-
2016. 3. 11.
-
, (classification) .
, . , .
: ( ) . .
, (class) (parts of speech) (word class) .
-
, , , .
(taxonomy), : , : , : (icon), (index), (symbol) : , , ,
, .
cf. http://weekly.donga.com/docs/magazine/weekly/2013/02/18/2013021805000
27/201302180500027_1.html : , , ,
http://weekly.donga.com/docs/magazine/weekly/2013/02/18/201302180500027/201302180500027_1.html -
.
,
.
, / ,
, , . .
/ ?
-
.
, .
, .
.
, .
-
-
. --, --
(analysis). . . .
-
, , , , . , , 3 , , , .
: , , , (commitment) .
-
.
: : : : : : , , :
-
Triangular Theory of Love
-
.
: , , , , , , , . .
: 1, 2, 3, Origin: , , , , : (, ), ,
( ) , .
/ . ( ?)
? ? (distribution) : / ?
-
/ : ( ), .
: . , : .
: ( ), , .
: -- (, , ) . : -- .
: ( ). : , , (, ) (, , , ).
: . : . : , , .
-
( )
(noun) (pronoun) (numeral)
(verb) (adjective)
(adnominal): , //, (adverb): , ,
(interjection): , , (conjunction): ,
(final ending)
()
(prefinal ending) : -- : --, --, --
-
( ) .
(, ) . A, B, C, .
.
, , (noun) , , , (verb)
, (adjective) (manner), (degree) (adverb)
-
/
.
, ,
/
-
.
, - . ( ) .
, , . . (property) .
/(identification) .
A X B Y
, , .
/ .
-
Givn (1984/2001), Syntax: (time stability)
. ( )
.
Dixon 8~
(dimension), (age), (value), (color) , ,
. , , , , ,
.
-
/
(static) .
(state) (property) .
. , , .
( nouny adjective)
.( verby adjective)
-
Dixon (1977), Where have all the adjectives gone?, Studies in language, 19-80.Dixon (1982), Where have all the adjectives gone? and other essays in semantics and syntax, Berlin: Mouton.
-
Wierzbicka (1986), What's in a noun? (Or: How do nouns differ in meaning from adjectives?), Studies in Language 10-2, 353-389.
, (bundle) .
/ .
-
Langacker -
Langacker (1987), Nouns and Verbs, Language 63-1, 53-94. Also in Langacker (1990), Concepts, Image and Symbol, Mouton de Gruyter,
Chap 3.
Langacker . -, attack
. : sequential scanning : summary scanning
region .
-
Langacker (1987), p. 71
-
Langacker (1987), p. 75
-
Croft (1991) .
.
of N be N
A-ness be A
, , ,
,
-
Croft (1991) () / .
, , , , .
, .
, . , .
+ 4319 13.2% + 186135 15.0%
+ 111200 34.1% + 598807 48.5%
+ 9208 2.8% + 47604 3.8%
+ 162317 49.8% + 401493 32.5%
325920 100% 1234039 100%
-
Croft (2001) radical constructionism Croft ( / )
major word class minor word class / .
major WC minor WC
. .
. . Dryer, LaPolla, Cristofaro .
-
Croft (2001) () (hierarchically) .
. (construction grammar) . major WC minor WC, subclass .
.
. /
. ,
2 .
, .
, .
-
: - ? .
concept: concept:
exotic field work , - .
- . .
-
-
Mundari - Evans & Osada (2005) . - conversion , - .
Tagalog Bloomfield - full word particle . Schachter
Fijian Milner base . Dixon
Wakashan , Salish - .
-
Mundari buru =ko bai -ke -d -a. mountain=3pl.S make-compl-tr-indic
They made the mountain. saan =ko buru -ke -d -a. firewood=3pl.S mountain-compl-tr-indic
They heaped up the firewood. maNDi=ko jom-ke -d-a. food =3pl.S eat -compl-tr-indic
They ate the food. jom=ko nam-ke -d -a. eat=3pl.S get-compl-tr-indic
They got the food.
-
Nootka
i-ma qoas-i be.large-3sg.indicative man-article
The man is large qoas-ma i-i man-3sg.indicative be.large-article
The large one is a man
Fijian e dredre a tuuraga 3sgS laugh article chief
The chief is laughing e tuuraga a tama -qu 3sgS chief article father-1sg.possessor
My father is a chief
-
-
Iroquoian Sasse - Mithun
Classical Nahuatl omni-predicative . - .
Late Archaic Chinese Bisang ,
. - .
Sagart, Baxter, , .
-
Tongan Broschart
Broschart (1997), Why Tongan does it differently: Categorialdistinctions in a language without nouns and verbs, Linguistic Typology 1, 123-165.
Tongan, , .
. Tongan - type-token .
type . token TAM .
Dixon Fijian Tongan - , Broschart .
-
Tongan nae alu ()a Sione ki kolo PAST go ABS Sione ALL town
Sione went to town nae kau faiak a e Sias PAST PL teacher:DEF ABS ART Church:DEF
The Church provided the teachers
-
Broschart
-
Bisang, Broschart :
(specify) , , .
. (under-specified) .
-
.
, override .
John sneezed the napkin off the table.
-, - subclass .
- .
. : -, -, -, -; -()
-
, . .
: . : . : : .
-
. TAM(tense-aspect-modality/mood) (: , , ) . (copula) . (participle)
.
. (case), (number), (gender), (definiteness) . .
. .
-
. , . , , , . .
. . TAM . ( )
.
-
Stassen (1997) (one-place predicate) . , , .
. : : , : ()(subjunctive mood) (definite) : (indefinite)
-
Stassen (1997)
(semasiological) : / (onomasiological) : /
(event predicate) : He died. (property predicate) : He is honest. (class membership predicate) : He is a boy. (locational predicate) : He is in the room.
, , , entity entity ,
entity( 1 entity) .
-
(encoding strategy)
(verbal strategy) --
. .
(nominal strategy) (copula) (zero copula) .
. .
(locational strategy) (existential verb) . (location) . .
.
-
: Biloxi (Siouan) :
Ay -toto 2sg-fall You fall
: Ay -iNhiNotaN 2sg-brave You are brave
: Nk -sto 1sg-boyI am a boy
: wa n -yu-di there 1pl-stand-DUR We were there
-
: (takeover) , .
, .
, .
, .
-
(semantic map model)
.
.
(conceptual space)
-
: -- .
- .
-- .
.
-
:
. . .
-
crosslinguistic distribution: 410 : A- V: , N: , L:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
V V V V V V V V V V V N L V V V V V N N V N L N V L V V L N L L 10 28 2 0 0 0 4 67 11 25 9 2 0 32 38 122
21 53 11 2 0 32 42 189
-
crosslinguistic distribution: 410
: B-, C-
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 V V V V L L L N N N N N L L L L N L N N N N N L L N N N N N N L L L L L L L L N 0 12 1 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 99 136 47 132 8 13 0 0 5 4
99 148 48 141 8 13 0 0 5 4B- C-
-
: :
A- , . ( 1) . 8 .
-
, . .
.
Givn (1984: 51-56) , .
-
B- C- B-
, .
, . C-
. .
. (9, 12, 13, 18) .
-
(switching)
, .
(splitting): A B
(switching): A B
, .
-
. , .
; . , .
- - ( ) .
.
, .
, .
-
adjectival switching
(temporary state)
(permanent property) .
- (Bulygina),
- , - .
.
-
adjectival V-N-switching
(1) Maori (Austronesian, Poynesian) a. Ka pai te whare nei :
INCEP good ART house this This house is good
b. He pai te koorero : ART.INDEF good ART talk The talk is good
(2) Luo (Nilo-Saharan, West Nilotic) a. -b'r :
1SG-good.NONPERF I am good
b. n m -b'r : 1SG.EMPH NOMNL-good I am good
-
adjectival V-N-switching
(3) Ngiyambaa (Australian, Pama-Nyungan) a. Birai -ya -na :
hungry-PRES-3SG.ABS He is hungry
b. Bura:y wara:y ga -ra : child.ABS bad.ABS COP-PRES The child is bad
(4) Rama (Chibchan) a. Nsut tiiskiba-dut s -angaling-i :
1PL child -PL 1PL-hungry -PRES We children are hungry
b. Ning suurak mliima : this pineapple good This pineapple is good
-
adjectival V-N-switching
(5) Samoan (Austronesian, Poynesian) a. Sa ma'i le teine :
PAST ill ART girl The girl was ill
b. Ua leaga le fumoga : PERF bad ART egg The eggs are bad
c. O le fafine le pua'a lea : ABS ART woman ART pig DEM This pig is female
d. O ona fulufulu o le matu auro mam lava : ABS its feather ABS ART EMPH gold pure EMPH Its feathers are (made of) pure gold
-
adjectival N-L-switching
(6) Spanish (Indo-European, Romance) a. Juan es enfermo :
Juan COP.PRES.3SG ill Juan is ill (i.e. he is an invalid)
b. Juan est enfermo : Juan be.PRES.3SG ill Juan is ill (i.e. he is now ill, but can be expected to recover, or was until recently in
good health)
(7) Southern Basque (isolate) a. Gela hau hotz-a d -a :
room this.ABS.SG hot -ABS.SG 3SG.ABS-COP.PRES This room is hot (permanently)
b. Gela hau hotz-a d -ago : room this.ABS.SG hot -ABS.SG 3SG.ABS-be.PRES This room is hot (for now)
-
adjectival N-L-switching
(8) Modern Irish (Indo-European, Celtic) a. Is breoite :
COP.PRES ill he He is ill (permanently)
b. T s breoite : be.PRES he ill He is ill (now)
(9) Scottish Gaelic (Indo-European, Celtic) a. Is lidir e :
COP.PRES strong he He is strong (permanently)
b. Tha e lidir : be.PRES he strong He is strong (now)
-
adjectival N-L-switching
(10) Maltese (Afro-Asiatic, Semitic) a. It -tifel (hu) kwiet :
ART-boy (3SG.MASC) quiet The boy is quiet (in general)
b. It -tifel qieged kwiet : ART-boy be.MASC.SG quiet The boy is (playing at being) quiet
c. It -tifel jinsab kwiet : ART-boy be.MASC.SG quiet The boy happens to be in a quiet state, (but it could very well have been otherwise)
(11) Tamil (Dravidian) a. Raaman nalla-van :
Raaman good-SG.MASC.NOMNL Raaman is good
b. Paam nall -aa iruntatu : film good-ADV be.3SG.NEUT.PAST The film was good
-
adjectival N-L-switching
(13) Finnish (Uralic, Balto-Finnic) a. Tytt on pieni :
girl.NOM.SG be.3SG.PRES small.NOM.SG The girl is small
b. Hn on sairaa-na : he be.3SG.PRES sick -ESSIVE He is sick (now)
(14) Estonian (Uralic, Balto-Finnic) a. Asjad on halvad :
things be.3SG.PRES bad.SG.NOM Things are bad
b. Asjad on halvasti : things be.3SG.PRES bad.ADV Things are badly (i.e. are going badly, are in a bad state)
-
adjectival N-L-switching
(15) Archi (Dagestanian) a. Boor hiba -tu w-i :
man 1.good-PCP 1-be.PRES The man is good
b. Boor hiba -i w-i : man 1.good-CONVERB.DUR 1-be.PRES The man is (being) good
(16) Northern Basque (isolate) a. Zakurr-a beltz-a da :
dog -ABS.SG black-ABS.SG 3SG.ABS.PRES.be The dog is black
b. Gizon-a da on -ik : man -ABS.SG 3SG.ABS.PRES.be good-PART.SG The man is good (temporarily)
c. Kontent-ik duzu : glad -PART.SG 3SG.PRES.be He is glad
-
.
(essence)
, (contingency), (occupationprofession) .
-
nominal N-L-switching
(20) Modern Irish (Indo-European, Celtic) a. Is minteoir :
COP teacher he He is a teacher
b. T s ina mminteoir anois : be.PRES he in-his teacher now He is a teacher now
(21) Scottish Gaelic (Indo-European, Celtic) a. Is duine lidir e :
COP man strong he He is a strong man
b. Tha e 'na thuathanach : be.PRES he in-his farmer He is a farmer
-
nominal N-L-switching
(22) Spanish (Indo-European, Romance) a. Julia es enfermera :
Julia COP.3SG.PRES nurse Julia is a nurse
b. Julia est de enfermera : Julia be.3SG.PRES PREP nurse Julia works as a nurse
(23) Maltese (Afro-Asiatic, Semitic) a. Pietru (hu) l -eaminatur :
Pietru (3SG.MASC) ART-examiner Pietru is the examiner
b. Pietru qieged l -eaminatur : Pietru be.PRES.3SG.MASC ART-examiner Pietru is temporarily the examiner
-
nominal N-L-switching
(24) Tamil (Dravidian) a. Avaru (oru) akar :
he (one) doctor He is a doctor
b. Ippo oru akar-aa taan irukkaraaru : now one doctor -ADV EMPH be.3SG.HON.PRES Now he is a doctor
(25) Finnish (Uralic, Balto-Finnic) a. Ystv-ni on pappi :
friend -my be.3SG.PRES vicar.NOM My friend is a vicar
b. Hn oli siell opettaja-na : he be.3SG.PAST there teacher -ESS He was a teacher there / he worked there as a teacher
-
nominal V-N-switching
(27) Tongan (Austronesian, Polynesian) a. Ko ha tu'i ia :
FM INDEF.ART king 3SG.EMPH He is a king
b. Ok ne tu'i : PRES 3SG king He is a (possibly temporary) king
(28) Mundari (Austro-Asiatic, Munda) a. Neko dasi tan -a -ko :
3PL servant COP-INDIC-3PL They are servants
b. Dasi -akan-a -ko : servant-PERF-INDIC-3PL They are (acting as) servants
-
.
(nouny adjective) . , , , , .
(verby adjective) .
-
Stassen . .
, (tensedness) .
(tensed) . (tenseless) .
400 .
-
. ( ) .
, , Stassen .
. , .
.
-
, .
. : .
. , .
: Stassen . . Stassen . -- ,
. > (
) . Stassen .
-
Dixon (2004)
Stassen .
Stassen Dixon . , , ,
.
-
(macro linguistic area)
(liquid) 2 (), (, ) .
1 , ( ) .
-
:
-
(2007):
-
. . .
Min-Joo Kim (2002), The Absence of the Adjective Category in Korean, 2 , 596-612.
? ?
. , , . . ,
, (hierarchically) .
-
Cross-linguistic identification : .
-, - ~, , . ()
conception .
, - differ, know, abound .
cross-linguistic identification .
( ) .
-
11839
2200 9634+5=9639
() 2 5 -/, -/, -/, -/, -/
, . (relational adjective) : historical, American ( ) .
chemical reaction
() 422-24()-15()-4(, , , ) =
379 1 80 2 203 3 96
-
1 80 04, , 01, 02, , 03, 02, 03, 04, , , , 01, 02, 02, , , , 02, , 01, , 02, , , 07, , 04, 13, , 01, , 02, , , , 04, 05, 06, 04, 02, 03, 01, 03, 02, 01, , 03, 04, 05, , 01, 01, , 04, 06, , , 01, 01, 01, 01, 01, 01, 03, 02, 02, 03, 01, 01, 03, , 01, 01, 02, 03, , , 01,
-
1 (color): , , , , 01, , , , , (dimension): , , , , , , 03, , , , ,
, : , : , , , : , , , : 02, 04, , , , : , : , : , , , ; : 03, , , 04, 05, : , , (speed): (value): , , Dixon .
-
2 203 , , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , , 03, 01, 01, , , , , , , 01, , , 01, , , , , , , , , 01, 02, , , 02, , , , 03, , , , , 02, 02, , , , 01, , 01, , , , 03, 01, , 01, 02, , , , 01, 01, , , , , , , , , , , , , , 01, 02, , 02, , , , , , , 03, , , , 03, , , , , , , , , , 02, 02, , , , 02, , , , , , 02, , , , , , , , , , 01, , 01, , , , , , , , , 01, , , , , , 02, 03, , , 01, , , , , , 01, , , , 01, , , , , 01, , 02, 01, , , , 01, , , , 02, , , , , , , , , , , 01, , 02, , , , , , , 01, 02,
-
3 96 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 01, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 01, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
-
(complex) X-: 52() + 9627() = 9679 X-: 26() + 13() = 39
.
X- 698 X- 18 X- 7
X- 156 X- 14 X- 7
X- 125 X- 14 X- 7
X- 88 X- 13 X- 7
X- 53 X- 10 X- 6
X- 49 X- 9 X- 6
X- 38 X- 9
X- 30 X- 8 X 24
X- 24 X- 8 X 17
X- 22 X- 7 X-X 35
-
X- 1: 175
69(39.4%) 106(60.6%) 2: 6083
644(10.6%) 5439(89.4%) 3: 256
146(57.0%) 110(43.0%) 4: 559
130(23.3%) 429(76.7%) 5: 17
10(58.8%) 7(41.2%)
25(1) + 571(2) + 65(3) = 661
-
2195
1497(68.2%), 698(31.8%) 26: , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
. 9639
2962(30.7%), 6677(69.3%) 5: , , , ,
11834 4459(37.7%), 7375(62.3%)
-
21 1999~2001 550
1 37412
2 18102
3 10910
4 9402
5 9058
6 7779
7 5368
8 5147
9 5140
10 3885
11 3741
12 3314
13 2854
14 2837
15 2732
16 2541
17 2419
18 1944
19 1894
20 1794
21 1777
22 1666
23 1635
24 1540
25 1449
26 1344
27 1338
28 1256
29 1237
30 1216
31 1197
32 1186
33 1100
34 1070
35 1069
36 1044
37 1005
38 992
39 948
40 937
41 929
42 901
43 872
44 845
45 832
46 830
47 827
48 815
49 809
50 783
51 766
52 751
53 720
54 711
55 704
56 694
57 694
58 690
59 682
60 678
61 670
62 661
63 635
64 633
65 633
66 633
-
: , , , , , (dimension): , , , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , : , , , , , (value): , , , , , , , ,
, , , (modality): , , , , , : , : , , , (age): , , : , (shape): , , : , , : , , , , , (speed): , (color): , ,
-
, . Dixon , . ( ) / (productive).
X- () Y-() . () Z- . () X, Y, Z . Y, Z .
: N- / *N- Y: / Z: /
, , , : . .
. , .
-
Y
-- : 175 -- : 957 - : 1,045
(type frequency) -- : 69 -- : 262 - : 1,882
(token frequency) -- : 2,078 -- : 1,477 - : 20,599
Baayen V: . . P = n1/N
n1 = 1 (hapax legomena) N =
-
Baayen
V - . P -- - .
V n1 N P
-- 69 19 2078 0.00914
-- 262 118 1477 0.07989
- 1882 751 20599 0.03646
-
, semantic role, thematic role, -role
[ ] [ ] /.
// / .
, ( ) .
. : 2
Actor, Proto-Agent, Macro-Agent , / , ( ),
Undergoer, Proto-Patient, Macro-Patient , / , ( ),
-
() Agent , , : . Patient , , : . Theme : . Location : , , . Goal , , : ,
, .
Source , : . Experiencer : . Stimulus : . Criterion : , . Companion : . Content : . Instrument : .
-
Fillmore , .
: 40 : Goal Final State
.
The door opened. vs. He opened the door. .
-
, (hierarchy) , .
?
Agent > Experiencer > Theme/Patient > Location/Goal > Source 1 , (co-argument) , .
. . vs. .
-
(case) , . .
: (declension)/ -- : (conjugation)
() .
4, 6, 5 () .
, , .
-
( ),
(affix), (clitic), (adposition) .
. (case marker)
. .
-
nominative / accusative / genitive oblique
/ locative dative allative ablative , , instrumental comitative comparative quotative vocative
-
.
-, -, - , , .
. syncretism
-
syncretism
, .
-
/ / ,
. /
, . Ich half ihm(3, ) Ich gab ihm(3, ) ein Buch
, + / .
(, ) . (, ) . .
( ) , , ( : 1~4) .
: , , ,
.
-
(grammatical role)
, / .
/ .
cf. Panini .
(grammatical relation), (grammatical function) .
(role) .
, (pragmatic role)/(informational role): /(topic), (focus) Force dynamic role: Protagonist, Antagonist (Talmy 1988/2000) Gestalt role: Figure, Ground (Talmy 2000)
-
.
. cf. Panini
() vs. () () vs. 3(/)
accusative of extent
(, ) . (, ) .
. dative subject; differential subject marking ()
-
, , (pause) .
. : , [+] [+] . ( grammatical role, ) .
(predicate): . (subject): . (object): ,
. (complement): . : . : . : .
-
: +()+: , , : +(): , : +(): , : +(): ~ , ~ ; ~ , ~
: , , , +(): , +()+(): ,
: , +: , 2 +: ,
: , . / , . / , . : , , , +(): , .
-
, , . .
(, ) . ( ) . , , ( ) .
/
-
IC , IC (constituent) .
ADN N JK N JK V EM N JK ADV V EP EF
-
(head) .
ADN N JK N JK V EM N JK ADV V EP EF
-
. (SOV)
Head-final language .
-, -, - ,
.
, . (=+) ,
.
Celtic . (VSO) , . (SVO)
+, +s, +
-
.
> > > > .
. .
/ (conjunction reduction) . .
. (relativization)
, . Malagasy .
-
.
> > > , , .
, (promotion) (demotion) .
(absolutive) > (egative) > >
-
() linking rules 1. Agent Agent . 2. Agent Experiencer Experiencer . 3. Agent Experiencer Theme Theme .
4. Agent Theme , Agent , Theme .
5. Goal , , . 6. Theme Goal Goal . 7. Source . 8. Criterion . 9. Companion . 10. Content .
-
(case alignment typology)
. 1 . 2 . ( 1) ( 2)
: S (Actor): A (Undergoer): O/P
( ) .
-
3 : S A O ( . ) : S = A = O ( . ) : S A = O ( . ) (-) ( . )
S() = A() O() (-) ( . )
A() S() = O() Active(-Inactive/) , Active(-Stative) ( . )
split intransitivity, semantic alignment S SA SO . SA = A SO = O
- . . split ergativity
: , : ,
-
- : Dyirbal uma banaga-nyu father+ABS return-NONFUT
'father(S) returned' yabu banaga-nyu mother+ABS return-NONFUT
'mother(S) returned' uma yabu-gu bura-n father+ABS mother-ERG see-NONFUT
'mother(A) saw father(O)' yabu uma-gu bura-n mother+ABS father-ERG see-NONFUT
'father(A) saw mother(O)'
-
Active-Inactive : Lakhota ma -y -kt 1sg+PAT 2sg+AGT kill 'You killed me' -wa -kt 3sg+PAT 1sg+AGT kill 'I killed him' ni - -kt 2sg+PAT 3sg+AGT kill 'He killed you' wa -hi 1sg+AGT arrive 'I arrived' ma -khe 1sg+PAT sick 'I am sick' ya - 2sg+AGT come 'You are coming' ni -hske 2sg+PAT tall 'You are tall'
-
(alignment) . , S, A, O .
, . .
S, A , O . /indexing . . (syntactic operation) .
, (control), , : John shot Mary, and e died. e . . , Dyirbal , , .
. .
, , 4 - Triangular Theory of Love / ( ) / /Dixon (1977), Where have all the adjectives gone?, Studies in language, 19-80.Dixon (1982), Where have all the adjectives gone? and other essays in semantics and syntax, Berlin: Mouton. Langacker - Langacker (1987), p. 71Langacker (1987), p. 75 25Croft (1991) Croft (1991) 28Croft (2001) radical constructionism Croft (2001) 31 32 : - ?- Mundari - Tongan Broschart Tongan Broschart Bisang, Broschart : 46Stassen (1997) Stassen (1997) (encoding strategy) : Biloxi (Siouan) : (takeover) (semantic map model) : : crosslinguistic distribution: 410 crosslinguistic distribution: 410 B- C- (switching) adjectival switching adjectival V-N-switching adjectival V-N-switching adjectival V-N-switching adjectival N-L-switching adjectival N-L-switching adjectival N-L-switching adjectival N-L-switching adjectival N-L-switching nominal N-L-switching nominal N-L-switching nominal N-L-switching nominal V-N-switching (macro linguistic area) : 84(2007): 87Cross-linguistic identification 1 801 2 2033 96(complex) X- 21 1999~2001 550 Y Baayen , semantic role, thematic role, -role() (case) 107 syncretism /(grammatical role) , , IC (head) () linking rules (case alignment typology) - : DyirbalActive-Inactive : Lakhota(alignment)