2016. 3. 11.

, (classification) .

, . , .

: ( ) . .

, (class) (parts of speech) (word class) .

, , , .

(taxonomy), : , : , : (icon), (index), (symbol) : , , ,

, .

cf. http://weekly.donga.com/docs/magazine/weekly/2013/02/18/2013021805000

27/201302180500027_1.html : , , ,

http://weekly.donga.com/docs/magazine/weekly/2013/02/18/201302180500027/201302180500027_1.html

.

,

.

, / ,

, , . .

/ ?

.

, .

, .

.

, .

-

. --, --

(analysis). . . .

, , , , . , , 3 , , , .

: , , , (commitment) .

.

: : : : : : , , :

Triangular Theory of Love

.

: , , , , , , , . .

: 1, 2, 3, Origin: , , , , : (, ), ,

( ) , .

/ . ( ?)

? ? (distribution) : / ?

/ : ( ), .

: . , : .

: ( ), , .

: -- (, , ) . : -- .

: ( ). : , , (, ) (, , , ).

: . : . : , , .

( )

(noun) (pronoun) (numeral)

(verb) (adjective)

(adnominal): , //, (adverb): , ,

(interjection): , , (conjunction): ,

(final ending)

()

(prefinal ending) : -- : --, --, --

( ) .

(, ) . A, B, C, .

.

, , (noun) , , , (verb)

, (adjective) (manner), (degree) (adverb)

/

.

, ,

/

.

, - . ( ) .

, , . . (property) .

/(identification) .

A X B Y

, , .

/ .

Givn (1984/2001), Syntax: (time stability)

. ( )

.

Dixon 8~

(dimension), (age), (value), (color) , ,

. , , , , ,

.

/

(static) .

(state) (property) .

. , , .

( nouny adjective)

.( verby adjective)

Dixon (1977), Where have all the adjectives gone?, Studies in language, 19-80.Dixon (1982), Where have all the adjectives gone? and other essays in semantics and syntax, Berlin: Mouton.

Wierzbicka (1986), What's in a noun? (Or: How do nouns differ in meaning from adjectives?), Studies in Language 10-2, 353-389.

, (bundle) .

/ .

Langacker -

Langacker (1987), Nouns and Verbs, Language 63-1, 53-94. Also in Langacker (1990), Concepts, Image and Symbol, Mouton de Gruyter,

Chap 3.

Langacker . -, attack

. : sequential scanning : summary scanning

region .

Langacker (1987), p. 71

Langacker (1987), p. 75

Croft (1991) .

.

of N be N

A-ness be A

, , ,

,

Croft (1991) () / .

, , , , .

, .

, . , .

+ 4319 13.2% + 186135 15.0%

+ 111200 34.1% + 598807 48.5%

+ 9208 2.8% + 47604 3.8%

+ 162317 49.8% + 401493 32.5%

325920 100% 1234039 100%

Croft (2001) radical constructionism Croft ( / )

major word class minor word class / .

major WC minor WC

. .

. . Dryer, LaPolla, Cristofaro .

Croft (2001) () (hierarchically) .

. (construction grammar) . major WC minor WC, subclass .

.

. /

. ,

2 .

, .

, .

: - ? .

concept: concept:

exotic field work , - .

- . .

-

Mundari - Evans & Osada (2005) . - conversion , - .

Tagalog Bloomfield - full word particle . Schachter

Fijian Milner base . Dixon

Wakashan , Salish - .

Mundari buru =ko bai -ke -d -a. mountain=3pl.S make-compl-tr-indic

They made the mountain. saan =ko buru -ke -d -a. firewood=3pl.S mountain-compl-tr-indic

They heaped up the firewood. maNDi=ko jom-ke -d-a. food =3pl.S eat -compl-tr-indic

They ate the food. jom=ko nam-ke -d -a. eat=3pl.S get-compl-tr-indic

They got the food.

Nootka

i-ma qoas-i be.large-3sg.indicative man-article

The man is large qoas-ma i-i man-3sg.indicative be.large-article

The large one is a man

Fijian e dredre a tuuraga 3sgS laugh article chief

The chief is laughing e tuuraga a tama -qu 3sgS chief article father-1sg.possessor

My father is a chief

-

Iroquoian Sasse - Mithun

Classical Nahuatl omni-predicative . - .

Late Archaic Chinese Bisang ,

. - .

Sagart, Baxter, , .

Tongan Broschart

Broschart (1997), Why Tongan does it differently: Categorialdistinctions in a language without nouns and verbs, Linguistic Typology 1, 123-165.

Tongan, , .

. Tongan - type-token .

type . token TAM .

Dixon Fijian Tongan - , Broschart .

Tongan nae alu ()a Sione ki kolo PAST go ABS Sione ALL town

Sione went to town nae kau faiak a e Sias PAST PL teacher:DEF ABS ART Church:DEF

The Church provided the teachers

Broschart

Bisang, Broschart :

(specify) , , .

. (under-specified) .

.

, override .

John sneezed the napkin off the table.

-, - subclass .

- .

. : -, -, -, -; -()

, . .

: . : . : : .

. TAM(tense-aspect-modality/mood) (: , , ) . (copula) . (participle)

.

. (case), (number), (gender), (definiteness) . .

. .

. , . , , , . .

. . TAM . ( )

.

Stassen (1997) (one-place predicate) . , , .

. : : , : ()(subjunctive mood) (definite) : (indefinite)

Stassen (1997)

(semasiological) : / (onomasiological) : /

(event predicate) : He died. (property predicate) : He is honest. (class membership predicate) : He is a boy. (locational predicate) : He is in the room.

, , , entity entity ,

entity( 1 entity) .

(encoding strategy)

(verbal strategy) --

. .

(nominal strategy) (copula) (zero copula) .

. .

(locational strategy) (existential verb) . (location) . .

.

: Biloxi (Siouan) :

Ay -toto 2sg-fall You fall

: Ay -iNhiNotaN 2sg-brave You are brave

: Nk -sto 1sg-boyI am a boy

: wa n -yu-di there 1pl-stand-DUR We were there

: (takeover) , .

, .

, .

, .

(semantic map model)

.

.

(conceptual space)

: -- .

- .

-- .

.

:

. . .

crosslinguistic distribution: 410 : A- V: , N: , L:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

V V V V V V V V V V V N L V V V V V N N V N L N V L V V L N L L 10 28 2 0 0 0 4 67 11 25 9 2 0 32 38 122

21 53 11 2 0 32 42 189

crosslinguistic distribution: 410

: B-, C-

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 V V V V L L L N N N N N L L L L N L N N N N N L L N N N N N N L L L L L L L L N 0 12 1 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 99 136 47 132 8 13 0 0 5 4

99 148 48 141 8 13 0 0 5 4B- C-

: :

A- , . ( 1) . 8 .

, . .

.

Givn (1984: 51-56) , .

B- C- B-

, .

, . C-

. .

. (9, 12, 13, 18) .

(switching)

, .

(splitting): A B

(switching): A B

, .

. , .

; . , .

- - ( ) .

.

, .

, .

adjectival switching

(temporary state)

(permanent property) .

- (Bulygina),

- , - .

.

adjectival V-N-switching

(1) Maori (Austronesian, Poynesian) a. Ka pai te whare nei :

INCEP good ART house this This house is good

b. He pai te koorero : ART.INDEF good ART talk The talk is good

(2) Luo (Nilo-Saharan, West Nilotic) a. -b'r :

1SG-good.NONPERF I am good

b. n m -b'r : 1SG.EMPH NOMNL-good I am good

adjectival V-N-switching

(3) Ngiyambaa (Australian, Pama-Nyungan) a. Birai -ya -na :

hungry-PRES-3SG.ABS He is hungry

b. Bura:y wara:y ga -ra : child.ABS bad.ABS COP-PRES The child is bad

(4) Rama (Chibchan) a. Nsut tiiskiba-dut s -angaling-i :

1PL child -PL 1PL-hungry -PRES We children are hungry

b. Ning suurak mliima : this pineapple good This pineapple is good

adjectival V-N-switching

(5) Samoan (Austronesian, Poynesian) a. Sa ma'i le teine :

PAST ill ART girl The girl was ill

b. Ua leaga le fumoga : PERF bad ART egg The eggs are bad

c. O le fafine le pua'a lea : ABS ART woman ART pig DEM This pig is female

d. O ona fulufulu o le matu auro mam lava : ABS its feather ABS ART EMPH gold pure EMPH Its feathers are (made of) pure gold

adjectival N-L-switching

(6) Spanish (Indo-European, Romance) a. Juan es enfermo :

Juan COP.PRES.3SG ill Juan is ill (i.e. he is an invalid)

b. Juan est enfermo : Juan be.PRES.3SG ill Juan is ill (i.e. he is now ill, but can be expected to recover, or was until recently in

good health)

(7) Southern Basque (isolate) a. Gela hau hotz-a d -a :

room this.ABS.SG hot -ABS.SG 3SG.ABS-COP.PRES This room is hot (permanently)

b. Gela hau hotz-a d -ago : room this.ABS.SG hot -ABS.SG 3SG.ABS-be.PRES This room is hot (for now)

adjectival N-L-switching

(8) Modern Irish (Indo-European, Celtic) a. Is breoite :

COP.PRES ill he He is ill (permanently)

b. T s breoite : be.PRES he ill He is ill (now)

(9) Scottish Gaelic (Indo-European, Celtic) a. Is lidir e :

COP.PRES strong he He is strong (permanently)

b. Tha e lidir : be.PRES he strong He is strong (now)

adjectival N-L-switching

(10) Maltese (Afro-Asiatic, Semitic) a. It -tifel (hu) kwiet :

ART-boy (3SG.MASC) quiet The boy is quiet (in general)

b. It -tifel qieged kwiet : ART-boy be.MASC.SG quiet The boy is (playing at being) quiet

c. It -tifel jinsab kwiet : ART-boy be.MASC.SG quiet The boy happens to be in a quiet state, (but it could very well have been otherwise)

(11) Tamil (Dravidian) a. Raaman nalla-van :

Raaman good-SG.MASC.NOMNL Raaman is good

b. Paam nall -aa iruntatu : film good-ADV be.3SG.NEUT.PAST The film was good

adjectival N-L-switching

(13) Finnish (Uralic, Balto-Finnic) a. Tytt on pieni :

girl.NOM.SG be.3SG.PRES small.NOM.SG The girl is small

b. Hn on sairaa-na : he be.3SG.PRES sick -ESSIVE He is sick (now)

(14) Estonian (Uralic, Balto-Finnic) a. Asjad on halvad :

things be.3SG.PRES bad.SG.NOM Things are bad

b. Asjad on halvasti : things be.3SG.PRES bad.ADV Things are badly (i.e. are going badly, are in a bad state)

adjectival N-L-switching

(15) Archi (Dagestanian) a. Boor hiba -tu w-i :

man 1.good-PCP 1-be.PRES The man is good

b. Boor hiba -i w-i : man 1.good-CONVERB.DUR 1-be.PRES The man is (being) good

(16) Northern Basque (isolate) a. Zakurr-a beltz-a da :

dog -ABS.SG black-ABS.SG 3SG.ABS.PRES.be The dog is black

b. Gizon-a da on -ik : man -ABS.SG 3SG.ABS.PRES.be good-PART.SG The man is good (temporarily)

c. Kontent-ik duzu : glad -PART.SG 3SG.PRES.be He is glad

.

(essence)

, (contingency), (occupationprofession) .

nominal N-L-switching

(20) Modern Irish (Indo-European, Celtic) a. Is minteoir :

COP teacher he He is a teacher

b. T s ina mminteoir anois : be.PRES he in-his teacher now He is a teacher now

(21) Scottish Gaelic (Indo-European, Celtic) a. Is duine lidir e :

COP man strong he He is a strong man

b. Tha e 'na thuathanach : be.PRES he in-his farmer He is a farmer

nominal N-L-switching

(22) Spanish (Indo-European, Romance) a. Julia es enfermera :

Julia COP.3SG.PRES nurse Julia is a nurse

b. Julia est de enfermera : Julia be.3SG.PRES PREP nurse Julia works as a nurse

(23) Maltese (Afro-Asiatic, Semitic) a. Pietru (hu) l -eaminatur :

Pietru (3SG.MASC) ART-examiner Pietru is the examiner

b. Pietru qieged l -eaminatur : Pietru be.PRES.3SG.MASC ART-examiner Pietru is temporarily the examiner

nominal N-L-switching

(24) Tamil (Dravidian) a. Avaru (oru) akar :

he (one) doctor He is a doctor

b. Ippo oru akar-aa taan irukkaraaru : now one doctor -ADV EMPH be.3SG.HON.PRES Now he is a doctor

(25) Finnish (Uralic, Balto-Finnic) a. Ystv-ni on pappi :

friend -my be.3SG.PRES vicar.NOM My friend is a vicar

b. Hn oli siell opettaja-na : he be.3SG.PAST there teacher -ESS He was a teacher there / he worked there as a teacher

nominal V-N-switching

(27) Tongan (Austronesian, Polynesian) a. Ko ha tu'i ia :

FM INDEF.ART king 3SG.EMPH He is a king

b. Ok ne tu'i : PRES 3SG king He is a (possibly temporary) king

(28) Mundari (Austro-Asiatic, Munda) a. Neko dasi tan -a -ko :

3PL servant COP-INDIC-3PL They are servants

b. Dasi -akan-a -ko : servant-PERF-INDIC-3PL They are (acting as) servants

.

(nouny adjective) . , , , , .

(verby adjective) .

Stassen . .

, (tensedness) .

(tensed) . (tenseless) .

400 .

. ( ) .

, , Stassen .

. , .

.

, .

. : .

. , .

: Stassen . . Stassen . -- ,

. > (

) . Stassen .

Dixon (2004)

Stassen .

Stassen Dixon . , , ,

.

(macro linguistic area)

(liquid) 2 (), (, ) .

1 , ( ) .

:

(2007):

. . .

Min-Joo Kim (2002), The Absence of the Adjective Category in Korean, 2 , 596-612.

? ?

. , , . . ,

, (hierarchically) .

Cross-linguistic identification : .

-, - ~, , . ()

conception .

, - differ, know, abound .

cross-linguistic identification .

( ) .

11839

2200 9634+5=9639

() 2 5 -/, -/, -/, -/, -/

, . (relational adjective) : historical, American ( ) .

chemical reaction

() 422-24()-15()-4(, , , ) =

379 1 80 2 203 3 96

1 80 04, , 01, 02, , 03, 02, 03, 04, , , , 01, 02, 02, , , , 02, , 01, , 02, , , 07, , 04, 13, , 01, , 02, , , , 04, 05, 06, 04, 02, 03, 01, 03, 02, 01, , 03, 04, 05, , 01, 01, , 04, 06, , , 01, 01, 01, 01, 01, 01, 03, 02, 02, 03, 01, 01, 03, , 01, 01, 02, 03, , , 01,

1 (color): , , , , 01, , , , , (dimension): , , , , , , 03, , , , ,

, : , : , , , : , , , : 02, 04, , , , : , : , : , , , ; : 03, , , 04, 05, : , , (speed): (value): , , Dixon .

2 203 , , , , , , , , , ,

, , , , , , , , , , 03, 01, 01, , , , , , , 01, , , 01, , , , , , , , , 01, 02, , , 02, , , , 03, , , , , 02, 02, , , , 01, , 01, , , , 03, 01, , 01, 02, , , , 01, 01, , , , , , , , , , , , , , 01, 02, , 02, , , , , , , 03, , , , 03, , , , , , , , , , 02, 02, , , , 02, , , , , , 02, , , , , , , , , , 01, , 01, , , , , , , , , 01, , , , , , 02, 03, , , 01, , , , , , 01, , , , 01, , , , , 01, , 02, 01, , , , 01, , , , 02, , , , , , , , , , , 01, , 02, , , , , , , 01, 02,

3 96 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 01, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 01, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

(complex) X-: 52() + 9627() = 9679 X-: 26() + 13() = 39

.

X- 698 X- 18 X- 7

X- 156 X- 14 X- 7

X- 125 X- 14 X- 7

X- 88 X- 13 X- 7

X- 53 X- 10 X- 6

X- 49 X- 9 X- 6

X- 38 X- 9

X- 30 X- 8 X 24

X- 24 X- 8 X 17

X- 22 X- 7 X-X 35

X- 1: 175

69(39.4%) 106(60.6%) 2: 6083

644(10.6%) 5439(89.4%) 3: 256

146(57.0%) 110(43.0%) 4: 559

130(23.3%) 429(76.7%) 5: 17

10(58.8%) 7(41.2%)

25(1) + 571(2) + 65(3) = 661

2195

1497(68.2%), 698(31.8%) 26: , , , , ,

, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

. 9639

2962(30.7%), 6677(69.3%) 5: , , , ,

11834 4459(37.7%), 7375(62.3%)

21 1999~2001 550

1 37412

2 18102

3 10910

4 9402

5 9058

6 7779

7 5368

8 5147

9 5140

10 3885

11 3741

12 3314

13 2854

14 2837

15 2732

16 2541

17 2419

18 1944

19 1894

20 1794

21 1777

22 1666

23 1635

24 1540

25 1449

26 1344

27 1338

28 1256

29 1237

30 1216

31 1197

32 1186

33 1100

34 1070

35 1069

36 1044

37 1005

38 992

39 948

40 937

41 929

42 901

43 872

44 845

45 832

46 830

47 827

48 815

49 809

50 783

51 766

52 751

53 720

54 711

55 704

56 694

57 694

58 690

59 682

60 678

61 670

62 661

63 635

64 633

65 633

66 633

: , , , , , (dimension): , , , , , , , , , , ,

, , , , , , , , , : , , , , , (value): , , , , , , , ,

, , , (modality): , , , , , : , : , , , (age): , , : , (shape): , , : , , : , , , , , (speed): , (color): , ,

, . Dixon , . ( ) / (productive).

X- () Y-() . () Z- . () X, Y, Z . Y, Z .

: N- / *N- Y: / Z: /

, , , : . .

. , .

Y

-- : 175 -- : 957 - : 1,045

(type frequency) -- : 69 -- : 262 - : 1,882

(token frequency) -- : 2,078 -- : 1,477 - : 20,599

Baayen V: . . P = n1/N

n1 = 1 (hapax legomena) N =

Baayen

V - . P -- - .

V n1 N P

-- 69 19 2078 0.00914

-- 262 118 1477 0.07989

- 1882 751 20599 0.03646

, semantic role, thematic role, -role

[ ] [ ] /.

// / .

, ( ) .

. : 2

Actor, Proto-Agent, Macro-Agent , / , ( ),

Undergoer, Proto-Patient, Macro-Patient , / , ( ),

() Agent , , : . Patient , , : . Theme : . Location : , , . Goal , , : ,

, .

Source , : . Experiencer : . Stimulus : . Criterion : , . Companion : . Content : . Instrument : .

Fillmore , .

: 40 : Goal Final State

.

The door opened. vs. He opened the door. .

, (hierarchy) , .

?

Agent > Experiencer > Theme/Patient > Location/Goal > Source 1 , (co-argument) , .

. . vs. .

(case) , . .

: (declension)/ -- : (conjugation)

() .

4, 6, 5 () .

, , .

( ),

(affix), (clitic), (adposition) .

. (case marker)

. .

nominative / accusative / genitive oblique

/ locative dative allative ablative , , instrumental comitative comparative quotative vocative

.

-, -, - , , .

. syncretism

syncretism

, .

/ / ,

. /

, . Ich half ihm(3, ) Ich gab ihm(3, ) ein Buch

, + / .

(, ) . (, ) . .

( ) , , ( : 1~4) .

: , , ,

.

(grammatical role)

, / .

/ .

cf. Panini .

(grammatical relation), (grammatical function) .

(role) .

, (pragmatic role)/(informational role): /(topic), (focus) Force dynamic role: Protagonist, Antagonist (Talmy 1988/2000) Gestalt role: Figure, Ground (Talmy 2000)

.

. cf. Panini

() vs. () () vs. 3(/)

accusative of extent

(, ) . (, ) .

. dative subject; differential subject marking ()

, , (pause) .

. : , [+] [+] . ( grammatical role, ) .

(predicate): . (subject): . (object): ,

. (complement): . : . : . : .

: +()+: , , : +(): , : +(): , : +(): ~ , ~ ; ~ , ~

: , , , +(): , +()+(): ,

: , +: , 2 +: ,

: , . / , . / , . : , , , +(): , .

, , . .

(, ) . ( ) . , , ( ) .

/

IC , IC (constituent) .

ADN N JK N JK V EM N JK ADV V EP EF

(head) .

ADN N JK N JK V EM N JK ADV V EP EF

. (SOV)

Head-final language .

-, -, - ,

.

, . (=+) ,

.

Celtic . (VSO) , . (SVO)

+, +s, +

.

> > > > .

. .

/ (conjunction reduction) . .

. (relativization)

, . Malagasy .

.

> > > , , .

, (promotion) (demotion) .

(absolutive) > (egative) > >

() linking rules 1. Agent Agent . 2. Agent Experiencer Experiencer . 3. Agent Experiencer Theme Theme .

4. Agent Theme , Agent , Theme .

5. Goal , , . 6. Theme Goal Goal . 7. Source . 8. Criterion . 9. Companion . 10. Content .

(case alignment typology)

. 1 . 2 . ( 1) ( 2)

: S (Actor): A (Undergoer): O/P

( ) .

3 : S A O ( . ) : S = A = O ( . ) : S A = O ( . ) (-) ( . )

S() = A() O() (-) ( . )

A() S() = O() Active(-Inactive/) , Active(-Stative) ( . )

split intransitivity, semantic alignment S SA SO . SA = A SO = O

- . . split ergativity

: , : ,

- : Dyirbal uma banaga-nyu father+ABS return-NONFUT

'father(S) returned' yabu banaga-nyu mother+ABS return-NONFUT

'mother(S) returned' uma yabu-gu bura-n father+ABS mother-ERG see-NONFUT

'mother(A) saw father(O)' yabu uma-gu bura-n mother+ABS father-ERG see-NONFUT

'father(A) saw mother(O)'

Active-Inactive : Lakhota ma -y -kt 1sg+PAT 2sg+AGT kill 'You killed me' -wa -kt 3sg+PAT 1sg+AGT kill 'I killed him' ni - -kt 2sg+PAT 3sg+AGT kill 'He killed you' wa -hi 1sg+AGT arrive 'I arrived' ma -khe 1sg+PAT sick 'I am sick' ya - 2sg+AGT come 'You are coming' ni -hske 2sg+PAT tall 'You are tall'

(alignment) . , S, A, O .

, . .

S, A , O . /indexing . . (syntactic operation) .

, (control), , : John shot Mary, and e died. e . . , Dyirbal , , .

. .

, , 4 - Triangular Theory of Love / ( ) / /Dixon (1977), Where have all the adjectives gone?, Studies in language, 19-80.Dixon (1982), Where have all the adjectives gone? and other essays in semantics and syntax, Berlin: Mouton. Langacker - Langacker (1987), p. 71Langacker (1987), p. 75 25Croft (1991) Croft (1991) 28Croft (2001) radical constructionism Croft (2001) 31 32 : - ?- Mundari - Tongan Broschart Tongan Broschart Bisang, Broschart : 46Stassen (1997) Stassen (1997) (encoding strategy) : Biloxi (Siouan) : (takeover) (semantic map model) : : crosslinguistic distribution: 410 crosslinguistic distribution: 410 B- C- (switching) adjectival switching adjectival V-N-switching adjectival V-N-switching adjectival V-N-switching adjectival N-L-switching adjectival N-L-switching adjectival N-L-switching adjectival N-L-switching adjectival N-L-switching nominal N-L-switching nominal N-L-switching nominal N-L-switching nominal V-N-switching (macro linguistic area) : 84(2007): 87Cross-linguistic identification 1 801 2 2033 96(complex) X- 21 1999~2001 550 Y Baayen , semantic role, thematic role, -role() (case) 107 syncretism /(grammatical role) , , IC (head) () linking rules (case alignment typology) - : DyirbalActive-Inactive : Lakhota(alignment)