional requiredNote:

Russian Federation Projected

For the sake of comparison, there was a net migration of about 8.8 million into the EU and about 3.3 million into the Russian Federation during the 1990s. Based on data from World Bank, 2006a page 55.

Source:


2


migration across the region along gradients of political stability or economic prospects, in-country migration from rural into urban areas often driven by employment opportunities, and also seasonal migration of both workers and retirees. The consequences of this increased migration can be both positive and negative for the origin and receiver regions. As the migration is often focused in specific areas, such as urban (in the case of economic migrants) or coastal (in the case of retirees), this may have both environmental and social impacts. For those countries losing people through migration, there are equally important implications. Those emigrating tend to belong to the younger, economically active age group, and often have a higher than average level of education or training. On the one hand, this often results in significant transfers of money by foreign workers to their home countries (i.e. remittances). For some countries, such as the Republic of Moldova, Tajikistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Albania, remittances constituted more than 15 % of national GDP in 2004 (World Bank, 2006a). On the other hand, countries of origin may experience gaps in their skilled workforce which can also reduce national or local capacity for environmental management and good governance in general. Patterns of migration across the pan-European region are unique and significant. The region (especially the EECCA countries) is both a major recipient and source of migrants. Recent World Bank estimates show that that the region accounts for one-third of all global emigration and immigration. Migration to western and central European countries remains high, including large numbers of migrants from the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Kazakhstan (Map 1.1). At the same time, the countries in Central Asia and the Caucasus experienced particularly high emigration between 2000 and 2005, often into the Russian Federation, (during this period, Tajikistan and Georgia, for example, saw net outward migration of more than 10 %, according to United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD, 2005)). In parallel to migration patterns across the region, recent urbanisation trends show a varied picture over the last decade. Generally2 EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

speaking, urbanisation tends to alter the type of environmental pressures experienced. While population increases in urban areas lead to a spatial concentration in material consumption and its associated pollution, environmental pressures associated with urban sprawl include both local effects (such as urban waste and water pollution problems) as well as more widespread impacts (for example, the overall 'environmental footprint' that an urban area imposes on the country). In many cases, the likelihood that the environmental impacts will be severe is greater the more rapid and unplanned the transition from rural to urban living. On balance, the proportion of urban versus rural population has remained relatively stable in western and central Europe since 1990. Notable exceptions are Portugal, Norway and the Netherlands, all of which saw increases in urban population in excess of 6 %, and Latvia, which experienced a decrease of just over 4 %. Countries in south-eastern Europe, however, have experienced large increases in urban population. The largest increases in this region have occurred in Albania and Turkey, which have seen the proportion of people living in urban areas increase by around 8 % and 7 % respectively.Economic development and poverty

The pan-European region is a highly diverse region with respect to both patterns of demography and economic development. Some of its countries are among the richest in the world, while others particularly those whose economies have been in transition during the 1990s are still working hard to catch up with the global average. Per capita levels of gross domestic product (GDP) vary widely, from the highest average annual incomes of well over USD 20 000 reported in EU-15 and EFTA countries, to less than an eighth of this figure in the Caucasus and Central Asia see Annex 2. In 2005, the GDP of the whole pan-European region amounted to approximately 28 % of global GDP more than a third of the total. However, while Western Europe is amongst the wealthiest regions in the world, the EECCA and SEE countries each account for only 1 % of the global GDP (Figure 1.2).


The patterns of economic growth also differ across the region. The EU-15 and EFTA countries have seen continuous increases since the 1990s. After an initial drop in economic growth in the very early 1990s, the remaining countries of western and central Europe (i.e. the EU-10) and south-eastern Europe are now experiencing an increase. In the countries of Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia, the economic downturn of the early 1990sMap 1.1-30

lasted somewhat longer. Their national incomes are only now returning to pre-1990 levels due to recent stronger economic growth, although even in 2005, real GDP for the Republic of Moldova and Georgia had not yet recovered to half that of 1989 (World Bank, 2006b). Nevertheless, it is encouraging that national incomes have been increasing in virtually all

Largest migration streams-10 10 30 50 60 70 80 90

Size of migration stream involving an EECCA country > 150 000 persons > 50 000 persons

60

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

40

KAZAKSTAN KYRGYZSTAN

50

BELARUS GERMANY UKRAINE

UZBEKISTAN

30

GEORGIA ARMENIA40

0

500

10000

1500 Km10 20 30 40 50

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

50

Size of migration stream involving an SEE or EU-10 country > 150 000 persons > 50 000 persons

50

POLAND GERMANY HUNGARY ROMANIA40

40

SPAIN

ITALY

SERBIA MONTENEGRO ALBANIA

TURKEY

0

500

10000

1500

Km10 20 30 40

Source:

World Bank, 2006a.


2


Figure 1.2

Top: GDP Map (the territory size shows the proportion of worldwide wealth measured as GDP, based on exchange rates with the USD, that is found there) Bottom: Total GDP in the pan-European region and the rest of the world in 2005 (based on constant 2000 USD)

Rest of the world 72 %

EECCA 1%

SEE 1%

WCE 26 %

Sources: The map: www.worldmapper.org; copyright 2006 SASI Group (University of Sheffield) and Mark Newman (University of Michigan). The pie chart: World Bank, 2006b (World Development Indicators Database).

countries in the pan-European region since the turn of the century. This increase has been particularly pronounced in all EECCA and SEE countries, where total economic growth between 2000 and 2005 ranged from 7 % in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to a staggering 88 % in Azerbaijan (see Annex 2). The World Bank's most recent estimates (Figure 1.3) show that annual economic growth has continued across the region during 2006 at rates of 6 % or more in most EECCA countries. Exceptions are Kyrgyzstan and the Republic of Moldova where rates are

estimated at 4.3 % and 3.0 %, respectively (2). Current forecasts expect the rate of GDP increase to continue at this level for both 2007 and 2008 (World Bank, 2007). In moving away from dependency on primary production and heavy industry towards service and knowledge-based economies, general economic development in western and central Europe has brought some environmental benefits largely related to reductions in 'traditional' point-source pollution. However,

(2) Please note that no data for Turkmenistan was available for this assessment.

2



Figure 1.3

GDP per capita growth by region, 19902005 (see Annex 3 for international comparison)

USD per capita 40 000 35 000 30 000 25 000 20 000 15 000 10 000 5 000 0

While predominantly manufactured goods are traded eastwards within the region, the main commodities exported from EECCA countries to western and central Europe are fuels and mining products (see Chapter 6 for more details). This marked difference in economic development and trade flows across the pan-European region can also be understood to be a de facto 'export' of environmental burden to countries with higher reliance on raw mineral extraction and processing and other branches of industry commonly associated with high environmental pressures and emissions to air, soil and water (see example in Box 6.5, Chapter 6, Sustainable consumption and production). This can be seen as part of the wider trend of globalisation that has unfolded over recent decades. Despite the more recent economic growth, the economic decline and restructuring of the 1990s have taken a toll across the EECCA countries, in particular in terms of poverty and inequality. Increasingly, poverty and human well-being are being addressed in the context of environmental assessments (for example in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment or Fourth Global Environment Outlook, see Box 1.2). Poverty, and the resulting increase in environmental vulnerability, has often been typified as one of the worst forms of pollution. Beyond the immedi