378 Australian Dental Journal, October, 1977

Volume 22, No. 5

Educational technology in the teaching of importance of objectives

dentistry: the

L. Stevens, M.D.Sc., Dip.App.Ed.Tech.(York)

Lecturer in Restorative Dentistry, University of Queensland

ABSTRACT-A description of educational technology is given and the importance of establish- ing clear teaching-learning objectives is related to curriculum, evaluation and teaching methods.

(Received for publicatiori September, 1976)

Introduction Educational technology, in the widest sense, can

be described as a systematic approach aimed at effecting improvement in teaching and learning. In this sense i t is as broad as education itself. However, particular but inter-related aspects of educational technology can be identified and can predominate in certain teaching-learning situations. These aspects relate to curriculum, teaching-learn- ing methods and evaluation. Which aspect pre- dominates varies between and within teaching- learning situations according to the situation, at all levels from pre-school to post-graduate educa- tion. Although variation occurs, the factor of systematic approach remains common to all aspects.

Systematic approaches have been and are ad- opted in university dental school, but are the sys- tems as conducive as they might be with respect to determining the need for and the implementa- tion of various types of improvement in teaching and learning?

Analogy with scientific method The systematic approach of educational tech-

nology is somewhat analogous to scientific method and its different aspects can be identified in the analogy. Relating scientific method to teaching in dental schools: the aim is to teach students dental practice, the hypothesis is that certain teaching-learning experiences will achieve this aim, the experiment is to subject students to these teach- ing-learning experiences, the results indicate the

validity of the hypothesis. The results can be dis- cussed and conclusions may be drawn from them. The aim, the teaching-learning experiences em- ployed and the results, together with discussion and any conclusions, correspond to curriculum, teaching-learning methods, and evaluation respectively.

Curriculum objectives In dentistry the course of study and training is

divided into subject areas each with its own aim. Further subdivision occurs within each subject area until very specific aims are reached at the individual class level. As aims become more specific their nature changes. Curriculum or course aims indicate in general terms what is to be taught whereas the very specific aims of an individual class indicate what a student is to learn. For ex- ample, a dental curriculum might aim at providing students with knowledge, training, and attitudes to enable them to engage successfully in the practice of dentistry. At the individual class level one of the aims might be that students understand and can define a certain term. This is a most specific aim and clearly indicates what the student should learn. With this shift of emphasis to student learn- ing an aim becomes an objective.

The formulation of objectives allows a system- atic examination of a curriculum to be made. For example, objectives can be ranked in order of importance, sequentially arranged and designed, and where the curriculum embraces different sub- ject areas, duplication and omission of subject

Australian Dental Journal, October, 1977

matter can be avoided and an integrated curriculum developed.

The formulation of objectives also provides a basis for course evaluation and student assessment. The degree of achievement of objectives con- stitutes an evaluation of the effectiveness of the teaching-learning programme. However, due to the different nature of objectives, their achievement cannot always be measured precisely (for example, in numerical terms) so that other evidence must be considered in concluding whether or not object- ives have been attained.

If a dental curriculum aims at providing students with knowledge, skills and attitudes, then three different types of objectives exist. These are cog- nitive, psychomotor and affective respectively. An example of a cognitive objective is for students to understand and define terms. The achievement of such an objective can be measured by asking students to define and explain the difference be- tween terms (for example, occlusion and articula- tion). This measurement can be made quite ac- curately. However, it is difficult to measure the achievement of cognitive objectives that involve originality of thought.

Similar difficulties are experienced in measur- ing the achievement of psychomotor objectives. For example, a set up for complete maxillary and man- dibular dentures can be measured according to certain criteria; these criteria are in fact objectives. However other criteria, such as overall effect and neatness, cannot be measured easily.

Affective objectives defy measurement. For ex- ample, how can a student’s attitude towards his patient be measured?

While measurement may not be possible in these areas of difficulty, judgments can be made and given a value. Thus measurement and judgment values can be combined in evaluating the achieve- ment of objectives.

Assessment of students by test and examination is only one way of evaluating a course; that is, the achievement of the objectives of the course. In evaluating by assessment, consideration must be given to variation in capability between students as well as difficulty between objectives. Should assessment show that few students are achieving the objectives of the course, it could be that many students are of low calibre or that the objectives are too difficult. In either case, corrective action is indicated. Regarding students, the objectives of prerequisite courses should be reconsidered to see that they provide an adequate basis for the sub- sequent course. Regarding difficulty of objectives, these should be reconsidered to see if they are appropriate to students a t that stage of the course. Assessment of students is not a direct measure

379

of course evaluation and must be interpreted and considered together with other information in arriving at an evaluation.

An evaluation should be a full description, based on statistics where possible, and supported by other information including judgments, opinions, and perceptions. Ideally, an evaluation should per- mit predictions and generalizations to be made. Proper evaluation of a course should be carried out by experts, perhaps a team of experts, with skills in specialized aspects of education. Proper evaluation might require the development of ap- propriate new evaluatory techniques. An individual lecturer generally cannot make such an in-depth evaluation. However, sources of information to consider in conjunction with assessment to arrive at an adequate work-a-day evaluation, include the judgments, opinions and perceptions obtained by oneself, colleagues and students. There should be regular discussion within staff and between staff and students. With respect to the latter, assessment can provide a useful basis.

Assessment and grading Assessment should be differentiated from grad-

ing. Grading involves placing a value on a student’s worth, whereas assessment determines whether or not a student attains objectives. In extended courses it is sometimes the case that a student does not attain objectives in the early part of the course but does so in the latter part. At the end oE the course such a student might be worth more than a student who attained all of the objectives. Assess- ment, while it can form a basis for grading, should be used only as an aid to grading.

Grading should be determined primarily by properly conducted examinations. Such an exam- ination should contain all or a representative sample of the objectives of the course, impose as little stress as possible on the candidate, comprise objective questions wherever possible to enable more consistent marking and should rank students in order based on set criteria. All of these require- ments are met to a greater or lesser degree if objectives are formulated and utilized. Regarding the first requirement, it is unlikely that an exam- ination could embrace all of the objectives but a representative sample could readily be obtained from clearly defined objectives. Stress would be reduced if the student is aware, as he should be, of the objectives of the course. Questions based on objectives could be more consistently marked and objectives in themselves would constitute criteria for ranking.

leaching-learning methods and objectives Educational technology is also described as the

systematic application of old and new resources in

380 Australian Dental Journal, October, 1977

ways that aid and enhance the purposes of educa- tion. This description shifts the emphasis more to the design and execution of teaching methods which is the second aspect of educational tech- nology identified in the analogy with scientific method. It is this aspect of educational technology which is likely t o be of greatest concern to the individual lecturer, and objectives, again, are fun- damental to this aspect.

Objectives to be considered in designing a teach- ing-learning situation must include the objectives of prerequisite subjects which determine the start- ing point in the subsequent situation. The starting point should be chosen so that the class of students is as homogeneous as possible with respect to pre- requisite knowledge. The nature of the objectives defined might suggest a logical sequence in which they should be presented from the starting point.

The use of a certain sequence may be prevented or constrained in some way. For example, in the teaching-learning of complete denture construction, a suitable starting point might be when students have attained the objectives of a course in the science of the materials used in denture construc- tion and the sequence chosen might be to follow the clinical and laboratory stages of construction. This sequence is often not practicable regarding the clinical stages. As a result, the laboratory techniques of denture construction are often taught before the student commences clinical work. How- ever, despite this constraint, the sequence can be followed by demonstrating the clinical stages in one way or another.

A preclinical course in complete denture con- struction might aim for students to gain know- ledge and to develop skills appropriate to denture construction, to relate aspects of the materials used to denture construction and to prepare for future clinical work. The needs ol the students must be considered in developing sequential objectives de- rived from these aims and, in this example, the sequence that meets the needs of the students is not necessarily that of the clinical and laboratory stages of construction. A more logical learning sequence might be to start with the completed denture.

In adopting this approach, the initial objectives might be to introduce the course, describe com- plete dentures, describe features of dentures and denture wearers clinically, and to define terms. These objectives could be dealt with in one class. The objectives of the next class might be to de- scribe, in sequence, the clinical and laboratory stages in denture construction. At this point, a logical learning sequence might be to deal with movements of the mandible followed by jaw re-

lationships. By commencing with the completed denture the student would obtain an initial general appreciation of complete dentures which would form a basis for more detailed study later in the course and would help to integrate the details into the whole.

A preclinical course in complete denture con- struction involves practical technique work. The sequence of objectives in the practical component may not need to be in step with theoretical or other aspects dealt with in class. However bridging between the practical and theoretical objectives should occur and ensure mutual support and re- inforcement. For example, a bridge between the two components could be established by the first non-practical class introducing the course, describ- ing complete dentures, describing features of dent- ures and denture wearers clinically, and defining terms; being complemented in the first practical class by requiring students to remove artificial porcelain teeth from complete dentures, identify them and arrange them according to their anatomy.

Following this initial bridge, the practical and non-practical components could diverge to reunite by bridging later. For example, the second non- practical class might concern the sequence of clinical and laboratory stages in the construction of complete dentures, the third might deal with movements of the mandible, and the fourth with jaw relationships. At this point another bridge could occur if the second practical class dealt with the construction of impression trays, the third with the construction of contour models and the fourth with recording jaw relationships from a phantom head or master articulator.

The pacing of the learning affects the sequence particularly in practical classes and can constitute a problem. The less dextrous student will either not attain all objectives or attain them at a low level if the pacing is too fast. Although dexterity is to a large extent an innate quality, experience with students suggests that often the less dextrous student at the commencement of a practical course becomes quite dextrous, given time. It is desirable to establish a starting point related to previous psychomotor objectives, but, where students are involved in practical work for the first time, the only alternative appears to be the use of a reliable test of dexterityl. A class more homogeneous with respect to dexterity might alleviate Some of the problems associated with pace and sequence.

Students achieve the psychomotor objectives of

1Deubert L. W Smith M C Jenkins C B. and Berry D. d.-The*\electioh oi dzntal stud&. A' ilot stud; of an assessment of potential manual ability !y psycho- metric tests. Brit. D. J., 139:5. 167-170 (Sept. 2) 1975.

Australian Dental Journal, October, 1977 381

practical classes by guided discovery. Even if every member of the class possessed the same dexterity, it would be unreasonable to expect them to dis- cover (attain) the objectives at the same rate. An obvious way to help the slower students is to allow them sufficient time to attain the objectives, within reason, a t their own pace. This solution is often difficult because of limitations of staff and facili- ties. Every endeavour should be made to provide remedial teaching facilities although this does not mean that slow students need more expository teaching. The nature of the psychomotor objectives indicates a teaching strategy based on guided dis- covery where the guidance is appropriate but brief.

Appropriate guidance may be given using dif- ferent teaching methods. Some students respond more to a live demonstration while others do better following a written instruction sheet. Hence, to guide as many students as possible, a variety of teaching methods should be used by utilizing old and new resources.

This brings us back to our second description of educational technology and it is the use of new resources which is often a particular problem for the individual lecturer. However, by carefully specifying objectives, the mode of teaching and the media to be employed within that mode be- comes reasonably obvious.

Again, consider the example of teaching-learning of complete denture construction. Objectives of the first non-practical class were to introduce the course, describe complete dentures, describe features of dentures and denture wearers clinically, and define terms. The mode to employ for the first objective is clearly human interaction sup- ported, perhaps, by a printed handout describing the course. The second and third objectives demand real or tangible things. This could be accomplished, for the second objective, by giving each student a set of complete dentures to which they could refer during a verbal description supported by illustrations on black board, overhead projector or slides. In addition, a printed, illustrated hand- out could be prepared describing complete dent- ures. It might not be possible to provide tangibles for the third objective but a suitable alternative would be pictorial representation and the medium used to present this mode could be slides, cine film or colour television. Using the pictorial mode, dentures could be viewed in position; patient ap- pearance could be seen with and without dentures;

2 Stananought. D.-Im act of educational technology on dental instruction. grit. D. J.. 139:s. 191-192 (Sept. 2) 1975.

centre line, high lip line, low lip line, cuspid line, occlusal plane, and chewing cycle could all be shown. The final objective, defining terms, would be partially achieved in the preceding objectives and could be completed by the teacher supported by an illustrated, printed hand-out. That is, this first non-practical class could be given in a lecture theatre equipped with what should be standard equipment.

It would be true to say that the teaching ob- jectives of Dental Technology suggest that tangible and pictorial representation, which can be a good substitute, are the two most suitable modes. Given no constraints, tangibles would be th,e first choice. However, many factors preclude this and pictorial representation is the most suitable substitute. The choice of media to use within this mode is affected by many constraints but, despite these, there ap- pears no doubt that suitable colour television fac- ilities will prove to be essential in dental schools. Indeed some of the constraints may actually re- sult in the adoption of television as a teaching- learning medium. Many difficulties can arise in the adoption of this medium and educational tech- no!ogy has a role to play in preventing and alleviat- ing these difficulties as well as other roles in training and education of dental students*.

Summary The formulation of teaching-learning objectives

is fundamental to teaching-learning and forms the basis of educational technology. Specific objectives allow more thorough examination of and determin- ation of teaching content and in addition allow more meaningful interaction to occur between courses regarding content and other aspects of re- lated courses. They indicate the intention of the teaching to the students and allow communication to occur between lecturer and student on specific aspects. They also form a basis for student assess- ment, course evaluation, and grading by examina- tion. With regard to teaching-learning methods, objectives are a guide to designing a course sequentially, bridging and arranging of the inter- vals into sequences. They also assist in the choice of the most suitable mode and medium in de- veloping teaching methods. These aspects of object- ives can be applied to the teaching of Dental Technology and some applications have been suggested.

University of Queensland, Dental School, Turbot Street,

Brisbane, Qld., 4000.