Economic Development of Japan

No.4 Meiji 2&3

Meiji Mura

Cum

ulat

ive

hist

ory,

Edo

ach

ieve

men

ts,

nati

onal

uni

ty a

nd n

atio

nali

sm

Private-sector dynamism and entrepreneurship

(primary force)

Policy support(supplementary)

Japan’s economic growth was driven mainly by private dynamism while policy was also helpful

Policy was generally successful despite criticisms:--Power monopoly by former Satsuma & Choshu politicians--Privatization scandal, 1881--Excessively pro-West--Unfair by today’s standard

Rapid industrialization esp. Meiji and post WW2 period

P.56

Chronology of Meiji Industrialization1870s - Monetary confusion and inflation US banking system adopted with little success

Printing money to suppress Saigo’s Rebellion (1877)

Early 1880s - Matsukata DeflationStopping inflation, creating central bank (Bank of Japan)Landless peasants & urban poor (“proletariat”) emerge

Late 1880s - First company boomOsaka Spinning Company and its followers

Series of company booms (late 1890s, late 1900s, WW1)

Postwar management (after J-China War & J-Russia War)Fiscal spending continued even after war BoP crisisActive infrastructure building (local gov’ts) & military

buildup

Masayoshi Matsukata(Councilor of Finance)

PP.57-58

P.230

Rice Price per Koku (Yen/ 150kg)

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

2500018

73

1876

1879

1882

1885

1888

1891

1894

1897

1900

1903

1906

1909

1912

Matsukata deflation

Source: Management and Coordination Agency, Historical Statistics of Japan, Vol.4, 1988.

Inflation in Meiji Period

0

50

100

150

200

25018

73

1874

1875

1876

1877

1878

1879

1880

1881

1882

1883

1884

1885

1886

1887

1888

1889

1890

Money in circulation(million yen)

Rice price(1868=100)

Matsukatadeflation

Saigo's Rebellion

Money and Inflation in Early Meiji

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1884

1885

1886

1887

1888

1889

1890

1891

1892

BankingTransportCommerceIndustryAgriculture

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1884

1885

1886

1887

1888

1889

1890

1891

1892

BankingTransportCommerceIndustryAgriculture

First Company Boom

Number of companies

Legal capital (million yen)

Yoshio Ando ed, Databook on Modern Japanese Economic History, 2rd ed, Tokyo Univ. Press, 1979.

Technology Transfer

Technical Experts(Graduates of Technical Univs. & High Schools)

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

1880 1890 1900 1910 1920

Private sector

Public sector

PP.62-65

1. Foreign advisors (public and private sector)

2. Engineering education (studying abroad, Institute of Technology; technical high schools)

3. Copy production, reverse engineering, technical cooperation agreements (esp. automobiles, electrical machinery); sogo shosha (trading companies) often intermediated such cooperation

Private-sector experts, 1910 Mining 513 (18.0%) Textile 300 (10.6%) Shipbuilding 250 (8.8%) Power & gas 231 (8.1%) Trading 186 (6.5%) Railroad 149 (5.2%) Food 149 (5.2%) TOTAL 2,843 (100%)

Studying Abroad (Early Engineers)

• First students: bakufu sent 7 students to Netherlands in 1862 (naval training)

• By 1880s, 80 Japanese studied engineering abroad (shipbuilding, mechanics, civil engineering, mining & metallurgy, military, chemistry)

• Destination: UK (28), US (20), France (14), Germany (9), Netherlands (8)

• They received top-class education and could easily replace foreigners after coming back

• They mostly worked in government (no modern private industries existed at first)—Ministry of Interior, MoF, Army, Navy, Ministry of Industry

P.64

• 1871 Koburyo of Ministry of Industry; 1877 renamed to Kobu Daigakko; 1886 merged with Tokyo Imperial University (under Ministry of Education)

• First President: Henry Dyer (British engineer) with philosophy “judicious combination of theory and practice”

• Preparatory course (2 years), specialized studies (2 years), internship (2 years) + government-funded overseas study for top students

• 8 courses: civil engineering, mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, telecommunication, chemistry, architecture, metallurgy, mining (classes in English)

• Producing top-class engineers (import substitution)—Tanabe Sakuro (designer of Biwako-Kyoto irrigation canal & power generation); Tatsuno Kingo (builder of Tokyo Station, BOJ, Nara Hotel, etc.)

P.64Kobu Daigakko 工部大学校 (Institute of Technology)

Parallel development or “hybrid technology”

Employment Structure of Prewar J apan

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1885

-90

1890

-95

1895

-00

1900

-05

1905

-10

1910

-15

1915

-20

1920

-25

1925

-30

1930

-35

Indigenous (trade &service)

Indigenous(manufacturing)

Modern industries

Agri, forestry,fishery

Manufacturing: Share of Output

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1885

-90

1890

-95

1895

-00

1900

-05

1905

-10

1910

-15

1915

-20

1920

-25

1925

-30

1930

-35

1935

-40

Modernindustries

Indigenousindustries

PP.65-67

Small Large

Indigenous I I*Modern M* M

* indicates hybrid status

Tec

hnol

ogy

Factory size

Neoclassical Labor MarketDuration of Male Employment in Manufacturing

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

< 1 1 2 3- 4 5- 6 7- 9 10>

Years

Per

cent

1902

1912

PP.79-80

Japanese workers:--Too much job hopping, do not stay with

one company--Lack of discipline, low saving--Barrier to industrialization Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce,

Survey of Industrial Workers, 1901.

Female domestic workers:--Urban industrialization and rural poverty and labor surplus female migration from villages to cities--End of Meiji to early Showa were the peak period of jochu (housemaid)--17.5% of non-farm female workforce, second largest after textile workers (1930)--5.7% of households hired jochu (1930)--There were both young and old jochu, some living-in and others commuting--International comparison (female non-farm employment share): UK 1851 (11.4%), US 1910 (11.8%), Thailand 1960 (10.6%), Philippines 1975 (34.3%)

Source: Konosuke Odaka, “Dual Structure,” 1989.

Wage: Gender Gap

　 Farm employment Textile weavers Domestic servants　 Sen per day Sen per day Yen per month

　 MaleFemal

eF/M % Male

Female

F/M % MaleFemal

eF/M %

1885 15.1 9.7 64.2% 12.3 7.5 61.0% 1.38 0.75 54.3%

1892 15.5 9.4 60.6% 12.0 8.4 70.0% 1.55 0.82 52.9%

1895 18.5 11.3 61.1% 18.3 11.6 63.4% 1.64 0.90 54.9%

1900 30.0 19.0 63.3% 33.0 20.0 60.6% 2.70 1.56 57.8%

1905 32.0 20.0 62.5% 34.0 13.0 38.2% 3.22 1.79 55.6%

1910 39.0 24.0 61.5% 49.0 27.0 55.1% 4.56 2.96 64.9%

1915 46.0 29.0 63.0% 46.0 30.0 65.2% 4.97 3.13 63.0%

1920 144.0 92.0 63.9% 175.0 95.0 54.3% 28.86 22.68 78.6%

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, "Table of Wages."Note: 1 yen = 100 sen.

Konosuke Odaka: World of Craftsmen, World of Factories (NTT Publishing, 2000)

• In Japan’s early factories, traditional shokunin (craftsmen) and modern shokko (workers) coexisted.

• Craftsmen were proud, experienced and independent. They were the main force in initial technology absorption.

• Workers received scientific education and functioned within an organization. Their skills and knowledge were open, global and expandable.

• Over time, craftsmen were replaced by workers. Experience was not enough to deepen industrialization.

Prof. Odaka proves these points by examining the history of concrete firms in metallurgy, machinery and shipbuilding.

Prof. Odaka’s Working Hypotheses• In the early years of factories, Japan’s traditional

craftsmen in mechanics and metal working played key roles in absorbing new technology. Farmers and merchants were not suitable for factory operation.

• However, trained engineers, not craftsmen, created a modern production system suitable for Japan.– Adaptation of imported system to Japanese context– Production management system, including hired labor– Skill formation system based on formal education and OJT

• The gap between craftsmen’s skill and modern technology had to be bridged. Hired foreigners, then Japanese engineers, provided this bridge up to WW2.

Monozukuri (Manufacturing)

Spirit• Mono means “thing” and zukuri (tsukuri) means “making” in

indigenous Japanese language.

• It describes sincere attitude toward production with pride, skill and dedication. It is a way of pursuing innovation and perfection, often disregarding profit or balance sheet.

• Many of Japan’s excellent manufacturing firms were founded by engineers full of monozukuri spirit.

PP.65, 179-181

Sakichi Toyota1867-1930

Konosuke Matsushita1894-1989

Soichiro Honda1906-1991

Akio Morita (Sony’s co-founder)1921-1999

Meiji Mura (Meiji Village) is an open-air museum of Meiji architecture and culture, Inuyama City, Aichi Prefecture www.meijimura.com/english/index.html

Toyota Techno Museum in Nagoya displays textile machines in actual operation, including Sakichi Toyota’s 1924 invention. It also explains Toyota’s car history.www.tcmit.org/english/index.html